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A Dog 's Love A Dog 's Love is a 1914 American short silent fantasy film with subtitles , directed by Jack Harvey on his directorial debut . It stars Shep the Dog , Helen Badgley , and Arthur Bauer . The film is about a dog who loses his best friend , when a young girl is killed in an automobile accident , and focuses on his emotions in dealing with his loss . Well - received because of its " universally appealing " theme , the dog 's emotions were reported as surpassing the child 's histrionics . The film was shot on one reel by the Thanhouser Company , 1 , 007 feet ( 307 m ) in total . It was shot in standard 35mm and a spherical 1 . 37 : 1 format . It was distributed by the Mutual Film Corporation upon release . Kitty Kelly of The Chicago Tribune called it a " miniature masterpiece . " Copies of the film are in the Museum of Modern Art of New York City and the National Film , Television and Sound Archive of Ottawa film archive . Plot The film opens with an inter - title that reads " Poor little rich girl has no one to play with " and cuts to Baby Helen with her doll , looking out the window . A group of children play Ring a Ring o ' Roses in the yard . Next , Baby Helen goes to tea party set up on the yard and holds her doll , all by herself , with a lonely expression . The neighbor 's dog , Shep comes out of his dog house and barks , and Baby Helen rises with a joyful expression . She takes a piece of a muffin and tosses it through the boxwood hedge separating the two yards . Shep eats the muffin and Helen invites him to her tea party . Shep runs along the hedge and passes through to join her . Helen instructs Shep with her finger and Shep barks in understanding , Helen takes her seat and shares a muffin with Shep . An inter - title announces that a week later , Helen is out on an errand . Helen passes through the hedge and skips down the sidewalk and Shep barks at her . As Helen crosses the street , she is struck by a passing automobile and Shep races to the rescue . He tugs at her dress at the waist and finding that he is unable to move her , runs to Helen 's home and jumps against the screen door , barking repeatedly . As Helen 's parents are summoned , Shep leads them to Helen , where a passerby has scooped up Helen from the middle of the street . All three depart and the scene changes to a dimly lit room with Helen laid on a bed , seemingly dead . Her parents watch over her , with sad faces as a doctor inspects her and folds her arms across her chest . Beyond saving , her parents bury their heads in the pillow next to Helen as the doctor pens a note . Then Shep is shown resting against the side of the door in a feeble and sorrowful looking position . An inter - title confirms Helen 's death by announcing the parents have gone on " a visit to their lost darling " . The scene cuts to a grassy cemetery with lines of tombstones separated by a loose line of two trees . Helen 's parents approach her grave , marked by a group of flowers and a temporary marker at the head . Shep follows behind and pauses by a tree as Helen 's parents kneel and pause to grieve . The camera cuts to Shep , who appears sad with his eyes only half open . After the parents finish grieving , they stand up and walk to the stage left . Shep stays under the tree for a moment before approaching the grave . Through an overheard split , Shep is shown to be reminiscing about the party . The next scene shows Shep back home , lying on his side in apparent despair . His master tries to get Shep to eat some food , but the Collie refuses and turns on his side . His master pets him , confused as to what has his pet troubled so , but he gives up and departs . Another inter - title announces that " Shep makes daily visit to the florist " and shows Shep approach the shop and grabs a bunch of flower in his mouth before running away . Shep returns to her grave and he drops his flowers with the others . Shep looks to the left and sees a woman watering the flowers . Shep takes her watering can and runs back to Helen 's grave . The woman picks up the watering can and waters the flowers and picks up the flower bouquet brought by Shep . An inter - title announces that night has come and it shows Shep lying asleep near the hedge . A ghostly image of Helen , superimposed on the film , appears through hedge and awakens Shep . Helen leads Shep through the cemetery and to her grave . Shep crawls to her grave and lies across the flowers as Helen 's form disappears down into the grave . The camera lingers on Shep before fading . The final inter - title of the film announces " Don 't cry , it 's only make believe " showing Helen , holding flowers and leaning against Shep . This sequence and title may have served as a reminder to children in the audience it was all simply a dramatic story . Cast Shep the Dog as himself Helen Badgley as Baby Helen Arthur Bauer as Helen 's father <unk> Cooke Benham as Helen 's mother Fannie Bourke as a visitor Production Child actress Helen Badgley , also known as The Thanhouser <unk> , is described by the Thanhouser Company who made the film as a " precocious child actress who was very comfortable and expressive in front of the camera " . Shep the Dog , also known as The Thanhouser Collie , was a well - trained animal performer who appeared in a number of the company 's films during this period . The dog 's acting , in portraying a range of emotions including " depression " , " groveling pathos " and " joy " , was noted to be superior to the child 's performance . Shep was owned by the film 's director Jack Harvey , but Shep had prior experience working for Vitagraph under Arthur Ashley . While at Vitagraph , Shep received very little coverage and recognition in comparison to Jean , the " Vitagraph Dog " . Evidence suggests that Shep starred in Shep , the Hero . Jack Harvey believed Shep to be almost human , he would direct Shep entirely by voice and would speak to him with " man talk " instead of simple commands . At an unknown , but presumably later date , Shep 's mate of four years , Bessie , became ill and Harvey saw it take a terrible emotional toll on Shep . When Bessie died , Harvey stated it would cause Shep to die of a broken - heart . While A Dog 's Love was released little more than a month before Shep 's death in early November 1914 , two more films had yet to be released . Both The Barrier of Flames and Shep , the Sentinel would be released posthumously . Official musical accompaniment for works of this period were very rare and only one studio , Vitagraph , regularly made suggestions available to exhibitors . Thanhouser 's musical scores were an exception in 1914 , but the scores would only be created for the " Thanhouser Big Productions " such as Joseph in the Land of Egypt . In 1913 and 1914 , cue sheets or musical suggestions could be obtained inexpensively through various industry sources and retained their dominance . Given that these cue sheets were prepared without any specific film in mind , the music would be chosen to match the themes of the film . The film was shot on one reel by the Thanhouser Company , 1 , 007 feet ( 307 m ) in total . It was shot in standard 35mm and a spherical 1 . 37 : 1 format . It was distributed by the Mutual Film Corporation upon release . Release and reception The film was well received by film critics and even the passing mentions in The Moving Picture World remarked that it was a good offering with good photography . Jack Harvey 's debut film as a director was well received by the public due to its " universally appealing " theme . Thanhouser writes that the " loyal dog 's attachment to his little girl playmate is treated with pictorial beauty and simple , honest sentiment " , and notes that when it was released on October 4 , 1914 , reviewers praised the " double - exposure passages for their dramatic effectiveness " . Louis Reeves Harrison of The Moving Picture World ' review of the film stated , " This play becomes one of delicate pathos toward the end through some remarkable feats of double exposure , and it is one of beauty throughout because of the acting of a four - year - old tot , Baby Helen , a veritable star in her class . Shep contributes with exceptional intelligence - he is not eternally looking at his master out of scope for a word of command . ... I do not know what director handled this subject , but I suggest he apply his thought visualizations to the human characters of future stories . It is the exhibition of what passes in the minds and hearts of characters that brings an audience into closer sympathy with them and makes tense interest possible when melodrama merely brings a laugh . The double exposures are timed with such skill in this instance that all concerned in their production deserve high praise . They give beauty and dignity to a very simple story . " Kitty Kelly of the The Chicago Tribune wrote , " Two more attractive artists never collaborated in a single production than this star baby and this star dog . Of them it is impossible to say which is the more so , though one demonstrates the maximum of naturalness while the other is an exponent of the maximum of training . ... As a general thing , I disapprove of the agonies of film mortality and its frequent projection of cemetery scenes , but this is one of the situations that must be handed the label ' exception ' . ... The picture is a miniature masterpiece . " Contained within her review Kelly , also mentioned that baby Helen was placed in front of the camera so that even as she lay " dying " that she was still shown to be breathing . Kelly stated that no person would wish for a person to stop breathing for the sake of the film , but noted that it was not the best point of vision , but noted that the scene was well - managed . In Britain , The Bioscope reviewer agreed with other reviewers in finding the film to be , " ... a perfectly delightful little film . Although it is true that its plot , what there is of it , contains nothing very new , it is not merely a conventional dog and child picture of the ordinary type . It is , rather , an exquisite pictorial fancy , charmingly conceived for the most part and charmingly executed throughout . ... The picture is perfectly done , and not even in the ghost scenes toward the end is there anything banal or insincere in it . A film so full of tender sentiments and natural beauty should meet with the warmest of welcomes everywhere . " Today , copies of the film are in the Museum of Modern Art of New York City and the National Film , Television and Sound Archive of Ottawa film archives . The film was released in Thanhouser Classics Volume II : Under the Mutual Banner 1912 - 1914 . For the release , Andrew Crow composed and performed an original music score .
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2005 FA Cup Final The 2005 FA Cup Final was a football match played between Arsenal and Manchester United on 21 May 2005 at the Millennium Stadium , Cardiff . It was the final match of the 2004 – 05 FA Cup , the 124th season of English football ’ s primary cup competition , the FA Cup . Arsenal became the first team to win the FA Cup via a penalty shoot - out , despite being outplayed throughout the game , after neither side managed to score in the initial 90 minutes or in 30 minutes of extra time . The shoot - out finished 5 – 4 to Arsenal , with Patrick Vieira scoring the winning penalty after Paul Scholes ' shot was saved by Arsenal goalkeeper Jens Lehmann . As both teams were in the highest tier of English football , the Premier League , Arsenal and Manchester United entered the competition in the third round . Matches up to the semi - final were contested on a one - off basis , with a replay taking place if the match ended in a draw . Both clubs only needed one replay along the way to the final ; Arsenal 's tie against Sheffield United in the fifth round was decided by a penalty shootout , whereas Manchester United overcame non - league Exeter City in the third round , after the original tie ended goalless . Protests over the impending takeover of Manchester United by American businessman Malcolm Glazer had threatened to overshadow the final , though demonstrations in Cardiff required little intervention from the police . Both managers for the final made surprising changes to their team ; Arsène Wenger unconventionally deployed a defensive formation , while Sir Alex Ferguson left midfielder Ryan Giggs on the bench . Manchester United dominated the match , creating four times as many shots as their opponents , but struggled to find the breakthrough . In extra time , Arsenal 's José Antonio Reyes was sent off for a second bookable offence , becoming only the second player to be sent off in an FA Cup final . The British press unanimously agreed that Arsenal were fortunate to win ; Wenger himself admitted so in his press conference afterwards . A television audience of over 480 million worldwide watched the final ; in the United Kingdom , coverage of the match peaked at 12 . 8 million , making it the highest - rated game in Cup history since the 1996 final . The departures of captains Patrick Vieira and Roy Keane before the year end , coupled with the changing objectives of both clubs , meant the 2005 final is considered as the natural end point in the rivalry between Arsenal and Manchester United under Ferguson and Wenger . Route to the final The FA Cup is English football 's primary cup competition . Clubs in the Premier League enter the FA Cup in the third round and are drawn randomly with the remaining clubs . If a match is drawn , the tie is replayed at the ground of the away team from the original match . As with league fixtures , FA Cup matches are subject to change in the event of games being selected for television coverage and this often can be influenced by clashes with other competitions . In September 2004 , it was announced that the Millennium Stadium was chosen as the venue for the semi - finals , in addition to the final . Arsenal Arsenal 's cup run started with a home tie against Stoke City . The visitors took the lead just before the break , but goals from José Antonio Reyes and Robin van Persie in the second half meant Arsenal won 2 – 1 . They then faced Wolverhampton Wanderers at home in the next round ; a goal apiece from Patrick Vieira and Fredrik Ljungberg secured a comfortable 2 – 0 victory . Arsenal 's opponent in the fifth round was Sheffield United . After 35 minutes Dennis Bergkamp was sent off for his apparent push on Danny Cullip . With eleven minutes of normal time remaining , Robert Pirès scored for Arsenal , but the team conceded a late penalty which Andy Gray converted . The equaliser for Sheffield United meant the match was replayed at Bramall Lane on 1 March 2005 . Both teams played out a goalless draw after full - time and throughout extra - time , so the tie was decided by a penalty shootout . Arsenal goalkeeper Manuel Almunia saved two penalties , which ensured progress into the quarter - finals . Bolton Wanderers hosted Arsenal at the Reebok Stadium in the sixth round of the competition . Ljungberg scored the only goal of the tie after just three minutes ; he had an opportunity to extend Arsenal 's lead in stoppage time , but hit the ball over from six yards . It was described by BBC Sport as the " most glaring miss of the match , if not the entire season . " Arsenal faced Blackburn Rovers in the semi - final which was played on 16 April 2005 . Two goals from Van Persie and one from Pirès gave Arsenal a 3 – 0 win , in a match marred by Blackburn 's aggressive tactics . Manchester United Manchester United , the holders of the FA Cup , began their defence of the trophy with a home tie against non - league Exeter City . United had made several first team changes and struggled to find a breakthrough in the tie . Even with the second half introductions of Paul Scholes and Cristiano Ronaldo , the visitors held on for a goalless draw . The match was replayed at Exeter 's home ground , St James Park on 19 January 2005 . Ronaldo scored the opening goal of the match in the ninth minute and Wayne Rooney added a second , three minutes from normal time . Manchester United 's opponents in the fourth round was Middlesbrough . Rooney scored twice in the team 's 3 – 0 victory – he lobbed the ball over goalkeeper Mark Schwarzer for his first goal and volleyed it for his second . Middlesbrough manager Steve McClaren credited Rooney 's performance afterwards and said he made the difference in the tie . Everton hosted Manchester United in the next round at Goodison Park . A goal apiece from Quinton Fortune and Ronaldo in either half ensured a 2 – 0 win . Southampton was Manchester United 's opponent in the sixth round . After two minutes at St Mary 's United took the lead ; a shot by Roy Keane near the penalty area hit Southampton 's Peter Crouch and deflected into the goal . Ronaldo scored United 's second and additional goals from Scholes meant they progressed into the last four of the competition ; the final score was 4 – 0 . In the semi - final Manchester United faced Newcastle United at the Millennium Stadium . They took the lead in the 19th minute when Ruud van Nistelrooy scored , and Scholes extended the team 's advantage just before half time . Van Nistelrooy made it 3 – 0 in the 58th minute , before Shola Ameobi scored what proved a mere consolation a minute later , as Ronaldo added United 's fourth late on . Pre - match The final marked the fifth meeting between the two clubs in the 2004 – 05 season . Despite finishing six points ahead of Manchester United in the league , Arsenal had lost both league fixtures between the clubs , as well as a League Cup fifth - round tie , which was played out by the clubs ' fringe and reserve team players . Arsenal had won the season 's first encounter in the FA Community Shield , also at the Millennium Stadium , by a 3 – 1 scoreline . The clubs had met in an FA Cup final before – in 1979 , when Arsenal won 3 – 2 . Manchester United were appearing in their 17th FA Cup Final , their second in as many years , and had won the FA Cup on 11 of their previous 16 appearances ( including beating <unk> in the 2004 final ) . Two of these victories had yielded a domestic double ( in 1994 and 1996 ) and in 1999 they had won the FA Cup as part of a unique Treble , consisting of the cup , the Premier League and the UEFA Champions League . Arsenal were also appearing in their 17th Cup final – their fourth in five years . They had won the cup nine times previously , most recently in 2003 , when they beat Southampton in the final . Meetings between Arsenal and Manchester United were keenly contested during the 2000s and highly publicised by the media ; the cup final this season had added significance as neither club won the league after a decade of dominance , and it was their only chance of silverware . The emergence of Chelsea , who were crowned league champions in April , had presented a long - term threat to Arsenal and Manchester United 's duopoly on English football , as they were financed by Russian billionaire Roman Abramovich . Chelsea were accused of " tapping - up " Arsenal defender Ashley Cole in January , and were linked to Manchester United 's Rio Ferdinand . Wenger welcomed Chelsea 's emergence , describing them as the " third force " in English football , but he raised concerns over their conduct and what he perceived as artificial growth . Asked whether Chelsea could dominate for the foreseeable , Wenger said : " I feel yes , because they are a financially doped club . They have enhancement of performances through financial resources which are unlimited . For me , it 's a kind of doping because it 's not in any way linked to their resources . " Despite the absence of Thierry Henry , ruled out through injury , and Arsenal 's poor recent record against Manchester United , Wenger believed his team were more than capable of winning the match : " What is good in football is that it is not predictable . [ … ] You act now like it is a decade that we haven ’ t beaten Manchester United – it 's not true . It 's two games . " It was reported on the eve of the final that Philippe Senderos would start ahead of first - teamer Sol Campbell . Manchester United manager Sir Alex Ferguson dismissed suggestions that his team had been over physical in previous meetings against Arsenal . Referring back to the league fixture in October 2004 , he told reporters : " We committed three fouls on Reyes , for instance , but that hardly constitutes The Texas Chain Saw Massacre , does it ? There were six by them on Cristiano Ronaldo . " He questioned the character of Arsenal 's players after they lost their unbeaten record , and likened their protest to propaganda , as a way to disguise their crisis – " ... it was convenient for them to say they were kicked off the park . " United had struggled to score goals in the lead up to the final , and Ferguson stressed the importance of his team taking their chances . " Big games are usually decided that way . They are so close so that whoever gets in front has an advantage , " he said . Planned protests The build - up to the final had focused upon many Manchester United fans ' discontent at their takeover by American businessman and sports tycoon Malcolm Glazer , and large demonstrations were planned inside and outside the Millennium Stadium . Despite this , the final was played in the rain and only a small group of around 100 supporters held protests and sang anti - Glazer songs . The police were out in force but did not have any trouble to deal with . Match Team selection Wenger opted for a 4 – 5 – 1 formation , with Bergkamp playing as a lone striker . The absence of Henry also opened a place in midfield for Gilberto Silva , while José Antonio Reyes and Pirès were selected on the wings ahead of Ljungberg and Robin van Persie , who were both named as substitutes . As anticipated , Senderos 's form saw him selected at centre - back ahead of Campbell , despite the England international 's return from injury . Ferguson had a defensive selection dilemma ahead of the final , with both of his starting full - backs , Gabriel Heinze ( ankle ) and Gary Neville ( groin ) , having suffered injuries . Neville eventually recovered enough to make the substitutes ' bench , despite only playing in one of the team 's last five games , but Heinze missed the game entirely , Mikaël Silvestre taking his place at left - back . Neville 's absence meant that John O 'Shea started at right - back . Neville was joined on the bench by winger Ryan Giggs and goalkeeper Tim Howard ; Giggs ' omission was a surprise , and it meant that Darren Fletcher started on the right wing , while Ronaldo played on the left . Howard , on the other hand , had been competing for the number 1 jersey with Roy Carroll all season , and it was ultimately the Northern Irishman who was picked . Roy Keane was appearing in his seventh FA Cup Final having previously played in the 1991 , 1994 , 1995 , 1996 , 1999 and 2004 finals . This was the most number of finals for a player in the post - war period ; by 2010 however , Ashley Cole had reached his eighth final . Summary First half Manchester United kicked the game off , and also fashioned the first chance of the game ; Ronaldo beat Lauren on the left wing to put over a cross , only for Scholes to head the ball over the crossbar after losing his marker . Two minutes later , a break from José Antonio Reyes had Carroll scampering across from his goal to meet the Spaniard , forcing Reyes wide enough to allow the United defence time to get back . Manchester United had the ball in the back of the net on 27 minutes , when Ferdinand turned in the rebound after Jens Lehmann saved from Rooney , but the assistant referee ruled that Ferdinand was offside . After a brief Arsenal attack , Silvestre played a long , diagonal ball to Van Nistelrooy on the right wing . The Dutch forward controlled the ball and then outpaced Cole to the goal line ; he then cut the ball back to Rooney , whose first - time shot was turned over the bar by Lehmann . The consequent corner broke to Rooney on the edge of the penalty area , but his shot was deflected behind for another corner , which Scholes took . The England midfielder floated the ball over to the edge of the penalty area , where Rooney was waiting , only to volley it just over the bar . In the closing stages of the first half , Van Nistelrooy got his first shot on goal , turning Senderos only to send the ball trickling along the floor for Lehmann to save comfortably . The first half finished with a foul on Rooney , who had done well to break free of challenges from Cole , Vieira and Senderos , who eventually brought Rooney down . The English forward took the free kick himself , but it went over the bar to cheers from the Arsenal fans and the sound of the referee 's half - time whistle . Second half Manchester United fashioned the first chance of the second half after just three minutes , when Rooney cut inside from the right along the face of the penalty area , but his left - footed shot was blocked away for a corner kick . Soon after , Van Nistelrooy received the ball on the edge of the penalty area and held it up before playing a through - ball to Keane , but the Irishman 's low cross was diverted behind by Kolo Touré before it reached Rooney . United then had their third chance in the space of five minutes when Ronaldo shot just wide from 25 yards , from the left corner of the penalty area . Throughout the match , Lauren committed several fouls on Ronaldo , and confronted the Portuguese winger early in the second half , before finally being booked for persistent fouling in the 62nd minute . Ronaldo took the free kick himself but put it just over the bar from 30 yards . In the 64th minute , Arsenal were awarded a free kick for an O 'Shea foul on Reyes ; Bergkamp took the kick , which was headed away by Ferdinand , but only as far as Pirès , whose side - footed volley went over the bar . The free kick was to be Bergkamp 's last contribution to the final , as he was then substituted by Ljungberg in the 65th minute . United then went back downfield and Ronaldo took on Lauren , who dared not dive in for a tackle and risk a second yellow card . Ronaldo got past the Cameroonian full - back and then chipped a cross into the penalty area , but Van Nistelrooy was unable to make enough contact with the ball to force his header on target . A minute later , Silvestre found Rooney with another diagonal pass ; Rooney attempted to drive in a low cross , but it ended up heading towards goal and came back off the foot of the post . Fletcher was first to the ball but he fired a shot across the face of the goal and out for a goal kick . With their very next attack , United sent Ronaldo away down the left wing again ; he sent over another cross , but it was again too far in front of Van Nistelrooy . Reyes received his first yellow card in the 76th minute , when he was late in tackling Silvestre after the French defender had played a backpass to Carroll . The break in play allowed Manchester United to make their first substitution , bringing on Fortune for O 'Shea , who appeared to be struggling with a calf injury . With six minutes left in normal time , United won a corner on the left hand side , which Ronaldo played short to Scholes . Scholes returned the ball to Ronaldo , who crossed it into the penalty area , where Keane was unmarked at the back post . The ball eventually broke to the United captain , who shot , only to see four Arsenal players between him and the goal , ready to block his effort behind for another corner . Lehmann came to meet the second corner kick , but missed the ball , allowing it to go all the way through to Van Nistelrooy ; the Dutchman headed the ball goalwards , but Ljungberg was on the line and headed it up onto the crossbar and away . Arsenal then made their second substitution , bringing on Van Persie in place of Cesc Fàbregas . As the match entered injury time at the end of the second half , Ronaldo made yet another run down the left wing , outpacing Lauren to Rooney 's through - ball . The ball broke back to Rooney 30 yards from goal , but his shot went over the bar . The second half finished with a Wes Brown cross from the right wing that made its way across the penalty area to Ronaldo , but the Portuguese could only head the ball straight at Lehmann . Extra time Manchester United brought Giggs on at the start of extra time , the Welshman taking Fletcher 's place in the midfield . They immediately tried to play him in down the left wing , but the pass was over - hit and went beyond Giggs . Arsenal finally got their first shot on target in the seventh minute of extra time , when a Van Persie free kick – awarded for a foul by Silvestre – forced a diving save from Carroll . Four minutes later , Manchester United appealed for a penalty kick when a cross from Giggs struck Cole , but replays showed that the ball hit the Arsenal full - back in the midriff . United sustained their attack , and the ball came to Scholes in the penalty area , but his shot on the turn was well saved by Lehmann . The resultant corner was taken short by Scholes , before it was played back to him ; his cross found Van Nistelrooy unmarked in the area , but the Dutchman headed over the bar from the edge of the goal area . United then had another penalty shout when Giggs volleyed a long ball from Scholes into Touré 's body and up onto the Ivorian 's hand , but referee Rob Styles turned their claims down . Arsenal then brought on Edu to replace Pirès for the remaining 15 minutes . The second half of extra time began with yet another chance for Manchester United , this time constructed from a Giggs break down the left wing , but Van Nistelrooy failed in his attempt to back - heel Giggs ' cross into the goal and the opportunity was wasted . Five minutes into the second half , Reyes committed another late tackle on Silvestre , for which he received a final warning from referee Styles . Reyes himself was then the victim of a late tackle by Scholes , who was shown a yellow card . The match threatened to descend into a mass brawl soon after , when Fortune caught Ljungberg in the face with a flailing arm and then committed a high tackle on Edu , provoking a reaction from the Arsenal players . A shoulder - charge by Rooney on Cole resulted in an Arsenal free kick on the left wing ; Van Persie swung the ball over and it was only cleared as far as Ljungberg , but the Swede struck a shot with his shin and the ball spun wide . With a couple of minutes left in the extra period , Manchester United won a free kick on the left corner of the Arsenal penalty area when Vieira lazily tripped Ronaldo and received a booking , but Giggs ' cross from the free kick was headed away . Meanwhile , Manchester United 's substitute goalkeeper , Howard , was seen warming up behind the goal , suggesting that he was preparing to come on for Carroll in the event of a penalty shootout ; however , no substitution was made . The referee added two minutes of injury time at the end of extra time , during which time Manchester United won another free kick , but Scholes ' shot was straight at the Arsenal defensive wall . Then , with just seconds left in regulation time , Ronaldo made a break towards the Arsenal half , only to be cynically body - checked by Reyes . Referee Styles made no hesitation and showed Reyes a second yellow card , making the Spaniard the second player to be sent off in an FA Cup Final , after Manchester United 's Kevin Moran in 1985 . The full - time whistle went immediately after Reyes ' dismissal , and the match finished at 0 – 0 , making it the first FA Cup Final to result in a penalty shootout . Penalty shootout Van Nistelrooy took the first penalty for Manchester United , in front of the United fans , and sent Lehmann the wrong way to give United the early advantage . Lauren then converted the next penalty for Arsenal , before Scholes stepped up to take United 's second , only to see it saved by Lehmann , diving low to his right . The next six penalties were all scored – Ljungberg , Van Persie and Cole for Arsenal , Ronaldo , Rooney and Keane for Manchester United – leaving Vieira with the opportunity to win the FA Cup for his team . Although Carroll guessed the correct way to dive , Vieira 's kick was just out of his reach , giving Arsenal their 10th FA Cup . Match details Statistics Post - match As the Arsenal players ran towards Vieira and Lehmann to celebrate , Ferguson and Keane were seen consoling various players and staff members . Mark Lawrenson , the BBC 's co - commentator for the final , summarised to his counterpart John <unk> : " Well , we must congratulate Arsenal on the way they took the penalties – they were excellent [ ... ] But I have to say over the course of the 120 minutes , Manchester United have been mugged . " Wenger conceded his opponents were the better side , but praised his team 's resolve , telling reporters : " It was important to score the first goal and with neither team scoring it remained tight for a long , long period . There were some times in the second half when we were a bit lucky but we defended very well and to keep a clean sheet is good . " He admitted his players had practiced taking penalties , but was quick to point out " you don 't score because of the practising – keeping your nerve is more important . " Lehmann , who had been side - lined by Wenger during the course of the season , credited his teammates for scoring all five penalties , and described it as a " big mental achievement . " Cole called Arsenal 's win a " … great team performance , we didn 't have too many chances but we defended really well and battled really hard . " Henry , who sat out the final due to injury expressed sympathy for Manchester United , and recollected a similar experience from his early Arsenal career : " I know how they feel because we lost against Liverpool and did not deserve to lose . If your name is on the cup you win it . " Ferguson was proud of his team 's performance , but admitted their failure throughout the season to convert chances into goals , had cost them once more . Of the game , he continued : " In cup football , you need a break and we didn 't get one . We 've had luck in the past , so you understand it can happen . It 's not a nice experience but it 's one you have to accept . " Ferguson criticised the referee for failing to send Vieira off during extra - time as he fouled Rooney , and labelled Arsenal as " boring " for deploying negative tactics . Keane , like his manager , rued the missed opportunities and said it was a small consolation : " We dominated but I 'm sure the Arsenal players won 't be too bothered about that – they 've got the winners ' medals and the cup and we haven 't . " Writing for The Daily Telegraph , pundit Alan Hansen felt the ease in which Manchester United dominated the final and Arsenal 's inability to vary tactics highlighted why Wenger needed to make changes in the close season . Hansen agreed with Ferguson that United 's lack of goal threat cost them on the day , but felt their future was rosier than Arsenal 's . Nonetheless , he was of the opinion that Chelsea manager José Mourinho had little to be concerned about , concluding his piece with the sentence : " A London club did come away from Cardiff as big winners but it was not Arsenal , it was Chelsea . " In the same newspaper , Paul Hayward praised the performances of Rooney and Ronaldo – " surely the best one - club pairing of under - 21s in world football , " while ex - Arsenal player Alan Smith noted his former club 's win demonstrated how Wenger " for the first time , practically , in his nine - year Highbury tenure , had set up his side with the opposition in mind . " Capturing United 's sombre mood , The Times football correspondent Matt Dickinson wrote : " The black shirts turned out not to be in protest at Glazer but a reflection of their mood after the first FA Cup Final to be decided by a penalty shoot - out . " The match was broadcast live in the United Kingdom by both the BBC and Sky Sports , with BBC One providing the free - to - air coverage and Sky Sports 1 being the pay - TV alternative . BBC One held the majority of the viewership , with a peak audience of 12 . 8 million ( 67 . 1 % viewing share ) , which made it the most - watched final in nine years . The match itself was watched by 10 million viewers ( 61 % ) , and coverage of the final averaged at 7 . 3 million ( 50 . 5 % ) . Viewing figures compiled by The Guardian showed the BBC 's coverage was second only to ITV 's broadcast of the 2005 UEFA Champions League Final between Liverpool and A.C. Milan , which amassed 13 . 9 million viewers . Global audience figures for the 2005 FA Cup Final totalled 484 million . Aftermath and legacy The 2005 final was Vieira 's last match as an Arsenal player ; he joined Juventus in the close season for a combined total fee of € 20 million . Wenger 's decision to sell his captain was made so the team could benefit from Fàbregas , who broke into the first eleven during the season . In later years , Wenger deviated from his usual counter - attacking style , and imposed a fluent system , with less emphasis on physicality . The immediate seasons after Arsenal relocated to the Emirates Stadium in 2006 saw Wenger sell several experienced players , and integrate more young talent , as a means of fostering an identity with the club . Financing for the stadium however meant Arsenal prioritised its expenditure instead of the squad and trophies . Though Wenger managed to solidify the club ’ s position in the Premier League 's top four and secure the necessary funds to pay back its debtors , the 2005 Cup win represented Arsenal 's last silverware for nine years . In 2014 , he led Arsenal to a record - equalling 11th FA Cup , and became the successful manager in the competition 's history a year later , as his side beat Aston Villa . Like Arsenal , Manchester United endured a period of transition after the final . The Glazer 's takeover of the club resulted in disaffected fans setting up F.C. United of Manchester , which , as of 2016 , has become the largest supporter - owned football club in the United Kingdom . On the pitch , Manchester United began the 2005 – 06 season poorly ; they were eliminated in the group stages of the Champions League and the manager was booed at home after United lost to Blackburn Rovers . Journalist Henry Winter in December 2005 opined that Ferguson needed to resign , writing in his column : " Under Ferguson , United became football 's answer to the Magic Circle . But the magic now drains away and so , next summer , must Ferguson . " He stayed , however , and having already called time on Keane 's career at United , he began reinvigorating his squad , by signing defenders Nemanja Vidić and Patrice Evra . United returned to the Millennium Stadium eight months after the FA Cup loss , and beat Wigan Athletic to win the 2006 Football League Cup Final . Ferguson guided his team to their first League title in four years the following season , after stern competition from Chelsea , and won a further nine competitive honours until his retirement in 2013 . Kevin McCarra regards the final as a turning point in the rivalry between the two clubs : " ... Arsenal and United , who could barely be prised apart in 2005 , have since gone their separate ways . The signs of divergence were already apparent that afternoon . " The match is considered an example of Wenger setting his team up pragmatically and going against his ideals . Having later asserted he would never use the 4 – 5 – 1 system again , Wenger adopted the formation for Champions League matches and his approach resulted in Arsenal reaching the 2006 UEFA Champions League Final .
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Saw II Saw II is a 2005 American horror film , a sequel to 2004 's Saw and the second installment in the seven - part Saw franchise , directed and co - written by Darren Lynn Bousman . Co - written with series creator Leigh Whannell , it stars Donnie Wahlberg , Franky G , Glenn Plummer , Beverley Mitchell , Dina Meyer , Emmanuelle Vaugier , Erik Knudsen , Shawnee Smith and Tobin Bell . The film features Jigsaw being apprehended by the police , but trapping the arresting officer in one of his own games while showing another game of eight people — including the officer 's son — in progress on TV monitors at another location . It also explores some of John Kramer 's backstory , providing a partial explanation of his reason for becoming Jigsaw . After the financial success of Saw , a sequel was immediately green - lit . Leigh Whannell and James Wan were busy preparing for their next film and were unable to write or direct . Bousman wrote a script called " The Desperate " before Saw was released and was looking for a producer but many studios rejected it . Hoffman received the script and showed it to his partners Mark Burg and Oren Koules . It was decided that , with some changes , it could be made into Saw II . Whannell became available to provide rewrites of the script . The film was given a larger budget and was shot from May to June 2005 in Toronto . Saw II was released on October 28 , 2005 and , despite mixed reviews from critics , was a financial success , with opening takings of $ 31 . 9 million and grossing $ 88 million in the United States and Canada . It has remained the highest grossing Saw film in those countries . Bell was nominated for " Best Villain " at the 2006 MTV Movie Awards for his role as Jigsaw in the film . Saw II was released to DVD on February 14 , 2006 and topped charts its first week , selling more than 3 million units . At the time , it was the fastest - selling theatrical DVD in Lionsgate 's history . Plot As police investigate the scene of a Jigsaw " game " , in which an informant named Michael Marks was killed by a spike - filled mask locked to his neck , Detective Allison Kerry finds a message for her former partner and lover , Eric Matthews , and calls him in . Despite not wanting to be involved with the case , already dealing with a divorce and estrangement from his son Daniel , Eric reluctantly joins Kerry and Sergeant Rigg in leading a SWAT team to the factory which produced the lock from Marks ' trap . There they find and apprehend John Kramer , the Jigsaw Killer , who is weak from cancer . He indicates several computer monitors showing eight people trapped in a house ; among them are Amanda Young , the only known survivor , and Daniel . A nerve agent filling the house will kill them within two hours , but Kramer assures Eric that following his own game , simply sitting and chatting with Kramer , will see Daniel returned to him unharmed . At Kerry 's urging , Eric agrees in order to buy time for the tech team to arrive and trace the video signal . The victims are informed by microcassette recorder that antidotes are hidden throughout the house ; one is in the room 's safe , and a cryptic clue is provided . Xavier ignores a warning note and uses a key on the door , which fires a bullet through the peephole and kills Gus . They search the house for more antidotes after the room lets them out , with no success : Obi , who is revealed by tape to have helped with the abductions , is burned alive in a furnace trap which contained two antidotes ; Xavier throws Amanda into a syringe - filled pit intended for himself , and though she is able to retrieve the key , he is unable to unlock the steel door behind which the antidote sits before the timer expires . Throughout the game , they discuss connections between them and determine that each has been jailed before ; the sole exception is Daniel , who has nonetheless been arrested before . Meanwhile , Kramer passes the time with both idle and cryptic chat , eventually telling Eric that his survival of a suicide attempt after his diagnosis is the true reason for his games . With the little time left to him , he wants to inspire in others the new appreciation for life he had found . Eric , not interested in any of this , runs out of patience and returns to the monitors . He destroys several of Kramer 's documents and sketches at Kerry 's suggestion , but fails to provoke Kramer . As the tech team arrives , Kramer reveals the connection between the victims : Eric has framed all of them for various crimes , and Daniel will be in danger if his identity is discovered . Having left the others , Xavier returns to the safe room and finds a colored number on Gus ' neck . He kills Jonas , who followed him to the room , and begins hunting the others . Laura succumbs to the nerve agent after finding the clue revealing Daniel 's identity . Addison and Amanda abandon him , but Amanda returns after finding Jonas ' body . Addison finds a glass box housing an antidote , but her arms become trapped in the bladed arm holes , and Xavier leaves her to die after reading her number . Amanda and Daniel find a tunnel in the safe room which leads to a dilapidated bathroom with two rotting corpses . Daniel collapses inside just before Xavier finds them . Amanda notes that he can 't read his own number , and he cuts the skin from his neck . As he approaches , Daniel , who feigned his collapse , jumps up and slashes his neck with a hacksaw , killing him . Having seen Xavier chasing his son , Eric brutally assaults Kramer and forces him to lead Eric to the house . Kramer 's sitting area is revealed to be a lift , which they use to leave the factory . The tech team tracks the video 's source and Rigg leads his team to a house , where they find VCRs playing previously recorded images . As Kerry realizes the game took place before they found Kramer , the timer expires and a large safe opens , revealing Daniel bound and breathing into an oxygen mask . Eric enters the house alone and eventually locates the bathroom , where he is attacked by a pig - masked figure . He awakens shackled at the ankle to a pipe ; a tape recorder left by Amanda reveals that she intends to continue Kramer 's work after he dies . Amanda appears in the doorway and seals the door , leaving Eric to die . Outside , Kramer hears Eric 's screams and slowly smiles . Cast Donnie Wahlberg as Detective Eric Matthews Tobin Bell as John Kramer Shawnee Smith as Amanda Young Erik Knudsen as Daniel Matthews Franky G as Xavier Chavez Emmanuelle Vaugier as Addison Corday Dina Meyer as Detective Allison Kerry Beverley Mitchell as Laura Hunter Glenn Plummer as Jonas Singer <unk> Bent as Lieutenant Daniel Rigg Timothy Burd as Obi Tate Tony <unk> as Gus <unk> Noam Jenkins as Michael Marks Production Development and writing Saw II was immediately green - lit after Saw 's successful opening weekend a year earlier . Producers needed a script for a sequel but James Wan and Leigh Whannell , director and writer of Saw , were working on Universal Pictures 's Dead Silence . Music video director Darren Lynn Bousman had just completed a script for his first film The Desperate , and was trying to sell it to studios but was getting reactions that the script was very similar to Saw . A German studio eventually approached him with an offer to produce the film for $ 1 million . Just as they were looking for a cinematographer , the American cinematographer David A. Armstrong , who had worked on Saw , arrived on the scene and suggested showing the script to Saw producer Gregg Hoffman . Hoffman read the script and called Bousman wanting to produce " The Desperate " . After Hoffman showed the script to his partners Mark Burg and Oren Koules , the two decided that " The Desperate " was the starting script they needed for Saw II and two months later , Bousman was flown to Toronto to direct . Whannell polished the script , with input from Wan , in order to bring it into the Saw universe , but kept the characters , traps and deaths from " The Desperate " script . Bousman said , " But you could read the script for " The Desperate " and watch Saw II , and you would not be able to draw a comparison " . Wan and Whannell also served as executive producers . All the previous film 's crew members returned : editor Kevin Greutert , cinematographer Armstrong , and composer Charlie Clouser . This was to be Hoffman 's last film . He died unexpectedly on December 4 , 2005 . Only those key cast and crew members who were involved in the film 's ending were given the full script ; the rest received only the first 88 pages . If a particular page was rewritten , the old page was shredded . Members were also required to sign confidentiality agreements requiring them not to release any plot details . Reportedly , " four or five " alternate endings were shot in order to keep the ending a surprise . Bousman gave the actors freedom to change dialogue in the script . He said that 95 % of the time , the actors went by the script , with about 5 % being adlibs , which he said " made all of the difference in the world " . Hoffman said in an interview with Fangoria that they listened to fans ' suggestions . For instance , instead of only showing the aftermath of a character violently dying in a flashback , they would allow it to unfold as it happened . This was in contrast to Saw , in which most of the violence was implied off - screen . Filming and post - production Saw II was given a larger production budget of $ 4 million , compared to Saw 's budget of a little over $ 1 million . The marketing budget was an additional $ 2 million . The first shot , which involved shooting police cars and a SWAT van driving around the industrial docklands outside the soundstage , was filmed on April 29 , 2005 in Toronto . After two months of pre - production , principal photography took place over 25 days at Toronto 's Cinespace Film Studios from May 2 , 2005 to June 6 , 2005 . The ending was filmed on May 25 and 26 . The music and sound was recorded in July and Saw II was locked on July 16 . It was completely finished by September 9 . Visual effects were performed by <unk> Digital Pictures and post - production services were provided by Deluxe . Trap designs David Hackl , the film 's production designer , took three weeks to construct 27 sets on a single sound stage . The puppet Billy , used in the series to give instructions to Jigsaw 's victims , was originally created by Wan out of paper towel rolls and papier - mâché . Given the larger budget for the sequel , Billy was upgraded with remote - controlled eyes and a servo - driven mouth . In one trap , " The Needle Room " , Smith 's character Amanda is thrown into a pit of needles to find a key . In order for this to be done safely , four people , over a period of four days , removed the needle tips from syringes and replaced them with fiber optic tips . They modified a total of 120 , 000 fake needles . However , this number was insufficient and the pit had to be filled with styrofoam and other materials to make it appear to have more needles . The needles that were apparently stuck into Smith were actually blunted syringes stuck into padding under her clothing . For certain shots , a fake arm was used . Bousman came up with an idea whereby a character 's hands would get stuck in some sort of vessel and this resulted in the " Hand Trap " . It proved to be a challenge but after much discussion , Hackl , property master Jim Murray and art director Michele Brady came up with a suitable design . They arranged a glass box suspended by chains from the ceiling which contained a hypodermic needle with the antidote and which had two hand - holes on the underside . As soon as Vaugier 's character Addison put her hands into the holes razor blades would close in on her hands and any attempt to withdraw from the trap would cause her to bleed to death . In order for the trap to be used safely , the prop builders made the handcuffs move inside the box and fake blades that would retract from the actress 's hands , thus allowing her to slide her hands out . Hackl subsequently commented that the character did not have to put her hands into the trap as there was a lock with a key on the other side box that would have opened the contraption . The original idea for the " Furnace Trap " came from the house having been a crematorium at some point , but this would have involved turning the house into a funeral parlor , so it was instead decided that the furnace would be part of the house 's boiler system . The furnace was visualized in the form of a computer model so that Bousman could better understand how shots could be filmed . Using the computer model as a guide , the furnace was constructed in three days using cement board and tin with removable sides and top so Timothy Burd ( Obi ) could be filmed crawling inside . The furnace produced real flames and , in place of Burd , a stunt man using a fire - retardant gel crawled into the fire . Release Saw II was released in New Zealand , the United States , and the United Kingdom on October 28 , 2005 ; and November 17 , 2005 in Australia . The original teaser poster showing two bloody , severed fingers was rejected by the Motion Picture Association of America . Since the poster was already released and managed to " slip by " the MPAA , they issued a release stating the poster was not approved and was unacceptable ; Lionsgate removed the poster from their websites . The image was used instead for the film 's soundtrack cover . Lionsgate held the second annual " Give Til It Hurts " blood drive for the Red Cross and collected 10 , 154 pints of blood . Soundtrack The Saw II soundtrack was released on October 25 , 2005 by Image Entertainment . The video for " Forget to Remember " was also directed by Bousman . Home media Saw II was released on DVD , VHS , and Universal Media Disc on February 14 , 2006 through Lionsgate Home Entertainment . The DVD debuted as number one selling 2 . 5 million units in its first day . It went on to sell 3 . 9 million units its first week , becoming the fastest selling theatrical DVD in Lionsgate 's history . On October 24 , 2006 , an Unrated Special Edition was released , while an Unrated Blu - ray edition was also released with various special features on January 23 , 2007 . Reception Box office Saw II opened with $ 31 . 7 million on 3 , 879 screens across 2 , 949 theaters . The three - day Halloween opening weekend set a Lionsgate record . It became at the time , the widest release for Lionsgate and one of the best opening weekends for a horror sequel . For its second weekend it fell 47 % making $ 16 . 9 million . The film was closed out of theaters on January 5 , 2006 after 70 days of release . Saw II opened in the United Kingdom with $ 3 . 8 million on 305 screens , 70 % larger than the first instalment . It opened in Japan on 67 screens with $ 750 , 000 . Opening to $ 1 . 3 million on 173 screens it was the number one film in Australia . The film grossed $ 87 million in the United States and Canada and $ 60 . 7 million in other markets for a worldwide total of $ 147 . 7 million . The film is the highest - grossing film of the Saw series and Lionsgate 's fourth highest - grossing film in the United States and Canada . According to CinemaScore polls , 53 % of the audience were males under 25 years of age . The poll also indicated that 65 % of the audience were familiar with the first film . Critical reviews The film received generally mixed reviews from critics , who praised the acting , particularly the performances of Bell and Wahlberg , while criticizing the gruesome nature of the story . Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reports that 36 % of 117 critics have given the film a positive review , with a rating average of 4 . 6 out of 10 . The site 's consensus was , " Saw II is likely to please the gore - happy fans of the original , though it may be too gruesome for those not familiar with first film 's premise " . Metacritic , which assigns a weighted average score out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , gives the film a score of 40 based on 28 reviews . Robert Koehler of Variety gave the film a negative review , saying " cooking up new Rube Goldberg torture contraptions isn 't enough to get Saw II out of the shadow of its unnerving predecessor " . Gregory Kirschling of Entertainment Weekly gave the film a B minus , saying " Saw II is just barely a better B flick than Saw " and that both films are " more clever and revolting than they are actually chilling " . He praised Bell 's performance as Jigsaw , saying " As the droopy - lidded maniac in the flesh , Tobin Bell is , for all the film 's <unk> , Saw II 's <unk> horror , a Terence Stamp look - alike who calls to mind a seedy General Zod lazily overseeing the universe from his evildoer 's lair " . He ended his review : " Where Saw II lags behind in Saw 's novelty , it takes the lead with its smoother landing , which is again primed to blow the movie wide open , but manages a more compelling job of it than the original 's cheat finish " . Kevin Crust of the Los Angeles Times gave the film a positive review , calling Saw II a " worthy follow - up to its grisly predecessor " . He said the story was " much more focused on an endgame than the original film . There are fewer credibility gaps and there are plenty of reversals to satisfy fans " . He criticized the use of numerous flashbacks , saying that it " rob [ s ] us of the pleasure of actually remembering for ourselves " . Laura Kern , writing for The New York Times , gave it a mixed review , saying that Bousman " delivers similar hard - core , practically humorless <unk> and hair - raising tension , but only after getting past a shaky beginning that plays more like a forensics - themed television show than a scary movie " and called Greutert 's editing " crafty " . She called the sequel " more trick than treat " and that it " doesn 't really compare to its fine predecessor - though it still manages to be eye - opening ( and sometimes positively nauseating ) in itself " . Empire 's Kim Newman gave the film three out of five stars . He said that the film improves upon Saw 's " perverse fascination with Seven - style murders and brutally violent puzzles " and that Jigsaw 's intellectual games make " Hannibal Lecter look like the compiler of The Sun 's quick crossword " . He ended his reviews saying , " Morally dubious it may be , but this gory melange of torture , terror and darkly humorous depravity appeals to the sick puppy within us all " . Accolades Tobin Bell was nominated for " Best Villain " at the 2006 MTV Movie Awards for his role as Jigsaw , though the award went to Hayden Christensen for his role as Darth Vader in Star Wars : Episode III – Revenge of the Sith .
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Alex Raymond Alexander Gillespie " Alex " Raymond ( October 2 , 1909 – September 6 , 1956 ) was an American cartoonist , best known for creating Flash Gordon for King Features in 1934 . The strip was subsequently adapted into many other media , from a series of movie serials ( 1936 – 1940 ) to a 1970s television series and a 1980 film . Raymond 's father encouraged his love of drawing from an early age , leading him to become an assistant illustrator in the early 1930s on strips such as Tillie the Toiler and Tim Tyler 's Luck . Towards the end of 1933 , Raymond created the epic Flash Gordon science - fiction comic strip to compete with the popular Buck Rogers comic strip and , before long , Flash was the more popular strip of the two . Raymond also worked on the jungle adventure saga Jungle Jim and spy adventure Secret Agent X - 9 concurrently with Flash , though his increasing workload caused him to leave Secret Agent X - 9 to another artist by 1935 . He left the strips in 1944 to join the Marines , saw combat in the Pacific Ocean theater in 1945 and was demobilized in 1946 . Upon his return from serving during World War II , Raymond created and illustrated the much - heralded Rip Kirby , a private detective comic strip . In 1956 , Raymond was killed in a car crash at the age of 46 ; he was survived by his wife and five children . He became known as " the artist 's artist " and his much - imitated style can be seen on the many strips he illustrated . Raymond worked from live models furnished by Manhattan 's Walter Thornton Agency , as indicated in " Modern Jules Verne , " a profile of Raymond published in the Dell Four - Color Flash Gordon # 10 ( 1942 ) , showing how Thornton model Patricia Quinn posed as a character in the strip . Numerous artists have cited Raymond as an inspiration for their work , including comic artists Jack Kirby , Bob Kane , Russ Manning , and Al Williamson . George Lucas cited Raymond as a major influence for Star Wars . He was inducted into the Will Eisner Comic Book Hall of Fame in 1996 . Maurice Horn stated that Raymond unquestionably possessed " the most versatile talent " of all the comic strip creators . He has also described his style as " precise , clear , and incisive . " Carl Barks described Raymond as a man " who could combine craftsmanship with emotions and all the gimmicks that went into a good adventure strip . " Raymond 's influence on other cartoonists was considerable during his lifetime and did not diminish after his death . Biography Early life and career Raymond was born in New Rochelle , New York , the son of Beatrice <unk> ( née Crossley ) and Alexander Gillespie Raymond . Alex was Roman Catholic . His father was a civil engineer and road builder who encouraged his son 's love of drawing from an early age , even " covering one wall of his office in the Woolworth Building " with his young son 's work . After the death of his father when he was 12 , he felt that perhaps there was not as viable a future in art as he had hoped and attended Iona Prep on an athletic scholarship . Raymond 's first job was as " an order clerk in Wall Street " . In the wake of the 1929 economic crisis , he " enrolled in the Grand Central School of Art in New York City " and began working as a solicitor for a mortgage broker . Approaching former neighbor Russ Westover , Raymond soon quit his job and by 1930 was assisting on Westover 's Tillie the Toiler , through which Raymond was " introduced to [ the ] King Features Syndicate " , where he became a staff artist and for which he would produce his greatest work . Raymond was influenced by a variety of strip cartoonists and magazine illustrators , including Matt Clark , Franklin Booth and John La Gatta . From late 1931 to 1933 , Raymond assisted Lyman Young on Tim Tyler 's Luck , eventually becoming the ghost artist in " 1932 and 1933 ... [ on ] both the daily strip and the Sunday page " , turning it " into one of the most eye - catching strips of the time " . Concurrently , Raymond assisted Chic Young on Blondie . In 1933 , King Features assigned him to do the art for an espionage action - adventure strip , Secret Agent X - 9 , scripted by novelist Dashiell Hammett , and Raymond 's illustrative approach to that strip made him King Features ' leading talent . Flash Gordon , Jungle Jim and Secret Agent X - 9 Towards the end of 1933 , King Features asked him to create a Sunday page that could compete with Buck Rogers in the 25th Century , a popular science - fiction adventure strip that had debuted in 1929 and already spawned the rival Brick Bradford in 1933 . According to King Features , syndicate president Joe Connolly " gave Raymond an idea ... based on fantastic adventures similar to those of Jules Verne " . Alongside ghostwriter Don Moore , a pulp - fiction veteran , Raymond created the visually sumptuous science - fiction epic comic strip Flash Gordon . The duo also created the " complementary strip , Jungle Jim , an adventurous saga set in South - East Asia " , a topper which ran above Flash in some papers Raymond was concurrently illustrating Secret Agent X - 9 , which premiered January 22 , 1934 , two weeks after the two other strips . It was Flash Gordon that would outlast the others , quickly " develop [ ing ] an audience far surpassing " that of Buck Rogers . Flash Gordon , wrote Stephen Becker , " was wittier and moved faster , " so " Buck 's position as America 's favorite sci - fi hero " , wrote historian Bill Crouch , Jr . , " went down in flames to the artistic lash and spectacle of Alex Raymond 's virtuoso artwork . " Alex Raymond has stated , " I decided honestly that comic art is an art form in itself . It reflects the life and times more accurately and actually is more artistic than magazine illustration — since it is entirely creative . An illustrator works with camera and models ; a comic artist begins with a white sheet of paper and dreams up his own business — he is playwright , director , editor and artist at once . " A. E. Mendez has also stated that " Raymond ’ s achievements are chopped into bite - sized pieces by the comic art cognoscenti . Lost in the worthwhile effort to distinguish comics as an art form , the romance , sweep and beauty of Raymond 's draftsmanship , his incomparable line work , is dismissed . To many , it 's just pretty pictures . Somehow or another , it 's OK for people like Caniff and Eisner to borrow from film . That ’ s real storytelling . But for Raymond to study illustrators , well , that 's just not comics . " Debuting on January 7 , 1934 , Raymond 's first Flash strip introduced the " world - famous polo player " , improbably roped into a space adventure alongside love - interest Dale Arden and scientist Dr. Hans Zarkov . Transported by rocket to the planet Mongo , " which was about to collide with Earth " , the trio " immediately became embroiled in the affairs of Mongo 's inhabitants — particularly those of its insidious warlord , Ming " , who would become Flash Gordon 's nemesis throughout the franchise 's many incarnations . Early in 1935 , Hammett decided to depart as writer of Secret Agent X - 9 in order to pursue a career in Hollywood . While it has been presumed that Raymond took on the writing duties of the strip until a replacement could be found , biographer Tom Roberts instead believes that the strip was written by committee during editorial conference , a view R. C. Harvey believes is supported by the strips themselves . Saint author Leslie Charteris was hired to take over the writing of the strip in September 1935 , but the pair would only collaborate on one storyline . By the end of 1935 , " the [ work ] load was too much for Raymond , " who left Secret Agent X - 9 to artist Charles Flanders , in order to devote more time to his meticulous Sunday pages . Raymond 's work on X - 9 is said to particularly reach for " the feel of the best pulp interior art of the time , " a style that would evolve with his own so - called " great flourishes " and " later blossom to full effect in Flash Gordon and Jungle Jim " . " Under his pen , " writes Maurice Horn , his Sunday pages " became world famous ( especially Flash Gordon ) . " However , historian and critic R.C. Harvey argues that " despite Raymond 's great talent as an illustrator , his deployment of the comic - strip medium ( on X - 9 ) was not very impressive . " Harvey feels that Raymond 's work suffers in comparison to Milton Caniff 's contemporaneous work , with Raymond 's failings as a visual storyteller less noticeable on a weekly Sunday strip , where the space afforded played to his skills as an illustrator . Raymond 's sensual artwork — for which the artist particularly " studied popular illustrators , " including pulp artist Matt Clark , whose work Raymond 's male figures particularly evoke — outshone its borders and " attracted far more loyal readers than ... [ the ] rather contrived and unconvincing adventure stories " his work depicted . Raymond swiftly became " among the most highly - regarded — and most imitated — in all of comics " for his work on the weekly strip , with Harvey declaring his work on the strip " a technical virtuosity matched on the comics pages only by Harold Foster in Prince Valiant . " Raymond evolved the layout of the strip from a four - tier strip in 1934 to a two - tier strip in 1936 , reducing the number of panels but doubling their size . Combining this with a removal of dialogue from speech balloons to captions at the bottom of the panel afforded Raymond the space to create detailed and atmospheric backgrounds . Against these spacious backgrounds , the placement of characters in heroic pose " lent the entire enterprise a mythic air . " Flash Gordon gained a daily strip in 1940 , illustrated by Austin Briggs . Raymond left the Sunday strip in 1944 to join the Marines , whereupon the daily strip was cancelled and Briggs assumed Sunday duties , continuing until 1948 . Briggs was succeeded on the Sundays by Emanuel " Mac " Raboy , while the daily strip was revised in 1951 by Dan Barry . Barry also took over Sunday duties after Raboy 's death in 1967 . Run above Flash Gordon , Raymond 's Jungle Jim is described by Armando Mendez as " a thing of beauty ... always more than just a topper or a shallow response to Hal Foster 's exquisite Tarzan " . The companion strip evolved over time , morphing from an initial " two tiers and up to six panels [ layout ] , with speech balloons " into " a single row , of four very tall panels with declamatory text and static , vertical composition " . Raymond 's skill and artistic dexterity , however , kept the storytelling constant and the artwork vibrant . Jungle Jim was " set in contemporary times and the exotic Malay peninsula of islands , [ but ] was intended to hark back to the original tales of Kipling , Haggard and Burroughs " . Military career Raymond took the war in Europe seriously enough to incorporate it into his strips , with Flash returning to Earth in the Spring of 1941 . Jungle Jim found himself involved in the conflict too , fighting in the U.S. Army . Raymond was becoming " restive about doing his duty " , a restlessness increased by the knowledge that four of his five brothers were already enlisted . In February 1944 , Raymond left King Features and his work on the Sunday Flash Gordon / Jungle Jim pages to join the US Marines , commissioned as a captain and serving in the public - relations arm . Raymond is quoted as stating " I just had to get into this fight ... I 've always been the kind of guy who gets a lump in his throat when a band plays the ' Star Spangled Banner ' " . Shortly thereafter , he " was sent to Quantico for training in the curriculum of the Aviation Ground Officer 's School , " and was soon producing " posters and patriotic images from a government office in Philadelphia . " His most famous image from this time is " Marines at Prayer , " which " was destined to become a well - known and well - circulated image of Marines on a battlefield pausing for worship . " Raymond also " designed the official 1944 Marine Corps Christmas card . " Desiring " to get closer to the action , " he then trained at the Marine Corps Air Station in Santa Barbara before serving in the Pacific Ocean theater " on the 1945 cruise of the escort carrier USS Gilbert Islands . " Treated by his fellow marines ( who had been raised on Flash Gordon ) as a celebrity , he was nonetheless seen as " a down - to - earth fellow , " and well liked . He saw " a period of intense combat in June 1945 , " and was " made an honorary member of <unk> - 143 in August 1945 . " Raymond had , in May 1945 , designed a squadron patch for the men of <unk> - 143 , after which the " squadron adopted the new name ' The Rocket Raiders ' . " He was demobilized as a Major in 1946 . Upon his return , Raymond was unable to return to Flash Gordon . King Features were not prepared to usurp Austin Briggs from the Sunday strip and pointed out that Raymond had left voluntarily to enlist . Relatives of Raymond recall the artist as resenting this decision , which left him feeling " cast off with so little regard . " However , King Features offered Raymond the opportunity to create a new strip . Rip Kirby Raymond 's " police daily strip , " named after its central character - J. Remington " Rip " Kirby - debuted on March 4 , 1946 , conceived ( and initially scripted ) by King Features editor Ward Greene . The plotting of the strips is harder to attribute , the scant evidence available supporting the notion that Raymond was more than simply an illustrator . However , as was relatively commonplace on such strips , published credit went to Raymond , whose name was the major selling feature ; the artist even managed to gain a part - ownership deal with King and a better split of the profits than was usual . Rip Kirby was Raymond 's reintroduction to newspaper strips after the war , and he was quick to forge a new " up - to - date " style for the strip , while keeping ties to the audience he had built up with Flash Gordon , Jungle Jim , and Secret Agent X - 9 . Running alongside the post - World War II reintegration of America 's military into civilian life , Rip ( like Raymond ) was " an ex - Marine , " who " set himself up as a private detective " a vocation tailor - made to provide daily thrills . Described by Stephen Becker as " modern and almost too intellectual " , the strip eschewed many of the pulp fictional detective tropes ( e.g. alcoholism , two - fisted assistants , and an assortment of interchangeable femmes fatale ) . Instead , " [ Rip ] did more <unk> than <unk> , and smoked a leisurely pipe while he did it ; " " had a frail , balding assistant ... instead of a two - fisted sidekick ; " " had a steady girlfriend ... [ and ] [ i ] f that wasn 't enough , he even wore glasses ! Rip " lived and worked in a recognizable , glamorous , modern New York City on cases involving very human frailties and vice " , and " grew older as the strip progressed " , a continuity advancement little seen in the strips of the time ( although pioneered in " Gasoline Alley " and Mary Worth ) . Raymond noted the change in subject matter , commenting that " I wanted to do something different and more down to earth . " Stylistically , " Raymond turned to the Cooper Studio - Al Parker advertising style for inspiration , spurring a new generation of comic artists to follow a fresh direction " , that of " glorify [ ing ] contemporary post - War American life " . Although the strip was published entirely in black and white , Raymond worked hard to add tone through artistic technique . " Raymond nevertheless [ colored ] through his use of varying linework ... [ creating ] color through contrast " . His new style was much imitated throughout the industry and became known as ' the Raymond style ' . Circulation of the strip rose steadily , and it was the artist who was apportioned most of the praise - including being awarded the fourth Reuben Award in 1949 . He also served as the National Cartoonists Society 's president from 1950 until 1952 , putting into place the committee structure responsible for overseeing the organization , and threw himself into championing the medium as an art form . Raymond profited in recognizability as well as financially , and continued on the strip until his untimely death in September 1956 . His collaborator from 1952 was writer Fred Dickenson ( who wrote the strip for a further 34 years ) , and he was succeeded artistically by magazine and Prize Publications ' Young Romance illustrator John Prentice . Commentators have said that Prentice echoed the Rip Kirby artistic style , but lacked " Raymond 's excellent design sense , " although he continued to draw the strip until his retirement in 1999 , the strip itself concluding shortly after . Legacy In 1967 , Woody Gelman , under his Nostalgia Press imprint revived some of his earlier work . Regarded by Time magazine in 1974 — alongside Prince Valiant author - illustrator Hal Foster — as " some sort of genius " , and described in Jerry <unk> and Hames Ware 's Who 's Who in American Comic Books as " [ p ] <unk> the most influential artist on early comic books " , Raymond 's legacy as an artistic inspiration is immense . Harvey argues that it is because of Raymond and Foster that the illustrative style became the dominant one used for adventure strips . " His work and Foster 's created the visual standard by which all such comic strips would henceforth be measured . " Biographer Tom Roberts also believes Raymond 's work on Rip Kirby " inspired all the soap opera style strips of the fifties and sixties " . Roberts argues that strips such as Apartment 3 - G " can trace their origins to the success of Raymond 's strip " . Although his work was rarely seen outside of the newspaper " funny pages " , as Raymond preferred to focus his energies on strip work , he also produced a number of " illustrations for Blue Book , Look , Collier 's and Cosmopolitan " . as well as Esquire . The " heightened realism " of Raymond 's photorealistic style has been " chastised for making his pictures too realistic , too gorgeous for its own sake " , although many commentators believe that this very method " plunges the reader into the story " . Raymond 's work has a " timeless appeal , " many aspects of which — including the use of feathering ( a shading technique in which a soft series of parallel lines helps to suggest the contour of an object ) — have inspired generations of cartoonists , his work becoming " the raw material for the swipe files of future generations " . His work on Rip Kirby is especially noted for its use of " sophisticated black spotting " , a technique Raymond used from <unk> " for pacing " reasons . Fellow - cartoonist Stan Drake recalled that Raymond called his black areas " pools of quiet " , serving as they did " as a pause for the viewer , something to slow the eye across the strip 's panels " . Specific influences Alex Raymond 's " influence on other cartoonists was considerable during his lifetime and did not diminish after his death " . George Lucas has cited Raymond 's Flash Gordon as a major influence on his Star Wars films ( which , cyclically , inspired the 1980 Flash Gordon film ) , while Raymond 's long shadow has fallen across the comics industry ever since his work saw print . Comics artists who have cited Raymond as a particularly significant influence on their work include Murphy Anderson , Jim <unk> , Frank Brunner , John Buscema , Gene Colan , Dick <unk> , José Luis García - López , Frank <unk> , Bob Haney , Jack Katz , Everett Raymond <unk> , Joe Kubert , Russ Manning , Mort Meskin , Sheldon Moldoff , Luis Garcia <unk> , Joe Orlando , Mac Raboy , John Romita Jr . , Kurt <unk> , Joe Sinnott , Dick Sprang and Alex Toth , among many others . In particular , Raymond has been named as a key influence by many of the most influential and important comic book artists of all time . EC Comics - staple Al Williamson cites Raymond as a major influence , and is quoted as saying that Raymond was " the reason I became an artist " . Indeed , Williamson ultimately assisted on the Flash Gordon strips in the mid - 1950s , and Rip Kirby in the mid - 1960s ( all post - Raymond ) . Key Golden Age artists credit Raymond with influencing their work . The artistic creators of Batman ( Bob Kane ) and Superman ( Joe Shuster ) credit him ( alongside Milton Caniff , Billy DeBeck and Roy Crane ) as having had a strong influence on their artistic development . Decades later , the herald of the Silver Age ( and co - creator of most of Marvel Comics 's pantheon of heroes ) , Jack " King " Kirby also credits Raymond , alongside fellow strip artist Hal Foster , as a particular influence and inspiration . Cerebus creator Dave Sim has published a comic book since 2008 called <unk> which is an examination of Alex Raymond 's career ( and the techniques of other <unk> like Stan Drake and Al Williamson ) structured around a hypothetical storyline set during the last day of Raymond 's life . Death On September 6 , 1956 , Raymond was killed in an automobile accident in Westport , Connecticut . Driving fellow cartoonist Stan Drake 's 1956 Corvette at twice the 25 mph ( 40 km / h ) speed limit , he hit a tree and was killed . Roberts describes in his biography the circumstances as a result of the weather . Driving in the convertible with its top down , Raymond decided to reach his destination quicker rather than stop to put the top back up when rain started to fall . Drake was thrown clear of the crash , but Raymond , with his seat belt buckled , died instantly . Speculation surrounds the nature of his death , with some , Drake included , believing Raymond was suicidal . Raymond had been involved in four automobile accidents in the month prior to his death , which led Drake to say Raymond " had been trying to kill himself " . Author Arlen Schumer ascribes the motive for suicide as being related to Raymond 's personal life . Schumer alleges that Raymond had been having affairs , and that his wife was refusing to grant him a divorce . R. C. Harvey is dismissive of this motivation : " <unk> suicide strikes me as an odd way for a man of Raymond 's sophistication to react to his disappointment in romance " . Harvey also notes that no mention of any alleged affairs is made in Tom Robert 's biography , " probably out of consideration to Raymond 's surviving family " . Drake has also been quoted as speculating that Raymond " hit the accelerator by mistake " instead of the brake . Raymond is buried in St. John 's Roman Catholic Cemetery in Darien , Connecticut . Personal life Raymond married Helen Frances Williams on December 31 , 1930 , with whom he had five children . The names of his three daughters — Judith , Lynne and Helen — were immortalized in that of Rip Kirby 's girlfriend , Judith Lynne " Honey " Dorian . The Raymonds also had two sons : Alan W. and Duncan . He was the great - uncle of actors Matt Dillon and Kevin Dillon . His younger brother , Jim Raymond , was also a cartoonist , and also an assistant to Chic Young on Blondie . Collected editions Raymond 's work has been collected a number of times . Most recently : Flash Gordon ( hardcover , Checker Book Publishing Group ) : Volume 1 ( collects Raymond 's earliest Sunday Strips starting from the first , printed on January 7 , 1934 ; 98 pages , October 2003 , ISBN 0 - <unk> - 3 - X ) Volume 2 ( collects strips from 1935 and 1936 ; 100 pages , December 2004 , ISBN 0 - <unk> - 6 - 4 ) Volume 3 ( collects the pages printed between October 25 , 1936 and August 1 , 1937 ; 96 pages , May 2005 , ISBN 1 - 933160 - 25 - X ) Volume 4 ( collects strips printed between 1938 and 1940 ; November 2005 , ISBN 1 - 933160 - 26 - 8 ) Volume 5 ( collects " The Ice Kingdom of Mongo " , " Power Men of Mongo " , and " The Fall of Ming " ; 1940 to 1941 ; 80 pages , November 2005 , ISBN 1 - 933160 - 27 - 6 ) Volume 6 ( collects the pages printed from August 1941 to May 1943 ; 100 pages , April 2007 , ISBN 1 - 933160 - 28 - 4 ) Volume 7 ( collects the final strips from mid - 1943 , until the final Raymond issue from February 1945 ; 100 pages , December 2006 , ISBN 1 - 933160 - 20 - 9 ) Rip Kirby ( hardcover , IDW ) : Volume 1 ( collects strips printed between 1946 and 1948 ; 2009 , ISBN 978 - 1 - 60010 - 484 - 8 ) Volume 2 ( collects strips printed between 1948 and 1951 ; March 2010 , ISBN 978 - 1 - 60010 - 582 - 1 ) Volume 3 ( collects strips printed between 1951 and 1954 ; November 2010 , ISBN 978 - 1 - 60010 - 785 - 6 ) Volume 4 ( collects strips printed between 1954 and 1956 ; August 2011 , ISBN 978 - <unk> ) Flash Gordon & Jungle Jim ( hardcover , IDW ) : Volume 1 ( collects strips printed between 1934 and 1936 ; December 2011 , ISBN 978 - 1 - <unk> - 015 - 3 ) Volume 2 ( collects strips printed between 1936 and 1939 ; August 2012 , ISBN 978 - 1 - <unk> - 220 - 1 ) Volume 3 ( collects strips printed between 1939 and 1941 ; April 2013 , ISBN 978 - <unk> ) Volume 4 ( collects strips printed between 1941 and 1944 ; NYP ) Awards Alex Raymond received a Reuben Award from the National Cartoonists Society in 1949 for his work on Rip Kirby , and he later served as President of the Society in 1950 and 1951 . He was inducted into the Will Eisner Comic Book Hall of Fame in 1996 . He was inducted into the Society of Illustrators Hall of Fame in 2014 . Maurice Horn calls Raymond " one of the most celebrated comic artists of all time as the creator of four outstanding comic features ( a feat unequaled to this day ) , " noting that he " received many distinctions and awards during his lifetime for his work , both as a cartoonist and as a magazine illustrator . "
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Dorothy Parker Dorothy Parker ( August 22 , 1893 – June 7 , 1967 ) was an American poet , short story writer , critic , and satirist , best known for her wit , wisecracks and eye for 20th - century urban foibles . From a conflicted and unhappy childhood , Parker rose to acclaim , both for her literary output in publications such as The New Yorker and as a founding member of the Algonquin Round Table . Following the breakup of the circle , Parker traveled to Hollywood to pursue screenwriting . Her successes there , including two Academy Award nominations , were curtailed when her involvement in left - wing politics led to a place on the Hollywood blacklist . <unk> of her own talents , she deplored her reputation as a " <unk> . " Nevertheless , her literary output and reputation for sharp wit have endured . Early life and education Also known as Dot or Dottie , Parker was born Dorothy Rothschild to Jacob Henry and Eliza Annie Rothschild ( née Marston ) at 732 Ocean Avenue in Long Branch , New Jersey , where her parents had a summer beach cottage . Dorothy 's mother was of Scottish descent , and her father was of German Jewish descent . Parker wrote in her essay " My Hometown " that her parents got her back to their Manhattan apartment shortly after Labor Day so she could be called a true New Yorker . Her mother died in West End in July 1898 , when Parker was a month shy of turning five . Her father remarried in 1900 to a woman named Eleanor Francis Lewis . Parker hated her father and stepmother , accusing her father of being physically abusive and refusing to call Eleanor either " mother " or " stepmother " , instead referring to her as " the housekeeper " . She grew up on the Upper West Side and attended a Roman Catholic elementary school at the Convent of the Blessed Sacrament on West 79th Street with sister Helen , despite having a Jewish father and Protestant stepmother . ( Mercedes de Acosta was a classmate . ) Parker once joked that she was asked to leave following her characterization of the Immaculate Conception as " spontaneous combustion " . Her stepmother died in 1903 , when Parker was nine . Parker later went to Miss Dana 's School , a finishing school in Morristown , New Jersey . She graduated from Miss Dana 's School in 1911 , at the age of 18 . Following her father 's death in 1913 , she played piano at a dancing school to earn a living while she worked on her verse . She sold her first poem to Vanity Fair magazine in 1914 and some months later was hired as an editorial assistant for another Condé Nast magazine , Vogue . She moved to Vanity Fair as a staff writer after two years at Vogue . In 1917 , she met and married a Wall Street stockbroker , Edwin Pond Parker II ( 1893 – 1933 ) , but they were separated by his army service in World War I. She had ambivalent feelings about her Jewish heritage given the strong antisemitism of that era and joked that she married to escape her name . Algonquin Round Table years Her career took off while she was writing theatre criticism for Vanity Fair , which she began to do in 1918 as a stand - in for the vacationing P. G. Wodehouse . At the magazine , she met Robert Benchley , who became a close friend , and Robert E. Sherwood . The trio began lunching at the Algonquin Hotel on a near - daily basis and became founding members of the Algonquin Round Table . The Round Table numbered among its members the newspaper columnists Franklin Pierce Adams and Alexander Woollcott . Through their re - printing of her lunchtime remarks and short verses , particularly in Adams ' column " The Conning Tower " , Dorothy began developing a national reputation as a wit . One of her most famous comments was made when the group was informed that famously taciturn former president Calvin Coolidge had died ; Parker remarked , " How could they tell ? " Parker 's caustic wit as a critic initially proved popular , but she was eventually terminated by Vanity Fair in 1920 after her criticisms began to offend powerful producers too often . In solidarity , both Benchley and Sherwood resigned in protest . When Harold Ross founded The New Yorker in 1925 , Parker and Benchley were part of a " board of editors " established by Ross to allay concerns of his investors . Parker 's first piece for the magazine appeared in its second issue . Parker became famous for her short , viciously humorous poems , many about the perceived ludicrousness of her many ( largely unsuccessful ) romantic affairs and others wistfully considering the appeal of suicide . The next 15 years were Parker 's greatest period of productivity and success . In the 1920s alone she published some 300 poems and free verses in Vanity Fair , Vogue , " The Conning Tower " and The New Yorker as well as Life , McCall 's and The New Republic . Parker published her first volume of poetry , Enough Rope , in 1926 . The collection sold 47 , 000 copies and garnered impressive reviews . The Nation described her verse as " caked with a salty humor , rough with splinters of disillusion , and tarred with a bright black authenticity " . Although some critics , notably the New York Times reviewer , dismissed her work as " flapper verse " , the volume helped cement Parker 's reputation for sparkling wit . Parker released two more volumes of verse , Sunset Gun ( 1928 ) and Death and Taxes ( 1931 ) , along with the short story collections <unk> for the Living ( 1930 ) and After Such Pleasures ( 1933 ) . Not So Deep as a Well ( 1936 ) collected much of the material previously published in Rope , Gun and Death and she re - released her fiction with a few new pieces in 1939 under the title Here Lies . She collaborated with playwright Elmer Rice to create Close Harmony , which ran on Broadway in December 1924 . The play was well received in out - of - town previews and was favorably reviewed in New York but closed after a run of just 24 performances . It did , however , become a successful touring production under the title The Lady Next Door . Some of Parker 's most popular work was published in The New Yorker in the form of acerbic book reviews under the byline " Constant Reader " ( her response to the whimsy of A. A. Milne 's The House at Pooh Corner : " <unk> <unk> <unk> up . " ) . Her reviews appeared semi - regularly from 1927 to 1933 , were widely read , and were later published in a collection under the name Constant Reader in 1970 . Her best - known short story , " Big Blonde " , published in The Bookman magazine , was awarded the O. Henry Award as the best short story of 1929 . Her short stories , though often witty , were also spare and incisive , and more bittersweet than comic . She eventually separated from her husband , divorcing in 1928 , and had a number of affairs . Her lovers included reporter - turned - playwright Charles MacArthur and the publisher Seward Collins . Her relationship with MacArthur resulted in a pregnancy , about which Parker is alleged to have remarked , " how like me , to put all my eggs into one bastard . " She had an abortion , and fell into a depression that culminated in her first attempt at suicide . It was toward the end of this period that Parker began to become politically aware and active . What would become a lifelong commitment to activism began in 1927 with the pending executions of Sacco and Vanzetti . Parker travelled to Boston to protest the proceedings . She and fellow Round Tabler Ruth Hale were arrested , and Parker eventually pleaded guilty to a charge of " loitering and sauntering " , paying a $ 5 fine . Parker was claimed to be a patron of Polly Adler bordello or brothel in New York . Hollywood In 1934 , she married Alan Campbell , an actor with aspirations to become a screenwriter . Like Parker , he was half - Jewish and half - Scottish . He was reputed to be bisexual — indeed , Parker claimed in public that he was " queer as a billy goat " . The pair moved to Hollywood and signed ten - week contracts with Paramount Pictures , with Campbell ( who was also expected to act ) earning $ 250 per week and Parker earning $ 1 , 000 per week . They would eventually earn $ 2 , 000 and in some instances upwards of $ 5 , 000 per week as freelancers for various studios . She and Campbell worked on more than 15 films . In 1936 , she contributed lyrics for the song " I <unk> on the Moon " , with music by Ralph <unk> . The song was introduced in The Big Broadcast of 1936 by Bing Crosby . With Robert Carson and Campbell , she wrote the script for the 1937 film A Star is Born , for which they were nominated for an Academy Award for Best Writing — Screenplay . She wrote additional dialogue for The Little Foxes in 1941 and received another Oscar nomination , with Frank Cavett , for 1947 's Smash - Up , the Story of a Woman , starring Susan Hayward . After the United States entered the Second World War , Parker and Alexander Woollcott collaborated to produce an anthology of her work as part of a series published by Viking Press for servicemen stationed overseas . With an introduction by Somerset Maugham the volume compiled over two dozen of Parker 's short stories along with selected poems from Enough Rope , Sunset Gun , and Death and Taxes . It was released in the United States in 1944 under the title The Portable Dorothy Parker . Parker 's is one of only three of the Portable series ( the other two being William Shakespeare and The Bible ) to remain continuously in print . During the 1930s and 1940s , Parker became an increasingly vocal advocate of causes like civil liberties and civil rights , and a frequent critic of those in authority . She reported on the Loyalist cause in Spain for the Communist magazine The New Masses in 1937 . At the behest of Otto Katz , a covert Soviet Comintern agent and operative of German Communist Party agent Willi <unk> , Parker helped to found the Hollywood Anti - Nazi League in 1936 ( which was suspected by the FBI of being a Communist Party front ) . The Hollywood Anti - Nazi League 's membership eventually grew to some 4 , 000 strong . Its often wealthy members ' contributions ( probably not intended to support Communism ) were , in the words of David <unk> , " able to contribute as much to [ Communist ] Party funds as the whole American working class " . Parker also served as chair of the Joint Anti - Fascist Rescue Committee . She organized Project Rescue Ship to transport Loyalist veterans to Mexico , headed Spanish Children 's Relief and lent her name to many other left - wing causes and organizations . Her former Round Table friends saw less and less of her , with her relationship with Robert Benchley being particularly strained ( although they would reconcile ) . Parker met S. J. Perelman at a party in 1932 , and despite a rocky start ( Perelman called it " a <unk> ordeal " ) — they remained friends for the next 35 years , even becoming neighbors when the <unk> helped Parker and Campbell buy a run - down farm in Bucks County , Pennsylvania . Parker was listed as a Communist by the publication Red Channels in 1950 . The FBI compiled a 1 , 000 - page dossier on her because of her suspected involvement in Communism during the McCarthy era . As a result , she was placed on the Hollywood blacklist by the movie studio bosses . Her final screenplay was The Fan , a 1949 adaptation of Oscar Wilde 's Lady Windermere 's Fan , directed by Otto Preminger . Her marriage to Campbell was tempestuous , with tensions exacerbated by Parker 's increasing alcohol consumption and Campbell 's long - term affair with a married woman while he was in Europe during World War II . They divorced in 1947 , then remarried in 1950 . Parker moved back to New York in 1952 , living at the Volney residential hotel at 23 East 74th Street on the Upper East Side . From 1957 to 1962 , she wrote book reviews for Esquire , though these pieces were increasingly erratic owing to her continued abuse of alcohol . She returned to Hollywood in 1961 and reconciled with Campbell . In the next two years , they worked together on a number of unproduced projects . Campbell committed suicide by drug overdose in 1963 . Later life and death Following Campbell 's death , Parker returned to New York City and the Volney residential hotel . In her later years , she would come to denigrate the group that had brought her such early notoriety , the Algonquin Round Table : These were no giants . Think who was writing in those days — Lardner , Fitzgerald , Faulkner and Hemingway . Those were the real giants . The Round Table was just a lot of people telling jokes and telling each other how good they were . Just a bunch of <unk> showing off , saving their gags for days , waiting for a chance to spring them ... There was no truth in anything they said . It was the terrible day of the wisecrack , so there didn 't have to be any truth ... Parker was heard occasionally on radio , including Information Please ( as a guest ) and Author , Author ( as a regular panelist ) . She wrote for the Columbia Workshop , and both Ilka Chase and Tallulah Bankhead used her material for radio monologues . Parker died on June 7 , 1967 , of a heart attack at the age of 73 . In her will , she bequeathed her estate to Dr. Martin Luther King , Jr . Following King 's death , her estate was passed on to the NAACP . Her executor , Lillian Hellman , bitterly but unsuccessfully contested this disposition . Her ashes remained unclaimed in various places , including her attorney Paul O 'Dwyer 's filing cabinet , for approximately 17 years . Posthumous honors In 1988 , the NAACP claimed Parker 's remains and designed a memorial garden for them outside their Baltimore headquarters . The plaque reads , Here lie the ashes of Dorothy Parker ( 1893 – 1967 ) humorist , writer , critic . Defender of human and civil rights . For her epitaph she suggested , ' Excuse my dust ' . This memorial garden is dedicated to her noble spirit which celebrated the oneness of humankind and to the bonds of everlasting friendship between black and Jewish people . Dedicated by the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People . October 28 , 1988 . On August 22 , 1992 , the 99th anniversary of Parker 's birth , the United States Postal Service issued a 29 ¢ U.S. commemorative postage stamp in the Literary Arts series . The Algonquin Round Table , as well as the number of other literary and theatrical greats who lodged there , helped earn the Algonquin Hotel its status as a New York City Historic Landmark . The hotel was so designated in 1987 . In 1996 the hotel was designated a National Literary Landmark by the Friends of Libraries USA based on the contributions of Parker and other members of the Round Table . The organization 's bronze plaque is attached to the front of the hotel . Her birthplace was also designated a National Literary Landmark by Friends of Libraries USA in 2005 and a bronze plaque marks the spot where the home once stood . In 2014 , Parker was elected to the New Jersey Hall of Fame . In popular culture Parker was the inspiration for a number of fictional characters in several plays of her day . These included " Lily Malone " in Philip Barry 's Hotel Universe ( 1932 ) , " Mary Hilliard " ( played by Ruth Gordon ) in George Oppenheimer 's Here Today ( 1932 ) , " Paula Wharton " in Gordon 's 1944 play Over Twenty - one ( directed by George S. Kaufman ) , and " Julia Glenn " in the Kaufman - Moss Hart collaboration Merrily We Roll Along ( 1934 ) . Kaufman 's representation of her in Merrily We Roll Along led Parker , once his Round Table compatriot , to despise him . She also appeared as " Daisy Lester " in Charles Brackett 's 1934 novel Entirely Surrounded . She is mentioned in the original introductory lyrics in Cole Porter ' song Just One of Those Things from the 1935 Broadway musical Jubilee which have been retained in the standard interpretation of the song when it became part of the Great American Songbook . Parker appears as a character in the novel The Dorothy Parker Murder Case by George <unk> ( 1984 ) , in a series of " Algonquin Round Table Mysteries " by J.J. Murphy ( 2011 – ) , and in Ellen Meister 's novel Farewell , Dorothy Parker ( 2013 ) . She is the main character in a short story , " Love For Miss Dottie , " by Larry N Mayer , which was selected by Mary <unk> for the collection Best New American Voices 2009 ( Harcourt ) . She has been portrayed on film and television by Dolores Sutton in F. Scott Fitzgerald in Hollywood ( 1976 ) , Rosemary Murphy in Julia ( 1977 ) , Bebe Neuwirth in Dash and Lilly ( 1999 ) and Jennifer Jason Leigh in Mrs. Parker and the Vicious Circle ( 1994 ) . Neuwirth was nominated for an Emmy Award for her performance , and Leigh received a number of awards and nominations , including a Golden Globe nomination . Parker , along with other figures of the era including Ira Gershwin and George Gershwin , is featured as a character in Act 1 , Scene 12 of the stage musical version of Thoroughly Modern Millie , " Muzzy 's Party Scene " . Television creator Amy Sherman - Palladino named her production company ' Dorothy Parker Drank Here Productions ' in tribute to Parker . <unk> comedian Jen Kirkman portrayed Dorothy Parker in an edition of the Dead Authors Podcast at the Upright Citizens Brigade Theater in Los Angeles in 2011 . A one - woman show , Dorothy Parker 's Room Enough For Two starring <unk> Frankel , was produced in July 1993 at the Groundlings Theatre in Hollywood , California . Prince features a song entitled " The Ballad of Dorothy Parker " , on his 1987 album Sign o ' the Times . The Wild Colonials song , " Vicious Circle " from Life As We Know It EP ( 2007 ) is about Dorothy Parker . The chorus lyrics are , " I know how Dorothy Parker felt with someone in her way . " In the 1999 film Girl , Interrupted , the character Lisa recites Parker 's poem " Resume " . The Thrilling Adventure Hour podcast has Dorothy Parker as a recurring character ( as played by Annie Savage ) and member of the Algonquin Four . After being struck by a comet , the group gained powers parodying The Fantastic Four . Parker gained rock - like skin as a self - proclaimed " rock man " , and is the dim - witted muscle of the team . Her catchphrase is " Dorothy Parker smash ! " Tucson actress Lesley Abrams wrote and performed the one - woman show Dorothy Parker 's Last Call in 2009 in Tucson , Arizona at the Winding Road Theater Ensemble and reprised the role at the Live Theatre Workshop in Tucson in 2014 . The play was also selected to be part of the Capital Fringe Festival in DC in 2010 . Her poem " Threnody " was recorded by <unk> <unk> , of ABBA fame . Lyrics taken from her book of poetry Not So Deep as a Well were , with the authorization of the NAACP , used by Canadian singer Myriam Gendron to create a folk album of the same name .
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John Bingham , 7th Earl of Lucan Richard John Bingham , 7th Earl of Lucan ( born 18 December 1934 ; presumed dead ) , commonly known as Lord Lucan , was a British peer suspected of murder who disappeared in 1974 . He was born into an Anglo - Irish aristocratic family in Marylebone , the eldest son of George Bingham , 6th Earl of Lucan by his marriage to Kaitlin Dawson . An evacuee during the Second World War , Lucan returned to attend Eton College , and then from 1953 to 1955 served with the Coldstream Guards in West Germany . He developed a taste for gambling and , skilled at backgammon and bridge , became an early member of the Clermont Club . Although his losses often exceeded his winnings , he left his job at a London - based merchant bank and became a professional gambler . He was known as Lord Bingham from April 1949 until January 1964 . Once considered for the role of James Bond , Lucan was noted for his expensive tastes ; he raced power boats and drove an Aston Martin . In 1963 he married Veronica Duncan , with whom he had three children . When the marriage collapsed late in 1972 , he moved out of the family home at 46 Lower Belgrave Street , in London 's Belgravia , to a property nearby . A bitter custody battle ensued , which Lucan lost . He began to spy on his wife and record their telephone conversations , apparently obsessed with regaining custody of the children . This fixation , combined with his gambling losses , had a dramatic effect on his life and personal finances . On the evening of 7 November 1974 , the children 's nanny , Sandra Rivett , was bludgeoned to death in the basement of the Lucan family home . Lady Lucan was also attacked ; she later identified Lucan as her assailant . As the police began their murder investigation , Lucan telephoned his mother , asking her to collect the children , and then drove a borrowed Ford Corsair to a friend 's house in Uckfield , East Sussex . Hours later , he left the property and was never seen again . The car was later found abandoned in Newhaven , its interior stained with blood and its boot containing a piece of bandaged lead pipe similar to one found at the crime scene . A warrant for Lucan 's arrest was issued a few days later , and in his absence the inquest into Rivett 's death named him as her murderer , the last occasion in Britain a coroner 's court was allowed to do so . Lucan 's fate remains a fascinating mystery for the British public . Since Rivett 's murder , hundreds of reported sightings have been made in various countries around the world , although none have been substantiated . Despite a police investigation and huge press interest , Lucan has not been found and is presumed dead ; a death certificate was issued in 2016 . Early life and education Richard John Bingham was born on 18 December 1934 at 19 Bentinck Street , Marylebone , London , the second child and elder son of George Bingham , 6th Earl of Lucan , an Anglo - Irish peer , and his wife Kaitlin Elizabeth Anne Dawson . A blood clot found in her lung forced his mother to remain in a nursing home , so John , as he became known , was initially cared for by the family 's <unk> . Aged three years , he attended a pre - prep school in Tite Street with his elder sister , Jane , but in 1939 , with war approaching , the two were taken to the relative safety of Wales . The following year , joined by their younger siblings , Sally and Hugh , the Lucan children travelled to Toronto , moving shortly thereafter to Mount Kisco , New York . They stayed for five years with multi - <unk> Marcia Brady Tucker ; John was enrolled at The Harvey School and spent summer holidays away from his siblings at a summer camp in the Adirondack Mountains . While in the U.S. , John and his siblings lived in grandeur and wanted for nothing , but on their return to England in February 1945 they were faced with the stark realities of wartime Britain . Rationing was still in force , their former home at Cheyne Walk had been bombed , and the house at 22 Eaton Square had had its windows blown out . Despite the family 's rich ancestry , the 6th Earl and his wife were agnostics and socialists and preferred a more austere existence than that offered by Tucker , an extremely wealthy Christian . For a time , John suffered nightmares and was taken to a psychotherapist . As an adult he remained an agnostic , but ensured his children attended Sunday school , preferring to give them a traditional childhood . At Eton College , John developed a taste for gambling . He supplemented his pocket money with income from bookmaking , placing his earnings into a " secret " bank account , and regularly left the school 's grounds to attend horse races . Although according to his mother his academic record was " far from creditable " , he became Captain of Roe 's House , before leaving in 1953 to undertake his National Service . He became a second lieutenant in his father 's regiment , the Coldstream Guards , and was stationed mainly in Krefeld , West Germany . While there , he also became a keen poker player . Career On leaving the army in 1955 , Lucan joined a London - based merchant bank , William Brandt 's Sons and Co . , on an annual salary of £ 500 ( equivalent to £ 11 , 830 in 2015 ) . In 1960 he met Stephen Raphael , a rich stockbroker who was a skilled backgammon player . They holidayed together in the Bahamas , went water - skiing , and played golf , backgammon and poker . Lucan became a regular gambler and an early member of John Aspinall 's Clermont gaming club , located in Berkeley Square . Although he often won at games of skill like bridge and backgammon , he also accumulated huge losses . On one occasion he lost £ 8 , 000 , or about two - thirds of the money he received annually from various family trusts . On another disastrous night at a casino he lost £ 10 , 000 . That time his stockbroker uncle , John Bevan , helped him to pay the debt , and Lucan repaid his uncle two years later . Lucan left Brandt 's in about 1960 , shortly after he had won £ 26 , 000 playing chemin de fer . A colleague had been promoted before him , and he protested and then gave up his job , saying " why should I work in a bank , when I can earn a year 's money in one single night at the tables ? " He travelled to the US , where he played golf , raced powerboats , and drove his Aston Martin around the West Coast of the United States . He also visited his elder sister , Jane , and his former guardian , Marcia Tucker . On his return to England he moved out of his parents ' home in St John 's Wood and into a flat in Park Crescent . Personal life Marriage Lucan met his future wife , Veronica Duncan , early in 1963 . She was born in 1937 to Major Charles Moorhouse Duncan and his wife Thelma . Her father had died in a car accident while she was still very young , following which the family had moved to South Africa . Her mother remarried , and when her new step - father became manager of a hotel in Guildford , the family returned to England . Along with her sister , Christina , she was educated at St Swithun 's School , Winchester , and after displaying a talent for art she went on to study at an art college in Bournemouth . The two sisters later shared a flat in London , where Veronica worked as a model and later as a secretary . Christina 's marriage to the rich William Shand - Kydd introduced her to London high society , and it was at a golf - club function in the country that Veronica and Lucan first met . News of their engagement appeared in the Times and Telegraph newspapers on 14 October 1963 , and the two were married at Holy Trinity Brompton Church on 20 November . After a high society ceremony attended by , amongst other dignitaries , Princess Alice , Countess of Athlone , the couple honeymooned in Europe , travelling first class on the Orient Express . Lucan 's already embattled finances were given a welcome boost by his father , who provided him with a marriage settlement designed to finance a larger family home and any future additions to the Lucan family tree . Lucan repaid some of his creditors and leased number 46 Lower Belgrave Street , Westminster , redecorating it to suit Veronica 's tastes . Two months after the wedding , on 21 January 1964 , the 6th Earl of Lucan died of a stroke . In addition to a reputed £ 250 , 000 inheritance , Lucan acquired his father 's titles : Earl of Lucan ; Baron Lucan of Castlebar ; Baron Lucan of Melcombe Lucan and Baronet Bingham of Castlebar . His wife became the Countess of Lucan . Their first child , Frances , was born on 24 October 1964 , and early the next year they employed a nanny , Lillian Jenkins , to look after her . Lucan tried to teach Veronica about gambling and traditional pursuits like hunting , shooting , and fishing . He bought her golf lessons , although she later gave up the sport . Lucan 's daily routine consisted of breakfast at 9 : 00 am , coffee , dealing with the morning 's letters , reading the newspapers , and playing the piano . He sometimes jogged in the park and , while he had him , took his Doberman Pinscher for walks . Lunch at the Clermont Club was followed by afternoon games of backgammon . Returning home to change into evening dress , the earl typically spent the remainder of the day at the Clermont , gambling into the early hours , watched sometimes by Veronica . In 1956 , while still working at Brandt 's , he had written of his desire to have " £ 2m in the bank " , claiming that " motor - cars , yachts , expensive holidays and security for the future would give myself and a lot of other people a lot of pleasure " . Although he was described by his friends as a shy and taciturn man , with his tall stature , " luxuriant guardsman 's moustache " and masculine pursuits , his exploits made him popular . His profligacy extended to hiring private aircraft to take his friends to the races , asking a car dealer he knew to source an Aston Martin <unk> coupé , drinking expensive Russian vodka and racing powerboats . In September 1966 he unsuccessfully screen tested for a part in Woman Times Seven , prompting him to automatically decline a later offer from film producer Cubby Broccoli , to screen test him for the role of James Bond . As a professional gambler he was undoubtedly a skilled player , once rated amongst the world 's top ten backgammon competitors . He won the St James 's Club tournament and was Champion of the West Coast of America . He gained the moniker " Lucky " Lucan , but as his losses easily outweighed his winnings , in reality he was anything but lucky . He had interests in thoroughbred horses , although in 1968 he paid more in race entry fees than he received in winnings . Despite some arguments over money , his wife remained largely ignorant of his losses , retaining the use of accounts at Savile Row tailors and various Knightsbridge shops . Following the births of George ( b . 1967 ) and Camilla ( b . 1970 ) , she struggled with post - natal depression . Lucan became increasingly involved in her mental well - being and in 1971 took her for treatment at a psychiatric clinic in Hampstead , although she refused to be admitted . Instead , she agreed to home visits from a psychiatrist and a course of anti - depressants . In July 1972 the family holidayed in Monte Carlo but Veronica quickly returned to England , leaving Lucan with their two elder children . The combined pressures of maintaining their finances , paying for Lucan 's gambling addiction and Veronica 's weakened mental condition took their toll on the marriage ; two weeks after a strained family Christmas in 1972 , Lucan moved into a small property in Eaton Row . Separation Some months later Lucan moved again , to a larger rented flat in nearby Elizabeth Street . Despite an early attempt by his wife at reconciliation , by that point all Lucan wanted from the marriage was custody of his children . In an effort to demonstrate that Veronica was unfit to look after them , he began to spy on his family ( his car was regularly seen parked in Lower Belgrave Street ) , later employing private investigators to perform the same task . Lucan also canvassed doctors , who explained that his wife had not " gone mad " , but was suffering from depression and anxiety . Lucan told his friends that nobody would work for Veronica ( she sacked the children 's long - term nanny , Lillian Jenkins , in December 1972 ) . Of the series of nannies employed in the house , one , 26 - year - old <unk> Sawicka , was told by Veronica that Lucan had hit her with a cane and had , on one occasion , pushed her down the stairs . The countess apparently feared for her safety and told Sawicka not to be surprised " if he kills me one day . " Sawicka 's time at the Lucan household ended late in March 1973 . While with two of the children near Grosvenor Place , she was confronted by Lucan and two private detectives . They told her that the children had been made wards of court and that she must release them into his custody , which she did . Frances was collected from school later in the day . Lady Lucan applied to the court to have the children returned , but concerned about the case 's complexity , the judge set a date for the hearing three months ahead , for June 1973 . To defend herself against Lucan 's claims about her mental state , Veronica booked herself a four - day stay at the Priory Clinic in Roehampton . While it was acknowledged that she still required some psychiatric support , the doctors reported that there was no indication that she was mentally ill . Lucan 's case depended upon Veronica being unable to care for the children , but at the hearing , he was instead forced to defend his own behaviour toward her . After several weeks of witnesses and protracted arguments in camera , on the advice of his lawyers he conceded the case . Unimpressed by Lucan 's character , Mr Justice Rees awarded custody to Veronica . The earl was allowed access every other weekend . Thus began a bitter dispute between the two , involving many of their friends and Veronica 's own sister . Lucan again began to watch his wife 's movements . He recorded some of their telephone conversations with a small Sony tape recorder and played excerpts to any friends prepared to listen . He also told them — and his bank manager — that Lady Lucan had been " spending money like water " . He continued to pay her £ 40 a week , although he may have cancelled their regular food order with Harrods . He delayed payment to the milkman and — knowing that Veronica was required by the court to employ a live - in nanny — the childcare agency . With no income of her own , Veronica took a part - time job in a local hospital . A temporary nanny , Elizabeth Murphy , was befriended by Lucan , who bought her drinks and asked her for information on his wife . He instructed his detective agency to investigate Murphy , looking for evidence that she was failing in her duty of care to his children . This they found , although he dispensed with the detective agency 's services when they presented him with bills amounting to several hundred pounds . Murphy was later hospitalised with cancer . Another temporary nanny , Christabel Martin , reported strange telephone calls to the house , some with heavy breathing and some from a man asking for non - existent people . Following a series of temporary nannies , Sandra Rivett started work in late 1974 . Gambling Losing the court case proved devastating for Lucan . It had cost him an estimated £ 20 , 000 and by late 1974 his financial position was dire . As he drank more heavily and started chain - smoking , his friends began to worry . In drunken conversations with some of them , including Aspinall 's mother , Lady Osborne , and her son , Lucan discussed murdering his wife . Greville Howard later gave a statement to the police describing how Lucan had talked of how killing his wife might save him from bankruptcy , how her body might be disposed of in the Solent and how he " would never be caught " . Lucan borrowed £ 4 , 000 from his mother and asked Marcia Tucker for a loan of £ 100 , 000 . Having no luck there , he wrote to Tucker 's son , explaining how he wished to " buy " his children from Veronica ; the money was not forthcoming . He turned to his friends and acquaintances , asking anyone plausible to loan him money to fund his gambling addiction . The financier James Goldsmith guaranteed a £ 5 , 000 overdraft for him , which for years remained unpaid . Lucan also applied to the discreet Edgware Trust . On request , he supplied details of his income , which was apparently around £ 12 , 000 a year from various family trusts . He was required to provide a surety and received only £ 3 , 000 of the £ 5 , 000 he asked for . Much to their managers ' consternation , his four bank accounts were hugely overdrawn ; Coutts , £ 2 , 841 ; Lloyds , £ 4 , 379 ; National Westminster , £ 1 , 290 ; Midland , £ 5 , 667 . Even though by then he was playing for much lower stakes than had previously been the case , Lucan 's gambling remained completely out of control . Ranson ( 1994 ) estimates that between September and October 1974 alone , the earl ran up debts of around £ 50 , 000 . Despite these problems , from late October 1974 his demeanour appeared to change for the better . His best man , John Wilbraham , remarked that Lucan 's apparent obsession over regaining his children had diminished . While having dinner with his mother he cast aside talk of his family problems and turned instead to politics . On 6 November he met his uncle John , apparently in good spirits . Later that day he met 21 - year - old Charlotte <unk> Colquhoun , who said that " he seemed very happy , just his usual self , and there was nothing to suggest that he was worried or depressed " . He also dined at the Clermont with racing driver Graham Hill . At the time , casinos could open only between 2 : 00 pm and 4 : 00 am , so Lucan often gambled into the early hours of the morning . He took tablets to deal with his insomnia and therefore usually awoke around lunchtime . On 7 November though , he broke routine and called his solicitor early that morning , and at 10 : 30 am took a call from Colquhoun . They arranged to eat at the Clermont at about 3 : 00 pm , but Lucan failed to appear . Colquhoun drove past the Clermont and Ladbroke clubs , and past Elizabeth Street , but could not find his car anywhere . Lucan also failed to arrive for his 1 : 00 pm lunch appointment with artist Dominic Elwes and banker Daniel Meinertzhagen , again at the Clermont . At 4 : 00 pm Lucan called at a chemist 's on Lower Belgrave Street , close to Veronica 's home , and asked the pharmacist there to identify a small capsule . It turned out to be <unk> 5 , a drug for the treatment of anxiety and depression . Lucan had apparently made several similar visits since he separated from his wife , although he never told the pharmacist where he got the drugs . At 4 : 45 pm he called a friend , literary agent Michael Hicks - Beach , and between 6 : 30 pm and 7 : 00 pm met with him at his flat on Elizabeth Street . Lucan wanted his help with an article on gambling he had been asked to write for an Oxford University magazine . He drove Hicks - Beach home for about 8 : 00 pm , not in his Mercedes - Benz , but in " an old , dark and scruffy Ford " , possibly the Ford Corsair he borrowed from Michael Stoop several weeks earlier . At 8 : 30 pm he called the Clermont to check on a reservation for dinner with Greville Howard and friends . Howard had called him at 5 : 15 pm and asked if he wished to come to the theatre , but Lucan had declined and made the alternative suggestion to meet at the Clermont at 11 : 00 pm . He failed to arrive and did not answer his telephone when called . Murder Sandra Rivett Sandra Eleanor Rivett was born on 16 September 1945 , the third child of Albert and Eunice <unk> . The family moved to Australia when she was two years old , but returned in 1955 . Sandra was a popular child , described at school as " intelligent , although she does not excel academically " . She worked for six months as an apprentice hairdresser before taking a job as a secretary in Croydon . Following a failed romance she became a voluntary patient at a mental hospital near Redhill , Surrey , where she was treated for depression . She became engaged to a builder named John and took a job as a children 's nanny for a doctor in Croydon . On 13 March 1964 , she gave birth to a boy named Stephen , but , as her relationship with John was failing , she returned home to live with her parents and considered giving the baby up for adoption . Her parents took on the responsibility and adopted him in May 1965 . Sandra later worked at an old people 's home , before moving to Portsmouth to stay with her elder sister . While there she met Roger Rivett ; the two married on 10 June 1967 in Croydon . Roger was serving as a Royal Navy able seaman and later worked as a loader for British Road Services , while Sandra worked part - time at <unk> Orphanage in Purley . In summer 1973 he took a job on an Esso tanker , returning to their flat in Kenley a few months later by which time Sandra was employed by a cigarette company in Croydon . Their marriage collapsed in May 1974 when , suspicious of Sandra 's movements while he was away , Roger went to live with his parents . She was by then listed on the books of a Belgravia domestic agency and had been caring for an elderly couple in that district . A few weeks later she began to work for the <unk> . Sandra normally went out with her boyfriend , John <unk> , on Thursday nights , but had decided to change her night off and thus , had seen him the previous day . The two last spoke on the telephone at about 8 : 00 pm on 7 November . After putting the younger children to bed , at about 8 : 55 pm she asked Veronica if she would like a cup of tea , before heading downstairs to the basement kitchen to make one . As she entered the room , she was bludgeoned to death with a piece of bandaged lead pipe . Her killer then placed her body into a canvas <unk> . Meanwhile , wondering what had delayed her nanny , Lady Lucan descended from the first floor to see what had happened . She called to Rivett from the top of the basement stairs and was herself attacked . As she screamed for her life , her attacker told her to " shut up " . Lady Lucan later claimed at that moment to have recognised her husband 's voice . The two apparently continued to fight ; she bit his fingers , and when he threw her face down to the carpet , managed to turn around and squeeze his testicles , causing him to release his grip on her throat and give up the fight . When she asked where Rivett was , Lucan was at first evasive , but eventually admitted to having killed her . Terrified , Lady Lucan told him she could help him escape if only he would remain at the house for a few days , to allow her injuries to heal . Lucan walked upstairs and sent his daughter to bed , then went into one of the bedrooms . When Veronica entered , to lie on the bed , he told her to put towels down first to avoid staining the bedding . Lucan asked her if she had any barbiturates and went to the bathroom to get a wet towel , supposedly to clean Veronica 's face . Lady Lucan realised her husband would be unable to hear her from the bathroom , and made her escape , running outside to a nearby public house , the Plumbers Arms . Lucan may have called at the Chester Square home of Madelaine Florman ( mother of one of Frances 's school friends ) sometime between 10 : 00 pm and 10 : 30 pm . Alone in the house , Florman ignored the door , but shortly afterwards she received an incoherent telephone call and put the receiver down . Blood stains , which after forensic examination were found to be a mixture of blood groups A and B , were later discovered on her doorstep . Lucan certainly called his mother between 10 : 30 pm and 11 : 00 pm and asked her to collect the children from Lower Belgrave Street . According to the Dowager Countess , he spoke of a " terrible catastrophe " at his wife 's home . He told her that he had been driving past the house when he saw Veronica fighting with a man , in the basement . He had entered the property and found his wife screaming . The location from which he made this , and possibly the call to Florman , remains unknown . The police forced their way into Lady Lucan 's home and discovered Sandra Rivett 's body , before his wife was taken by ambulance to St George 's Hospital . Lucan drove the Ford Corsair 42 miles ( 68 km ) to Uckfield , in East Sussex , to visit his friends , the Maxwell - Scotts . Susan Maxwell - Scott 's meeting with Lucan was his last confirmed sighting . Investigation By the time Detective Chief Superintendent Roy Ranson arrived at Lower Belgrave Street early on Friday 8 November , the divisional surgeon had pronounced Sandra Rivett dead and forensic officers and photographers had been called to the property . Other than the front door , which the first two officers on the scene had kicked in , there was no sign of a forced entry . A blood - stained towel was found in Veronica 's first - floor bedroom . The area around the top of the basement staircase was heavily blood - stained . A blood - stained lead pipe lay on the floor . Pictures hanging from the staircase walls were askew and a metal banister rail was damaged . At the foot of the stairs , two cups and saucers lay in a pool of blood . Rivett 's arm protruded from the canvas sack , which lay in a slowly expanding pool of blood . The light fitting at the bottom of the stairs was missing its bulb ; one was noted nearby , on a chair . Blood was also found on various leaves in the adjoining rear garden . Officers also searched 5 Eaton Row , into which Lucan had moved early in 1973 , and after interviewing his mother ( who had called to take the children to her home in St John 's Wood ) , his last address at <unk> Elizabeth Street . Nothing untoward was found , although on the bed , a suit and shirt lay alongside a book on Greek shipping millionaires , and Lucan 's wallet , car keys , money , driving licence , handkerchief and spectacles were on a bedside table . His passport was in a drawer and his blue Mercedes - Benz parked outside , its engine cold and its battery flat . Ranson then visited Veronica Lucan at St George 's Hospital . Although heavily sedated , she was able to describe what had happened to her . A police officer was left to guard her , should her assailant return . Rivett 's body was taken to the mortuary , and a search was undertaken of all local basement areas and gardens , skips and open spaces . After removing her corpse from the canvas sack and beginning the post mortem examination , pathologist Keith Simpson told Ranson he was certain that Rivett had been killed before her body was placed in the sack , and that in his opinion the lead pipe found at the scene could be the murder weapon . Her estranged husband , Roger , had an alibi for the night concerned , and was eliminated from the police 's enquiries . Other male friends and boyfriends were questioned and discounted as suspects . Her parents confirmed that Sandra had a good working relationship with Lady Lucan , and was extremely fond of the children . Meanwhile , Lucan had yet to make an appearance , and so his description was circulated to police forces across the country . Newspapers and television stations were told only that Lucan was wanted by the police for questioning . Hours earlier , Lucan had again called his mother , at about 12 : 30 am . He told her that he would be in touch later that day , but declined to speak with the police constable who had accompanied her to her flat ; instead , he said he would call the police later that morning . Ranson discovered that Lucan had travelled to Uckfield when he was called by Ian Maxwell - Scott , who told him that Lucan had arrived at his home a few hours after the murder , and spoken with his wife , Susan . While there , the earl had written two letters to his brother - in - law , Bill Shand - Kydd , and posted them to his London address . Maxwell - Scott also called Shand - Kydd at his country house near Leighton Buzzard and told him about the letters , prompting the latter to immediately drive to London to collect them . After reading them , and noting that they were bloodstained , he took them to Ranson . When asked why she did not immediately inform the police of Lucan 's presence , Susan Maxwell - Scott said she had not seen any newspapers or television news , or listened to any radio broadcasts that might have warned her of the importance of his visit . Meanwhile , Lucan 's children were taken by their aunt , Lady Sarah Gibbs , to her home in <unk> , Northamptonshire , where they would remain for several weeks . On the day Veronica Lucan was discharged from hospital , a High Court hearing confirmed that the children could return to live with her . Repeated press intrusions later forced the family to move to a friend 's home in Plymouth . The Ford Corsair that Lucan had been seen driving and whose details had the previous day been circulated across the country was found on Sunday in Norman Road , Newhaven , about 16 miles ( 26 km ) from Uckfield . In its boot was a piece of lead pipe covered in surgical tape , and a full bottle of vodka . The car was removed for forensic examination . Later statements from two witnesses suggest that it was parked there sometime between 5 : 00 am and 8 : 00 am on the morning of Friday 8 November . Its owner , Michael Stoop , also received a letter from Lucan , delivered to his club , the St James 's . However , Stoop threw the envelope away and it was therefore not possible to check its postmark to see where it had been sent from . Ranson suspected a suicide , but a thorough search of Newhaven Downs was judged impossible . A partial search was made , using tracker dogs , although all that was found were the skeletal remains of a judge who had disappeared years earlier . Police divers searched the harbour , and a partial search using infra - red photography was undertaken the following year , to no avail . A warrant for Lucan 's arrest , to answer charges of murdering Sandra Rivett , and attempting to murder his wife , was issued on Tuesday 12 November 1974 . Descriptions of his appearance , already issued to police forces across the UK , were then issued to Interpol . Forensics The forensic examination of the lead pipes found at the murder scene and in the Corsair 's boot revealed traces of blood on the pipe from 46 Lower Belgrave Street . This proved to be a mixture of Lady Lucan 's ( blood group A ) and Sandra Rivett 's ( B ) blood . Hair belonging to Veronica Lucan was also found on that pipe , but none belonging to Sandra Rivett . The pipe found inside the car had neither blood nor hair on it . Home Office scientists were unable to prove conclusively that both pipes were cut from the same , longer , piece of piping , although they thought it likely . The tape wrapped around both was similar , but those too could not be conclusively linked . The letters written to Bill Shand - Kydd were stained with blood considered to be from both women . The letter to Michael Stoop had no blood on it , but it was later proven that the paper it was written on had been torn from a writing pad found in the Corsair 's boot . An examination of the blood stains found inside 46 Lower Belgrave Street demonstrated that Rivett had been attacked in the basement kitchen , while Lady Lucan had been attacked at the top of the basement stairs . The bloodstains found inside the Ford Corsair were of the AB blood group ; the report concluded that this might have been a mixture of blood from both women . Hair similar to Lady Lucan 's was also found inside the car . Media reaction By the afternoon of Friday 8 November , the newspapers ' early editions carried photographs of the <unk> across their front pages , accompanied by headlines like " body in sack ... countess runs out screaming " , and " <unk> murder – earl sought " . A meeting that day at the Clermont , between John Aspinall , Daniel Meinertzhagen , Charles Benson , Stephen Raphael , Bill Shand - Kydd and Dominic Elwes , became the cause of much press speculation . Meinertzhagen and Raphael later insisted that the gathering was just a rational discussion between concerned friends , keen to share anything they knew about what had happened , but the relationship between the police and Lucan 's social circle was strained ; some officers complained that an " Eton mafia " worked against them . Susan Maxwell - Scott refused to add to her statement , and when Aspinall 's mother , Lady Osborne , was asked if she could help locate Lucan 's body , she replied " The last I heard of him , he was being fed to the tigers at my son 's zoo " , prompting the police to search the house and the animal cages there . They searched fourteen country houses and estates , including Holkham Hall and Warwick Castle , to no avail . Amidst concerns expressed by the Labour MP Marcus Lipton that some people were " being a bit snooty " with the police , Benson wrote a letter to The Times asking him to either identify those people or " kindly withdraw his remarks " . To their cost , Private Eye accused James Goldsmith of being at the Clermont meeting , when he was actually in Ireland . Dominic Elwes went to see Lady Lucan in hospital and was reportedly deeply shocked both by her appearance and her statement " Who 's the mad one now ? " Elwes was apparently unhappy at some of the negative press coverage of the countess , and was later ostracised by his friends for his part in an article critical of Lucan , which appeared in the Sunday Times Magazine . He committed suicide in September 1975 . Rivett 's case made headlines around the world . Within days of the murder , newspapers reported on Veronica Lucan 's statement to the police , with claims that she had pretended to collude with her husband to ensure her safety . In January 1975 Veronica gave an exclusive interview to the Daily Express . She also appeared in a murder reconstruction , in the same newspaper , complete with posed photographs taken inside the house . Inquest The inquest into Sandra Rivett 's death opened on 13 November 1974 and was led by the Coroner for Inner West London , Gavin Thurston . Two witnesses were called to the courtroom , which was packed with reporters ; Roger Rivett , who confirmed that he had identified his wife 's body , and the pathologist , Keith Simpson , who confirmed that Rivett had died from being hit on the head with a blunt instrument . At Ranson 's request , the hearing was then adjourned . Further adjournments were made on 11 December 1974 and 10 March 1975 , before a full inquest was scheduled for 16 June 1975 . The hearing began with the swearing - in of the jury and introductions from various legal representatives , including a lawyer hired for Lucan by his mother . Thurston introduced the jury to the case and explained their duties . He had selected 33 witnesses to be called over the following few days , including Veronica Lucan , who each day wore a dark coat and white headscarf . Thurston questioned her on her relationship with Lucan , her marriage , her financial affairs , her employment of Rivett and what had happened on the night of the attack . The Dowager Countess 's QC attempted to ask Lady Lucan about the nature of their relationship , if she hated her husband , but Thurston ruled his line of questioning inadmissible . Woman Detective Constable Sally Blower , who had taken a statement from Frances on 20 November 1974 , read the young girl 's words to the court . Frances had heard a scream , and a few minutes later had watched as her mother ( blood on her face ) and father had entered the room . Her mother had then sent her to bed . She later heard her father calling for her mother , asking where she was , and watched as he left the bathroom and walked downstairs . She also described how Sandra Rivett did not normally work on Thursday nights . The landlord of " The Plumbers Arms " described how Lady Lucan had entered his bar covered " head to toe in blood " before she fell into " a state of shock " . He claimed that she shouted " Help me , help me , I 've just escaped from being murdered " and " My children , my children , he 's murdered my nanny " , although no name was mentioned . Pathologist Keith Simpson outlined his post mortem examination , concluding that death was caused by " blunt head injuries " and " inhalation of blood " . He confirmed that the lead pipe found at the scene was most likely responsible for Rivett 's injuries , although some , to the left eye and mouth , he thought more likely to have been caused by punches from a clenched fist . The last person to confirm seeing Lucan alive , Susan Maxwell - Scott , told the court that the earl looked " dishevelled " , and his hair " a little ruffled " . His trousers had a damp patch on the right hip . Lucan had told her that he was walking , or passing by the house when he saw Veronica being attacked by a man . He let himself in but slipped in a pool of blood at the bottom of the stairs . He told Maxwell - Scott that the attacker ran off , and that Veronica was " very hysterical " and accused him of having hired a hitman to kill her . Once the hearing had ended , Thurston made a summary of the evidence presented and told the jury their options . At 11 : 45 am , their foreman announced " Murder by Lord Lucan " . Lucan became the first member of the House of Lords to be named a murderer since 1760 , when Laurence Shirley , 4th Earl Ferrers , was hanged for killing his bailiff . He was also the last person to be committed by a coroner to a Crown Court for unlawful killing ; the coroner 's power to do so was removed by the Criminal Law Act 1977 . Rivett 's body , which had been held for several weeks following the murder , was released to her family and cremated at Croydon crematorium on 18 December 1974 . A police spokesman cited Lady Lucan 's desire not to upset the family as a reason for her non - attendance at the cremation . Lucan 's defence Lucan 's friends and family were critical of the inquest , which they felt offered a one - sided view of events . His mother told reporters that it did not serve " any useful purpose at all " . Veronica 's sister , Christina , said she felt " great sadness and sorrow " at the verdict . Susan Maxwell - Scott continued to press the earl 's claims of innocence and claimed to feel " awfully sorry " for the countess . However , as Lucan remained absent , his description of " a traumatic night of unbelievable coincidence " came only from the letters he authored and the people he spoke with soon after Rivett 's murder . While his fingerprints were not found at the scene , his assertions make no provision for the lead pipe discovered in the boot of the Ford Corsair , the claims by some that he discussed murdering his wife , or the lack of a viable suspect for the man he claimed to have seen fighting her . No sign of a forced entry was found , and officers attempting to demonstrate that Lucan could have seen into the basement kitchen , from the street , could only do so by stooping low to the pavement . The basement light was not working , making it even more difficult to see into the room ; its lightbulb ( which was tested and found to be in working order ) was found removed from its holder and left lying on a chair . Furthermore , Lady Lucan claimed not to have entered the basement that night , contradicting the earl 's version of events ; his wife 's account is supported by the forensic examination made of the blood splashes and stains around the property . Some traces of her blood were found in the basement , the rear garden and on the canvas sack used to store Rivett 's body , although this may have been due to contamination at the scene . The man Lucan claimed to have seen could not have left through the basement 's front door as it was locked , and the rear door led to a walled garden through which no trace of an escape was found . No signs that the man left by the ground level front door were discovered , and no witnesses reported seeing any such person near 46 Lower Belgrave Street . In contrast to his defenders , the national press were almost unanimous in their condemnation of Lucan . Their leader - writers ignored the threat of libel and identified him as Rivett 's killer . Bankruptcy and estate As Lucan 's bankruptcy proceeded , in August 1975 his creditors were informed that the missing earl had unsecured debts of £ 45 , 000 and preferential liabilities for £ 1 , 326 . His assets were estimated at £ 22 , 632 . The family silver was sold in March 1976 for around £ 30 , 000 . His remaining debts were repaid by the Lucan family trust in the years immediately following his disappearance . His family was granted probate over his estate in 1999 , although no death certificate was issued , and his heir , George Bingham , Lord Bingham , was refused permission to take his father 's title and seat in the House of Lords . Following the passage of the <unk> of Death Act 2013 , Bingham began a new attempt to have his father declared dead , which proved successful in a High Court hearing at the Rolls Building on 3 February 2016 . He therefore inherited his father 's title , becoming the 8th Earl of Lucan . Ultimate fate and reported sightings The last confirmed sighting of Lucan was at about 1 : 15 am on 8 November 1974 as he exited the driveway of the Maxwell - Scott property , in his friend 's Ford Corsair . Since then , his whereabouts and ultimate fate remain a mystery . Detective Chief Superintendent Roy Ranson initially claimed that Lucan had " done the honourable thing " and " fallen on his own sword " , a view publicly repeated by many of Lucan 's friends , including John Aspinall , who shortly before his death in 2000 said he believed the earl was guilty of Rivett 's murder , and that his body lay " 250 feet under the Channel " . Veronica Lucan believes her husband killed himself " like the nobleman he was " . Ranson later changed his view , explaining that he considered it more likely that suicide was far from Lucan 's thoughts , that a rumoured drowning at sea was implausible and that the earl had moved to southern Africa . Thirty years after the murder , the detective leading a new investigation into Lucan 's disappearance told the Telegraph that " the evidence points towards the fact that Lord Lucan left the country and lived abroad for a number of years . " Speaking to author John Pearson before she died , Susan Maxwell - Scott suggested that Lucan might have been helped out of the country by shadowy underground financiers , before being judged too great a risk and killed and buried in Switzerland . A similar theory was proposed by advertising executive Jeremy Scott , who was familiar with some of the Clermont Set . Lucan 's disappearance has captivated the public 's imagination for decades , with thousands of sightings reported across the world . One of the earliest , shortly after the murder , turned out to be a British ex - politician , John Stonehouse , who had attempted to fake his own death . The police travelled to France in June the following year to hunt another lead , to no avail . A sighting in Colombia turned out to be an American businessman . John Miller , a bounty hunter who kidnapped the fugitive train robber Ronnie Biggs , claimed in 1982 to have captured the earl , but was later exposed by the News of the World as a hoaxer . In 2003 a former Scotland Yard detective thought he had tracked the earl to Goa , India , although the man he traced was actually Barry Halpin , a folk singer from St Helens . In 2007 , reporters in New Zealand interviewed a homeless British expatriate who neighbours claimed was the missing earl . More recently , responding to claims that the two eldest Lucan children were sent to Gabon in the early 1980s so that their father might secretly watch them " from a distance " , George Bingham denied ever visiting the country . His mother dismissed the newspaper claims of sightings as " nonsense " , reiterating that in her opinion " he was not the sort of Englishman to cope abroad " .
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IWGP Heavyweight Championship ( IGF ) The IWGP Heavyweight Championship was a professional wrestling heavyweight championship owned by the Inoki Genome Federation ( IGF ) promotion . The title shares its name with New Japan Pro Wrestling 's ( NJPW ) IWGP Heavyweight Championship , from which it split due to a decision made by IGF and NJPW founder Antonio Inoki . " IWGP " is the abbreviation of NJPW 's fictional governing body , the International Wrestling Grand Prix . During the title 's history , IGF recognized it as the official IWGP Heavyweight Championship , continuing the history of the title after an error made by NJPW in Inoki 's eyes . NJPW recognized the title as the IWGP 3rd Belt Championship , a championship that was merely represented by a previous version of the IWGP Heavyweight Championship 's title belt . The title was briefly used in the Total Nonstop Action Wrestling ( TNA ) promotion , which recognized it as the IWGP Heavyweight Championship . As a professional wrestling championship , the title was won via a scripted ending to a match or awarded to a wrestler because of a storyline . The inaugural champion was Brock Lesnar , who was the reigning IWGP Heavyweight Champion before being stripped of the title due to issues with NJPW . IGF recognized him as the official IWGP Heavyweight Champion afterwards . All title changes occurred at IGF or NJPW - promoted events . There were a total of three reigns among three wrestlers during the title 's brief history before being unified with the IWGP Heavyweight Championship . History On October 8 , 2005 , at New Japan Pro Wrestling 's ( NJPW ) Toukon <unk> New Chapter event in Tokyo , Japan , Brock Lesnar defeated Kazuyuki Fujita and Masahiro Chono in a Three Way match for the IWGP Heavyweight Championship . He held the title for 280 days , having three successful defenses , until he failed to show up for a scheduled title defense . NJPW thus stripped Lesnar of the championship on July 15 , 2006 . Lesnar cited visa issues along with NJPW owing him compensation for his reasons at failing to appear at the planned title defense . After this series of events , NJPW founder Antonio Inoki left NJPW and created a new promotion , the Inoki Genome Federation ( IGF ) . Inoki then recognized Lesnar as the IWGP Heavyweight Champion due to Lesnar never having lost the championship in a match and Lesnar still maintaining physical possession of the title belt . NJPW recognized Lesnar as the IWGP 3rd Belt Champion and not the IWGP Heavyweight Champion , maintaining their stance on having stripped him of the title in 2006 . On June 29 , 2007 , IGF held its debut show with Lesnar defending the IWGP Heavyweight Championship against Kurt Angle in the main event . Angle defeated Lesnar to win the championship at the show with Angle going on to appear in the American Total Nonstop Action Wrestling ( TNA ) promotion with the physical title belt . TNA also referred to the title belt as the IWGP Heavyweight Championship in the same manner as the IGF , recognizing Angle as the official IWGP Heavyweight Champion . NJPW did not recognize Angle as the IWGP Heavyweight Champion , instead it viewed Angle as the second IWGP 3rd Belt Champion . Angle went on to have two successful defenses as champion . His first defense came in TNA in a feud against Samoa Joe . Angle first appeared with the title belt in TNA on the July 5 , 2007 episode of TNA 's television program TNA Impact ! . The title belt became relevant to the storyline rivalry between Joe and Angle heading into TNA 's Hard Justice pay - per - view ( PPV ) event . Leading up to TNA 's Victory Road PPV event on July 15 , 2007 , TNA X Division Champion Joe and TNA World Heavyweight Champion Angle teamed together to face TNA World Tag Team Champions Team 3D ( Brother Devon and Brother Ray ) in a Tag Team match with the stipulation being whoever scored the pinfall or submission for their team won the championship of the person pinned or made to submit . Joe pinned Brother Ray in the bout , thus winning the World Tag Team Championship for himself and a partner of his choosing . Joe chose to hold the title alone and challenged Angle to a Winner Take All match at Hard Justice for the TNA World Heavyweight , TNA X Division , TNA World Tag Team , and the IWGP Heavyweight Championships on the July 19 2007 , episode of Impact ! . Angle accepted the match , with Joe and Angle facing at Hard Justice on August 12 , 2007 in Orlando , Florida for all of the titles . Angle defeated Joe at the event to win the TNA World Tag Team and TNA X Division Championships , while retaining the TNA World Heavyweight and IWGP Heavyweight Championships . Afterwards , TNA slowly faded out using the IWGP Heavyweight Championship with Angle going on to defend the title at IGF and NJPW promoted shows , with the title being referred to as both the IWGP Heavyweight Championship and the IWGP 3rd Belt Championship . Angle 's second defense of the title was at NJPW 's Wrestle Kingdom II in Tokyo Dome event on January 4 , 2008 where he defeated former NJPW recognized IWGP Heavyweight Champion Yuji Nagata to retain the IWGP 3rd Belt Championship . Angle 's last defense was against then NJPW recognized IWGP Heavyweight Champion Shinsuke Nakamura in a unification match on February 17 , 2008 at NJPW 's Circuit 2008 New Japan ISM event where the winner would be the unified IWGP Heavyweight Champion . Angle lost the match , thus ending the existence of the IGF recognized IWGP Heavyweight Championship . IGF later introduced another title five years later with the IGF Championship on December 31 , 2013 . Belt designs The title design featured a black leather base with five gold plates spaced evenly apart , with the center plate being the largest . On the center plate the words " IWGP Heavyweight Champion " were featured alongside the caricature of an eagle or similar bird of prey . Reigns The inaugural champion was Brock Lesnar , as recognized by IGF as the official IWGP Heavyweight Champion . There were a total of three reigns among three wrestlers during the title 's brief history before being unified with the IWGP Heavyweight Championship . Title statistics
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Ten Dollar Bill ( Roy Lichtenstein ) Ten Dollar Bill ( also referred to as The Dollar Bill ) is a 1956 proto - pop art lithographic drawing by Roy Lichtenstein . Considered to be a combination of Americana art and cubism , the work is referred to as the beginning to Lichtenstein 's work on pop art . Twenty - five editions of the lithograph were made by Lichtenstein , which were exhibited at several galleries . The piece is based on the design for the ten - dollar bill and has influenced several of Lichtenstein 's later works . The picture has received generally favorable reception from critics , and is considered to be one of the best artistic portrayals of currency . Background and history Roy Lichtenstein began experimentation with printmaking in the late 1940s , well before its rise in popularity in the early 1960s . Lichtenstein created his first lithograph and woodcut artwork in 1948 while he was working on receiving his graduate degree in fine arts from Ohio State University . During the late 1940s , he created abstract paintings influenced by several artists , especially Pablo Picasso . From 1951 through early 1956 , Lichtenstein painted what were considered by Gianni Mercurio to be " jagged , post - cubist " designs of famous American artworks . Many of his pieces reflected portraits of the American west , especially Native Americans and cowboys , as well as other themes , such as images of president George Washington . Lichtenstein referred to the period as his " American " series , and it was generally negatively received by critics . Lichtenstein also began experimenting in abstract expressionism , using the technique on several of his western painting designs . These were poorly received , however , being compared by one critic to " the doodling of a five - year old " . In 1956 , Lichtenstein created twenty - five editions of Ten Dollar Bill and gave them to several private collectors and museums . Starting in late October 1994 , Ten Dollar Bill went on display at the National Gallery of Art in Washington , D.C. , along with 89 of Lichtenstein 's print artworks . As a part of " The Prints of Roy Lichtenstein " , the piece was displayed in Washington until January 8 , 1995 , before it was moved to the Los Angeles County Museum of Art and put on display as part of that city 's <unk> ' 95 , starting in mid - February of that year . The tour moved in May to the Dallas Museum of Art , the final place it was displayed . In December 1996 , Lichtenstein and his wife donated 154 prints of his artwork to the National Gallery of Art for permanent keeping . This donation included several famous pieces , including Crying Girl , along with one of the editions of Ten Dollar Bill . Another edition of Ten Dollar Bill was a part of the showcase opening exhibit " $ how Me the Money : The Dollar As Art " for the American Numismatic Association Money Museum in Colorado Springs , Colorado . This exhibit ran from October 4 , 2002 , until December 1 . The lithograph was shown alongside work from Andy Warhol , Robert Dowd , and others . Later , the work was made a part of the " Roy Lichtenstein Prints 1956 - 1997 " collection , created entirely from the family gallery of Jordan Schnitzer . This tour began in June 2006 at the Jordan Schnitzer Museum of Art , and traveled across the country , exhibiting in Las Vegas and Austin , Texas , among other places . The collection tour ended in 2008 . Description Based on the design for the United States ten - dollar bill , Ten Dollar Bill measures 14 by 28 . 6 centimetres ( 5 . 5 by 11 . 3 in ) , and is drawn on sheets of paper with dimensions of 42 . 8 by 57 . 6 centimetres ( 16 . 9 by 22 . 7 in ) . Classified as a proto - pop art work , the lithograph is considered by Janis Hendrickson to be " a Picasso - esque vision of what currency could look like " , as well as a " humorous " combination of " established art forms and Americana " . The drawing has the dimensions and shape of the ten - dollar bill , and completely covers the space needed , which has led to Lichtenstein being considered by Hendrickson as " almost seeming to be forging money " . Hendrickson also describes the picture as being a " brand - new bill of tender and not a picture of one " . Mary Lee Corlett and Hendrickson noted that the " schematic head " of the medallion portrait of Alexander Hamilton , the prominent feature of the print , " shows him as a planar , anteater - like being " with a " hair - do of the young Picasso " and eyes similar to a " figure by Francis Picabia " . According to Hendrickson , the exterior framing for The Dollar Bill was " simplified " from the original dollar design , appearing in " an imbalanced , drunken fashion " . The lithograph has full margins surrounding the main design , as well as the signature " rf Lichtenstein " and a number between one and 25 , followed by / 25 , reflecting the print number of the specific work , as well as the years 1956 / 79 . Reception Stephen Goode , a critic for Insight on the News , considered the piece to be the beginning of the Pop Art movement , labeling the work " a sign of things to come as other artists tackled common yet sacrosanct items , including the American flag " . Lichtenstein , reflecting on his work , told reporters , " The idea of counterfeiting money always occurs to you when you do lithography " . Despite the assessments of critics , Lichtenstein , in an interview with Joan Marter , considered the work to be " a kind of Cubist dollar bill , not a Pop one " . He continued , " The fact it was a ten - dollar - bill at all [ suggests that ] there was some kind of Pop influence on me that I wasn 't aware of so much . They 're really not Pop at all . They 're more funny , or humorous , or something " . In the book Off Limits : Rutgers University and the Avant - garde , 1957 - 1963 , the piece was described as a " humorous , Cubist abstraction of the currency " . Discussing the piece after edition 10 was given to the National Gallery of Australia , critic <unk> Babington considered Lichtenstein 's early works , including Ten Dollar Bill , to be " intriguing precursors to the artist ’ s subsequent development " . She called it a " finely hand - drawn lithograph " , and considered the work to be " the only hint of Lichtenstein ’ s imminent obsession with American popular culture " . Babington finished by noting , " we see Lichtenstein first taking an everyday object , symbolic of the growing American consumer culture , as his subject matter " .
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Edward VI of England Edward VI ( 12 October 1537 – 6 July 1553 ) was King of England and Ireland from 28 January 1547 until his death . He was crowned on 20 February at the age of nine . The son of Henry VIII and Jane Seymour , Edward was the third monarch of the Tudor dynasty and England 's first monarch raised as a Protestant . During Edward 's reign , the realm was governed by a Regency Council because he never reached his majority . The Council was first led by his uncle Edward Seymour , 1st Duke of Somerset ( 1547 – 1549 ) , and then by John Dudley , 1st Earl of Warwick , from 1551 Duke of Northumberland . Edward 's reign was marked by economic problems and social unrest that , in 1549 , erupted into riot and rebellion . An expensive war with Scotland , at first successful , ended with military withdrawal from Scotland as well as Boulogne - sur - Mer in exchange for peace . The transformation of the Church into a recognisably Protestant body also occurred under Edward , who took great interest in religious matters . Although his father , Henry VIII , had severed the link between the Church of England and Rome , Henry VIII had never permitted the renunciation of Catholic doctrine or ceremony . It was during Edward 's reign that Protestantism was established for the first time in England with reforms that included the abolition of clerical celibacy and the Mass and the imposition of compulsory services in English . The architect of these reforms was Thomas Cranmer , Archbishop of Canterbury , whose Book of Common Prayer is still used . In February 1553 , at age 15 , Edward fell ill . When his sickness was discovered to be terminal , he and his Council drew up a " Devise for the Succession " , attempting to prevent the country 's return to Catholicism . Edward named his first cousin once removed , Lady Jane Grey , as his heir and excluded his half - sisters , Mary and Elizabeth . However , this decision was disputed following Edward 's death , and Jane was deposed by Mary within 13 days . As queen , Mary reversed Edward 's Protestant reforms , which nonetheless became the basis of the Elizabethan Religious Settlement of 1559 . Early life Birth Edward was born on 12 October 1537 in his mother 's room inside Hampton Court Palace , in Middlesex . He was the son of King Henry VIII by his third wife , Jane Seymour . Throughout the realm , the people greeted the birth of a male heir , " whom we hungered for so long " , with joy and relief . Te <unk> were sung in churches , bonfires lit , and " their was <unk> at the Tower that night above two thousand <unk> " . Queen Jane , appearing to recover quickly from the birth , sent out personally signed letters announcing the birth of " a Prince , conceived in most lawful matrimony between my Lord the King 's Majesty and us " . Edward was christened on 15 October , with his half - sisters , the 21 - year - old Lady Mary as godmother and the 4 - year - old Lady Elizabeth carrying the <unk> ; and the Garter King of Arms proclaimed him as Duke of Cornwall and Earl of Chester . The Queen , however , fell ill on 23 October from presumed postnatal complications , and died the following night . Henry VIII wrote to Francis I of France that " Divine Providence ... hath mingled my joy with bitterness of the death of her who brought me this happiness " . Upbringing and education Edward was a healthy baby who suckled strongly from the outset . His father was delighted with him ; in May 1538 , Henry was observed " dallying with him in his arms ... and so holding him in a window to the sight and great comfort of the people " . That September , the Lord Chancellor , Thomas , Lord Audley , reported Edward 's rapid growth and vigour ; and other accounts describe him as a tall and merry child . The tradition that Edward VI was a sickly boy has been challenged by more recent historians . At the age of four , he fell ill with a life - threatening " quartan fever " , but , despite occasional illnesses and poor eyesight , he enjoyed generally good health until the last six months of his life . Edward was initially placed in the care of Margaret Bryan , " lady mistress " of the prince 's household . She was succeeded by Blanche Herbert , Lady Troy . Until the age of six , Edward was brought up , as he put it later in his Chronicle , " among the women " . The formal royal household established around Edward was , at first , under Sir William Sidney , and later Sir Richard Page , stepfather of Edward Seymour 's wife , Anne Stanhope . Henry demanded exacting standards of security and cleanliness in his son 's household , stressing that Edward was " this whole realm 's most precious jewel " . Visitors described the prince , who was lavishly provided with toys and comforts , including his own troupe of minstrels , as a contented child . From the age of six , Edward began his formal education under Richard Cox and John Cheke , concentrating , as he recalled himself , on " learning of tongues , of the scripture , of philosophy , and all liberal sciences " ; He received tuition from Elizabeth 's tutor , Roger Ascham , and Jean <unk> , learning French , Spanish and Italian . In addition , he is known to have studied geometry and learned to play musical instruments , including the lute and the virginals . He collected globes and maps and , according to coinage historian C. E. Challis , developed a grasp of monetary affairs that indicated a high intelligence . Edward 's religious education is assumed to have favoured the reforming agenda . His religious establishment was probably chosen by Archbishop Thomas Cranmer , a leading reformer . Both Cox and Cheke were " reformed " Catholics or <unk> and later became Marian exiles . By 1549 , Edward had written a treatise on the pope as Antichrist and was making informed notes on theological controversies . Many aspects of Edward 's religion were essentially Catholic in his early years , including celebration of the mass and reverence for images and relics of the saints . Both Edward 's sisters were attentive to their brother and often visited him – on one occasion , Elizabeth gave him a shirt " of her own working " . Edward " took special content " in Mary 's company , though he disapproved of her taste for foreign dances ; " I love you most " , he wrote to her in 1546 . In 1543 , Henry invited his children to spend Christmas with him , signalling his reconciliation with his daughters , whom he had previously <unk> and disinherited . The following spring , he restored them to their place in the succession with a Third Succession Act , which also provided for a regency council during Edward 's minority . This unaccustomed family harmony may have owed much to the influence of Henry 's new wife Catherine Parr , of whom Edward soon became fond . He called her his " most dear mother " and in September 1546 , wrote to her : " I received so many benefits from you that my mind can hardly grasp them . " Other children were brought to play with Edward , including the granddaughter of Edward 's chamberlain , Sir William Sidney , who in adulthood recalled the prince as " a marvellous sweet child , of very mild and generous condition " . Edward was educated with sons of nobles , " appointed to attend upon him " in what was a form of miniature court . Among these , Barnaby Fitzpatrick , son of an Irish peer , became a close and lasting friend . Edward was more devoted to his schoolwork than his classmates and seems to have outshone them , motivated to do his " duty " and compete with his sister Elizabeth 's academic prowess . Edward 's surroundings and possessions were regally splendid : his rooms were hung with costly Flemish tapestries , and his clothes , books , and cutlery were encrusted with precious jewels and gold . Like his father , Edward was fascinated by military arts , and many of his portraits show him wearing a gold dagger with a jewelled hilt , in imitation of Henry . Edward 's Chronicle enthusiastically details English military campaigns against Scotland and France , and adventures such as John Dudley 's near capture at Musselburgh in 1547 . " The Rough Wooing " On 1 July 1543 , Henry VIII signed the Treaty of Greenwich with the Scots , sealing the peace with Edward 's betrothal to the seven - month - old Mary , Queen of Scots . The Scots were in a weak bargaining position after their defeat at Solway Moss the previous November , and Henry , seeking to unite the two realms , stipulated that Mary be handed over to him to be brought up in England . When the Scots repudiated the treaty in December 1543 and renewed their alliance with France , Henry was enraged . In April 1544 , he ordered Edward 's uncle , Edward Seymour , Earl of Hertford , to invade Scotland and " put all to fire and sword , burn Edinburgh town , so razed and defaced when you have sacked and gotten what ye can of it , as there may remain forever a perpetual memory of the vengeance of God lightened upon [ them ] for their falsehood and disloyalty " . Seymour responded with the most savage campaign ever launched by the English against the Scots . The war , which continued into Edward 's reign , has become known as " The Rough Wooing " . Accession The nine - year - old Edward wrote to his father and stepmother on 10 January 1547 from Hertford thanking them for his new year 's gift of their portraits from life . By 28 January 1547 , Henry VIII was dead . Those close to the throne , led by Edward Seymour and William Paget , agreed to delay the announcement of the king 's death until arrangements had been made for a smooth succession . Seymour and Sir Anthony Browne , the Master of the Horse , rode to collect Edward from Hertford and brought him to Enfield , where Lady Elizabeth was living . He and Elizabeth were then told of the death of their father and heard a reading of the will . The Lord Chancellor , Thomas Wriothesley , announced Henry 's death to parliament on 31 January , and general proclamations of Edward 's succession were ordered . The new king was taken to the Tower of London , where he was welcomed with " great shot of ordnance in all places there about , as well out of the Tower as out of the ships " . The following day , the nobles of the realm made their obeisance to Edward at the Tower , and Seymour was announced as Protector . Henry VIII was buried at Windsor on 16 February , in the same tomb as Jane Seymour , as he had wished . Edward VI was crowned at Westminster Abbey four days later on Sunday 20 February . The ceremonies were shortened , because of the " tedious length of the same which should weary and be <unk> <unk> to the King 's majesty , being yet of tender age " , and also because the Reformation had rendered some of them inappropriate . On the eve of the coronation , Edward progressed on horseback from the Tower to the Palace of Westminster through thronging crowds and pageants , many based on the pageants for a previous boy king , Henry VI . He laughed at a Spanish tightrope walker who " tumbled and played many pretty toys " outside St Paul 's Cathedral . At the coronation service , Cranmer affirmed the royal supremacy and called Edward a second Josiah , urging him to continue the reformation of the Church of England , " the tyranny of the Bishops of Rome banished from your subjects , and images removed " . After the service , Edward presided at a banquet in Westminster Hall , where , he recalled in his Chronicle , he dined with his crown on his head . Somerset 's Protectorate Council of Regency Henry VIII 's will named sixteen executors , who were to act as Edward 's Council until he reached the age of 18 . These executors were supplemented by twelve men " of <unk> " who would assist the executors when called on . The final state of Henry VIII 's will has been the subject of controversy . Some historians suggest that those close to the king manipulated either him or the will itself to ensure a <unk> of power to their benefit , both material and religious . In this reading , the composition of the Privy Chamber shifted towards the end of 1546 in favour of the reforming faction . In addition , two leading conservative Privy Councillors were removed from the centre of power . Stephen Gardiner was refused access to Henry during his last months . Thomas Howard , 3rd Duke of Norfolk , found himself accused of treason ; the day before the king 's death his vast estates were seized , making them available for redistribution , and he spent the whole of Edward 's reign in the Tower of London . Other historians have argued that Gardiner 's exclusion was based on non - religious matters , that Norfolk was not noticeably conservative in religion , that conservatives remained on the Council , and that the radicalism of men such as Sir Anthony Denny , who controlled the dry stamp that replicated the king 's signature , is debatable . Whatever the case , Henry 's death was followed by a lavish hand - out of lands and honours to the new power group . The will contained an " unfulfilled gifts " clause , added at the last minute , which allowed Henry 's executors to freely distribute lands and honours to themselves and the court , particularly to Edward Seymour , 1st Earl of Hertford , the new king 's uncle who became Lord Protector of the Realm , Governor of the King 's Person , and Duke of Somerset . In fact , Henry VIII 's will did not provide for the appointment of a Protector . It entrusted the government of the realm during his son 's minority to a Regency Council that would rule collectively , by majority decision , with " like and equal charge " . Nevertheless , a few days after Henry 's death , on 4 February , the executors chose to invest almost regal power in Edward Seymour , now Duke of Somerset . Thirteen out of the sixteen ( the others being absent ) agreed to his appointment as Protector , which they justified as their joint decision " by virtue of the authority " of Henry 's will . Somerset may have done a deal with some of the executors , who almost all received hand - outs . He is known to have done so with William Paget , private secretary to Henry VIII , and to have secured the support of Sir Anthony Browne of the Privy Chamber . Somerset 's appointment was in keeping with historical precedent , and his eligibility for the role was reinforced by his military successes in Scotland and France . In March 1547 , he secured letters patent from King Edward granting him the almost monarchical right to appoint members to the Privy Council himself and to consult them only when he wished . In the words of historian G. R. Elton , " from that moment his autocratic system was complete " . He proceeded to rule largely by proclamation , calling on the Privy Council to do little more than rubber - stamp his decisions . Somerset 's takeover of power was smooth and efficient . The imperial ambassador , Van der Delft , reported that he " governs everything absolutely " , with Paget operating as his secretary , though he predicted trouble from John Dudley , Viscount Lisle , who had recently been raised to Earl of Warwick in the share - out of honours . In fact , in the early weeks of his Protectorate , Somerset was challenged only by the Chancellor , Thomas Wriothesley , whom the Earldom of Southampton had evidently failed to buy off , and by his own brother . Wriothesley , a religious conservative , objected to Somerset 's assumption of monarchical power over the Council . He then found himself abruptly dismissed from the chancellorship on charges of selling off some of his offices to delegates . Thomas Seymour Somerset faced less manageable opposition from his younger brother Thomas Seymour , who has been described as a " worm in the bud " . As King Edward 's uncle , Thomas Seymour demanded the governorship of the king 's person and a greater share of power . Somerset tried to buy his brother off with a barony , an appointment to the Lord <unk> , and a seat on the Privy Council — but Thomas was bent on scheming for power . He began smuggling pocket money to King Edward , telling him that Somerset held the purse strings too tight , making him a " beggarly king " . He also urged him to throw off the Protector within two years and " bear rule as other kings do " ; but Edward , schooled to defer to the Council , failed to co - operate . In the Spring of 1547 , using Edward 's support to circumvent Somerset 's opposition , Thomas Seymour secretly married Henry VIII 's widow Catherine Parr , whose Protestant household included the 11 - year - old Lady Jane Grey and the 13 - year - old Lady Elizabeth . In summer 1548 , a pregnant Catherine Parr discovered Thomas Seymour embracing Lady Elizabeth . As a result , Elizabeth was removed from Catherine Parr 's household and transferred to Sir Anthony Denny 's . That September , Catherine Parr died in childbirth , and Thomas Seymour promptly resumed his attentions to Elizabeth by letter , planning to marry her . Elizabeth was receptive , but , like Edward , unready to agree to anything unless permitted by the Council . In January 1549 , the Council had Thomas Seymour arrested on various charges , including embezzlement at the Bristol mint . King Edward , whom Seymour was accused of planning to marry to Lady Jane Grey , himself testified about the pocket money . Lack of clear evidence for treason ruled out a trial , so Seymour was condemned instead by an Act of Attainder and beheaded on 20 March 1549 . War Somerset 's only undoubted skill was as a soldier , which he had proven on expeditions to Scotland and in the defence of Boulogne - sur - Mer in 1546 . From the first , his main interest as Protector was the war against Scotland . After a crushing victory at the Battle of Pinkie Cleugh in September 1547 , he set up a network of garrisons in Scotland , stretching as far north as Dundee . His initial successes , however , were followed by a loss of direction , as his aim of uniting the realms through conquest became increasingly unrealistic . The Scots allied with France , who sent reinforcements for the defence of Edinburgh in 1548 , while Mary , Queen of Scots , was removed to France , where she was betrothed to the dauphin . The cost of maintaining the Protector 's massive armies and his permanent garrisons in Scotland also placed an unsustainable burden on the royal finances . A French attack on Boulogne in August 1549 at last forced Somerset to begin a withdrawal from Scotland . Rebellion During 1548 , England was subject to social unrest . After April 1549 , a series of armed revolts broke out , fuelled by various religious and agrarian grievances . The two most serious rebellions , which required major military intervention to put down , were in Devon and Cornwall and in Norfolk . The first , sometimes called the Prayer Book Rebellion , arose mainly from the imposition of church services in English , and the second , led by a tradesman called Robert Kett , mainly from the encroachment of landlords on common grazing ground . A complex aspect of the social unrest was that the protesters believed they were acting legitimately against enclosing landlords with the Protector 's support , convinced that the landlords were the lawbreakers . The same justification for outbreaks of unrest was voiced throughout the country , not only in Norfolk and the west . The origin of the popular view of Somerset as sympathetic to the rebel cause lies partly in his series of sometimes liberal , often contradictory , proclamations , and partly in the uncoordinated activities of the commissions he sent out in 1548 and 1549 to investigate grievances about loss of tillage , encroachment of large sheep flocks on common land , and similar issues . Somerset 's commissions were led by an evangelical M.P. called John Hales , whose socially liberal rhetoric linked the issue of enclosure with Reformation theology and the notion of a godly commonwealth . Local groups often assumed that the findings of these commissions entitled them to act against offending landlords themselves . King Edward wrote in his Chronicle that the 1549 risings began " because certain commissions were sent down to pluck down enclosures " . Whatever the popular view of Somerset , the disastrous events of 1549 were taken as evidence of a colossal failure of government , and the Council laid the responsibility at the Protector 's door . In July 1549 , Paget wrote to Somerset : " Every man of the council have <unk> your proceedings ... would to God , that , at the first stir you had followed the matter hotly , and caused justice to be ministered in solemn fashion to the terror of others ... " . Fall of Somerset The sequence of events that led to Somerset 's removal from power has often been called a coup d 'état . By 1 October 1549 , Somerset had been alerted that his rule faced a serious threat . He issued a proclamation calling for assistance , took possession of the king 's person , and withdrew for safety to the fortified Windsor Castle , where Edward wrote , " Me thinks I am in prison " . Meanwhile , a united Council published details of Somerset 's government mismanagement . They made clear that the Protector 's power came from them , not from Henry VIII 's will . On 11 October , the Council had Somerset arrested and brought the king to Richmond . Edward summarised the charges against Somerset in his Chronicle : " ambition , vainglory , entering into rash wars in mine youth , negligent looking on Newhaven , enriching himself of my treasure , following his own opinion , and doing all by his own authority , etc . " In February 1550 , John Dudley , Earl of Warwick , emerged as the leader of the Council and , in effect , as Somerset 's successor . Although Somerset was released from the Tower and restored to the Council , he was executed for felony in January 1552 after scheming to overthrow Dudley 's regime . Edward noted his uncle 's death in his Chronicle : " the duke of Somerset had his head cut off upon Tower Hill between eight and nine o 'clock in the morning " . Historians contrast the efficiency of Somerset 's takeover of power , in which they detect the organising skills of allies such as Paget , the " master of practices " , with the subsequent ineptitude of his rule . By autumn 1549 , his costly wars had lost momentum , the crown faced financial ruin , and riots and rebellions had broken out around the country . Until recent decades , Somerset 's reputation with historians was high , in view of his many proclamations that appeared to back the common people against a rapacious landowning class . More recently , however , he has often been portrayed as an arrogant and aloof ruler , lacking in political and administrative skills . Northumberland 's regime In contrast , Somerset 's successor John Dudley , Earl of Warwick , made Duke of Northumberland in 1551 , was once regarded by historians merely as a grasping schemer who cynically elevated and enriched himself at the expense of the crown . Since the 1970s , the administrative and economic achievements of his regime have been recognised , and he has been credited with restoring the authority of the royal Council and returning the government to an even keel after the disasters of Somerset 's protectorate . The Earl of Warwick 's rival for leadership of the new regime was Thomas Wriothesley , 1st Earl of Southampton , whose conservative supporters had allied with Dudley 's followers to create a unanimous Council , which they , and observers such as the Holy Roman Emperor , Charles V 's ambassador , expected to reverse Somerset 's policy of religious reform . Warwick , on the other hand , pinned his hopes on the king 's strong Protestantism and , claiming that Edward was old enough to rule in person , moved himself and his people closer to the king , taking control of the Privy Chamber . Paget , accepting a barony , joined Warwick when he realised that a conservative policy would not bring the emperor onto the English side over Boulogne . Southampton prepared a case for executing Somerset , aiming to discredit Warwick through Somerset 's statements that he had done all with Warwick 's co - operation . As a counter - move , Warwick convinced parliament to free Somerset , which it did on 14 January 1550 . Warwick then had Southampton and his followers purged from the Council after winning the support of Council members in return for titles , and was made Lord President of the Council and great master of the king 's household . Although not called a Protector , he was now clearly the head of the government . As Edward was growing up , he was able to understand more and more government business . However , his actual involvement in decisions has long been a matter of debate , and during the 20th century , historians have presented the whole gamut of possibilities , " <unk> [ ing ] an articulate puppet against a mature , precocious , and essentially adult king " , in the words of Stephen Alford . A special " Counsel for the Estate " was created when Edward was fourteen . Edward chose the members himself . In the weekly meetings with this Council , Edward was " to hear the debating of things of most importance " . A major point of contact with the king was the Privy Chamber , and there Edward worked closely with William Cecil and William Petre , the Principal Secretaries . The king 's greatest influence was in matters of religion , where the Council followed the strongly Protestant policy that Edward favoured . The Duke of Northumberland 's mode of operation was very different from Somerset 's . Careful to make sure he always commanded a majority of councillors , he encouraged a working council and used it to <unk> his authority . Lacking Somerset 's blood - relationship with the king , he added members to the Council from his own faction in order to control it . He also added members of his family to the royal household . He saw that to achieve personal dominance , he needed total procedural control of the Council . In the words of historian John Guy , " Like Somerset , he became quasi - king ; the difference was that he managed the bureaucracy on the pretence that Edward had assumed full sovereignty , whereas Somerset had asserted the right to near - sovereignty as Protector " . Warwick 's war policies were more pragmatic than Somerset 's , and they have earned him criticism for weakness . In 1550 , he signed a peace treaty with France that agreed to withdrawal from Boulogne and recalled all English garrisons from Scotland . In 1551 , Edward was betrothed to Elisabeth of Valois , King Henry II 's daughter . In practice , he realised that England could no longer support the cost of wars . At home , he took measures to police local unrest . To forestall future rebellions , he kept permanent representatives of the crown in the localities , including lords lieutenant , who commanded military forces and reported back to central government . Working with William Paulet and Walter Mildmay , Warwick tackled the disastrous state of the kingdom 's finances . However , his regime first succumbed to the temptations of a quick profit by further debasing the coinage . The economic disaster that resulted caused Warwick to hand the initiative to the expert Thomas Gresham . By 1552 , confidence in the coinage was restored , prices fell , and trade at last improved . Though a full economic recovery was not achieved until Elizabeth 's reign , its origins lay in the Duke of Northumberland 's policies . The regime also cracked down on widespread embezzlement of government finances , and carried out a thorough review of revenue collection practices , which has been called " one of the more remarkable achievements of Tudor administration " . Reformation In the matter of religion , the regime of Northumberland followed the same policy as that of Somerset , supporting an increasingly vigorous programme of reform . Although Edward VI 's practical influence on government was limited , his intense Protestantism made a reforming administration obligatory ; his succession was managed by the reforming faction , who continued in power throughout his reign . The man Edward trusted most , Thomas Cranmer , Archbishop of Canterbury , introduced a series of religious reforms that revolutionised the English church from one that — while rejecting papal supremacy — remained essentially Catholic , to one that was institutionally Protestant . The confiscation of church property that had begun under Henry VIII resumed under Edward — notably with the dissolution of the chantries — to the great monetary advantage of the crown and the new owners of the seized property . Church reform was therefore as much a political as a religious policy under Edward VI . By the end of his reign , the church had been financially ruined , with much of the property of the bishops transferred into lay hands . The religious convictions of both Somerset and Northumberland have proved elusive for historians , who are divided on the sincerity of their Protestantism . There is less doubt , however , about the religious fervour of King Edward , who was said to have read twelve chapters of scripture daily and enjoyed sermons , and was commemorated by John Foxe as a " godly imp " . Edward was depicted during his life and afterwards as a new Josiah , the biblical king who destroyed the idols of Baal . He could be priggish in his anti - Catholicism and once asked Catherine Parr to persuade Lady Mary " to attend no longer to foreign dances and <unk> which do not become a most Christian princess " . Edward 's biographer Jennifer Loach cautions , however , against accepting too readily the pious image of Edward handed down by the reformers , as in John Foxe 's influential Acts and Monuments , where a woodcut depicts the young king listening to a sermon by Hugh Latimer . In the early part of his life , Edward conformed to the prevailing Catholic practices , including attendance at mass : but he became convinced , under the influence of Cranmer and the reformers among his tutors and courtiers , that " true " religion should be imposed in England . The English Reformation advanced under pressure from two directions : from the traditionalists on the one hand and the zealots on the other , who led incidents of iconoclasm ( image - smashing ) and complained that reform did not go far enough . Reformed doctrines were made official , such as justification by faith alone and communion for laity as well as clergy in both kinds , of bread and wine . The Ordinal of 1550 replaced the divine ordination of priests with a government - run appointment system , authorising ministers to preach the gospel and administer the sacraments rather than , as before , " to offer sacrifice and celebrate mass both for the living and the dead " . Cranmer set himself the task of writing a uniform liturgy in English , detailing all weekly and daily services and religious festivals , to be made compulsory in the first Act of Uniformity of 1549 . The Book of Common Prayer of 1549 , intended as a compromise , was attacked by traditionalists for dispensing with many cherished rituals of the liturgy , such as the elevation of the bread and wine , while some reformers complained about the retention of too many " popish " elements , including vestiges of sacrificial rites at communion . The prayer book was also opposed by many senior Catholic clerics , including Stephen Gardiner , Bishop of Winchester , and Edmund Bonner , Bishop of London , who were both imprisoned in the Tower and , along with others , deprived of their sees . After 1551 , the Reformation advanced further , with the approval and encouragement of Edward , who began to exert more personal influence in his role as Supreme Head of the church . The new changes were also a response to criticism from such reformers as John Hooper , Bishop of Gloucester , and the Scot John Knox , who was employed as a minister in Newcastle under the Duke of Northumberland and whose preaching at court prompted the king to oppose kneeling at communion . Cranmer was also influenced by the views of the continental reformer Martin Bucer , who died in England in 1551 , by Peter Martyr , who was teaching at Oxford , and by other foreign theologians . The progress of the Reformation was further speeded by the consecration of more reformers as bishops . In the winter of 1551 – 52 , Cranmer rewrote the Book of Common Prayer in less ambiguous reformist terms , revised canon law , and prepared a doctrinal statement , the Forty - two Articles , to clarify the practice of the reformed religion , particularly in the divisive matter of the communion service . Cranmer 's formulation of the reformed religion , finally divesting the communion service of any notion of the real presence of God in the bread and the wine , effectively abolished the mass . According to Elton , the publication of Cranmer 's revised prayer book in 1552 , supported by a second Act of Uniformity , " marked the arrival of the English Church at <unk> " . The prayer book of 1552 remains the foundation of the Church of England 's services . However , Cranmer was unable to implement all these reforms once it became clear in spring 1553 that King Edward , upon whom the whole Reformation in England depended , was dying . Succession crisis Devise for the succession In February 1553 , Edward VI became ill , and by June , after several improvements and relapses , he was in a hopeless condition . The king 's death and the succession of his Catholic half - sister Mary would jeopardise the English Reformation , and Edward 's Council and officers had many reasons to fear it . Edward himself opposed Mary 's succession , not only on religious grounds but also on those of legitimacy and male inheritance , which also applied to Elizabeth . He composed a draft document , headed " My devise for the succession " , in which he undertook to change the succession , most probably inspired by his father Henry VIII 's precedent . He passed over the claims of his half - sisters and , at last , settled the Crown on his first cousin once removed , the 16 - year - old Lady Jane Grey , who on 25 May 1553 had married Lord Guilford Dudley , a younger son of the Duke of Northumberland . In his document Edward provided , in case of " lack of issue of my body " , for the succession of male heirs only , that is , Jane Grey 's mother 's male heirs , Jane 's or her sisters ' . As his death approached and possibly persuaded by Northumberland , he altered the wording so that Jane and her sisters themselves should be able to succeed . Yet Edward conceded Jane 's right only as an exception to male rule , demanded by reality , an example not to be followed if Jane or her sisters had only daughters . In the final document both Mary and Elizabeth were excluded because of <unk> ; since both had been declared bastards under Henry VIII and never made legitimate again , this reason could be advanced for both sisters . The provisions to alter the succession directly contravened Henry VIII 's Third Succession Act of 1543 and have been described as bizarre and illogical . In early June , Edward personally supervised the drafting of a clean version of his devise by lawyers , to which he lent his signature " in six several places . " Then , on 15 June he summoned high ranking judges to his sickbed , commanding them on their allegiance " with sharp words and angry countenance " to prepare his devise as letters patent and announced that he would have these passed in parliament . His next measure was to have leading councillors and lawyers sign a bond in his presence , in which they agreed faithfully to perform Edward 's will after his death . A few months later , Chief Justice Edward Montagu recalled that when he and his colleagues had raised legal objections to the devise , Northumberland had threatened them " trembling for anger , and ... further said that he would fight in his shirt with any man in that quarrel " . Montagu also overheard a group of lords standing behind him conclude " if they refused to do that , they were traitors " . At last , on 21 June , the devise was signed by over a hundred notables , including councillors , peers , archbishops , bishops , and sheriffs ; many of them later claimed that they had been bullied into doing so by Northumberland , although in the words of Edward 's biographer Jennifer Loach , " few of them gave any clear indication of reluctance at the time " . It was now common knowledge that Edward was dying , and foreign diplomats suspected that some scheme to debar Mary was under way . France found the prospect of the emperor 's cousin on the English throne disagreeable and engaged in secret talks with Northumberland , indicating support . The diplomats were certain that the overwhelming majority of the English people backed Mary , but nevertheless believed that Queen Jane would be successfully established . For centuries , the attempt to alter the succession was mostly seen as a one - man - plot by the Duke of Northumberland . Since the 1970s , however , many historians have attributed the inception of the " devise " and the insistence on its implementation to the king 's initiative . Diarmaid MacCulloch has made out Edward 's " teenage dreams of founding an evangelical realm of Christ " , while David Starkey has stated that " Edward had a couple of co - operators , but the driving will was his " . Among other members of the Privy Chamber , Northumberland 's intimate Sir John Gates has been suspected of suggesting to Edward to change his devise so that Lady Jane Grey herself — not just any sons of hers — could inherit the Crown . Whatever the degree of his contribution , Edward was convinced that his word was law and fully endorsed disinheriting his half - sisters : " barring Mary from the succession was a cause in which the young King believed . " Illness and death Edward became ill during January 1553 with a fever and cough that gradually worsened . The imperial ambassador , Scheyfve , reported that " he suffers a good deal when the fever is upon him , especially from a difficulty in drawing his breath , which is due to the compression of the organs on the right side " . Edward felt well enough in early April to take the air in the park at Westminster and to move to Greenwich , but by the end of the month he had weakened again . By 7 May he was " much amended , " and the royal doctors had no doubt of his recovery . A few days later the king was watching the ships on the Thames , sitting at his window . However , he relapsed , and on 11 June Scheyfve , who had an informant in the king 's household , reported that " the matter he ejects from his mouth is sometimes coloured a greenish yellow and black , sometimes pink , like the colour of blood " . Now his doctors believed he was suffering from " a suppurating tumour " of the lung and admitted that Edward 's life was beyond recovery . Soon , his legs became so swollen that he had to lie on his back , and he lost the strength to resist the disease . To his tutor John Cheke he whispered , " I am glad to die " . Edward made his final appearance in public on 1 July , when he showed himself at his window in Greenwich Palace , horrifying those who saw him by his " thin and wasted " condition . During the next two days , large crowds arrived hoping to see the king again , but on the 3rd , they were told that the weather was too chilly for him to appear . Edward died at the age of 15 at Greenwich Palace at 8pm on 6 July 1553 . According to John Foxe 's legendary account of his death , his last words were : " I am faint ; Lord have mercy upon me , and take my spirit " . He was buried in the Henry VII Lady Chapel at Westminster Abbey on 8 August 1553 , with reformed rites performed by Thomas Cranmer . The procession was led by " a <unk> company of <unk> in ther <unk> " and watched by Londoners " <unk> and lamenting " ; the funeral chariot , draped in cloth of gold , was topped by an effigy of Edward , with crown , sceptre , and garter . Edward 's burial place was unmarked until as late as 1966 , when an inscribed stone was laid in the chapel floor by Christ 's Hospital school to commemorate their founder . The inscription reads as follows : " In Memory Of King Edward VI Buried In This Chapel This Stone Was Placed Here By Christ 's Hospital In Thanksgiving For Their Founder 7 October 1966 " . The cause of Edward VI 's death is not certain . As with many royal deaths in the 16th century , rumours of poisoning abounded , but no evidence has been found to support these . The Duke of Northumberland , whose unpopularity was underlined by the events that followed Edward 's death , was widely believed to have ordered the imagined poisoning . Another theory held that Edward had been poisoned by Catholics seeking to bring Mary to the throne . The surgeon who opened Edward 's chest after his death found that " the disease whereof his majesty died was the disease of the lungs " . The Venetian ambassador reported that Edward had died of consumption — in other words , tuberculosis — a diagnosis accepted by many historians . Skidmore believes that Edward contracted the tuberculosis after a bout of measles and smallpox in 1552 that suppressed his natural immunity to the disease . Loach suggests instead that his symptoms were typical of acute bronchopneumonia , leading to a " suppurating pulmonary infection " or lung abscess , septicaemia , and kidney failure . Queen Jane and Queen Mary Lady Mary was last seen by Edward in February , and was kept informed about the state of her brother 's health by Northumberland and through her contacts with the imperial ambassadors . Aware of Edward 's imminent death , she left Hunsdon House , near London , and sped to her estates around Kenninghall in Norfolk , where she could count on the support of her tenants . Northumberland sent ships to the Norfolk coast to prevent her escape or the arrival of reinforcements from the continent . He delayed the announcement of the king 's death while he gathered his forces , and Jane Grey was taken to the Tower on 10 July . On the same day , she was proclaimed queen in the streets of London , to <unk> of discontent . The Privy Council received a message from Mary asserting her " right and title " to the throne and commanding that the Council proclaim her queen , as she had already proclaimed herself . The Council replied that Jane was queen by Edward 's authority and that Mary , by contrast , was illegitimate and supported only by " a few lewd , base people " . Northumberland soon realised that he had miscalculated drastically , not least in failing to secure Mary 's person before Edward 's death . Although many of those who rallied to Mary were conservatives hoping for the defeat of Protestantism , her supporters also included many for whom her lawful claim to the throne overrode religious considerations . Northumberland was obliged to relinquish control of a nervous Council in London and launch an unplanned pursuit of Mary into East Anglia , from where news was arriving of her growing support , which included a number of nobles and gentlemen and " innumerable companies of the common people " . On 14 July Northumberland marched out of London with three thousand men , reaching Cambridge the next day ; meanwhile , Mary rallied her forces at Framlingham Castle in Suffolk , gathering an army of nearly twenty thousand by 19 July . It now dawned on the Privy Council that it had made a terrible mistake . Led by the Earl of Arundel and the Earl of Pembroke , on 19 July the Council publicly proclaimed Mary as queen ; Jane 's nine - day reign came to an end . The proclamation triggered wild rejoicing throughout London . Stranded in Cambridge , Northumberland proclaimed Mary himself — as he had been commanded to do by a letter from the Council . William Paget and the Earl of Arundel rode to Framlingham to beg Mary 's pardon , and Arundel arrested Northumberland on 24 July . Northumberland was beheaded on 22 August , shortly after renouncing Protestantism . His recantation dismayed his daughter - in - law , Jane , who followed him to the scaffold on 12 February 1554 , after her father 's involvement in Wyatt 's rebellion . Protestant legacy Although Edward reigned for only six years and died at the age of 15 , his reign made a lasting contribution to the English Reformation and the structure of the Church of England . The last decade of Henry VIII 's reign had seen a partial stalling of the Reformation , a drifting back to more conservative values . By contrast , Edward 's reign saw radical progress in the Reformation . In those six years , the Church transferred from an essentially Roman Catholic liturgy and structure to one that is usually identified as Protestant . In particular , the introduction of the Book of Common Prayer , the Ordinal of 1550 , and Cranmer 's Forty - two Articles formed the basis for English Church practices that continue to this day . Edward himself fully approved these changes , and though they were the work of reformers such as Thomas Cranmer , Hugh Latimer , and Nicholas Ridley , backed by Edward 's determinedly evangelical Council , the fact of the king 's religion was a catalyst in the acceleration of the Reformation during his reign . Queen Mary 's attempts to undo the reforming work of her brother 's reign faced major obstacles . Despite her belief in the papal supremacy , she ruled constitutionally as the Supreme Head of the English Church , a contradiction under which she bridled . She found herself entirely unable to restore the vast number of ecclesiastical properties handed over or sold to private landowners . Although she burned a number of leading Protestant churchmen , many reformers either went into exile or remained subversively active in England during her reign , producing a torrent of reforming propaganda that she was unable to stem . Nevertheless , Protestantism was not yet " printed in the stomachs " of the English people , and had Mary lived longer , her Catholic reconstruction might have succeeded , leaving Edward 's reign , rather than hers , as a historical aberration . On Mary 's death in 1558 , the English Reformation resumed its course , and most of the reforms instituted during Edward 's reign were reinstated in the Elizabethan Religious Settlement . Queen Elizabeth replaced Mary 's councillors and bishops with ex - Edwardians , such as William Cecil , Northumberland 's former secretary , and Richard Cox , Edward 's old tutor , who preached an anti - Catholic sermon at the opening of parliament in 1559 . Parliament passed an Act of Uniformity the following spring that restored , with modifications , Cranmer 's prayer book of 1552 ; and the Thirty - nine Articles of 1563 were largely based on Cranmer 's Forty - two Articles . The theological developments of Edward 's reign provided a vital source of reference for Elizabeth 's religious policies , though the internationalism of the Edwardian Reformation was never revived . Ancestry Family tree <unk>
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Tintin and the Picaros Tintin and the Picaros ( French : Tintin et les Picaros ) is the twenty - third volume of The Adventures of Tintin , the comics series by Belgian cartoonist Hergé . The final instalment in the series to be completed by Hergé , in Belgium it was serialized in Tintin magazine from September 1975 to January 1976 before being published in a collected volume by Casterman in 1976 . The narrative follows the young reporter Tintin , his dog Snowy and his friends Captain Haddock and Professor Calculus as they travel to the ( fictional ) South American nation of San Theodoros to rescue their friend Bianca Castafiore , who has been imprisoned by the government of General Tapioca . Once there , they become involved in the anti - government revolutionary activities of Tintin 's old friend General Alcazar . Hergé began work on Tintin and the Picaros eight years after completing the previous volume in the series , Flight 714 , creating it with the aid of his team of artists at Studios Hergé . The setting and plot was inspired by Hergé 's interest in Latin American revolutionaries , particularly those active in the Cuban Revolution . The book reflected changes to the appearance and behaviour of several key characters in the series ; Tintin himself for instance no longer wears his trademark plus fours , instead wearing bell - bottoms . The volume was published to a poor reception and has continued to receive negative reviews from later commentators on Hergé 's work . Hergé continued The Adventures of Tintin with Tintin and Alph - Art , a story that he never completed , and the series as a whole became a defining part of the Franco - Belgian comics tradition . The story was adapted for an episode of the 1991 animated series The Adventures of Tintin by Ellipse and Nelvana . Synopsis Tintin and his dog Snowy visit their friends Captain Haddock and Professor Calculus at Marlinspike Hall . There , they learn that Bianca Castafiore , her maid Irma , pianist Igor Wagner and the detectives Thomson and Thompson have been imprisoned in San Theodoros for allegedly attempting to overthrow the military government of General Tapioca . Tapioca 's government have further alleged that the plot was masterminded by Tintin , Haddock , and Calculus themselves . Tapioca invites the trio to visit San Theodores , promising them safe passage , but Tintin deems it to be a trap , leaving Haddock and Calculus to go alone . Once there , the Captain and Professor are taken to a rural villa , where they are closely monitored by the security services . Tintin joins his friends a few days later , where he points out to Haddock and Calculus that their villa is bugged . He recognises one of the staff as Pablo , a man who had saved his life in The Broken Ear . From Pablo , Tintin learns that the entire scenario is a plot organised by Colonel Sponsz , a figure in the Bordurian military who is assisting Tapioca 's government in order to gain revenge against Tintin for the events of The Calculus Affair . With Pablo 's assistance , Tintin , Snowy , Haddock , and Calculus escape from their guards and seek refuge with General Alcazar and his small band of anti - Tapioca guerrillas , the Picaros , who are hiding in the San <unk> jungle . After realising that Pablo is a double agent working for Tapioca , they escape an attempt on their lives and then shelter for a time with the Arumbaya , an indigenous community who live within the forest . Here , Tintin is reunited with his old acquaintance , the explorer Ridgewell , who is living with the Arumbaya . Leaving the Arumbaya settlement , they eventually arrive at the Picaros ' encampment , where they meet Alcazar 's wife , Peggy . Alcazar realises that the Picaros will not be able to launch a successful coup against Tapioca while they remain drunkards ( owing to frequent parachute drops of whisky from Tapioca 's forces ) , and to combat this problem Calculus provides them with tablets which render the taste of alcohol disgusting ( and which he has been secretly testing on Haddock , Tintin , Ridgewell and the Arumbayas in the course of the story ) . Soon afterward , Jolyon Wagg and his troupe of carnival performers , the " Jolly Follies " , arrive at the camp , having lost their way to Tapiocapolis where they mean to take part in the carnival . At Tintin 's suggestion , the Picaros disguise themselves in the Follies ' costumes and enter Tapiocapolis during the carnival . There , they storm the presidential palace and seize control ; Alcazar becomes president , with Tapioca and Sponsz being banished from the country and sent back to Borduria . Thomson and Thompson are rescued from a firing squad while Castafiore and her assistants are released from prison . In the final panel of the book , as Tintin , Haddock and Calculus 's flight back home departs from the newly named <unk> , it flies over a slum that was seen earlier when they flew into the country . In a stroke of political commentary , the upheaval of the government has caused virtually no change to the slum or the lives of its inhabitants . History Background Hergé began Tintin and the Picaros eight years after completing his previous Adventure of Tintin , Flight 714 . It would prove to be the only book that he completed during the final fifteen years of his life . He decided to develop the story around a group of Latin American revolutionaries , having had this idea since the early 1960s , prior to embarking on The Castafiore Emerald . In particular , he had been inspired by the activities of Fidel Castro 's 26th of July Movement when they were launching a guerrilla war from the Sierra Maestra during the Cuban Revolution against President Fulgencio Batista . Specifically , Hergé was interested in Castro 's statement that he would not cut his beard until the revolution had succeeded . Adopting this idea of the revolutionaries ' facial hair , he initially planned to refer to Alcazar 's group as the Bigotudos , a reference to the Spanish word <unk> , meaning " moustached " . As such , the story 's initial working title was Tintin et los Bigotudos , before Hergé later settled on Tintin et les Picaros . Hergé 's depiction of a band of Latin American revolutionaries was also influenced by the French leftist activist Régis Debray 's accounts of his time spent fighting in the Bolivian Andes alongside the Argentine Marxist – Leninist revolutionary Che Guevara . Hergé 's depiction of Bordurian support for Tapioca 's government was a reference to the Soviet Union 's support for various Latin American regimes , most notably that of Castro 's Cuba , with San Theodoros being depicted as having been governed under the ideological system of Borduria 's political leader , <unk> - Tasch . Similarly , Hergé included a reference to Alcazar being backed by the International Banana Company in order to reflect the influence of Western multinational corporations in Latin America . Hergé 's depiction of the city of Tapiocapolis was visually based on the city of Belo Horizonte in Brazil . His depiction of a public sculpture in the city was inspired by the work of sculptor Marcel <unk> , while the paintings that he designed for the Tapiocapolis hotel in which Tintin and Haddock stay are based on the work of Serge Poliakoff . Hergé incorporated many characters from previous Adventures into Tintin and the Picaros ; these include Pablo , Ridgewell , and the Arumbaya tribe from The Broken Ear , as well as Colonel Sponz from The Calculus Affair . The character of General Tapioca , who had been mentioned in previous Adventures but never depicted , was also introduced . Hergé also introduced a new character , Peggy Alcazar , whom he had based upon the American secretary to a Ku Klux Klan spokesman whom Hergé observed in a television documentary . In his preparatory notes for the story , Hergé had considered introducing Peggy as the daughter of arms dealer Basil <unk> – the satirical depiction of the old times real - life arms dealer Basil Zaharoff , who had appeared in The Broken Ear . He also introduced the Jolly Follies into the story , a group who were based on three separate touring party groups that Hergé had encountered . He had initially considered a number of alternative names for the troupe , including the <unk> , <unk> , and <unk> . For this Adventure , Hergé decided to update his depiction of Tintin 's clothes , having been influenced in doing so by the depiction of the character in the 1969 animated film Tintin and the Temple of the Sun . As such , in Tintin in the Picaros , the young reporter is depicted wearing a motorcycle helmet emblazoned with a CND symbol , while he also wears new flared brown trousers rather than the plus - fours that he had worn in previous instalments . Later commenting on the inclusion of the CND peace symbol , Hergé stated that for Tintin , " That 's normal . Tintin is a pacifist , he was always anti - war . " Hergé also changed the behaviour of several characters within the story , for instance by depicting Tintin practising yoga and Nestor the butler both eavesdropping and drinking Haddock 's whisky . Another new development that Hergé added to the story was through revealing that Haddock 's first name is Archibald for the first time . Hergé 's depiction of the San <unk> carnival was drawn largely from images of the Nice Carnival . Among the revelers , he included those dressed in the costumes of various different cartoon and film characters , such as Mickey Mouse , Donald Duck , Asterix , Snoopy , Groucho Marx , and Zorro . Hergé also included a band known as the Coconuts into the carnival scene ; these were not developed by Hergé himself but were rather the creations of his friend and colleague Bob de Moor , who had devised them for his own comic series , <unk> . The street that they were marching down , Calle 22 de Mayo , was named after Hergé 's own birthday , 22 May . Publication Tintin et les Picaros began serialisation in both Belgium and France in Tintin - l <unk> magazine in September 1975 . It was then published in a collected volume by Casterman in 1976 . For this publication , a page was removed from the story so that it would fit the standard 62 - page book format . The page in question was located between pages 22 and 23 of the published book , and featured Sponz attempting to smash a glass , but accidentally breaking a statue of Bordurian political leader <unk> - Tasch instead . A launch party was held at the Hilton Hotel in Brussels . Upon publication , it proved a commercial success with one and a half million copies soon sold . It was nevertheless critically panned at the time . Various contemporary critics condemned what they deemed to be the political apathy of the story ; as they pointed out , Hergé 's depiction of regime change in San Theodores does not bring about any improvement for the nation 's populace , with the critics from Belgium 's Hebdo 76 and France 's Révolution thereby characterising it as a reactionary work . On this front , Tintin in the Picaros was defended by the French philosopher Michel Serres , who stated that " The criticism that has been leveled at Picaros is astonishing . There is no talk of revolution ; the people are in the favelas , and they stay there . It is only a government overthrow . A general , aided by several assassins , takes the place of a general protected by his own bodyguards . This is why it is only repetition ; it is just a movement reduced to this . And that is the chloroform ; it is what we see everywhere . You can give as many modern examples of the Alcazar - Tapioca rivalry , or of double identities , as you want . " In June 1977 , Hergé travelled to Britain for Methuen 's launch of the story 's English translation , where he spent two weeks giving interviews and attending book signings . Critical analysis Harry Thompson felt that Hergé 's use of various characters from earlier stories lent Tintin and the Picaros " the air of a finale " . Hergé biographer Benoît Peeters felt that in this story , the characters were " more passive than in the earlier adventures , submitting to events more than setting them off " , with this being particularly evident for the character of Tintin . Michael Farr stated that " Tintin has changed " , as is evidenced by the change in his clothing , however he felt that " such image modernising only succeeds in dating the adventure " , adding that " to alter Tintin 's appearance at the end of his career was not only superfluous but a mistake " . Jean - Marc Lofficier and Randy Lofficier stated that in this story , Alcazar was " a deflated version of what he used to be " , noting that by the end of the story he had become " a prisoner in his own palace . A sad , yet somehow appropriate , ending . " Farr suggested that the changes to the characters represented " an element of dismantling of the characters and their traits " , something that he believed had also been present in the previous two adventures , Flight 714 and The Castafiore Emerald . In his psychoanalytical study of The Adventures of Tintin , the literary critic Jean - Marie Apostolidès expressed the view that , as with The Red Sea Sharks , Tintin and the Picaros served as " a kind of retrospective " due to the return of various characters . He also suggested that the carnival revelers in San Theodores evoked the figures from the previous stories : " Scots , Africans , Chinese , Indians , cowboys , bullfighters , and , of course , the inevitable parrot " . The Lofficiers saw the adventure as a partial sequel to The Broken Ear , which was also set in San Theodoros and which contained many of the same characters . Thompson considered Tintin and the Picaros to be " Hergé 's most overtly political book for many years " but felt that , unlike Hergé 's earlier political works , " no campaigning element " is present . Peeters agreed , noting that Tintin in the Picaros is " a far cry from the denunciation of a political system found in Tintin in the Land of the Soviets , and also from the almost militantly anti - Japanese tone of The Blue Lotus . " He thought that in this story , " a sense of disillusionment has taken over " , for it is " quite clear that [ Alcazar 's seizure of power ] is no real revolution but a palace coup " . Farr noted that this story showed that " the idealist of 1930s is by 1970s a realist " , in that while " totalitarianism ... and the manipulation of the multinational concerns ... are still condemned ... Tintin accepts he can do little to change them " . The Lofficiers were ultimately highly critical of Tintin and the Picaros , awarding it two out of five , and describing it as " just sad " . Specifically , they felt that the " undefinable magic of the Hergé line " was " sometimes missing " from the story , believing that this had been caused by too much of the work having been turned over to his assistants in the Studios Hergé . Further , they felt that the " characters seem tired : Tintin is totally reactive — even on the book cover , it is Haddock who takes the lead . " Thompson echoed similar views , believing that " life has not been breathed into the characters as normal " and that there was " something indefinable absent " from the drawings , " enjoyment , perhaps " . He added that while it contained " many fine vignettes " , " over all it is a lacklustre story , missing the sparkle of a genuine Tintin adventure " . Peeters thought that " the comedy here seems mechanical " and " neither the characters , nor the plot , nor the drawings ring true " . The literary critic Tom McCarthy believed that Tintin and the Picaros reflected a number of themes found throughout The Adventures of Tintin . For instance , he believed that the theme of eavesdropping was exhibited in the scene in which Nestor the butler listens in on Tintin and Haddock 's argument . He also expressed the view that Tintin , Haddock , and Calculus ' imprisonment in their Los <unk> hotel reflected the " uneasy host - guest relationship " theme . McCarthy believed that the inclusion of the CND symbol on Tintin 's motorcycle helmet at the start of the story was a sign that Hergé 's left - wing tendency had won out over the right - wing perspectives which dominated his early work . He also placed emphasis on the fact that no executions were held during Alcazar 's revolution , adding that " its blood ... will fail it : it will be anaemic " , thus being a reference to Hergé 's anaemia . Further , he suggested that the loss of the ability to drink alcohol served as a symbolic castration . Apostolidès expressed the view that many of the characters in Tintin and the Picaros could be divided into pairs . He considered Calculus and Alcazar to be one such pair , noting that they are " both masters of power and control , the former in science and the latter in politics " . He also placed Castafiore and Peggy together as a pair , noting that they each embody " love , both maternal and romantic " . Haddock and Wagg were also paired together , both being " driven to succeed , but the former is happy with playing out his success in private lie , whereas the latter tries to <unk> himself everywhere " . Finally , he paired together Ridgewell and Tintin , noting that while in The Broken Ear they had a father - son style relationship , at this point they have become equals . Adaptations In 1991 , a collaboration between the French studio Ellipse and the Canadian animation company Nelvana adapted 21 of the stories into a series of episodes , each 42 minutes long . Tintin and the Picaros was one of the stories included in the television series . Directed by Stéphane Bernasconi , the series has been praised for being " generally faithful " , with compositions having been actually directly taken from the panels in the original comic book .
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Lemony Snicket 's A Series of Unfortunate Events Lemony Snicket 's A Series of Unfortunate Events is a 2004 American black comedy fantasy film directed by Brad Silberling . It is a film adaptation of A Series of Unfortunate Events by Lemony Snicket , covering the first three books The Bad Beginning , The Reptile Room , and The Wide Window . The film stars Jim Carrey as the villainous Count Olaf who adopts three wealthy orphan siblings in an attempts to steal their late parents ' fortune . Nickelodeon Movies purchased the film rights to Daniel Handler 's book series in 2000 and soon began development of a film with Barry Sonnenfeld attached to direct . Handler adapted the screenplay and courted Jim Carrey for Count Olaf . Sonnenfeld eventually left over budget concerns in January 2003 and Brad Silberling took over . Robert Gordon rewrote Handler 's script , and principal photography started in November 2003 . A Series of Unfortunate Events was entirely shot using sound stages and backlots at Paramount Pictures and Downey Studios . The film received generally favorable reviews from critics , grossed approximately $ 209 million worldwide , and won the Academy Award for Best Makeup . Plot Lemony Snicket ( Jude Law ) is documenting the whereabouts of the Baudelaire children from inside a clock tower . Violet Baudelaire ( Emily Browning ) , her intelligent brother Klaus ( Liam Aiken ) , and their baby sister Sunny ( Kara and Shelby Hoffman ) are orphaned when a mysterious fire destroys their house and kills their parents . Mr. Poe ( Timothy Spall ) , in charge of the Baudelaire fortune , entrusts them to their closest relative , Count Olaf ( Jim Carrey ) , who only wants their money and makes them do harsh chores . On the day that Olaf receives full custody , he drives to a gas station claiming that he is buying soda . However , it turns out that he parked the car , with the children inside , directly on a railroad crossing next to the gas station in the hope of it getting hit by a train . Thankfully , Violet and Klaus are able to throw a nearby switch in the tracks , causing the train to miss them . Mr. Poe then arrives at the scene , mistakenly thinking that Sunny was driving the car , and takes the children away . Olaf promises that he will find them . The orphans are then taken to stay with their uncle , Dr. Montgomery Montgomery ( Billy Connolly ) , a kind , caring , and rather lonely ( until the children came along ) herpetologist , who is planning to take the children with him on a study in Peru . However , Olaf arrives in disguise as an Italian scientist named Stephano . Violet tries to tell Monty the truth , but he thinks that Stephano is after a snake called The Incredibly Deadly Viper . Monty is found dead the following morning and the authorities have been tricked into thinking that the viper was responsible , but Sunny is able to prove it is actually a friendly , harmless creature . Mr. Poe then takes the children to live with their Aunt Josephine ( Meryl Streep ) , an irrationally afraid woman who is obsessed with proper grammar . While shopping at a market , Violet and Klaus encounter Olaf , disguised as a sailor named Captain Sham who pretends to be romantically interested in Josephine . When the <unk> get home after shopping , Josephine is gone and a hurricane is approaching . Klaus decodes a note left by Josephine and discovers that she is in Curdled Cave . During the hurricane , the children discover in a secret room that there were people investigating fires . The children escape the house before it falls in to the lake . The children sail on Lake Lachrymose , finding Josephine . Before they reach civilization , their boat is attacked by leeches ; Olaf appears , takes the children away and abandons Josephine in the boat to be eaten alive by the leeches . The <unk> are then placed back in Olaf 's custody after he " rescued " them . Olaf and Violet are then immediately involved in a play called The Marvelous Marriage , which involves their characters being married . However , Olaf has set up the performance to be an actual legal marriage because the law states that if relatives are married they are entitled to their spouses ' money . Olaf enlists the help of his neighbor Justice Strauss ( Catherine O 'Hara ) to perform in the " play " and unwittingly officiate the marriage . Olaf explains to Violet that Sunny is being held hostage in a cage and if Violet does not say her " lines " or finds a loophole , Sunny will fall to her death . The ceremony goes as Olaf planned and he reveals that the marriage is legal , to the horror of the judge and audience . Klaus escapes and finds a secret part of Olaf 's estate . After adjusting an eye - shaped window , Klaus realizes that it was Olaf that caused their family mansion to catch fire . Klaus uses the window to burn the marriage certificate , foiling the Count 's plans . Olaf is tried for his action and sentenced to be put through the hardships he had caused the children , and a life sentence in prison . However , when a jury of his peers overturn his sentence , Olaf escapes . Violet , Klaus and Sunny are allowed to visit their old home one last time . A letter lost in the mail finally arrives , and inside is a spyglass announcing their family 's secret society . Snicket recounts that despite the children 's misfortune , they still had each other thus making them " Very Fortunate Indeed " . Cast The film featured uncredited appearances by Jane Lynch as a realtor , Helena Bonham Carter as Beatrice Baudelaire , and Dustin Hoffman as a critic . Author Daniel Handler initially viewed Count Olaf as being a James Mason - type . Carrey was not familiar with the book series when he was cast , but he became a fan of the series . " Handler 's books are just a bold and original way to tell a children 's story , " the actor explained . Carrey was also attracted to the role despite self - parody concerns . Director Brad Silberling was open to Carrey 's idea of improvisation for various scenes , especially the Stephano and Captain Sham alter egos . To make his prosthetic makeup more comfortable and easier to apply , Carrey shaved his head bald for the part . The actor 's inspiration for Olaf 's voice was combining the voices of Orson Welles and Béla Lugosi . Emily Browning was cast as Violet Baudelaire when she auditioned at a casting call in Australia . She was sent Handler 's original script when Barry Sonnenfeld was planning to direct , and she screen tested for the part using an English accent . The actor was not cast until Silberling took over ; her character 's accent was then changed to American . Browning became a fan of the books after reading Handler 's original script . Production Development Nickelodeon Movies purchased the film rights of the A Series of Unfortunate Events book series in May 2000 . Paramount Pictures , owner of Nickelodeon Movies , agreed to co - finance , along with Scott Rudin . Various directors , including Terry Gilliam and Roman Polanski , were interested in making the film . One of author Daniel Handler 's favorite candidates was Guy Maddin . In June 2002 , Barry Sonnenfeld was hired to direct . He was chosen because he previously collaborated with Rudin and because of his black comedy directing style from The Addams Family , Addams Family Values and Get Shorty . Sonnenfeld referred to the Lemony Snicket books as his favorite children 's stories . The director hired Handler to write the script with the intention of making Lemony Snicket as a musical , and cast Jim Carrey as Count Olaf in September 2002 . The film suffered setbacks in development in December 2002 . Rudin left Unfortunate Events over budget concerns . While Sonnenfeld and Carrey remained , Sonnenfeld admitted he was skeptical of Paramount 's $ 100 million budget . The studio decided that changing the shoot from Hollywood to Wilmington , North Carolina would be less expensive . The April 2003 start date was also pushed back . Paramount eventually settled the situation in January 2003 by enlisting help from DreamWorks to co - finance the film , but Sonnenfeld vacated the director 's position . Rudin and Sonnenfeld had no involvement with the film afterward , but were credited as executive producers . Carrey remained with approval over the hiring of the next director . Brad Silberling signed on to direct in February 2003 . He was not familiar with the book series when he was first approached . He quickly read the first three books and was excited that " Hollywood was taking a chance to put over $ 100 million to adapt these inventive children 's books onto screen " . Handler , who wrote eight drafts of the script for Sonnenfeld , was replaced by Robert Gordon in May 2003 . Handler approved of the changes that were made to his original screenplay . " I was offered credit on the film for screenwriting by the Writers Guild of America , " Handler continued , " but I didn 't take it because I didn 't write it . I felt like it would be an insult to the guy who did . " Filming Filming was set to begin in October 2003 , but it was pushed back . Principal photography for Lemony Snicket 's A Series of Unfortunate Events began on November 10 , 2003 , using the sound stages and backlot at Paramount Studios in Hollywood . Director Brad Silberling avoided using too many digital or chroma key effects because he wanted the younger actors to feel as if they were working in a realistic environment . Olaf 's mansion occupied two sound stages , while the graveyard and the ruins of the Baudelaire mansion were constructed on the Paramount back lot . After 21 weeks of shooting at Paramount , production then moved to Downey Studios , a former NASA facility in Downey , California , for eight more weeks . Downey housed the circular railroad crossing set complete with forced perspective scenery , as well as a newly constructed water tank complete with over one million gallons of water . The water tank was instrumental in filming scenes set at <unk> Beach , Lake Lachrymose , Damocles Dock and Curdled Cave . Filming for A Series of Unfortunate Events ended on May 29 , 2004 . Design Silberling , production designer Rick Heinrichs and costume designer Colleen Atwood all aimed for the film 's setting to be ambiguous , giving it a " timeless " feel . Heinrichs also added steampunk designs to the period . To contribute to the setting , Silberling hired Emmanuel Lubezki as the cinematographer because he was impressed with the trio 's work on Sleepy Hollow . Lubezki compared the cinematic similarities to Sleepy Hollow , notably the monochromatic look of both films . He also chose a specific color palette backdrop for A Series of Unfortunate Events . " The story is very episodic , so we picked a different color scheme for each section . For example " , Lubezki continued , " Count Olaf 's house has a lot of greens , blacks and grays ; the house of Uncle Monty has a lot of greens and browns and a bit of yellow ; and the house of Aunt Josephine has blues and blacks . " The railroad crossing set was constructed on a cyclorama , which was the most ambitious setpiece for the art department on using elements of " in house " special effects and matte paintings . Visual effects Industrial Light & Magic ( ILM ) , supervised by Stefen Fangmeier , created the film 's 505 visual effects - shots . The filmmakers used as few digital effects as possible , though the train and smoke for the railroad crossing scene was entirely created using computer animation . ILM also used color grading techniques for the Lake Lachrymose scene , which required complete animation for the leeches . The digital animators studied footage of the 2003 Atlantic hurricane season to accurately depict Hurricane Herman , which was ILM 's most ambitious use of computer - generated imagery ( CGI ) for the film . Nexus Productions designed the opening " Littlest Elf " animated sequence by modeling it after stop motion animation and completing it with computer animation . The snakes at Uncle Monty 's house were a combination of real snakes and animatronics . The animatronics , primarily the Incredibly Deadly Viper , were used as reference models that ILM later enhanced using CGI . Because working with infants was sometimes risky in producing a film , four scenes involving Sunny Baudelaire required CGI with motion capture technology . Among these are the shot of Sunny hanging on to a table by her teeth , catching a spindle with her mouth and the scene where she is entangled with the Incredibly Deadly Viper . Animation supervisor Colin Brady used his baby daughter for motion capture recording . A remote controlled animatronic of Sunny was also designed by Kevin Yagher . Release Marketing In October 2002 , Nickelodeon Movies hired Activision ( who actually had a partnership with DreamWorks ) to create the film 's tie - in video game . The agreement also included options for sequels . Director Brad Silberling delivered his first cut of the film to the studio in August 2004 . Fearing his original version was " too dark " , Paramount and DreamWorks conducted test screenings . The film was then re - edited over family - friendliness concerns . Given its December release , the film 's marketing campaign was criticized for being a deliberately anti - holiday comedy with taglines like , " Taking the cheer out of Christmas " and " <unk> . Misadventures . Mayhem . Oh Joy . " The premiere for Lemony Snicket 's A Series of Unfortunate Events was held at the Cinerama Dome on December 13 , 2004 . A 20 , 000 - square - foot ( 1 , 900 m2 ) tent display on Vine Street was decorated with pieces from the film 's sets . Home media Lemony Snicket 's a Series of Unfortunate Events was released on DVD and VHS on April 26 , 2005 . A Portuguese - labeled All - Region Blu - ray was released in 2012 and then an American Region A Blu - ray was released on September 9 , 2014 . Reception Box office The film was released in the United States and Canada on December 17 , 2004 in 3 , 620 theaters , earning $ 30 , 061 , 756 in its opening weekend . In its run , A Series of Unfortunate Events managed to stay in the number one position for its first week , before facing competition from Meet the Fockers , The Aviator and Coach Carter . The film eventually grossed $ 118 , 634 , 549 in US totals and $ 90 , 439 , 096 elsewhere , coming to a worldwide total of $ 209 , 073 , 645 . It was the highest grossing film under the Nickelodeon Movies banner until being surpassed by The Last Airbender , Rango , The Adventures of Tintin : The Secret of the Unicorn , Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles and The SpongeBob Movie : Sponge Out of Water . Critical response Lemony Snicket 's A Series of Unfortunate Events received generally positive reviews . On Rotten Tomatoes , the film has a rating of 72 % , based on 160 reviews , with an average rating of 6 . 7 / 10 . The site 's critical consensus reads , " Although it softens the nasty edges of its source material , Lemony Snicket 's A Series of Unfortunate Events is a gothic visual treat , and it features a hilariously manic turn from Jim Carrey as the evil Count Olaf . " On Metacritic , gave the film a score of 62 out of 100 , based on 37 critics , indicating " generally favorable reviews " . Robert K. Elder of the Chicago Tribune praised Rick Heinrichs 's production design and Jim Carrey for having a balanced performance as a scene stealer . Elder called the film " exceptionally clever , hilariously gloomy and bitingly subversive . " Desson Thomson from The Washington Post reasoned over a fellow film - goer 's characterization of Count Olaf , " Olaf is a humorless villain in the book . He 's not amusing like Carrey at all . To which I would counter : If you can 't let Carrey be Carrey , put someone boring and less expensive in the role . In his various disguises he 's rubbery , inventive and improvisationally inspired . I particularly liked his passing imitation of a dinosaur . " Ty Burr , writing in The Boston Globe , observed , " Director Brad Silberling has essentially made a Tim Burton movie without the weird shafts of adolescent pain . At the same time , Silberling 's not a hack like Chris Columbus , and Snicket has more zip and inspired <unk> than the first two Harry Potter films . The film 's no masterpiece , but at least you 're in the hands of people who know what they 're doing . The movie , like the books , flatters children 's innate sense that the world is not a perfect place and that anyone who insists otherwise is trying to sell you something . How you deal with the cognitive dissonance of a $ 125 million Hollywood picture telling you this is up to you . At least there are no Lemony Snicket Happy Meals . Yet . " Internet reviewer James Berardinelli felt that " the film is first and foremost a fantasy , but there are dark currents running just beneath the surface . I give Silberling credit for not allowing them to swallow the film . Lemony Snicket 's A Series of Unfortunate Events manages to remain witty throughout . " Roger Ebert gave a mixed review : " Jim Carrey is over the top as Count Olaf , but I suppose a character named Count Olaf is over the top by definition . I liked the film , but I 'll tell you what . I think this one is a tune - up for the series , a trial run in which they figure out what works and what needs to be tweaked . The original Spider - Man was a disappointment , but the same team came back and made Spider - Man 2 , the best superhero movie ever made . " Scott Foundas of Variety gave a negative review , criticizing the filmmakers for sacrificing the storyline in favor of visual elements such as set design and cinematography . He wrote , " A Series of Unfortunate Events suggests what Mary Poppins might have looked like had Tim Burton directed it . Not surprisingly , Burton 's longtime production designer Rick Heinrichs was responsible for the sets , while ace Emmanuel Lubezki ( Burton 's Sleepy Hollow ) contributed the expressionistic lighting schemes . " Awards Makeup designer Valli O 'Reilly and Bill Corso won the Academy Award for Best Makeup . Production designer Rick Heinrichs and set decorator Cheryl <unk> ( Art Direction ) , Colleen Atwood ( Costume Design ) and composer Thomas Newman ( Original Music Score ) were also nominated for their work at 77th Academy Awards . The film lost the Saturn Award for Best Fantasy Film to Spider - Man 2 , but was honored for its DVD special edition release . O 'Reilly and Corso were also nominated for the Saturn Award for Best Make - up , but lost to Hellboy . Cancelled franchise and future Paramount Pictures , DreamWorks Pictures and Nickelodeon Movies hoped the film would become a franchise like the Harry Potter film series . Jim Carrey thought his character would be good as the basis for a film franchise since it would allow him to dive into a new role . " I don 't have a deal [ for a sequel ] , but it 's one that I wouldn 't mind doing again because there are so many characters , " the actor explained in December 2004 . " I mean , it 's just so much fun . It 's so much fun being a bad actor playing a character ... " In May 2005 , producer Laurie MacDonald said " Lemony Snicket is still something Paramount is interested in pursuing and we 're going to be talking with them more . " In October 2008 , Daniel Handler said that " a sequel does seem to be in the works . Paramount has had quite a few corporate <unk> , which has led to many a delay . Of course , many , many plans in Hollywood come to naught , but I 'm assured that another film will be made . Someday . Perhaps . " In June 2009 , Silberling confirmed he still talked about the project with Handler , and suggested the sequel be a stop motion film because the lead actors have grown too old . " In an odd way , the best thing you could do is actually have Lemony Snicket say to the audience , ' Okay , we pawned the first film off as a mere dramatization with actors . Now I 'm afraid I ’ m going to have to show you the real thing . ' " In November 2014 , Netflix was in talks of creating an online television series for all of the books . Barry Sonnenfeld , who was in original talks to direct the film , will direct the series , which is set to be released online in 2016 . Neil Patrick Harris has been cast to play Count Olaf . Video game A video game based on the books and film ( more so the film , as the name and many plot elements seen in the movie but not the book are seen ) was released in 2004 by <unk> Games and Activision for the PlayStation 2 , GameCube , Xbox , Game Boy Advance , and the PC as Lemony Snicket 's A Series of Unfortunate Events . The player plays as all three orphans at points in the game , and encounters characters such as Mr. Poe , Uncle Monty and Aunt Josephine , along with villains such as Count Olaf , the hook - handed man , the white - faced women , and the bald - headed man . The game , like the movie , follows only the first three books in the series . Although never mentioned in the game , there are some references to <unk> , such as in the first level where a package is delivered from the " Very Fast Delivery Service . " The note attached to the package also reads at the end , " P.S. The world is quiet here " , which is the motto of <unk>
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Jump ( Madonna song ) " Jump " is a song by American singer Madonna from her tenth studio album Confessions on a Dance Floor ( 2005 ) . Written by Madonna , Stuart Price and Joe Henry , the song was supposed to be released as the third single of the album . However , since " Get Together " was decided as the third single , " Jump " was released as the fourth and final single from the album , on October 31 , 2006 by Warner Bros. Records . The song incorporates techno music with tributes to Pet Shop Boys . Madonna sings in her lower register in the song . Its lyrics talk about self - empowerment and sufficiency while looking for the prospects of a new relationship . Contemporary critics complimented the song and its empowerment theme . They compared it to Madonna 's 1980s music and praised the club - anthem like quality of the song . The song peaked inside the top ten of the charts of some European countries , while peaking the charts in Italy and Hungary . In the United States , " Jump " placed in several Billboard dance charts and became one of the most popular dance hits of the decade . The accompanying music video was shot in Tokyo during Madonna 's 2006 Confessions Tour stopover . It portrayed Madonna in a blond bob wig and a leather ensemble singing the song in front of a number of neon signs . The video also featured dancers who performed the physical discipline parkour . It was also incorporated in her Confessions Tour , where Madonna and her dancers jumped around the stage actively , while singing the song . The song was used in the movie The Devil Wears Prada ( 2005 ) and the Ugly Betty season 2 finale . Background The idea for " Jump " came from Joe Henry who presented it to Madonna and developed it into a song . During an interview with the singer for the British gay lifestyle magazine Attitude , journalist Matthew Todd described that " Jump " as an inspiration for " a whole generation of gay kids to pack their bags and head to the big city " , to which Madonna happily agreed . Initially it was to be released as the third single from the album . However , the song " Get Together " was chosen as the third single from the album to coincide with the start of Madonna 's 2006 Confessions Tour . The decision was also spurred by the fact that " Get Together " was the third best selling digital single from the Confessions on a Dance Floor album . Its digital sales stood at 20 , 000 at that time , whereas digital sales for " Jump " was only 9 , 000 . Hence , " Get Together " was finally chosen as the third single . On July 12 , 2006 , Billboard confirmed " Jump " to be the fourth single from the Confessions on a Dance Floor album . Composition Musically the song is inspired by the 1980s . Essentially a club anthem , the song finds Madonna singing in her lower register . It incorporates the techno music played in the clubs of Ibiza . The song is set in common time with moderately fast dance groove tempo and a metronome of 126 beats per minute . It is set in the key of E major . Madonna 's voice spans from D3 to A4 . It follows in the chord progression of E – D – C – D in the verses , and C – D – E in the chorus , with an E synth drone playing continually . Lyrically the song talks about empowerment and the urge to move on . It also reflected Madonna 's change of style from her previous singles and shifting her focus on self - sufficiency . The line " I can make it alone " in the song demonstrated the shift . The lyrics of " Jump " have been compared to the lyrics of Madonna 's 1990 song " Keep It Together " from the Like a Prayer album . The difference between them is that " Jump " focuses more on the potentials of finding new love rather than family values . Critical reception Keith Caulfield from Billboard complimented the song 's " empowerment " theme , adding that " the song is a pulsing pop tune that has a positive universal message about <unk> in yourself " . According to the BBC , " ' Jump ' whisks the listener back to the heady eighties . " While reviewing the album , Alan Braidwood from BBC called the song as " lethally catchy " and one of the album 's highlights . Jennifer Vineyard from MTV noticed that " Jump " sounded like a sequel to Madonna 's 1990 single " Keep It Together " . Jon Pareles of The New York Times in review of Confessions on a Dance Floor , wrote that Madonna 's " somber side sounds best in ' Jump ' , about the urge to move on " . Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine commented that the song is a " gritty club anthem that wouldn 't have sounded out of place on Erotica , showcases her lower register " . David Browne from Entertainment Weekly called the song , along with previous single " Get Together " as fluid in nature . Thomas Inskeep of Stylus magazine noted , " ... nearly the whole of ' Jump ' sounds to these ears like a Pet Shop Boys homage . " Matt <unk> of The Chicago Maroon wrote : " The stand - out tracks here are ' Jump ' and ' Push ' , which sound as close to the 80s Madonna as we 're probably ever going to get again . The lyrics of Jump ' are joyous , recalling the fun , community - minded Madonna of True Blue and Like a Prayer . " Diego Costa of UWM Post wrote that " Jump " is a " bossy , slightly sadistic spoken intro by Madonna , just like in ' Erotica ' , so who can resist ? A knock - yourself - out , club - tailored take on the wasteful nature of inertia . " Margaret Moser of The Austin Chronicle called the song " slinky and sexy " . Commercial performance In the United States , the song was aimed and promoted at the Adult Contemporary and Hot AC format of radio . Warner Bros wanted to establish the song as a hit at those formats before they attempted to bring it to Top 40 CHR radio stations . However , the song reached a peak of 21 on this chart on the issue dated January 27 , 2007 . It was also used in the soundtrack of the 2006 film The Devil Wears Prada and received minimal airplay on the CHR stations . After its release to the iTunes Store , the song climbed up the Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart and peaked at five , failing to progress further and chart on the Hot 100 . It became Madonna 's 37th number - one single on the Hot Dance Club Play chart reaching the top on the issue dated November 18 , 2006 . " Jump " became Madonna 's seventh number - one single on the Hot 100 Singles Sales chart . The song sold 31 , 000 digital downloads and 8 , 000 physical singles in America according to Nielsen SoundScan . It became her fourth consecutive number - one single on the Hot Dance Airplay chart . In the United Kingdom , " Jump " debuted at number 59 on the singles chart and reached a peak of number nine the next week , thus becoming Madonna 's fourth top ten single from the Confessions on a Dance Floor album there . In Australia , the song debuted at 29 on the chart , which became its peak . In Italy , " Jump " became the third number - one single from the album , remaining in the top ten for 13 <unk> weeks . In the European nations , " Jump " peaked inside the top ten in countries like Denmark , Finland , Netherlands and Spain , and the top 40 of the rest of the countries such as Austria , Belgium ( Flanders and Wallonia ) , Germany , Ireland , Sweden and Switzerland . Music video While finishing her Confessions Tour in Japan , Madonna took time out from her schedule to shoot the video for " Jump " . The shoot took place in various outdoor locations throughout Tokyo , as well as on a soundstage . Madonna and hairstylist Andy <unk> decided to try a new look for her , a platinum blonde bob wig . She wore this wig in the last two nights of the Confessions Tour , and the look received compliments . Madonna also wore a black leather garment , which an Entertainment Weekly writer wrote accentuated her " toned body " . The video featured the physical discipline parkour , in which parkour artist Sébastien Foucan performed routines around the buildings of Tokyo . The video begins showing the Tokyo skyline and parkour artists standing on rooftops . As the spoken introduction starts , Madonna is shown in her wig dancing in front of a number of neon signs which contain the words Madonna and Jump in Japanese . The song continues with the dancers jumping from buildings and running through the lanes of the city . Madonna dances to the music and swivels around metallic rods in and around her , of the same design present in her tour . Before the final chorus , the dancers cease their parkour routines and stand on a lamppost . As the chorus starts , Foucan is joined by parkour <unk> Levi <unk> and Exo as they continue their routine around buildings . The video ends with Madonna stretching her arm and a shot of the Tokyo evening - sky . Entertainment Weekly was not impressed with the video overall commenting , " [ f ] <unk> about low concept , we 're talking no concept ! For all the money spent capturing footage of impressive rooftop leaps , I wish Madonna had chosen instead to offer us a visually sumptuous slice of storytelling , something along the lines of ' Express Yourself ' or ' Bedtime Story ' . " Live performance The song was played by Madonna as a part of the promotional campaigns for the Confessions on a Dance Floor album , in London 's night clubs , including the Koko Club and G - A - Y. During the performances at the clubs , Madonna emerged from a glitter ball while wearing a purple jacket , velvet pedal pushers and knee - high boots . In the Confessions Tour , the song was the fourth performance of the evening and was part of the equine segment of the show . Madonna wore a skin - tight , full body black leotard . As the performance of " Like a Virgin " ended , Madonna sat on a platform and announced " Ladies and Gentleman ! Thank you for coming to our show . The night is young , and the show has just begun . " A huge assortment of steel rods and gymnastic equipment were planted on the stage . Madonna started singing the song , as her dancers started running around , displaying routines in parkour . Madonna climbs on blocks to sing the song as well as to strike poses . As the final chorus approached , Madonna went to the front of the stage and struck poses while holding on to the steel rods . The song continued with Madonna swiveling around the rods and the dancers continuing their routine . The performance ends with Madonna disappearing through the middle of the stage and her dancers doing a final vault before the lights are turned off . In the Sticky & Sweet Tour , " Jump " was sampled in the song " Into the Groove " during which Madonna performed stunts in the air . Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine commented that the parkour from the performance was " really awesome " . Thomas <unk> from Stylus magazine reported that " ' Jump ' is utterly sensational . Sure , it ’ s not all that different from the version found on Dance Floor , but it ’ s so damned exciting to begin with , why mess with it ? " The song was included in both the CD and DVD of the live album , The Confessions Tour . Track listings and formats Credits and personnel Lead vocals – Madonna Writer – Madonna , Joe Henry and Stuart Price Producer – Madonna and Stuart Price Recording – Stuart Price at Shirland Road Assistant engineer – Alex Dromgode Audio mixing – Mark " Spike " Stent Master recording – Brian " Big Bass " Gardner Charts
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Savile Row Savile Row ( pronounced / <unk> <unk> / ) is a street in Mayfair , central London . Known principally for its traditional bespoke tailoring for men , the street has had a varied history that has included accommodating the headquarters of the Royal Geographical Society at 1 Savile Row , where significant British explorations to Africa and the South Pole were planned ; and more recently , the Apple office of the Beatles at 3 Savile Row , where the band 's final live performance was held on the roof of the building . Originally named Savile Street , it was built between 1731 and 1735 as part of the development of the Burlington Estate . It was designed under the influence of Burlington 's interpretation of Palladian architecture , known as " Burlingtonian " . Henry Flitcroft , under the supervision of Daniel Garrett , appears to have been the main architect – though 1 and 22 – 23 Savile Row were designed by William Kent . Initially , the street was occupied mainly by military officers and their wives ; later William Pitt the Younger and Irish - born playwright and MP , Richard Brinsley Sheridan were residents . Tailors started doing business in the area in the late 18th century ; first in Cork Street , about 1790 , then by 1803 in Savile Row itself . In 1846 , Henry Poole , later credited as the creator of the dinner jacket or tuxedo , opened an entrance to Savile Row from his tailoring premises in Old Burlington Street . In 1969 , Nutters of Savile Row modernised the style and approach of traditional Savile Row tailoring ; a modernisation that continued in the 1990s with the " New Bespoke Movement " , involving the designers Richard James , Ozwald Boateng , and Timothy Everest . The term " bespoke " as applied to fine tailoring is understood to have originated in Savile Row , and came to mean a suit cut and made by hand . Location Savile Row runs parallel to Regent Street between Conduit Street at the northern end and Vigo Street at the southern . Linking roads include New Burlington Place , New Burlington Street , Boyle Street , and Clifford Street . Ownership The freehold is owned by the Pollen Estate , who work in partnership with Westminster City Council to protect the street 's tailoring heritage under the Savile Row SPA ( Special Policy Area ) . As of August 2014 , Norway ’ s Oil Fund , the world ’ s largest sovereign wealth fund , had acquired a 57 . 8 % interest in the Pollen Estate . This includes properties in Mayfair , among which is Savile Row . History The first house in what would become Savile Row was " a fine House and Ground " , built in 1674 on the site of what is now No. 1 , and occupied by a series of nobles until it was demolished in 1730 in preparation for the laying out of the houses on the east of Savile Row in 1731 . Savile Row was built between 1731 and 1735 , on freehold land known as Ten Acres belonging to a merchant tailor , William Maddox , as part of the development of the Burlington Estate , and is named after Lady Dorothy Savile , wife of the 3rd Earl of Burlington . Maddox 's land , consisting mainly of fruit and other trees covering what would become Savile Row and the streets around , some of which is still owned by his descendants as the Pollen Estate . When initially laid out – under the name Saville Street – Savile Row ran from Burlington Gardens ( then Vigo Lane ) to Boyle Street , with houses only on the east side , but in the 19th century , houses were built on the west side . Nineteenth century Initially , the street was occupied by military officers and their wives , along with politicians : William Pitt the Younger wrote letters from the street when it was called Savile Street ; Irish - born playwright and MP , Richard Brinsley Sheridan lived at 14 Savile Row for a short time , before his death at 7 Savile Row in 1816 . Jules Verne had Phileas Fogg , his lead character in Around the World in Eighty Days , live at 7 Savile Row – a " fashionable address " and " the former home of Sheridan " . It may have been the affluent and influential nature of the residents of Savile Row that first attracted dealers in luxury goods to the area . Tailors started to take premises around Savile Row in the late 18th century , first in Cork Street , about 1790 , then by 1803 in Savile Row itself . In 1846 , Henry Poole , credited as creator of the dinner jacket or tuxedo , opened an entrance at 37 Savile Row from his late father 's tailoring premises at 4 Old Burlington Street . As tailoring moved into the street , the house frontages were altered to bring natural light into the tailors ' working area with the addition of glass frontages and light wells . The houses have been much altered over time ; the original Burlingtonian design has been mostly lost , though No. 14 still retains much of the original external features . Royal Geographical Society The Royal Geographical Society occupied No. 1 from 1870 to 1912 , from where significant British exploration was planned , including into Asia , Africa , and the South Pole ; and , according to the society , the address " became associated with adventure and travel " . David Livingstone was laid out in state at the society 's headquarters , before being buried in Westminster Abbey . In 1871 , shortly after the Royal Geographical Society moved into Savile Row , so did the Savile Club ; a gentlemen 's club founded in 1868 as the New Club , occupying rooms overlooking Trafalgar Square ; it changed to its current name during its residence at 12 Savile Row , retaining the name when it moved in 1882 to premises in Piccadilly . Twentieth century Savile Row was extended to Conduit Street in 1937 – 38 , and by 1939 , the Metropolitan Police Station was constructed on the corner of Boyle Street . This police station was damaged in another German bombing raid in September 1940 , during which the building opposite , No. 21a , was destroyed , as was No. 7 earlier that month . Fortress House , an eight - storey block of offices faced with Portland stone , was constructed at 23 Savile Row in 1949 - 50 and occupied by a series of government ministries , ending with a long period of occupation by English Heritage until 2006 . It was demolished in 2009 and replaced by a new mixed - use development designed by Eric Parry , Architects . In July 1968 , the Beatles moved Apple Corps , their multimedia corporation , into 3 Savile Row . A studio was built in the basement ; though it was poorly designed , the Beatles recorded Let It Be there before a new studio was constructed in 1971 at an estimated cost of $ 1 . 5 million . Various artists , including Badfinger , Mary Hopkin , and Marc Bolan recorded in the basement studio until it closed in May 1975 . The Beatles ' final live performance , known as the " rooftop concert " , was held on the roof of the building , on 30 January 1969 , and was recorded for the documentary film Let It Be ; the last words of the band , spoken by John Lennon as the police stopped the performance , were " I hope we passed the audition . " In 1969 , Nutters of Savile Row modernised the style and approach of the traditional tailors ; a modernisation which continued in the 1990s with the " New Bespoke Movement " , involving the designers Richard James , Ozwald Boateng , and Timothy Everest . With increasing rents and criticisms from Giorgio Armani of falling behind the times , the number of tailors in Savile Row had declined to 19 in 2006 , from approximately 40 in the 1950s . However , tailoring businesses have increased since 2006 ; as of October 2014 , a local online directory listed 44 tailoring and clothing businesses on and around Savile Row . Some tailors had expressed concern in 2005 that an increase in commercial development in the area could lead to the death of the business locally , as tailors , many of whom traditionally manufacture their suits in their premises , in basement studios , could be priced out of the local property market . The Savile Row Bespoke Association was founded in 2004 to protect and develop bespoke tailoring as practised in Savile Row and the surrounding streets . The member tailors are typically required to put at least 50 hours of hand labour into each two - piece suit . The Association , along with the owners , the Pollen Estate , is working in partnership with Westminster Council to protect the street 's tailoring heritage under the Savile Row SPA ( Special Policy Area ) . The Association objected to the American retailer Abercrombie & Fitch 's plan to open a children 's store at 3 Savile Row , concerned that chain stores entering the street would drive up rents , and took part in , what was then , a successful protest in 2012 . However , A & F were allowed to move in and set up a children 's store in 2013 . A & F again attracted criticism in January 2015 for its store 's colour scheme : brown . Architecture The original architectural plan for Savile Row is believed to have been drawn up by Colen Campbell , with Henry Flitcroft as the main architect of the street , under the supervision of Daniel Garrett ; though 1 and 22 – 23 Savile Row were designed by William Kent , who moved into No. 2 . These architects were all under the influence of Burlington 's interpretation of Palladian architecture , known as " Burlingtonian " , which was to have some influence on English architecture in the 16th century . As tailoring moved into the street , the house frontages were altered to bring natural light into the tailors ' working area with the addition of glass frontages and light wells . The houses have been much altered over time ; the original Burlingtonian design has been mostly lost , though No. 14 still retains much of the original external features . When the Royal Geographical Society occupied No. 1 , they built a glass - roofed map - room in the courtyard , a small astronomical observatory on the roof , and a new portico – which may be the basis for the current appearance of the façade . Tailoring Savile Row 's reputation is built on bespoke tailoring , where each suit is made to individually fit . The term " bespoke " , which has an etymology developing from " to exclaim " through " discussed in advance " and is generally understood to mean " made to order " , became associated with fine tailoring , with tailors claiming that the term has been in common use for tailoring since the 17th century . Savile Row tailors argue that " bespoke " , in relation to tailoring , is understood to mean a suit cut and made by hand ; however , after a ruling by the Advertising Standards Authority in 2008 , the term may now also be applied to machine sewed garments , provided they are made - to - measure . Suits , at Kilgour & French , cost at least £ 5000 . The Creative Director Carlo <unk> makes no apologies for the cost . <unk> insists : " That the street ’ s tailors have been underselling themselves for generations , certainly compared to the couture houses of Paris . " Customers of the " golden mile of tailoring " have included Lord Nelson , Napoleon III , Winston Churchill , Prince Charles , and Jude Law , but though it is sometimes reported that Ian Fleming and his character James Bond bought suits in Savile Row , there is no evidence for this in the novels ; both Fleming and the Bond film character wore suits designed by non - Savile Row tailors , in particular Anthony Sinclair of nearby Conduit Street . Tailors , attracted by the affluent and influential nature of the residents of Savile Row , started to open businesses in the area in the late 18th century , first in Cork Street , about 1790 , then by 1803 in Savile Row itself . None of those original tailors survive today , though Henry Poole & Co , who through Edward VII 's patronage , helped make the street fashionable , still have a presence in Savile Row . Poole moved the company into 32 Savile Row in 1846 , following the death of his father James Poole , and the company is now at No. 15 . Henry Poole is credited as creator of the dinner jacket , when he made a smoking jacket for the young Edward VII in 1860 . Tailoring was softened in the early 20th century by Frederick <unk> when he developed the English drape for the Duke of Windsor . <unk> 's " dress soft " style was developed into the " London cut " , the house style of Anderson & Sheppard , by Per Anderson , a protégé of <unk> . The " London cut " is a high small armhole with a generous upper sleeve that permits the jacket to remain close to the neck while freeing the arm to move with comfort . Though the reputation of tailoring on Savile Row is for made - to - measure suits , ready - to - wear clothes were introduced by <unk> & Hawkes , a company formed in 1974 by the merger of two separate businesses who both date from the late 19th century : <unk> , a Royal Navy tailor founded in Portsmouth ; and Hawkes , a London - based cap - maker and tailor to the British Army . Hardy Amies Ltd further broadened the scope and appeal of tailoring in Savile Row : in 1961 , he staged the first men 's ready - to - wear catwalk shows , at the Ritz Hotel in London , he designed costumes for the 1966 England World Cup team , and for the 1968 film 2001 : Space Odyssey , and dressed the Queen , designing the gown used for the Silver Jubilee portrait in 1977 . Hardy Amies founded the company in 1946 , converting the bombed out shell of No. 14 . Though Amies sold the business and retired in 2001 , the company is still operating from No. 14 , now under the control of Fung Capital . Modernisation of tailoring continued in 1969 with Nutters of Savile Row . Nutters of Savile Row was opened on Valentine 's Day 1969 by Tommy Nutter and Edward Sexton , who had worked together at Donaldson , Williamson & Ward . Financially backed by Cilla Black and Peter Brown of the Beatles Apple Corps , Nutters used bold window displays , created by the then unknown Simon Doonan ; and clients included the Beatles , Mick Jagger , Elton John , and Andrew Lloyd Webber . Nutter left the company in 1976 and went to work at Kilgour . He died in 1992 . Modernisation had slowed by the early 1990s ; Savile Row tailors were " struggling to find relevance with an audience that had grown increasingly disassociated " . Three tailors , Ozwald Boateng , Timothy Everest ( an apprentice of Nutter 's ) , and Richard James , then became known for revitalising the bespoke style for the modern market - having each broken away independently from the Savile Row mould . Public relations professional Alison Hargreaves coined the term " New Bespoke Movement " to describe collectively the work of this " new generation " of tailors . Interest reached a peak in 1997 when the three were featured together in Vanity Fair . The newcomers altered their shop fronts and used marketing and publicity to their advantage ; challenging the traditional Savile Row styling , they brought twists and " a fine sense of colour to bespoke suits . " They were seen to " push the envelope of modern suit making and bespoke active wear , creating more contemporary silhouettes with bolder fabrics , " and set out to attract celebrity clients , sell their clothing via supermarket chains , and attract wider national and international custom , raising the profile of their new tailoring style .
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The Elder Scrolls IV : Knights of the Nine The Elder Scrolls IV : Knights of the Nine is an expansion pack for the role - playing video game The Elder Scrolls IV : Oblivion . Announced on October 17 , 2006 for release on November 21 , 2006 , the expansion was developed by Bethesda Game Studios , and published and released in North America by Bethesda Softworks ; in Europe , the game was co - published with Ubisoft . The Microsoft Windows version is available either as a downloadable plug - in from the company website or as part of the retail - released Oblivion Downloadable Content Collection CD — a release that also includes all previously released official downloadable content available for Oblivion . The Xbox 360 version is available via Xbox Live Marketplace , and the PlayStation 3 version of Oblivion includes Knights of the Nine in its packaged release . Knights of the Nine centers on a faction of the same name , devoted to locating and preserving a set of " Crusaders ' Relics " . Once found , these relics must be used to defeat the sorcerer - king Umaril , who seeks revenge on the Nine Divines . Knights of the Nine was generally well received in the gaming press . Although it made little change to the basic mechanics of Oblivion , it was judged by reviewers to be a brief but polished addition to the game 's main plot . Gameplay Knights of the Nine is identical to the gameplay of Oblivion ; the basic design , maneuvers , and interfaces remain unchanged . As such , it is a fantasy - based role - playing adventure game . Players begin Oblivion by defining their character ; deciding on its skill set , specialization , physical features , and race . Knights of the Nine is an example of open - ended - style gameplay : the main quest may be delayed or completely ignored as the player explores the game world , follows side quests , interacts with NPCs , and develops a character according to their taste . Furthering the goal of open - ended gameplay , Knights of the Nine , unlike Bethesda 's prior content packs for Oblivion , begins with no explicit prodding towards the newly introduced content ; players must seek out and find the game 's quest without external aid . Plot Knights of the Nine 's quest begins as the player approaches the Chapel of <unk> in Anvil . The Chapel was recently abused ; everyone there has been killed in a dark ritual . The player proceeds to consult a prophet near the scene of the attack , who is preaching about it . The prophet reveals to the player that the one responsible for the attacks is Umaril , an ancient revenge - seeking <unk> sorcerer - king , who has escaped from his prison in Oblivion to destroy Cyrodiil . Umaril can only be defeated by the prophesized Crusader , favoured by the gods , bearing the relics of Pelinal Whitestrake , the man who originally slew Umaril , and banished his spirit to Oblivion . The player then makes a pilgrimage ( because the character may not use any artifacts of the Nine unless they have an infamy of 0 ) , and receives a vision from Pelinal Whitestrake , who reveals the location of his tomb , which is beneath the lake surrounding the Imperial City . Inside this tomb , the player discovers the Helm of Pelinal 's armor , as well as the corpse of Sir Amiel , one of the old Knights of the Nine . His diary reveals the location of their priory , which houses the <unk> of Pelinal . Before the player can claim it though , he / she confronts eight spirits of the old Knights of the Nine , including Amiel , who had all given into corruption and been killed . They assist the player , who soon gathers all of Pelinal Whitestrake 's relics . During each leg of the quest to retrieve the relics , the player meets a priest , knight , or pilgrim of faith , each of whom pledge to aid the player , each representing one of the original eight divines . After a final blessing from the prophet , to represent the ninth divine , Talos , the player leads the knights against Umaril 's stronghold , defeating the <unk> King , and then pursues Umaril 's spirit , destroying him utterly . The player then wakes up in the Priory , with the knights believing him / her dead . After realizing that the powers of the gods resurrected him , the player rejoins the knights . Development Prior to any announcement regarding Knights of the Nine , Bethesda had pursued a somewhat novel plan to distribute downloadable content through micropayments , priced from US $ 0 . 99 to US $ 2 . 99 , instead of the more common practice of releasing expansion packs . The program was initially met with criticism by customers due to its alleged low value , but later releases — at a reduced price , and with more content — proved more popular . The releases , in addition to stirring controversy , raised questions regarding Bethesda 's future content release plans , and as to whether expansion pack releases were necessary at all . In August 2006 , one Bethesda employee wrote in a post to Bethesda 's The Elder Scrolls forums that the company had " no plans to make an expansion for Oblivion " . Further questions were raised by a product listing found on game retailer GameStop 's website September 11 , 2006 , listing a Knights of the White Stallion Expansion Pack for Oblivion . The game had a listed shipping date of November 21 , 2006 . The title was kept on the website only briefly — removed after gaming news site GameSpot sent Bethesda a request for comment on the product . Knights of the Nine began its life as a supposedly " exclusive " quest for the PlayStation 3 release of The Elder Scrolls IV : Oblivion . Along with the confirmation of the PlayStation 3 release on October 9 , 2006 , some gaming news websites reported that the release would contain " a huge , exclusive quest " focusing on " a new faction , The Knights of the Nine " . Some reports prefixed " allegedly " onto statements that the release would be exclusive . Suggestions of exclusivity , in any case , did not last long : an October 17 , 2006 Bethesda press release announced that Knights of the Nine content was also scheduled for PC and Xbox 360 releases , eliciting commentary from Joystiq remarking on " how finicky " the word ' exclusive ' had come to be , and Kotaku remarking on how " Oblivion 's PlayStation 3 content didn 't stay exclusive for long ... or at all " . Other sites saw no incongruence in the announcement : GameSpot assumed that Knights of the Nine was simply the earlier Knights of the White Stallion by a different name , and 1UP.com had anticipated the move ever since an IGN interview with Oblivion 's executive producer Todd Howard , where Howard had described Bethesda 's general aim " to have all our content available across all platforms " ; the final announcement served only to confirm their suspicions . The October 17 press release set November 21 , 2006 as the North American distribution date for the Xbox 360 and PC versions of Knights of the Nine . The European release for the Xbox 360 and PC was set two days later , on November 23 . The European release was co - published by Bethesda and Ubisoft . On November 9 , 2006 , Bethesda clarified earlier statements regarding PC releases , declaring that , although the boxed retail PC edition of Knights of the Nine was set for release on November 21 , the PC release downloadable from the company website wouldn 't be available until December 4 . This caused some consumer complaints , for although the Xbox 360 release was available on the Xbox Live Marketplace for 800 Microsoft Points ( the equivalent of US $ 10 . 00 , or GB £ 6 . 80 ) , for the time being , PC owners had only the US $ 19 . 99 boxed retail edition of the game . The increased price of the PC 's boxed retail release ( The Elder Scrolls IV : Knights of Nine Oblivion Downloadable Content Collection ) resulted from its inclusion of Oblivion 's other previously released downloadable content . Such content was not included in either the downloadable PC release , the Xbox Marketplace download , or the PlayStation 3 edition of Oblivion . The downloadable release was ultimately issued on December 6 at the price of US $ 9 . 99 . According to IGN Entertainment 's GamerMetrics , a service based on compiled visitor activity information on IGN 's website , the pack was the fourth most anticipated release of its release week , following Tom Clancy 's Rainbow Six : Vegas , Superman Returns and College Hoops <unk> . Reception Knights of the Nine was generally well received in the gaming press . Metacritic , an aggregate review site , scored the PC version of the game with an 81 out of 100 , and the Xbox 360 version of the game with an 86 out of 100 . GameSpot recommended the game for its value ; although it made few improvements over the basic Oblivion experience , Knights of the Nine provides " a good day or two 's worth of questing for a low price " . Similar comments followed from GamePro , who found that the " polish " and " affordable price " of the pack excused the fact that the pack 's content " doesn 't really change [ Oblivion 's ] gameplay " . Eurogamer praised the game for its memorable plot and new , unique content . They concluded that if " more of the same is what you 're after , you can 't really argue with what Bethesda 's served up for its hardcore fans . " The review encouraged caution nonetheless : for if consumers were to fully accept individually priced content releases , Bethesda might just begin charging for all its quests .
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Touch Me I 'm Sick " Touch Me I 'm Sick " is a song by the American alternative rock band Mudhoney . It was recorded in March 1988 at Seattle 's Reciprocal Recording studio with producer Jack Endino . " Touch Me I 'm Sick " was released as Mudhoney 's debut single by independent record label Sub Pop on August 1 , 1988 . The song 's lyrics , which feature dark humor , are a sarcastic take on issues such as disease and violent sex . When it was first released , " Touch Me I 'm Sick " was a hit on the indie circuit ; it remains the band 's most recognizable song . The heavily distorted and fuzzy guitars , snarling vocals , blunt bass line and energetic drumming contributed to a dirty sound that influenced many local musicians , and helped develop the nascent Seattle grunge scene . According to Allmusic , " the song 's raw , primal energy made it an instant anthem which still stands as one of [ grunge 's ] all - time classics " . Origins and recording According to Mudhoney vocalist Mark Arm , " Touch Me I 'm Sick " originated from a discussion with Sub Pop owner Bruce Pavitt , who " said : ' Hey , you sing about dogs . You sing about being sick . You got a shtick , it 'll take you to the top . ' And he basically gave us five chords , but he said don 't use more than three within one song . " Arm also states that " Touch Me I 'm Sick " was a catchphrase around which the band built a song . Mudhoney recorded the song at Seattle 's Reciprocal Recording studio in March 1988 , three months after the band 's formation . Producer Jack Endino was surprised by how noisy the sessions were and how dirty the band wanted the guitars to sound ; " for the most part , I just sort of stood back and let them go at it " . Guitarist Steve Turner said that the band selected two of their " <unk> " songs for the single . Initially , " Sweet Young Thing Ain 't Sweet No More " was to be the A - side of the single and " Touch Me I 'm Sick " the B - side , before — in drummer Dan Peters 's words — " that all got flipped around " . Music and lyrics " Touch Me I 'm Sick " has a straightforward garage punk structure with a simple repeating power chord riff played at a high tempo . This is accompanied by a blunt bass line and frenetic drumming . The song 's dirty sound was produced using an Electro - Harmonix Big Muff distortion pedal , which is augmented by a second guitar providing more distortion . Music writer Brian J. Barr referred to this noisy sound as " the sonic equivalent of an amplified comb scraping against paper " . Critics have noted a Stooges influence in " Touch Me I 'm Sick " , typical of Mudhoney 's early material . Turner said : " In retrospect , it 's The Yardbirds ' ' Happenings Ten Years Time Ago ' by way of The Stooges ' ' Sick of You ' . At the time I was trying for the stuttering R & B guitar of The Nights and Days . " The song is also reminiscent of the hardcore punk of Black Flag . In his book Loser : The Real Seattle Music Story , Clark Humphrey accuses the song of being a copy of " The Witch " by The Sonics . The band have dismissed this claim , and questioned the writer 's knowledge of music . Arm 's lyrics , according to critic Steve Huey , are a rant about " disease , self - loathing , angst , and dirty sex " . In an essay called " ' Touch Me I 'm Sick ' : Contagion as Critique in Punk and Performance Art " , Catherine J. Creswell suggests that some of the lyrics refer to AIDS . According to Creswell , " In declaring ' Well , I 'm diseased and I don 't mind ' and changing the final refrain to ' Fuck Me , I 'm Sick ! ' the speaker declares himself to be the viral , ' AIDS - bearing , ' ' polluting ' person of contemporary fantasy " . Creswell , who also believes the song parodies the theme of seduction in contemporary rock music , points to lyrics that refer to impotence ( " If you don 't come , if you don 't come , if you don 't come , you 'll die alone ! " ) and violent possession or forcing ( " I 'll make you love me till the day you die ! " ) . However , Arm says that he had not put much thought into the lyrics ; while performing the song in concerts , he sometimes changes them to amuse himself . Another feature of " Touch Me I 'm Sick " that has been commented upon is Arm 's vocals . Huey refers to them as a " hysterical screech " , and " snarling , demonic howls " . Journalist Joe Ehrbar says that Arm begins the song with a " burp " , before singing with a " nasally howl " . Creswell considers Arm 's " overboard " vocals to mock a variety of rock stereotypes : the punk snarl , the " woozy slur " of hard rock , garage rock " yea - ahs " , R & B - style wails and a " Jerry Lee Lewis shudder " . Release and reception " Touch Me I 'm Sick " was released on August 1 , 1988 , as a 7 " vinyl . It was Mudhoney 's debut release . Initially , Sub Pop released 800 clear coffee - brown vinyl copies , 200 black vinyl copies and a few assorted vinyl color copies of the single . The limited release numbers were inspired by another indie label , Amphetamine Reptile . Sub Pop owners Bruce Pavitt and Jonathan Poneman reasoned the limited supply would increase demand , and utilized different colors of vinyl in order to rationalize further limited pressings and to increase the single 's allure as a collectible item . The record , which came in a white paper bag without a picture sleeve , had an inscription on the A - side : " What does the word ' crack ' mean to you ? " . The B - side sticker featured the toilet picture that later became the cover art of the sleeved second edition of the single . According to Pavitt , " It was just a limited edition , maybe 800 pieces , but people all over America started raving about it . People that we really respected . " The single was an indie hit in Seattle , and " Touch Me I 'm Sick " became Mudhoney 's most recognizable song . When asked in an interview about the sales figures of the single , Turner replied , " The first [ pressing sold ] 1 , 000 , then 3 , 000 of the reissue , then it was out of print for a while ; then they made 2 , 000 more and those are probably gone . " The single 's success caught the band by surprise ; Arm had initially dismissed the song as a " B - side toss off " . " Touch Me I 'm Sick " and B - side " Sweet Young Thing Ain 't Sweet No More " were later included on the Mudhoney compilation albums <unk> <unk> Plus Early Singles ( 1990 ) and March to Fuzz ( 2000 ) . Sonic Youth cover Prior to the release of the " Touch Me I 'm Sick " single , Pavitt sent a five - song Mudhoney tape to New York alternative rock band Sonic Youth for the members ' opinions . Sonic Youth immediately proposed a split single where each band covered the other . Sonic Youth covered " Touch Me I 'm Sick " while Mudhoney covered Sonic Youth 's " Halloween " . " Touch Me I 'm Sick / Halloween " was released as a limited edition 7 " vinyl by Sub Pop in December 1988 . The cover was included in the deluxe edition of Daydream Nation ( 2007 ) , and offers a female perspective of the song with bassist Kim Gordon handling the vocals . Legacy Following the success of the " Touch Me I 'm Sick " single in the Seattle area , Sub Pop positioned Mudhoney as the flagship band of their roster and undertook heavy promotion for the group . The band 's early material received airplay on college radio and influenced many local musicians , including Kurt Cobain of Nirvana . In a few years , many Seattle grunge bands signed to major labels and broke into the mainstream , achieving mass popularity . Although Mudhoney never attained this level of mainstream acceptance , according to Allmusic 's Mark Deming , the band 's " indie - scene success laid the groundwork for the movement that would ( briefly ) make Seattle , WA , the new capital of the rock & roll universe " . Since its release , " Touch Me I 'm Sick " has been accorded classic status within the grunge genre . Writing for Allmusic , Steve Huey described the song as " the ultimate grunge anthem " and " a crucial and vastly influential touchstone in the evolution of the grunge movement , virtually defining the term " . For its northwestern rock exhibit , the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame requested the song 's original lyrics sheet . Since it did not exist — Arm briefly considered making a fake one by writing down the lyrics , crumpling the sheet , and then burning the edges — the band instead donated Turner 's old Big Muff pedals . " Touch Me I 'm Sick " remains Mudhoney 's most popular song . Joe Ehrbar called it " the song most of us would come to know [ the band ] by " . Arm considers the track to be Mudhoney 's highwater mark , There 's something special about that first single , we were never quite able to recapture that sound . I don 't know if it was the guitars or the recording . It was just a really gnarly , gnarly guitar sound . We 've gotten some since , but they 've been a different kind . I think it had more to do with the actual electromagnetic chemistry of what was going through our amps that day . It was just a cool , fried - out sound . The song was referenced in the 1992 film Singles , which is set against the backdrop of the Seattle grunge scene . The fictional band in the film , Citizen Dick , perform a song called " Touch Me I 'm Dick " — a wordplay on Mudhoney 's song . In 2003 , Charles Peterson published a book of photography titled Touch Me I 'm Sick . It features black - and - white photographs of bands ( including Mudhoney ) and concerts , and focuses on the alternative music scene of the 1980s and 1990s . Accolades * denotes an unordered list Track listing 7 " single ( <unk> ) Both songs credited to Mark Arm , Steve Turner , Dan Peters and Matt Lukin . " Touch Me I 'm Sick " – 2 : 23 " Sweet Young Thing Ain 't Sweet No More " – 3 : 35
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2013 Chicago Bears season The 2013 Chicago Bears season was the franchise 's 94th season in the National Football League . The season was the first year under head coach Marc Trestman , as Lovie Smith was fired on December 31 , 2012 . The team played at Soldier Field for the 11th season since its reconstruction in 2001 . The Bears failed to qualify for the playoffs with an 8 – 8 record , the sixth time in seven years since the Super Bowl XLI loss in 2006 . The Bears started the regular season by winning their first three games before losing in weeks four and five to the Detroit Lions and New Orleans Saints , respectively . The following game after winning against the New York Giants , quarterback Jay Cutler suffered a groin injury against the Washington Redskins , as the Bears entered the bye week at 4 – 3 . With Cutler out , Josh McCown stepped in against the Green Bay Packers in week nine , leading the Bears to victory . Cutler returned in the next game against the Lions , but injured his ankle in the loss , and McCown filled in for the next four games ; during the four - game span under McCown , the Bears went 2 – 2 , while McCown excelled , throwing thirteen touchdowns and one interception . As a result , when Cutler returned in week fourteen against the Cleveland Browns , controversy arose over who should be the starter . After winning against Cleveland , the Lions lost the following day , allowing the Bears to clinch the NFC North in week sixteen with Packers and Lions losses grouped with a victory over the Philadelphia Eagles . However , the Bears lost 54 – 11 , and in week seventeen against the Packers , the Bears were eliminated from playoff contention with a 33 – 28 loss . Offseason Organizational changes On December 31 , 2012 , nine - year head coach Lovie Smith was fired . After Smith 's firing , the Bears requested interviews with thirteen coaches , twelve from the NFL and Montreal Alouettes ( of the Canadian Football League ) head coach Marc Trestman . The hunt later narrowed down to Trestman , Seattle Seahawks offensive coordinator Darrell <unk> and Indianapolis Colts offensive coordinator Bruce Arians . Ultimately , Trestman was hired on January 15 . After Trestman 's hiring , he hired New Orleans Saints ' offensive line coach Aaron Kromer as offensive coordinator , and the Dallas Cowboys later reported that Joe DeCamillis , who had been among the Bears ' 13 head coaching candidates , would join the Bears as the team 's assistant head coach / special teams coordinator . Trestman also hired Andy Bischoff and Michael Sinclair as tight ends and defensive line coaches , respectively ; both coaches had worked with Trestman in Montreal . Alouettes offensive coordinator Pat Meyer also joined the Bears as offensive line coach , along with Purdue defensive coordinator and colleague of Trestman , Tim <unk> , as linebackers coach . Former Alouettes coaches Brendan Nugent and Carson Walch were hired as offensive quality control assistants . On January 15 , special teams coordinator Dave Toub announced that he is leaving the Bears for the Kansas City Chiefs . Two days later , it was announced that defensive coordinator Rod Marinelli would not return to the team . Eight assistants were also dismissed : quarterbacks coach Jeremy Bates , running backs coach Tim Spencer , wide receivers coach Darryl Drake , tight ends coach Mike <unk> , offensive line coach Tim Holt , linebackers coach Bob Babich , defensive backs coach Gill Byrd , and offensive coordinator Mike Tice . To replace Bates and Spencer , Chicago hired Matt Cavanaugh and Skip Peete as quarterbacks and running backs coach , respectively . To take Marinelli 's place , the Bears hired Jacksonville Jaguars ' defensive coordinator Mel Tucker . On February 21 , Trestman 's staff was completed after the Bears hired Alabama coach Mike Groh as wide receivers coach . On January 19 , Bears director of physical development Rusty Jones announced his retirement after 28 years in the NFL . He was eventually replaced by Mike Clark . On January 28 , Chicago hired former Bears safety Chris Harris as defensive quality control , with Sean Desai serving the same position , along with Dwayne <unk> as assistant special teams coordinator . On May 3 , Bears pro scouting director Chris Ballard , who had been hired by general manager Phil Emery , left the team for the Chiefs , and was replaced by assistant director of college scouting Kevin Turks . Regional scout James Kirkland was also let go . On May 6 , executive director and Southeastern Conference overseer Ted <unk> joined the St. Louis Rams . On the same day , Kevin Turks and Dwayne Joseph were promoted to director of pro personnel and assistant director of pro personnel , respectively ; Chiefs area scout Ryan Kessenich was also hired as a scout . Chicago also hired Jay Muraco as scout of the East Coast and Andre Odom as a scouting assistant . The Bears also promoted Breck Ackley to South Central area scout and Sam Summerville to scout the Southeast area and David Williams to player personnel and scout . On May 16 , the Bears promoted Southeast area scout Mark Sadowski to senior national scout . Roster changes The Bears entered free agency with 16 unrestricted free agents . Acquisitions The first addition of 2013 by the Bears was defensive end <unk> <unk> on January 2 , followed by Brittan Golden two days later . On January 7 , quarterback Matt Blanchard and receiver Terrence <unk> were signed ; the next three days involved the signings of Patrick Trahan , Brody Eldridge , Fendi <unk> and Lawrence Wilson , respectively . On January 28 and 29 , <unk> Quarles and Tom Nelson were signed , respectively . The lone acquisition of February occurred on February 11 with cornerback <unk> Lewis . NFL free agency opened on March 12 , with the Bears signing New York Giants tight end Martellus Bennett and New Orleans Saints offensive lineman Jermon Bushrod on that day . From March 20 to 24 , the Bears signed at least one player per day , starting with Turk McBride . Steve Maneri ( March 21 ) , D. J. Williams ( March 22 ) , Tom <unk> ( March 23 ) , and James Anderson ( March 24 ) . Offensive lineman Matt Slauson was signed on March 29 . On April 9 , Andre <unk> , Kyle Moore and Taylor Boggs were signed . Offensive lineman Eben Britton was signed on April 16 , followed by kicker Austin Signor three days later . The only signing in May was undrafted rookie Maurice Jones on May 12 . On June 10 , the Bears signed Devin <unk> , Jerrell Jackson and Tony Fiammetta , followed by Sedrick Ellis the next day . Departures The first departure of the team was receiver Johnny Knox on February 12 , who had suffered a serious injury in 2011 and missed the entire 2012 season . On March 13 , tight ends Kellen Davis and Matt Spaeth were waived . The single departure of April occurred on April 2 , with the release of defensive lineman Matt <unk> . On June 9 , offensive lineman and the team 's first - round draft pick in 2011 Gabe Carimi was traded to the Tampa Bay Buccaneers for a sixth - rounder in the 2014 draft . The following day , Evan Rodriguez , Dale Moss and Demetrius Fields were waived . Eleven of the Bears ' <unk> did not return , nine of whom joining other teams , starting with linebacker Geno Hayes ' signing with the Jacksonville Jaguars on March 13 . The Bears lost another linebacker in Nick Roach on March 15 , when he joined the Oakland Raiders , and another defensive player was lost when cornerback D. J. Moore was signed by the Carolina Panthers four days later . On March 20 , eight - time Pro Bowler and 13 - year linebacker Brian Urlacher was not retained for the 2013 season . Six days later , Jason Campbell was signed by the Cleveland Browns , and the next day , Lance Louis joined the Miami Dolphins . 2013 draft class The Bears entered the draft with needs at positions including offensive lineman , linebacker , defensive lineman and cornerback . In the first round , with the twentieth pick , the Bears selected Oregon offensive tackle Kyle Long . Long , the son of Pro Football Hall of Famer Howie Long and younger brother of St. Louis Rams ' defensive end Chris Long , played in only 21 games while starting 15 with Oregon . In the second round , with the fiftieth pick , the Bears selected Jon Bostic , a linebacker from Florida , who recorded 68 tackles with the nation 's fifth - ranked defense in 2012 . Two rounds later , the Bears used their 117th overall pick on Rutgers linebacker Khaseem Greene , who holds the NCAA record for career forced fumbles with 15 . In the fifth round , the Bears traded down ten spots with the Atlanta Falcons to draft Louisiana Tech offensive tackle Jordan Mills , marking the first time the team selected two offensive linemen in the same draft since 2002 . In the sixth round , Chicago selected Georgia Bulldogs defensive end Cornelius Washington , who led linebackers in the bench press at the NFL Combine with 36 repetitions at 225 pounds . Using a seventh - rounder acquired in the trade with Atlanta , the Bears drafted wide receiver Marquess Wilson , who left the Washington State football team , citing abuse from head coach Mike Leach despite setting team records with 82 receptions for 1 , 388 yards and 12 touchdowns in 2011 , followed by 52 receptions for 813 yards and five touchdowns in 2012 . The Bears draft class received average grades , with questions from some graders questioning the selections of Long and Bostic , including Jason Cole of Yahoo ! Sports , who gave the class a grade of " C + " . Yahoo ! Sports writer Billy Grayson ESPN draft analyst Mel Kiper , Jr. stated that he " wasn 't in love with the value " of Long 's talent , classifying the draft class as a " C + " , while Sports Illustrated writer Chris Burke asked why Chicago selected Bostic over Kansas State linebacker Arthur Brown . However , Burke praised Washington 's selection as a potential steal , giving a grade of " B- " . Thad Novak of the International Business Times gave Long the lowest grade of the players drafted by Chicago with a " C- " , considering him a " raw " player ; Mills was awarded a " C + " , due to not blocking against many top defenders in college . Washington and Wilson were given a " B- " and " B + " , respectively , the former despite being a linebacker , could adjust into the Bears ' 4 - 3 defense . Linebackers Bostic and Greene were given an " A " and " A + " , the latter being considered a steal that could add depth to the linebacking corps . Vinny Iyer of Sporting News gave the class a " C " , stated Long should start as a guard before switching to tackle , which would be filled by Mills ; Iyer also considered Bostic a " textbook replacement " for Brian Urlacher , while Greene can replace Nick Roach as a strong - side linebacker . After the 2013 season , Kiper improved the Bears ' class to a " B " . All six players drafted agreed to four - year contracts . Mills and Washington were the first players to sign on May 1 , followed by Greene and Wilson the following day . Bostic was the next player to sign , agreeing to a contract on May 9 , and Long was the final player to sign , signing his contract on May 17 . Notes The team traded its third - round selection along with a 2012 third - round selection to the Miami Dolphins in exchange for wide receiver Brandon Marshall . The team traded its seventh - round selection to the Tampa Bay Buccaneers in exchange for defensive tackle Brian Price . Undrafted free agents After the draft 's conclusion , the Bears announced that they had come to terms with ten undrafted free agents : LSU running back and center Michael Ford and P. J. Lonergan , respectively , Rutgers receiver Mark Harrison , Oklahoma cornerback and punter Demontre Hurst and Tress Way , respectively , Iowa State receiver Josh Lenz , Montana State linebacker Zach Minter , Memphis receiver Marcus Rucker , Georgia Southern defensive tackle Brent Russell , and NC State cornerback C. J. Wilson . Offseason activities On April 2 , the Bears began a voluntary offseason program , and because they had a new head coach , the Bears were given a two - week earlier start than teams that did not hire a new head coach . For the first two weeks of the program , the only activities allowed were strength and conditioning and rehabilitation , and only strength and conditioning coaches are allowed to be on the field with the players . On the third week , a voluntary minicamp was held , and all coaches were permitted to work . From April 16 – 18 , the Bears held two - hour non - contact drills , and held ten organized team activities ( OTAs ) during May 13 – June 6 , followed by a mandatory minicamp from June 11 – 13 . The Bears started the first of ten OTAs on May 13 . Rookie Kyle Long did not attend due to the University of Oregon having final examinations running through June 14 . Gabe Carimi was the lone eligible player to not attend the workouts on the first day , as he stated that he was training in Arizona . Despite being expected to attend the team 's mandatory minicamp , on June 9 , Carimi was traded to the Buccaneers for an unconditional sixth - round draft pick in the 2014 draft . Long returned to workouts on June 17 . On the first day of the mandatory minicamp , offensive coordinator Aaron Kromer did not attend the on - field segment due to hip surgery . A. J. Lindeman and Willie Carter tried out with the team during the day . Brandon Marshall and Alshon Jeffery skipped the next day 's workout , due to a hip surgery and a hamstring injury suffered during the previous week 's OTAs , respectively . Lindeman would be signed during the day , while Maurice Jones would be released . Rookie minicamp The Bears opened rookie minicamp at the Walter Payton Center on March 10 , and concluded on May 12 . A total of 59 players participated , which includes the six draft picks , nine of the ten undrafted free agents ( Mark Harrison was going to be signed , but failed his physical as he was recovering from a broken fifth metatarsal ) , kicker Austin Signor , ten veteran players , and 33 tryout players . Following minicamp , on May 13 , the Bears signed receiver Demetrius Fields , defensive tackles Corvey Irvin and Christian <unk> , and cornerback Maurice Jones , while releasing Dom <unk> and <unk> Lewis . Training Camp Training Camp took place from July 25 to August 14 at Olivet Nazarene University in Bourbonnais , Illinois for the twelfth consecutive year . The team used the newly built Student Life Recreation Center as a weight room , indoor walk - through and personnel meeting building . On August 12 , the Bears and <unk> agreed to extend the camp through 2022 . Practice with full pads on was held on July 28 . On the first day of Training Camp , Sedrick Ellis did not report , and eventually announced his retirement . On June 29 , newcomer Turk McBride suffered a ruptured Achilles tendon , and was out for the season ; McBride would be released two days later . During the day , Jermon Bushrod suffered a mild calf sprain , and was replaced by Jonathan Scott during practices . On the same day , <unk> <unk> did not practice due to a hamstring strain . However , Scott eventually injured his calf , so Eben Britton and Cory Brandon took first team reps . Anderson ( knee ) , D. J. Williams ( calf ) and Corey Wootton ( hip ) also were forced to miss practice . The team hosted the annual Family Fest at Soldier Field on August 3 in front of a crowd of 29 , 000 . At the event , Kelvin Hayden tore his left hamstring , and was ruled out for remainder of the season . Hayden would be placed on injured reserve on August 10 . The first acquisition of Training Camp occurred on the first day , with Jamaal Anderson being signed to replace Ellis . After McBride 's release , Josh Williams was signed . On August 2 , Austin Signor was released , and Andrew Starks was signed . The next day , the Bears signed Leonard Pope , and released Brody Eldridge . Preseason Transactions Schedule The Bears ' preseason opponents and schedule was announced on April 4 . Chicago would open the preseason on the road against the Carolina Panthers , followed by an ESPN - televised game against the San Diego Chargers . The Bears would then visit the Oakland Raiders , for whom head coach Marc Trestman , offensive coordinator / offensive line coach Aaron Kromer and running backs coach Skip Peete worked for during its run to Super Bowl XXXVII , before ending the preseason against frequent preseason opponent Cleveland Browns , the tenth consecutive meeting between the two teams . Game summaries Against the Panthers , the Bears ' defense forced three turnovers in the first half , which included a 51 - yard interception return for touchdown by Jon Bostic , followed by Zack Bowman intercepting Derek Anderson and Sherrick McManis forcing <unk> Barner to fumble ; the Bears recorded a total of four takeaways in the game . However , the offense allowed seven sacks and had three turnovers , one of which was a fumble by Armando Allen . Panthers cornerback Josh Norman had two interceptions , one of which set up the first score of the game via Cam Newton 's three - yard touchdown pass to Brandon <unk> early in the game . Bostic 's pick - six tied up the game , followed by Robbie Gould 's 35 - yard field goal in the second quarter . With 18 seconds left in the first half , Carolina scored again on <unk> Barner 's 5 - yard touchdown run ; the Panthers scored the lone points of the third quarter after Norman intercepted Matt Blanchard , scoring on the 60 - yard return . Though the Bears retaliated after Blanchard threw a 58 - yard pass to Marquess Wilson to Carolina 's 4 - yard line , followed by Michael Ford 's touchdown run , Graham Gano 's 50 - yard field goal was the final score of the game , as the Panthers triumphed 24 – 17 . Playing San Diego , Chicago opened with touchdowns by Brandon Marshall and Matt Forte , and led 20 – 0 late in the second quarter . The defense forced four turnovers in the first half off Chris Conte 's interception , Major Wright 's fumble recovery , Blake Costanzo recovering a muffed punt , and Corvey Irvin 's recovery of a blocked punt . The Chargers began to rally , scoring on Fozzy Whittaker 's rushing touchdown in the second quarter , followed by two more touchdowns in the third quarter , which Chicago countered with Michael Ford 's 100 - yard kickoff return to San Diego 's 4 - yard line . Afterwards , Michael Bush ran for a 3 - yard touchdown , and while San Diego managed to score two more touchdowns , but the Bears held on to win 33 – 28 . Against Oakland , the Bears scored 23 unanswered points in the first half , along with <unk> the Raiders 222 yards to 34 with a little over 10 minutes remaining in the first half . The Bears scored first off Forte 's 32 - yard touchdown , followed by Bush scoring two rushing touchdowns of ten and one yard each , and the first half ended with a 27 – 3 lead for Chicago . Meanwhile , the defense forced four turnovers off Tim Jennings and Isaiah Frey intercepting Matt Flynn and C. J. Wilson and Jerry Franklin intercepting Matt McGloin . As for Oakland , Terrelle Pryor replaced Flynn in the second half , and led the Raiders to two touchdowns and a field goal to narrow the gap to 27 – 20 . The Bears retaliated with Michael Ford scoring a 15 - yard touchdown , and the Raiders responded with McGloin 's 5 - yard touchdown pass to Jaime <unk> , but failed the two - point conversion , and the Bears sealed the game with Franklin 's interception to win 34 – 26 . In Cleveland , the Bears started strong after Demontre Hurst intercepted Brian Hoyer 's pass , which led to Robbie Gould 's field goal , followed by Jordan Palmer 's touchdown pass to Joseph Anderson , which Cleveland retaliated with James Michael - Johnson intercepting Trent Edwards and scoring . Late in the game , the Bears led 16 – 9 , and Sherrick McManis intercepted Hoyer , who made up for the pick by throwing a touchdown pass to Dan Gronkowski . Later , <unk> Bryant forced Harvey Unga to fumble , which was recovered by Cleveland 's L. J. Foyt , which led to Spencer Lanning kicking the go - ahead field goal to put the Browns up 18 – 16 . With a little over a minute left in the game , Gould missed a 57 - yarder wide left , giving Cleveland the win . Regular season Transactions Schedule The Bears ' schedule was released on April 18 , 2013 . Aside from the six games against their NFC North rivals , the Bears had the AFC North and NFC East on the schedule , along with two intraconference games against opponents with the same division placing as the Bears in the previous season . As a result , the Bears were assigned the St. Louis Rams and New Orleans Saints . NFL.com ranked the Bears ' schedule as the sixteenth - strongest in the lead , with all opponents having a combined 2012 record of 128 – 127 – 1 , and a winning percentage total of .502 . Game summaries Week 1 : vs. Cincinnati Bengals The Bears kicked off the regular season at home against the Cincinnati Bengals . The game was the teams ' first meeting since 2009 , in which the Bengals won 45 – 10 . Since 2001 , the Bears dropped two of three games to the Bengals , winning 24 – 0 in 2001 , while losing 24 – 7 in 2005 and 45 – 10 in 2009 . The two teams entered with defenses that ranked in the top six in 2012 , but the Bears were ranked 16th in scoring at 23 . 4 points per game and 28th overall on offense , while the Bengals had an average score of 24 . 4 PPG and were 22nd in total offense . Among the Bears ' strategies that should be utilized include trying to protect Jay Cutler , as six of the Bengals ' linemen had combined for 129 career sacks . The Bears ' offensive line allowed 44 sacks in 2012 , and as a result , changed the line by adding veterans Jermon Bushrod and Matt Slauson to supplement Roberto Garza on the left , while rookies Kyle Long and Jordan Mills joined Garza on the right side , marking the first time the Bears offensive line featured two rookies since Jim Covert and Rob Fada in 1983 . The Bears ' defense had to apply pressure to Andy Dalton , whose quick release led to four play - action touchdown passes to A. J. Green in 2013 , the third most in the NFL . Bears ' radio announcer Jeff Joniak wrote , " Marc Trestman owns the element of surprise , a true asset in Week 1 . There is not much tape on Trestman for the Bengals to game plan from . It 's old tape with very different personnel from a different time and place in the NFL . Trestman will try to use this asset to his advantage and a quick strike early in the game will jack up the crowd , and give the team a foundation to build on . " The Bears captains team captains for the season , starting with the Bengals game , were Cutler and Roberto Garza on offense , Lance Briggs and Julius Peppers on defense and Patrick <unk> on special teams . 2013 was <unk> 's sixth consecutive season as captain , the fifth season for Cutler , third for Garza , fourth for Peppers and first for Briggs . Chicago struck first with Charles Tillman intercepting Dalton , which was followed with Cutler 's eight - yard touchdown pass to Martellus Bennett , which the Bengals responded with a two - yard touchdown pass to Green . On the Bengals ' first drive of the second quarter , Green was stripped by Tim Jennings , but the fumble went out of bounds . However , Dalton would be intercepted again by Tillman , his career - high second pick of the game , but the Bears failed to capitalize , and the Bengals scored again on Dalton 's 45 - yard touchdown pass to Greene . The Bears ' Robbie Gould connected on a team record 58 - yard field goal to close out the first half . In the second half , the Bengals scored again , after Tillman was penalized for pass interference , via <unk> Green - Ellis ' 5 - yard touchdown run , which the Bears retaliated with Matt Forté 's one - yard touchdown run . In the fourth quarter , Cutler was intercepted by <unk> <unk> , but the Bears got the ball back after Jennings forced Mohamed Sanu to fumble . On the next drive , the Bears converted a fourth down and Cutler threw the go ahead and eventual game - winning 19 - yard touchdown pass to Brandon Marshall with 8 : 06 remaining . The Bengals failed to score on the next drive with 6 : 38 left , and the Bears clinched the game after Rey Maualuga was called for a personal foul after Michael Bush was stopped on third down . The Bears were able to run out the clock due to Cincinnati mis - using its time - outs . With the win , Trestman became the fourth head coach in franchise history to win his head coaching debut , after George Halas , Neill Armstrong and Dick Jauron . The Bears comeback in the second half marked the first time since 1980 the Bears came back from an 11 - point deficit to win with two touchdown drives of 80 yards or more . The offense allowed zero sacks , the first time the Bears didn 't allow a sack in a season opener since 1998 against the Jacksonville Jaguars . Week 2 : vs. Minnesota Vikings In week two , the Bears donned their 1940s alternate uniforms against rival Minnesota , in the second home game of the season , marking the first time since 1999 that the Bears hosted the first two games of the regular season . During the two games played between the rivals last season , the Bears won the first game 28 – 10 , while the Vikings won the second 21 – 14 . Since 2001 , the Bears led the series 16 – 10 . ESPN writes that the Bears could capitalize on the Vikings ' tendency to turn the ball over , as they gave away the ball to the Detroit Lions four times in week one . Chicago 's defense should also prevent NFL MVP Adrian Peterson , who had been struggling when playing the Bears at Soldier Field . Since 2009 , Peterson has been able to record only 73 rushing yards per game . The Bears fell behind early after Cordarrelle Patterson 's 105 - yard kickoff return for a touchdown . Devin Hester attempted to respond on the ensuing kickoff , but was pushed out of bounds at the Vikings ' 32 - yard line . The Bears fought back with a one - yard touchdown pass by Jay Cutler to Martellus Bennett , which Chicago added to with Cutler 's touchdown pass to Brandon Marshall . In the second quarter , Jared Allen stripped the ball from Cutler , and Brian Robison returned the fumble 61 yards for a touchdown with 7 : 34 to go in the half . Afterwards , Hester returned the kickoff 80 yards to Minnesota 's 23 - yard line . The Bears offense later reached Minnesota 's one - yard line , but Cutler had his pass intercepted by Kevin Williams in the end zone for a touchback . The Vikings failed to capitalize on the turnover after Tim Jennings intercepted Christian Ponder and scored on a 44 - yard interception return . Minnesota retaliated with Ponder 's 20 - yard touchdown pass to Kyle Rudolph with 1 : 11 remaining , and the half ended with the Bears settling for a field goal . In the second half , the Vikings scored two field goals from Blair Walsh to take the 30 – 24 lead . However , the Bears scored on Cutler 's 16 - yard touchdown pass to Bennett , and ultimately prevailed after recovering a fumbled squib kick . The win marked the second time in franchise history that the Bears won their first two games after trailing in the fourth quarter , the first being in 1971 . During halftime , the team honored the 1963 Bears , two days following the death of running back Rick Casares , who was the team 's leading rusher until Walter Payton surpassed him . When asked about Casares , defensive end Ed O <unk> stated , " Oh my God , I think when you talk to my fellow teammates over here , what was all right , true and good about professional football was embodied in Rick Casares . Nobody loved the game more than him . " Week 3 : at Pittsburgh Steelers The Bears travelled to Heinz Field to face the winless Pittsburgh Steelers in their first NBC Sunday Night Football matchup of the season . Pittsburgh had lost the previous week to Cincinnati to fall to 0 – 2 for the first time in 11 years . In the last game between the two in 2009 , the Bears triumphed 17 – 14 . The Bears were the 1 - point favorites ; eight CBSSports.com experts voted on their predictions for the game , with a 5 – 3 result favoring Chicago , while four ESPN analysts predicted that the Steelers would win . One of the goals of the defense was to contain Ben Roethlisberger in the passing pocket , especially as the offensive line suffered the loss of center <unk> Pouncey . Additionally , the Steelers also had the 31st - ranked rushing offense and had yet to score a rushing touchdown , who was expected to regain first - rounder Le 'Veon Bell . Alan Rubenstein of ChicagoNow writes that the Bears should attempt to improve their pass rush , which was only able to record two sacks in the last two games . Marc Trestman cited the weather as a factor for the poor performance , stating , " It ’ s tough to rush the passer in wet weather ... For both sides . It ’ s tough to get a pass rush with a soggy field and a wet field . It ’ s an advantage throwing the football . On a rainy day ( versus ) no rain , really the advantage goes to the offense . Because we can sit back there and protect . And it ’ s really hard to configure a pass rush to get close . " On offense , the Bears should attempt to attack the Steelers ' 14th - ranked rush defense . A key matchup was the WR - CB duel between Brandon Marshall and Ike Taylor ; Taylor contained Bengals receiver A. J. Green , who recorded 162 yards against the Bears in week one , to just six catches for 41 yards in week two . Chicago started the game with Robbie Gould 's field goal , followed by Matt Forté and Michael Bush 's touchdown runs to take a 17 – 0 lead in the first quarter . Pittsburgh then scored on Shaun <unk> 's 27 - yard field goal , but the Bears then scored after Major Wright returned Roethlisberger 's interception 38 yards for a touchdown for the 24 – 3 lead at halftime . In the second half , the Steelers began to rally with Roethlisberger throwing two touchdown passes of 33 and 21 yards to Antonio Brown , followed by <unk> kicking two more field goals to narrow the margin to 27 – 23 . However , Jay Cutler threw a 17 - yard touchdown pass to Earl Bennett ; the pass was initially ruled as incomplete , but was reversed . Eventually , Lance Briggs stripped Roethlisberger , and Julius Peppers returned the fumble 42 yards for a touchdown . Although the eventual extra point by Gould was blocked by Troy Polamalu , the Bears finished the game with Chris Conte intercepting Roethlisberger with 1 : 39 left in the game for the fifth takeaway by Chicago on the night and the 40 – 23 win , dropping the Steelers to 0 – 3 for the first time since 1986 . Week 4 : at Detroit Lions The second divisional game of the year for the 3 – 0 Bears , looking for their first 4 – 0 start in seven seasons , took place at Ford Field against the 2 – 1 Detroit Lions . Since 2001 , the Bears had won 17 of the meetings between the two , compared to Detroit 's 9 . The Bears defense , ranked 19th in scoring defense with 24 . 7 points per game and 25th in yards allowed with 383 . 0 , had to keep up with the Lions ' 4th - ranked offense , who recorded 410 . 7 yards per game 27 . 3 PPG , sixth in the league . The Lions also had running back Reggie Bush return from a knee injury ; Bush had recorded 260 yards and a touchdown in the first two games . However , the Lions ' leading receiver Nate Burleson broke his arm in a car accident , which meant additional focus on Calvin Johnson for the Bears . Expectations were for Charles Tillman to cover Johnson , who was limited by Tillman to 15 catches , no touchdowns and an average of 62 . 3 receiving yards in the last three games . Although Tillman had suffered groin and knee injuries that left him questionable for the game , he was later listed as active against the Lions . However , Johnson recorded 40 catches for 20 + yards in 2012 , and the Bears allowed the Steelers to gain 20 yards or more in nine plays . To attempt to combat Johnson , the Bears switched from the pressure defense run in the first three games to the cover 2 . In the battle on the line of scrimmage , the Bears had to contain Ndamukong Suh and Nick Fairley , while the Lions had to protect Matthew Stafford from Julius Peppers and Corey Wootton . Offensively , the Bears also had to survive the crowd , who helped the Bears commit nine false start penalties in 2011 . Neither team scored a touchdown in the first quarter , instead both scoring field goals , which extended into the first score of the second quarter . Later in the quarter , Matt Forté scored on a 53 - yard run , allowing the Bears to take the 10 – 6 lead . However , after a David Akers field goal , the Lions would score three unanswered touchdowns , all within 3 minutes , 26 seconds : Micheal Spurlock 's 57 - yard punt return led to Matthew Stafford 's 1 - yard run , while Jay Cutler was intercepted by Glover Quin , which set up Stafford 's 2 - yard pass to Calvin Johnson ; finally , the Lions scored after Reggie Bush found a hole and hurdled over Bears ' safety Major Wright en route to a 37 - yard touchdown . The 27 points scored in the quarter was the most by the Lions since September 30 , 2007 against the Bears . The Bears ended the half with a field goal , but continued to trail 30 – 13 . After the Bears kicked a field goal in the third quarter , Cutler was intercepted again , this time by Louis Delmas . However , Chicago regained possession after Stafford 's pass to Johnson was kicked and caught by Wright . Three plays later , Cutler was sacked by Ndamukong Suh , and fumbled ; the ball was picked up by Nick Fairley , who ran four yards for the touchdown . In the fourth quarter , Akers kicked another field goal to put the Lions up 40 – 16 . Afterwards , the Bears began to mount a charge , with Cutler throwing a 14 - yard touchdown pass to Alshon Jeffery with less than four minutes in the game , followed by a two - point conversion on another pass to Jeffery . With 43 seconds remaining , a ten - yard pass to Earl Bennett and a two - point conversion off a throw to Brandon Marshall drew the Bears within eight points , but the eventual onside kick was recovered by Lions receiver Kris Durham , allowing the Lions to clinch the 40 – 32 victory . Statistically , the Bears offense struggled . Cutler completed 27 of 47 passes for 317 yards , two touchdowns , three interceptions and a 65 . 6 passer rating . Cutler 's three interceptions and fumble tied his turnover amount in the first three games . The offense also had trouble on third down ; despite being ranked ninth in third down efficiency , the Bears failed to convert until there were 47 seconds left in the game to end the game converting just 1 of 13 third downs . Week 5 : vs. New Orleans Saints The Bears entered week six against the undefeated New Orleans Saints , the team Marc Trestman and offensive coordinator Aaron Kromer worked for . The previous meeting between the two teams occurred in 2012 , with the Saints winning 30 – 13 . As a result , offensively , the two teams were similar conceptually . For the Bears ' offense , a challenge exists in the Saints ' 3 – 4 defense , which ranked sixth in yards allowed at 304 . 5 per game and fifth in points with 13 . 8 . Additionally , Cameron Jordan and Junior Galette had four and three sacks , respectively , while seven other Saints had a combined total of 12 sacks . Also , Saints tight end Jimmy Graham , the defending NFC Player of the Month , had six touchdowns on the season , and was one touchdown away from tying Mike Ditka and Antonio Gates for the most touchdowns in the first five games by a tight end . Jeff Joniak writes that Soldier Field 's Kentucky bluegrass could also serve as an advantage for the Bears , as Drew Brees was 0 – 4 in Chicago , but those losses occurred in December and January , when the climate was much colder . In the last three meetings in Chicago , the Saints committed a total of nine turnovers ( 4 in the 2006 NFC Championship game , 3 in 2007 , and 2 in 2008 ) , which Joniak considered " may be the only thing slowing down the Saints . " After the Bears punted , Garrett Hartley kicked a 47 - yard field goal . On the ensuing possession , Malcolm Jenkins forced Jay Cutler to fumble , and Cameron Jordan recovered the loose ball and reached the Bears ' 6 - yard line . After failing to score a touchdown , Hartley kicked a 19 - yard field goal . In the second quarter , the Saints scored off Drew Brees ' two - yard screen pass to Pierre Thomas to increase the lead to 13 points . On Chicago 's next drive , the offense traveled 70 yards within eight plays , which ended in Jay Cutler 's three - yard touchdown pass to Alshon Jeffery . The final score of the half was by Thomas , who caught a 25 - yard pass from Brees . In the third quarter , after Hartley kicked a 36 - yard field goal , the Bears traveled 71 yards to the Saints ' 5 - yard line . However , a penalty on Kyle Long for being an ineligible downfield player , followed by three consecutive incomplete passes forced Robbie Gould to kick a 27 - yard field goal . Early in the following quarter , Chicago reached New Orleans ' 25 - yard line , but turned the ball over on downs after Cutler 's pass to Earl Bennett on 4th and 2 was dropped . On the Saints ' next drive , a neutral zone infraction penalty by Lance Briggs on 4th and 1 allowed Hartley to kick a 48 - yard field goal to extend the Saints ' lead to 26 – 10 . However , the Bears attempted to rally , with Cutler throwing three consecutive passes to Jeffery , the final throw going 58 yards to the Saints ' 2 - yard line , where Brandon Marshall scored . Matt Forté 's two - point conversion allowed the Bears to narrow the gap to eight points , but the onside kick was recovered by the Saints . Although the Saints were forced to punt , with 21 seconds remaining , Cutler could only manage to throw a pass to Jeffery which reached the Bears ' 41 - yard line , as time ran out , giving the Saints the 26 – 18 win . The win marked the first time the Saints defeated the Bears in an away game since 2002 , although that game occurred at Memorial Stadium in Champaign , Illinois . Jeffery broke the franchise record for most receiving yards in franchise history with 218 , which surpassed <unk> Hill 's 214 yards against the San Francisco 49ers in 1954 . Meanwhile , Marshall was targeted only five times during the game ( 15 percent of targets on the Bears ) , the lowest since Marshall 's arrival in Chicago ; the Bears fell to 0 – 4 in games when Marshall 's target percentage is less than 20 percent . Week 6 : vs. New York Giants In week six , the Bears and the winless New York Giants met on Thursday night . The Bears and Giants had split the last four meetings since 2004 , with Chicago winning the first two in 2004 and 2006 , but losing in 2007 and 2010 ; they had also won the last four games between the teams at Soldier Field . Among the keys to victory for Chicago was to force turnovers , as the Giants led the league in giveaways with 20 , while the Bears were ranked second in forced turnovers with 14 . Additionally , the Giants had the worst third - down offense , and averaged only 3 . 3 yards per carry . Chicago also had to attack Eli Manning , who had 12 interceptions entering the game , and was sacked 15 times , the fourth - most in the league ; Manning also held a 658 passer rating , one of the lowest in the NFL . However , the Bears ' pass defense allowed 278 . 8 yards per game , which is about 65 yards greater than the previous season 's average . The Giants ' offense was also returning from a strong game the previous week against the Philadelphia Eagles after scoring three touchdowns and 383 yards . On the third play from scrimmage , Zack Bowman intercepted Manning 's pass intended for Rueben Randle at New York 's 36 - yard line and reached the 12 - yard line , but Jay Cutler threw an incomplete pass to Brandon Marshall on fourth - and - two , giving the ball back to the Giants . On the eventual drive for the Giants , Tim Jennings intercepted Manning and scored the first touchdown of the night on a 48 - yard interception return . The Giants eventually scored on Brandon Jacobs ' 4 - yard run after an 80 - yard drive . On the Bears ' next possession , Marshall scored on a 10 - yard touchdown catch , which New York answered with Randle 's 37 - yard touchdown reception . Afterwards , Marshall caught a 3 - yard pass to increase the score to 21 – 14 , which was extended by Robbie Gould 's 40 - yard field goal with two seconds remaining in the half . On the first possession of the second half , Gould scored on a 52 - yarder , his twelfth - consecutive 50 + <unk> field goal , tying Viking Blair Walsh 's record . New York later engineered a 91 - yard drive , which ended in Jacobs scoring on a 1 - yard run . Jacobs ended the night with 106 rushing yards , his first 100 - yard rushing game since week fourteen of 2011 . After getting the ball back , the Giants reached the Bears ' 35 - yard line , but with 1 : 35 to go , Manning 's pass to Brandon Myers was overthrown , and was tipped off his fingers towards Jennings for Manning 's third interception of the night . The Bears ran out the clock to claim the victory , snap their two - game losing streak and gave the Giants their first 0 – 6 start since 1976 . The Bears recorded a season - high 26 first downs , and didn 't allow a sack nor a turnover in a game for the first time since December 23 , 2007 against Green Bay . Week 7 : at Washington Redskins In week seven , the Bears traveled to Landover , Maryland 's FedExField to play the 1 – 4 Washington Redskins . Since 2001 , the Redskins had won five of the previous seven meetings , including the last four games . However , the Redskins were 0 – 2 at home in 2013 , and were hoping to avoid going 0 – 3 at home since 1998 . The Bears ' third - ranked scoring offense was a potential factor against the Redskins ' defense , which allowed 395 . 0 yards and 28 . 6 points per game , two of the worst percentages in the league . On offense , Jeff Joniak writes that Chicago had to protect Jay Cutler and the ball , as Washington 's 3 – 4 defense led to 75 quarterback blitzes , eight sacks , two interceptions , and four touchdowns . On the defensive side , the Bears looked to contain Redskins quarterback Robert Griffin III and the read option . Additionally , the Redskins recorded 399 . 2 yards per game , the fourth best in the NFL . In the special teams phase , the Bears ' 23 kick returns were a league - high , which led to an NFL - leading 24 . 6 yard starting spot . Meanwhile , the Redskins struggled the previous week against the Dallas Cowboys , allowing Dwayne Harris to score on an 86 - yard punt return , and allowing him to return a kickoff 90 yards ; they ranked last in the league in punt coverage with 19 . 1 yards allowed per return and 28th in kickoff coverage with 26 . 4 . In the punting game , Adam Podlesh showed improvement in his punting hang time , with five of 26 punts returned , the second - fewest in the NFL . For Washington , punter Sav Rocca had the lowest gross and net averages in punting , and was one of seven punters to have a punt blocked in 2013 . The Redskins struck first with Kai <unk> 's 38 - yard field goal , which was answered by Robbie Gould 's 47 - yarder . On Washington 's ensuing drive , Griffin was intercepted by Charles Tillman , who returned the pick to the Redskins ' 10 - yard line , which set up Matt Forté 's two - yard touchdown run . In the following quarter , Roy Helu scored on a 14 - yard run to tie the game , and Washington pulled ahead after Brian Orakpo intercepted Cutler , scoring on the 29 - yard return . Cutler later tore a groin muscle after getting sacked by Chris Baker , and Josh McCown took his role . Afterwards , Devin Hester returned a punt 81 yards for the touchdown , tying Deion Sanders ' record for the most return touchdowns all - time with 19 . However , the Redskins ended the first half as the leader after Griffin threw a three - yard touchdown pass to Jordan Reed . On the Bears ' first drive of the second half , Gould missed a field goal wide right , but Chicago compensated for the miss with Forté 's 50 - yard touchdown run . Washington ended the third quarter with Helu 's three - yard touchdown run to lead 31 – 24 . On Chicago 's next drive , the Bears were forced to kick a field goal after blitzes rendered the Bears unable to score a touchdown . Afterwards , the Bears successfully converted an onside kick , but were offsides , and were forced to kick off . Forté scored again on a six - yard run , which Griffin answered with a 45 - yard touchdown pass to Aldrick Robinson . The Bears then pulled ahead with McCown 's seven - yard touchdown pass to Martellus Bennett . With 3 : 57 left , the Redskins successfully reached the Bears ' three - yard line , where Helu scored again with 45 seconds remaining . On the final play of the game , McCown was sacked by Barry Cofield and Ryan Kerrigan , ending the game with a 45 – 41 loss . The game marked the first time in team history that the Bears have allowed 21 points or more in their first seven games , and the first time since 1969 that Chicago has allowed at least 40 points in two consecutive away games . Cutler was projected to be out for the next four weeks , with McCown serving as his replacement . Statistics - wise , Cutler struggled , completing 3 of 8 passes for 28 yards with one interception and an 8 . 3 passer rating , while McCown completed 14 of 20 passes for 204 yards with one TD and a 119 . 6 passer rating . On the ground , Forté became the first Bears running back since <unk> Salaam to score three rushing touchdowns in a game . On defense , James Anderson was the only Bear to record a sack . Week 8 : Bye week The Bears entered their bye week in third in the division behind Green Bay and Detroit . The team was attempting to recover from the injuries suffered by seven players in the previous week against the Redskins . Jay Cutler and Lance Briggs were projected to be out for four weeks , while Brandon Marshall , Alshon Jeffery , Charles Tillman , Major Wright and Blake Costanzo , the other five players hurt , used the bye to heal . Marc Trestman preferred to use the week to rest his players , stating , " I think we did a good thing by letting these guys rest . They came back with a lot of energy [ at practice Monday ] . There was very little rust in terms of executing and getting through the practice . " During Trestman 's tenure with the Montreal Alouettes , the Alouettes were 5 – 4 ( .556 ) in games after bye weeks , and 3 – 1 ( .750 ) in the postseason after byes . At practice on October 28 , rookie Khaseem Greene filled in for Briggs , and was expected to start against the Packers . Greene and fellow rookie Jon Bostic eventually started for the Bears against the Packers . Lorin Cox of Pro Football Central predicted the Bears would finish the second half of the season with a 4 – 5 record , and a final record of 8 – 8 . Week 9 : at Green Bay Packers Coming off their bye week , the Bears traveled to Lambeau Field to play the Green Bay Packers in the 189th meeting between the two rivals . The Bears had struggled regarding scoring against Green Bay in the last nine games between the two prior to 2013 , and including the 2010 NFC title game , had scored 127 points , an average of 14 . 11 points . The two teams entered with among the top three scoring offenses , with Chicago and Green Bay ranked second and third , respectively , with 30 . 4 and 30 . 3 points per game , both of which rank behind the Denver Broncos . Among the weapons of the Packers offense that the Bears must attempt to hinder was the running game , as Green Bay 's rookie running back Eddie Lacy has recorded over 100 yards per game in the previous six during the season , along with quarterback Aaron Rodgers . One of Rodgers ' skills is passing balls longer than 20 yards , and was 16 of 32 on these attempts , which was tied with Russell Wilson of the Seattle Seahawks for the highest percentage in the league ; the Bears allowed 57 percent of opponents to throw for the aforementioned distance , the second - worst score in the NFL . However , both teams ranked in the bottom five in the NFL in pass rush , with the Bears being in last with only nine sacks . For Chicago , Matt Forté had gained 533 yards along with averaging 4 . 6 yards per run , while Josh McCown filled in for Jay Cutler . Since 2009 , Bears quarterbacks besides Cutler had thrown a combined eight touchdowns and 21 interceptions against the Packers ; in McCown 's last start in 2011 against the Packers , he threw for 242 yards , a touchdown and two interceptions in a 35 – 21 losing effort . On the Packers ' first drive , Rodgers failed to recognize the Bears ' zone defense , having expected a man - to - man defense , and Shea McClellin escaped Don Barclay 's block and , along with Isaiah Frey , pulled Rodgers down , who landed on his shoulder and injured his left collarbone , and was replaced by Seneca Wallace for the remainder of the game . Afterwards , Mason Crosby kicked the 30 - yard field goal to give the Packers the lead . On Chicago 's first drive , McCown escaped pressure from Mike Neal and threw towards Brandon Marshall for the 7 – 3 lead . Once the Packers got the ball back , Wallace 's pass for Jordy Nelson was tipped and intercepted by Julius Peppers , and was returned 14 yards to Green Bay 's 45 - yard line , but after the Bears failed to convert on third down , Adam Podlesh 's punt was blocked by Jamari Lattimore . Eventually , James Starks ran 32 yards for the touchdown . However , the Bears traveled 60 yards on two plays , and Forté scored on the 1 - yard run . The Bears ended the first half with Robbie Gould 's 24 - yard field goal to expand the lead to 17 – 10 . In the third quarter , the Packers forced the Bears to punt , and Lacy ran 56 yards to the Bears ' 1 , and scored on the ensuing play . On the eventual kickoff , the Packers successfully attempted a surprise onside kick , which was recovered by Lattimore . Crosby kicked a 23 - yarder on the drive . On the Bears ' next drive , McCown threw a six - yard pass to Alshon Jeffery , whose size kept the ball from being knocked away by Davon House . After both teams exchanged punts in the fourth quarter , on the Bears ' next drive , began attempting to run out the clock . On 4th and 1 at the Bears ' 32 with 7 : 50 remaining , Forté ran three yards for the conversion and continuing the drive , which ended with Gould 's 27 - yard field goal . The drive lasted 18 plays and took up 8 : 58 , leaving only 50 seconds remaining in the game . Despite a 15 - yard pass by Wallace to Nelson , sacks by Corey Wootton and McClellin ended the game with a 27 – 20 victory for the Bears . McCown ended the night completing 22 of 41 passes for 272 yards and two touchdowns , while Wallace completed 11 of 19 for 114 yards and an interception . The win marked the first time the Packers lost at home to an NFC North opponent since 2009 , and the first win for the Bears at Lambeau Field since 2007 . Week 10 : vs. Detroit Lions Week ten featured the Bears attempting to avoid suffering the first sweep by the Lions since 2007 , while also trying to claim the division lead ; the last time the two teams faced each other in a late - season game for the division lead was in 1991 , which ended in a Chicago 20 – 10 win . However , the Bears had won the last five games against the Lions at Soldier Field . On November 7 , Marc Trestman announced that Jay Cutler has been cleared by doctors to return against Detroit , despite having been projected to be out for approximately four weeks . Against the Lions , Cutler was 7 – 2 , and won all four home games . On the offensive side , Jeff Joniak states that the Lions defensive line " are ferocious up the middle , they are physical , and they make you pay for poor technique , " but that " there is growing confidence that the Bears offense is a resilient one ; " the Bears had the fewest pre - snap penalties in the league , and only one false start . The Bears could also seize the Lions ' cornerback corps , which struggled during the season , allowing 11 plays of 40 yards or more , along with 4 . 7 yards per carry . Defensively , Sports Illustrated writers Chris Burke and Doug Farrar wrote the Bears must attempt to hinder Reggie Bush , and improve their performance from the previous week , when the Packers ' running game ran for 190 yards and two touchdowns . The Bears also had to prevent Calvin Johnson from excelling ; against the Dallas Cowboys , Johnson recorded 329 receiving yards . Chicago scored first after Cutler 's 32 - yard touchdown pass to Brandon Marshall capped a 65 - yard drive that took just 2 : 23 . However , the Lions would travel 85 yards to tie on Matthew Stafford 's 5 - yard pass to Kris Durham . In the following quarter , the Bears reached the Lions ' 4 - yard line , but Cutler 's pass was tipped by Ndamukong Suh , and intercepted by DeAndre Levy in the endzone ; both teams would fail to score in the quarter . During the quarter , Cutler began showing signs of struggling due to an ankle injury . In the third quarter , the Lions would score on Stafford 's four - yard touchdown to Johnson . Afterwards , the Bears were forced to settle for a 25 - yard field goal , narrowing the gap to one point . In the fourth , Stafford was intercepted by Chris Conte , who reached Detroit 's 9 - yard line , and Cutler would then throw a 14 - yard touchdown pass to Alshon Jeffery , which was eventually nullified . After an incomplete pass , Gould kicked a 32 - yard field goal to draw the score to 14 – 13 . However , Johnson would catch a 14 - yard pass from Stafford to increase the lead to 21 – 13 , and with 2 : 22 remaining , Josh McCown entered the game in favor of Cutler , and guided the Bears ' offense 74 yards , culminating in McCown 's 11 - yard touchdown pass to Marshall with 40 seconds to go . On the two - point conversion , McCown 's pass to tight end Dante Rosario fell incomplete , but Willie Young was penalized for roughing the passer , allowing the Bears a second chance , which failed after Matt Forté was tackled by Nick Fairley in the backfield . The Bears ' onside kick would backfire , as <unk> Bell recovered , sealing a season sweep for the Lions . Despite stating he was " 100 percent " healthy after the groin injury suffered two games prior , it appeared the injury was still lingering ; after throwing a pass during the third quarter , Cutler fell down and grabbed his groin , before standing back up . Regarding the injuries , Cutler stated , " It held up OK . It 's all on the same leg so I think that was a problem . But the groin , you take the ankle out of the equation and I would have been fine , I think . " Cutler ended the game having completed 21 of 40 passes for 250 yards with a touchdown , interception and a 69 . 8 passer rating . Despite x - rays on his ankle being negative , Cutler was ruled out of the next week 's game against the Baltimore Ravens with a high ankle sprain . During the second quarter , Charles Tillman was also injured , suffering a torn right triceps brachii muscle , and was placed on injured reserve with the designation to return , allowing him to practice after six weeks and play in games two weeks after ; as a result , Tillman missed the entire regular season . Week 11 : vs. Baltimore Ravens Against the Baltimore Ravens in week twelve , the Bears wore their 1940s alternate uniforms . The Bears last played the Ravens in 2009 , which ended with a Baltimore 31 – 7 victory . With Jay Cutler still out , Josh McCown continued to play as quarterback for the Bears , who had the eighth - best passing offense in the league with 261 . 7 yards per game , which competed against the Ravens ' 18th - ranked pass defense . On the ground , the Ravens had the tenth - best rushing D with 102 . 6 rushing yards allowed per game , but offensively , had the 30th - ranked rushing offense , averaging just 73 . 1 yards per game , going against Chicago 's defense which allowed 129 . 4 rushing yards per game . Against Joe Flacco , the Bears had the opportunity to force turnovers , as Flacco had thrown eleven interceptions in the previous nine games . For the Bears on offense , a liability was to protect McCown from Terrell Suggs and Elvis Dumervil , who combined for 17 of 32 sacks by the Ravens . Two parties had the majority favoring the Bears for the game : 10 of 13 ESPN analysts predicted a Bears victory , with Ron Jaworski , Seth Wickersham and Cris Carter being the only three to predict a win for Baltimore . CBS Sports analysts predicted the Ravens would win in a 5 – 4 vote . The Ravens opened the game with Ray Rice gaining a 47 - yard run , his longest of the year up to that point ( his previous highest in 2013 was 14 yards ) , which led to Rice 's 1 - yard run with 9 : 58 in the first . The Ravens added to the score with Justin Tucker 's 52 - yarder , bringing the score to 10 – 0 . With 4 : 51 left in the first quarter , the game was suspended due to inclement weather , which included a tornado watch , which was eventually elevated to a tornado warning . Fans were ordered to evacuate the stands and enter the covered concourses , while the teams returned to the locker rooms . The evacuation marked the first time Soldier Field had an evacuation since the stadium 's opening in 1921 . The game resumed play at 3 : 25 p.m. ET , after a 1 - hour , 53 minute - delay . In the second quarter , Robbie Gould kicked a 20 - yard field goal , and eventually , rookie defensive end David Bass escaped a chop block by Rice and intercepted Flacco , scoring on a 24 - yard return and tying the game . The Ravens eventually scored on Torrey Smith 's five yard touchdown catch , and after Flacco had a pass intercepted by Jon Bostic , Gould ended the half kicking a 46 - yarder . After a scoreless third period , Matt Forté caught a 14 - yard pass from McCown and scored with 10 : 33 in the fourth , the Bears finally taking the lead 20 – 17 . Now behind by three , the Ravens engineered an 82 - yard drive to Chicago 's 2 - yard line , but Rice failed to score twice , and a botched snap from Gino <unk> slowed down the Ravens , and Flacco 's pass towards Smith was overthrown . As a result , the Ravens resorted to a 21 - yard field goal with three seconds in regulation to force overtime . In overtime , Flacco 's pass for Tandon Doss fell incomplete , and the Ravens punted to the Bears . McCown then completed a 43 - yard pass to Martellus Bennett , and Gould kicked the game - winning 38 - yard field goal with 8 : 41 remaining to win the game 23 – 20 , which lasted five hours , 16 minutes . Week 12 : at St. Louis Rams The Bears visited Edward Jones Dome in St. Louis to play the Rams , again without Jay Cutler . However , the Rams were also without starting quarterback Sam Bradford , and instead had Kellen Clemens as backup . The Bears had won four consecutive games against the Rams . Two rookie players the Bears ' defense had to contain were running back Zac Stacy , who recorded an average of 107 . 7 yards and three touchdowns in the previous three games , along with ranking second among rookie running backs with 537 rushing yards ; and receiver Tavon Austin , who recorded 314 yards against the Indianapolis Colts in the previous week . Additionally , the Rams ' offense was ranked fourth in the NFL with 54 . 6 percent of yardage occurring after the catch . For the Bears ' offense , Jeff Joniak wrote they needed to avoid attempting to score in the red zone ; in the previous three games , the Bears had 12 drives in the red zone , but managed to score only four touchdowns , while also allowing a turnover , and was ranked 13th after scoring 55 percent . Meanwhile , the Rams had forced quarterbacks to record only a 45 . 8 passer rating when in the red zone , along with the second lowest completion percentage , and the third fewest completions recorded . Also , St. Louis led the league in red zone interceptions with six . Finally , the Rams led the league in overall sack percentage with 9 . 4 , while defensive end Robert Quinn had the most knockdowns and hurries in the NFL , and was second in sacks with 12 . An advantage Chicago had , however , was the second - most passing touchdowns in the NFL with 15 , while Josh McCown 's average gain per pass is higher than Cutler 's , with a 7 . 47 to 7 . 20 . The Rams also did not have the capable secondary to cover the trio of Martellus Bennett , Alshon Jeffery and Brandon Marshall . St. Louis scored first on Austin 's 65 - yard run , and would reclaim the ball after James <unk> stripped Matt Forté , leading to Stacy 's one - yard touchdown run . The Bears would then score on McCown 's seven - yard touchdown pass to Bennett , but the Rams ended the quarter with a 21 – 7 lead after Clemens ' six - yard touchdown pass to Jared Cook . In the second quarter , McCown threw an incomplete pass , which appeared to be a fumble , and after Rams cornerback <unk> Johnson picked up the ball , Bears fullback Tony Fiammetta pulled him to the ground by the facemask . Kyle Long would then be involved in an incident with Rams defensive lineman William Hayes , which led to Long kicking Hayes , causing Long 's brother Chris Long to restrain Kyle , who would then be penalized for a personal foul . McCown and Fiammetta would also be penalized , for intentional grounding and <unk> , respectively . Halfway through the quarter , Chicago scored after McCown threw a three - yard pass to Marshall , but Greg Zuerlein would score on a 29 - yard field goal to give the Rams a 24 – 14 lead at halftime . The lone score of the third quarter was Zuerlein 's 40 - yard kick . Early in the fourth quarter , Hester recorded a 62 - yard punt return for a touchdown , which was overruled by Craig <unk> 's holding <unk> the Bears reached the Rams ' one - yard line , but required eight plays : Michael Bush 's run went for no gain ; McCown 's pass to Jeffery was incomplete , but a holding penalty on Brandon McGee gave the Bears a first down ; Bush lost two yards on the following run ; McCown 's touchdown pass to Bennett was nullified by Jermon Bushrod 's holding penalty ; McCown 's 13 - yard touchdown pass to Forté was also nullified , after Forté failed to break the plane , instead placing the Bears back on the one - yard line ; McCown was then sacked by Michael Brockers , but Brockers was penalized for roughing the passer ; Bush failed to gain a yard on the next play ; the Bears finally scored on the drive on Bush 's one - yard run . On the Rams ' ensuing drive , Benny Cunningham gained 27 yards , while the offense gained 48 yards from Clemens ' 19 and 29 yards passes to Chris Givens and Cook , respectively . Four plays later , Cunningham scored on a nine - yard run , while Isaiah <unk> scored on the two - point conversion . Devin Hester would fumble on the following kickoff , but recovered at the Bears ' ten - yard line . After the Bears ' offense reached their own 39 - yard line , Quinn stripped McCown , and scored on the following fumble return . The game marked the third time the Bears allowed 40 points during the season for the first time since 1964 . McCown set the team record for most completions with 36 , two greater than Jim Miller 's and Brian Griese 's 34 set on November 14 , 1999 and September 30 , 2007 , respectively . Forté recorded 77 yards in the game , adding to 6 , 178 career rushing yards , surpassing Neal Anderson to become the second - highest rushing leader in team history . The Bears ' defense recorded the second - worst defensive output in 2013 , with a negative - 11 . 4 , making the team 's defense the second - worst in the NFL . Week 13 : at Minnesota Vikings In week thirteen , the Bears visited the Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome to play the Vikings , whom the Bears trailed 50 – 53 – 2 in the all - time series . Josh McCown was given the start for the third straight week , with an expectation that Jay Cutler would return the following week . McCown entered the game having a 65 . 5 completion percentage for 1 , 106 yards , seven touchdowns , an interception , and a 100 . 8 passer rating . As a result , McCown had an advantage over the Vikings ' pass defense , which ranked 29th in the league with 282 passing yards allowed , while also allowing quarterbacks to record a 65 completion percentage , 40 attempts per game , and a 97 . 7 passer rating . Also , the Vikings allowed 31 . 5 points per game , the worst in the NFL , while recording only 14 turnovers . However , the Bears ' defense was a weakness , ranking last in rushing yards allowed per game ( 145 . 2 ) , total yards ( 1 , 597 ) and first - downs allowed ( 89 ) ; the defense was 31st in the NFL in yards per carry ( 4 . 9 ) , first - down percentage ( 27 . 1 ) and 20 - plus yard runs ( 12 ) . Additionally , the defense allowed running backs in the previous five games to rush for 999 yards , average 5 . 8 yards per carry , and 197 yards per game . Adrian Peterson ran for an average of 108 yards per game in his career against the Bears , including 120 . 6 in the last three meetings between the two . Minnesota 's rushing game also ran for a year - best 232 yards in the previous week . Cutler , Lance Briggs , Major Wright , Anthony Walters , James Brown , Jonathan Scott , and Cornelius Washington were inactive for the Bears . In the first quarter , McCown had a pass intercepted by Chad Greenway , but an offsides penalty on Robert Blanton nullified the play ; the drive would end with the only score of the first quarter via Robbie Gould 's 30 - yard field goal . In the second quarter , Cordarrelle Patterson 's 33 - yard touchdown run gave the Vikings the lead ; Gould would subsequently kick a 40 - yard field goal . Before the half ended , Christian Ponder suffered from symptoms of a concussion and left . On the Bears ' first drive of the second half , McCown threw an 80 - yard touchdown pass to Alshon Jeffery . After the Vikings responded with Blair Walsh 's 32 - yard field goal , Jeffery caught a 46 - yard touchdown pass over Viking cornerback Chris Cook to give Chicago the lead 20 – 10 ; Cook would eventually be ejected from the game for shoving side judge Laird Hayes . On Minnesota 's first possession of the final quarter , Matt Cassel threw an eight - yard touchdown to Greg Jennings , and on Chicago 's next drive , McCown 's flip pass for Kyle Long was deflected and stripped by Audie Cole , with Marvin Mitchell recovering . Despite starting the drive in the Bears ' red zone and reaching the six - yard line , Cassel 's pass for Rhett Ellison was tipped and intercepted by Khaseem Greene . After the Bears punted , Cassel fumbled on the first play , but recovered . Afterwards , the Vikings drove from their own six - yard line to the Bears ' 12 , where Walsh tied the game with a 30 - yard field goal , making the score 20 – 20 . On the final play of regulation , Gould 's attempted 66 - yard field goal fell short . In overtime , the Bears ' opening drive ended after McCown was sacked by Jared Allen and fumbled , with Jermon Bushrod recovering , prompting the Bears to punt . On the Vikings ' first drive of the period , Walsh 's 39 - yard field goal was overruled by Ellison 's <unk> penalty ; Walsh would miss the eventual 57 - yarder . The Bears would reach the Vikings ' 29 - yard line , and on second down , Gould missed the 47 - yard kick wide right . The Vikings would reach Chicago 's 16 - yard line , allowing Walsh to kick the game - winning 34 - yard field goal . Marc Trestman received criticism for calling Gould to attempt the 47 - yard field goal on second down , with the Chicago Sun - Times calling the choice " an indefensible case of playing scared . " Trestman responded by stating he did not want to lose a fumble or suffer a penalty . Jeffery set the team record for the most receiving yards in one game with 249 , surpassing his previous record set against the Saints in week 5 . Week 14 : vs. Dallas Cowboys The Bears announced on May 24 , 2013 , that they would retire former tight end and head coach Mike Ditka 's number 89 jersey at the Bears - Cowboys halftime ceremony . The number was the last to be retired by the organization , with team chairman George McCaskey stating , " If there is going to be a last one , there is no more appropriate one than 89 . " During the ceremony , players from the 1985 Bears congratulated Ditka through messages on the <unk> . Ditka concluded his speech by saying , " Thank you , thank you , thank you . Go Bears ! " The two teams had split their meetings 2 – 2 since 2004 , Dallas winning in 2004 and 2007 , and Chicago winning in 2010 and 2012 . Among the players the Bears had to contain is Cowboys running back DeMarco Murray , who averaged 5 yards per carry . The Bears had the worst - ranked rushing defense in the league with 153 . 6 yards allowed per game , but the Cowboys ranked last in rushing attempts with 249 . ESPN Chicago 's Michael C. Wright writes that the Bears could use its sixth - ranked passing offense to attack the Cowboys ' 31st - ranked passing defense , which has allowed 294 . 9 yards per game . The Cowboys ' defense also allowed a league - worst 422 yards per game . Dallas opened the game with a 12 - play , 75 - yard drive ending with Tony Romo 's 2 - yard touchdown pass to Dez Bryant . The Bears scored the final touchdown of the first quarter on Josh McCown 's 4 - yard pass to Earl Bennett , the result of a 78 - yard drive . With 8 : 58 left in the first half , McCown scored on a 7 - yard run to take the lead 14 – 7 , which the Cowboys answered with Romo 's 10 - yard pass to Jason Witten . After Robbie Gould kicked a 27 - yard field goal , the Bears scored again after McCown threw a 25 - yard touchdown pass to Alshon Jeffery , who caught the ball over B. W. Webb in the back of the endzone with 0 : 17 left in the half . On the first drive of the third quarter , Gould kicked a 34 - yard field goal , which was bolstered by Matt Forté 's 5 - yard touchdown catch and Brandon Marshall scoring on a 2 - point conversion to increase the score to 35 – 14 . In the fourth quarter , Michael Bush scored on a 17 - yard touchdown reception , and the Cowboys responded with a 9 - yard touchdown catch by Cole Beasley . Gould eventually kicked a 23 - yarder , while the Cowboys scored Joseph Randle 's 1 - yard run with six seconds to go . On the ensuing onside kick , the ball was recovered by Marshall , and McCown ran the clock out to seal the 45 – 28 win . Week 15 : at Cleveland Browns Jay Cutler made his return to action against the 4 – 9 Cleveland Browns , a move that was criticized by fans . In November , a poll conducted by the Chicago Sun - Times revealed that fans favored Josh McCown with 66 . 87 percent , with Cutler earning 29 . 31 percent . On December 9 , ESPN analyst Skip Bayless tweeted , " As much as I 've supported Vanderbilt 's own Jay Cutler , I must admit Josh McCown runs this offense like he owns it . " Bleacher Report 's <unk> Ames stated that although Cutler is the better quarterback , his injury tendencies and inability to play a full season since 2009 had affected him , along with the statistics comparison between the two quarterbacks : Cutler has recorded 1 , 908 yards , 13 touchdowns and eight interceptions , while McCown has thrown for 1 , 809 yards , 13 touchdowns and one interception . However , Brandon Marshall defended Cutler 's status as the starter , stating : McCown also acknowledged his backup position on the team , and told the Chicago Tribune , " The way that I serve my team is to play when the starter is not healthy . Jay is our starting quarterback , there is no doubt about that . " Seven CBS Sports analysts predicted a Bears victory , with Pete Prisco being the only one to favor the Browns . Jeff Joniak stated that the Bears had to attack the Browns ' 3 – 4 defense , who ranked third in yards per pass attempt allowed at 5 . 32 , with their fifth - ranked passing offense . Chicago 's wide receiver duo of Marshall and Alshon Jeffery should also be utilized , as Joe Haden and Buster <unk> are at a size mismatch ( Marshall is 5 inches and 40 pounds larger than Haden , while Jeffery is 6 inches and 30 pounds heavier than <unk> ) . Browns offensive coordinator Ray Horton commented , " This team , Chicago , is a lot like Detroit in that they have weapons at every position . Brandon Marshall and Alshon Jeffery have the most catches in the league . They have the most combined yards in the league . They are both , in our mind , No. 1 receivers . They present a challenge that you can ’ t double everybody . You can ’ t roll up to one guy because the other guy ’ s open . " On defense , the Bears had to contain Josh Gordon and Jordan Cameron . Gordon ranks second in yards after catch , while leading all receivers with 71 for an average of 19 . 7 yards . Cameron leads all tight ends with 23 third down catches . The Bears ' worst - ranked run defense also has to defend against the Browns , which had the third - fewest rushing attempts in the league with 290 with an average of 3 . 78 yards , which is one of the bottom six in the league . The Bears ' opening drive ended at Cleveland 's 14 - yard line when Cutler had his pass tipped in the endzone by T. J. Ward and intercepted by <unk> Gipson . The Browns then scored on Billy <unk> 's 35 - yard field goal , which was tied by Robbie Gould kicking a 23 - yarder . Eventually , the Bears reached the Browns ' 24 - yard line on another drive , and after a penalty on Alshon Jeffery forced the Bears to kick a 46 - yard field goal , the score was nullified by Corey Wootton 's holding penalty , forcing Chicago to punt . With 8 : 01 in the first half , Cutler was again intercepted by Gipson , who returned the pick 44 yards for a touchdown and the 10 – 3 lead . With 24 seconds remaining in the half , Cutler connected on a 5 - yard touchdown pass with Marshall to close the half at 10 – 10 . Cutler ended the first half with 13 of 19 passes completed for 168 yards , a touchdown and two interceptions . Early in the third quarter , Jason Campbell 's pass for Greg Little was intercepted by Zack Bowman and returned 43 yards for the score . Cleveland 's Edwin Baker eventually scored his first career NFL touchdown on a 2 - yard run , and the Browns added to the score when Billy Winn punched the ball from Martellus Bennett , and Ward returned the fumble 52 yards for the 24 – 17 advantage . Eventually , Cutler guided the Bears from their own 5 - yard line , culminating in a 45 - yard touchdown pass to Jeffery after Gipson made an ill - timed leap and Julian Posey being unable to interrupt the play with 10 : 59 remaining . With 5 : 41 left in the game , Cutler threw a 5 - yard pass to Earl Bennett to take the 31 – 24 lead , which was extended by Michael Bush on a 40 - yard touchdown run . Cutler 's touchdown pass to Bennett was the twenty - ninth passing touchdown of the season , which ties the team record set in 1947 and 1995 . With 1 : 03 to go , Campbell threw a 43 - yard touchdown pass to Josh Gordon , but the Bears recovered the ensuing onside kick to seal the victory , 38 – 31 . The win marked the third time since 1970 that the Bears won all four games against an AFC division , and the first since 1986 . The following night , the Bears would jump to first place of the NFC North after the Lions were defeated by the Ravens . The Bears had the opportunity to clinch the division in week sixteen by defeating the Philadelphia Eagles , in addition to losses by the Packers and Lions . Week 16 : at Philadelphia Eagles Chicago entered week sixteen with a chance to clinch the NFC North in the event that the Packers and Lions lost . The Packers and Lions eventually lost to the Steelers and Giants , respectively , putting the Bears in position to win the division by defeating the Eagles . The last game between the Bears and Eagles was in 2011 , when the Bears won 30 – 24 ; the Bears also lead the all - time series 30 – 12 – 1 , though the Eagles had won six of the last ten meetings . However , the Bears had won four of five meetings between the two teams in the last six years , but all by less than six points . One of the Bears ' keys to victory is to prevent LeSean McCoy from dominating ; the Bears had the worst run defense in the league , while McCoy leads the league in rushing . Chicago 's defense also must contain the Eagles ' fast - scoring offense : the Eagles had the lowest average time of possession per drive at 2 : 24 , while the league average is 3 : 27 . Philadelphia also is the only team in the league to score in fewer than seven plays per drive . In the passing game , Chicago had the fourth - best passing offense , while the Eagles were 26th in pass defense . However , the Eagles are ranked sixth in rushing defense . The Bears fell behind early in the first quarter when Nick Foles threw a 5 - yard touchdown pass to Riley Cooper with 9 : 54 to go , followed by Devin Hester getting the ball stripped on the ensuing kickoff and Cary Williams recovering the loose ball . LeSean McCoy eventually scored on a 1 - yard run with 7 : 44 in the first , and Philadelphia added to the scoring with Foles throwing a 10 - yard touchdown pass to Brent <unk> . After Alex Henery kicked a 49 - yard field goal , the Bears scored their first points of the game with Robbie Gould 's 50 - yard field goal on the last play of the first half . In the second half , the Eagles scored off a safety after Cedric Thornton tackled Matt Forté . Philadelphia scored again after McCoy recorded another rushing touchdown . The Bears scored their first touchdown after Jay Cutler threw a 6 - yard pass to Brandon Marshall , followed by a two - point conversion off Cutler 's pass to Earl Bennett . With 11 : 19 remaining , Chris Polk scored on a 10 - yard run to increase the score to 40 – 11 , added by Brandon Boykin intercepting Cutler and scoring on a 54 - yard return . Afterwards , Josh McCown filled in for Cutler . The Eagles scored again after Bryce Brown ran 65 yards for the touchdown to make the final score 54 – 11 , the biggest blowout since a 47 – 0 loss to the Houston Oilers in 1977 and the second - most points allowed in team history , behind a 55 – 20 loss to Detroit in 1997 . The Bears failed to score 18 points for the first time in 2013 , while allowing a season - high five sacks . Chicago also allowed two 100 - yard rushers in the same game for the first time since 1976 against the Denver Broncos , with Norris Weese ( 120 yards ) and Ottis Anderson ( 116 yards ) guiding the Broncos to 28 – 14 win . After the game , Marc Trestman stated , " We are a team that was ready to play this game and we played a terrible football game for lack of a better word . I 'm not going to use any word other than that . We were terrible in all three phases . We didn 't play well in any phase of football . " Week 17 : vs. Green Bay Packers In the season - ender against the Packers for the NFC North title , Aaron Rodgers made his return to action for the first time since week 9 against the Bears , who intend to sweep the Packers for the first time since 2007 . The Packers had fallen to 2 – 5 – 1 without Rodgers , and entered the game with a 7 – 7 – 1 record . However , Green Bay did not have Clay Matthews in the lineup , which ESPN wrote could provide an advantage for Jay Cutler , who had a 1 – 8 record against the Packers . The Packers had won seven of the last nine games between the rivals , while winning 21 – 13 in 2012 's game at Soldier Field ; Green Bay had won the last three games at Soldier Field . Rodgers ' absence had improved the Packers ' rushing offense , which ranked seventh with 131 . 7 yards per game , which played against the Bears ' worst - ranked rush defense , having allowed 161 . 5 rushing yards per game , 25 . 6 yards greater than the 31st - ranked team . Also , the Bears had allowed 5 . 4 rushing yards per carry , the worst in the league since the 1961 Vikings . For the Bears ' offense , the team had to utilize Matt Forté against a Packers defense that allowed 4 . 61 yards per run . Quarterbacks against the Packers had a 95 . 5 passer rating , recording 7 . 70 yards per pass , and a 1 . 9 interception percentage . However , the offensive line had to protect Cutler against the pass rush , with Green Bay ranked eighth in the NFL with 43 sacks , with 25 of them from blitzes . The game marked the first time since the NFL realigned with eight divisions in 2002 that the NFC North did not feature a division champion with at least ten wins . The Packers were the favorite by − 3 . After the Bears punted on the opening drive , the Packers reached Chicago 's five - yard line , but Rodgers was intercepted by Chris Conte . Chicago scored on the following possession with Forté 's four - yard run . In the second quarter , Rodgers was intercepted by Tim Jennings . After the Packers scored on Mason Crosby 's 33 - yard field goal , Devin Hester fumbled on the kickoff , but recovered ; the Bears would be forced to punt . After Green Bay reached Chicago 's 17 - yard line , Rodgers was hit by Julius Peppers , with the ball leaving his hand as his arm went forward ; the players did not attempt to recover the ball , as if it was an incompletion , but the referees did not consider the play dead . Jarrett Boykin subsequently picked up the ball , and scored on the play . On the Bears ' next drive , Cutler 's pass to Alshon Jeffery was stripped by <unk> Williams , and was recovered by Morgan Burnett . Crosby scored the final score of the first half with a 27 - yard field goal . In the third quarter , the Bears regained the lead with Forté 's five - yard touchdown run . Both teams exchanged scores on the next two drives of the game , with the Packers scoring on Rodgers ' seven - yard touchdown throw to Randall Cobb , followed by Forté 's one - yard touchdown run , ending the quarter with the Bears leading 21 – 20 . On the first play of the final quarter , Cutler threw a five - yard touchdown pass to Brandon Marshall , which the Packers retaliated with Eddie Lacy 's six - yard touchdown run . After the Bears punted , the Packers reached the Bears ' 48 - yard line with 48 seconds left . Defensive coordinator Mel Tucker called a blitz , but Conte failed to apply man - to - man coverage , allowing Cobb to score the game - winning touchdown . However , the Packers failed the two - point conversion , making the score 33 – 28 . The Bears received the ball with 38 seconds left , and reached the Packers ' 45 - yard line , where Cutler 's Hail Mary pass for Marshall was intercepted by Sam Shields as time expired . The season marked the sixth time in the previous seven years the Bears missed the playoffs . Despite forcing two turnovers , the Bears defense allowed the Packers to record 473 yards , convert 9 of 18 third down plays , a 35 : 09 time of possession and run 76 plays in comparison to Chicago 's 49 . Standings Division Conference Statistics Statistically , the Bears offense greatly improved from its 2012 counterpart . The 2013 offense ended the year with the second - best scoring offense with 445 points , behind the Denver Broncos ; the previous year ranked 16th at 375 total points and 23 . 4 PPG . The 2012 team also was ranked 29th in passing yards with 2999 , while the following year improved to fifth with <unk> yards . The offense also broke team records in total yards ( 6 , 109 ) , passing yards ( 4 , 450 ) , passing touchdowns ( 32 ) , first downs ( 344 ) and passer rating ( 96 . 9 ) , while falling short of the 1985 team 's record of points scored in a season by 11 , ending with 445 . However , the defense struggled mightily throughout the season , ranking 30th in the NFL , with injuries ending the seasons of five players : defensive tackles Henry Melton and Nick Collins , cornerbacks Kelvin Hayden and Charles Tillman , and linebacker D. J. Williams . After having the fifth - ranked defense in the league in 2012 , the team allowed franchise - records in yards allowed with 6 , 313 , rushing yards allowed ( 2 , 583 ) and points with 478 in 2013 ( also ranking 29th in the NFL in points allowed per game with 29 . 9 ) , while allowing a league - worst 5 . 35 rushing yards per carry ; the Bears were the only team in the NFL to allow five yards per carry during the year . In third - down stops , the Bears ranked 25th . Additionally , the defense tied the Jacksonville Jaguars for the fewest sacks in the league with 31 . Regarding the defense , Chicago Tribune writer Steve Rosenbloom wrote , " Under Angelo and Smith , the Bears couldn 't win enough games where they needed only three offensive touchdowns . Under Emery and Trestman , the Bears couldn 't win enough games where they needed to hold opponents to only three offensive touchdowns . " Position reviews Together , quarterbacks Jay Cutler and Josh McCown broke team records in touchdown passes , passing yards , completion percentage and passer rating with 32 , 4 , 450 , 64 . 4 and 96 . 9 , respectively . Individually , in eleven games , Cutler completed 63 . 1 percent of his passes for 2 , 621 yards with 19 touchdowns , 12 interceptions and a career - high 89 . 2 passer rating . In the other five games , McCown completed 66 . 8 percent of passes for 1 , 829 yards , 13 touchdowns , an interception and a 109 passer rating , which ranked third in the NFL behind Denver 's Peyton Manning and Philadelphia 's Nick Foles . Running back Matt Forte had 1 , 339 rushing yards , a career - high , while wide receivers Brandon Marshall and Alshon Jeffery had 1 , 200 receiving yards each , as the Bears became the first team to accomplish the feat since the 2002 Buffalo Bills . Marshall was also ranked the best receiver by Pro Football Focus with a score of 37 . 8 , 13 . 1 higher than Green Bay 's Jordy Nelson . The offensive line was also drastically changed from its 2012 counterpart , allowing the fourth - lowest sacks in the league with 30 , compared to allowing the eighth - most in 2012 with 44 . On special teams , Robbie Gould tied his team record for the highest field goal percentage with 89 . 7 by converting 26 of 29 field goals . Gould also became the second player in franchise history to reach 1 , 000 career points during the season . However , punter Adam Podlesh ranked 33rd in the league in gross average punting yards with 40 . 6 . In comparison with his 2012 stats , Podlesh was 18th in the league in net punting average with 39 . 4 yards , 34 punts landing inside the 20 - yard line with 6 touchbacks . In 2013 , he dropped to 29th in the former category with 37 . 9 yards , 27 punts inside the 20 and four fewer touchbacks . The punting corps also ranked last in the league in gross punting with 40 yards . In the return game , Devin Hester led the league in kickoff return yards with 1 , 442 and was fifth in kickoff return average with 27 . 7 yards . Linebacker Blake Costanzo led all Bears gunners with 17 tackles . Cornerback Sherrick McManis ranked second with 15 , followed by safety Craig <unk> ( 14 ) , receiver Eric Weems ( 13 ) and safety Anthony Walters ( 10 ) . Ultimately , the Bears ' special teams ranked 23rd in the NFL , leading the league in kickoff coverage after allowing 18 . 7 yards per return . Awards and records Awards On December 27 , Brandon Marshall and Matt Forte were named to the 2014 Pro Bowl , the fewest number of Bears sent since 2009 , when two were also sent , and the first time a Bears defensive player was not invited since 2004 . On January 14 , 2014 , Marshall and Forte were named to the Pro Football Writers Association 's All - NFC Team . On January 3 , 2014 , the Associated Press released its annual All - Pro team , with no Bears named . On January 9 , 2014 , Alshon Jeffery was named to the Pro Bowl after an injury to Calvin Johnson . Jeffery was later named the PFWA 's Most Improved Player on January 17 . On January 20 , Tim Jennings and Kyle Long were named to the Pro Bowl , replacing Richard Sherman of the Seattle Seahawks , who advanced to Super Bowl XLVIII and Mike <unk> suffered an injury , respectively . Long 's invitation marked the first time a Bears rookie was invited since special teamer Johnny Knox in 2009 , and the first offensive rookie since Gale Sayers in 1965 . The four offensive Pro Bowlers are the most sent by the Bears since 1985 , when Jim McMahon , Walter Payton , Jay Hilgenberg and Jim Covert were invited to the game . Forte , Marshall and Jeffery 's invitations also marked the first time since 1985 the Bears sent multiple skill position players , and the most sent by the team since 1963 with Bill Wade , Joe Marconi and Mike Ditka . Forte , Marshall and Jeffery were eventually drafted in the fantasy draft by Team Rice , while Long and Jennings were assigned to Team Sanders . In the 22 – 21 victory for Team Rice , Forte ran for 31 yards on six attempts while catching three passes for 24 yards . Jeffery and Marshall recorded two and one catch for 22 and 21 yards , respectively . For Team Sanders , Jennings recorded three tackles , while Long assisted in shoving Cam Newton into the endzone . On January 8 , 2014 , Long was named to the Pro Football Focus All - Rookie Team . On January 15 , Gil Brandt named Long to the NFL.com All - Rookie Team . On January 24 , Josh McCown and Matt Slauson were named to the USA Today All - Joe Team , which honors players who have never been invited to a Pro Bowl . Prior to the 3rd Annual NFL Honors , Matt Forte was nominated for FedEx Ground Player of the Year against Philadelphia 's LeSean McCoy and Kansas City 's Jamaal Charles , but lost to McCoy . During the show , Charles Tillman was awarded the Walter Payton NFL Man of the Year Award for his charitable work in the Chicago area . Weekly awards In week two against the Vikings , Devin Hester was named NFC Special Teams Player of the Week on September 18 . In week nine against the Packers , Shea McClellin recorded three sacks , and was named NFC Defensive Player of the Week on November 6 . After scoring five touchdowns in week fourteen against the Cowboys , the most by a Bears quarterback since Jack Concannon in 1972 , Josh McCown was named the NFC Offensive Player of the Week on December 11 . Records Team Season The Bears offense broke four team records in 2013 : the most total yards with 6 , 109 , the most passing yards with 4 , 450 , the most passing touchdowns with 32 , and the most first downs with 344 . The defense set three franchise records during the season , which included allowing the most yards in team history with 6 , 313 , along with the most rushing yards allowed with 2 , 583 , and the most points allowed with 478 . Individual Game In week one against the Bengals , Robbie Gould kicked and made the longest field goal attempt in franchise and Soldier Field history with a 58 - yard attempt made in week one against the Bengals . In week two , Devin Hester set a franchise record for the most kick return yards in a game with 249 kickoff return yards against the Vikings . The previous record of 225 yards was also held by Hester . In week thirteen against Minnesota , Alshon Jeffery broke the franchise record for the most receiving yards in a game . Staff Final roster
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Foster - Payne House Foster - Payne House is a historic house at 25 Belmont Street in Pawtucket , Rhode Island . Built in 1878 , the two - story multi - gabled house is distinguished by its clapboarded and exterior woodwork and opulent parlors in the interior . The property also has a matching carriagehouse with gable roof and copula . The house was originally constructed and owned by Theodore Waters Foster , but it was sold to George W. Payne in 1882 . The Foster - Payne House is architecturally significant as a well - designed and well - preserved late 19th century suburban residence . It was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1983 . History The house was built in 1878 for Theodore Waters Foster , born on May 19 , 1847 , to Chauncey Foster and Ophelia Remington . He was educated in Pawtucket and joined the Rhode Island Cavalry in 1863 . He served in the American Civil War under Nathaniel P. Banks in the Red River Campaign . In 1873 , he formed a jewelry - manufacturing partnership with Walter E. White and Samuel H. Baily , named White , Foster & Company . After White retired in 1878 , the company was renamed Foster & Bailey . During this time , Foster constructed the house and lived in it for a period of four years , commuting to his place of business in Providence , Rhode Island . Foster would continue to be successful in his jewelry manufacturing business and his son , Theodore Clyde Foster , would succeed him upon his death in 1928 . In 1882 , Theodore Foster sold the home to George W. Payne , the owner of the G. W. Payne & Company . Design Constructed in 1878 , the Foster - Payne House is a two - story home with a low - pitched multi - gabled roof . The house has a single story open porch on the western side , a kitchen ell that projects from the rear and a single - story bay window that projects from the western bay of the front facade . The house is distinguished by its clapboard exterior and wooden trim under the gable peaks , the window trim and the porch brackets . There are three types of windows used on the house , single and paired one - over - one windows and two - over - two windows . The small foyer on the western entry porch leads to the main stairhall that features a gently curving staircase with turned balusters and a curving rail . The first floor rooms are arranged in an " L " pattern on the southern and eastern sides with the kitchen placed on the northern ell . The interior of one room , not specified in the NRHP nomination , has been altered with a pressed tin ceiling . The second floor of the home was not described in the NRHP nomination . The interior of the rooms display late Victorian details , with the front parlor having a carved marble mantlepiece , a molded central ceiling medallion and a painted ceiling with scroll - work . The back parlor has a marbleized slate mantlepiece with an over - mounted mirror in a Renaissance Revival frame . On the back edge of the lot is a two - story clapboarded carriagehouse with a Victorian cupola . This structure was not described in the NRHP nomination , but a photo from 2013 shows the cupola has been damaged . Significance The Foster - Payne House is architecturally significant as a well - designed and well - preserved late 19th century suburban residence , with excellent interior detail and a matching carriagehouse . The area in which it is located was situated in an upper - class suburban area , but since the late 19th - century commercial and industrial buildings have entered the area . The property was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1983 .
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Edward III of England Edward III ( 13 November 1312 – 21 June 1377 ) was King of England from 25 January 1327 until his death ; he is noted for his military success and for restoring royal authority after the disastrous and unorthodox reign of his father , Edward II . Edward III transformed the Kingdom of England into one of the most formidable military powers in Europe . His long reign of fifty years was the second longest in medieval England and saw vital developments in legislation and government — in particular the evolution of the English parliament — as well as the ravages of the Black Death . Edward was crowned at age fourteen after his father was deposed by his mother and her lover Roger Mortimer . At age seventeen he led a successful coup against Mortimer , the de facto ruler of the country , and began his personal reign . After a successful campaign in Scotland he declared himself rightful heir to the French throne in 1337 but his claim was denied due to the Salic law . This started what would become known as the Hundred Years ' War . Following some initial setbacks the war went exceptionally well for England ; victories at Crécy and Poitiers led to the highly favourable Treaty of Brétigny . Edward 's later years , however , were marked by international failure and domestic strife , largely as a result of his inactivity and poor health . Edward III was a temperamental man but capable of unusual clemency . He was in many ways a conventional king whose main interest was warfare . Admired in his own time and for centuries after , Edward was denounced as an irresponsible adventurer by later Whig historians such as William Stubbs . This view has been challenged recently and modern historians credit him with some significant achievements . Early life Edward was born at Windsor Castle on 13 November 1312 , and was often referred to as Edward of Windsor in his early years . The reign of his father , Edward II , was a particularly problematic period of English history . One source of contention was the king 's inactivity , and repeated failure , in the ongoing war with Scotland . Another controversial issue was the king 's exclusive patronage of a small group of royal favourites . The birth of a male heir in 1312 temporarily improved Edward II 's position in relation to the baronial opposition . To bolster further the independent prestige of the young prince , the king had him created Earl of Chester at only twelve days of age . In 1325 , Edward II was faced with a demand from the French king , Charles IV , to perform homage for the English Duchy of Aquitaine . Edward was reluctant to leave the country , as discontent was once again brewing domestically , particularly over his relationship with the favourite Hugh Despenser the Younger . Instead , he had his son Edward created Duke of Aquitaine in his place and sent him to France to perform the homage . The young Edward was accompanied by his mother Isabella , who was the sister of King Charles , and was meant to negotiate a peace treaty with the French . While in France , however , Isabella conspired with the exiled Roger Mortimer to have the king Edward deposed . To build up diplomatic and military support for the venture , Isabella had Prince Edward engaged to the twelve - year - old Philippa of Hainault . An invasion of England was launched and Edward II 's forces deserted him completely . The king was forced to relinquish the throne to his son on 25 January 1327 . The new king was crowned as Edward III on 1 February 1327 . It was not long before the new reign also met with other problems caused by the central position at court of Roger Mortimer , who was now the de facto ruler of England . Mortimer used his power to acquire noble estates and titles , and his unpopularity grew with the humiliating defeat by the Scots at the Battle of Stanhope Park and the ensuing Treaty of Edinburgh – Northampton , signed with the Scots in 1328 . Also the young king came into conflict with his guardian . Mortimer knew his position in relation to the king was precarious and subjected Edward to disrespect . The tension increased after Edward and Philippa , who had married at York Minster on 24 January 1328 , had a son on 15 June 1330 . Eventually , Edward decided to take direct action against Mortimer . Aided by his close companion William Montagu and a small number of other trusted men , Edward took Mortimer by surprise at Nottingham Castle on 19 October 1330 . Mortimer was executed and Edward III 's personal reign began . Early reign Edward III was not content with the peace agreement made in his name , but the renewal of the war with Scotland originated in private , rather than royal initiative . A group of English magnates known as The Disinherited , who had lost land in Scotland by the peace accord , staged an invasion of Scotland and won a great victory at the Battle of Dupplin Moor in 1332 . They attempted to install Edward Balliol as king of Scotland in David II 's place , but Balliol was soon expelled and was forced to seek the help of Edward III . The English king responded by laying siege to the important border town of Berwick and defeated a large relieving army at the Battle of Halidon Hill . Edward reinstated Balliol on the throne and received a substantial amount of land in southern Scotland . These victories proved hard to sustain , however , as forces loyal to David II gradually regained control of the country . In 1338 , Edward was forced to agree to a truce with the Scots . One reason for the change of strategy towards Scotland was a growing concern for the relationship between England and France . As long as Scotland and France were in an alliance , the English were faced with the prospect of fighting a war on two fronts . The French carried out raids on English coastal towns , leading to rumours in England of a full - scale French invasion . In 1337 , Philip VI confiscated the English king 's duchy of Aquitaine and the county of Ponthieu . Instead of seeking a peaceful resolution to the conflict by paying homage to the French king , the way his father had done , Edward responded by laying claim to the French crown as the grandson of Philip IV . The French , however , invoked the Salic law of succession and rejected his claim . Instead , they upheld the rights of Philip IV 's nephew , King Philip VI ( an agnatic descendant of the House of France ) , thereby setting the stage for the Hundred Years ' War ( see family tree below ) . In the early stages of the war , Edward 's strategy was to build alliances with other Continental princes . In 1338 , Louis IV named Edward vicar - general of the Holy Roman Empire and promised his support . As late as 1373 , the Anglo - Portuguese Treaty of 1373 established an Anglo - Portuguese Alliance . These measures , however , produced few results ; the only major military victory in this phase of the war was the English naval victory at Sluys on 24 June 1340 , which secured English control of the Channel . Meanwhile , the fiscal pressure on the kingdom caused by Edward 's expensive alliances led to discontent at home . The regency council at home was frustrated by the mounting national debt , while the king and his commanders on the Continent were angered by the failure of the government in England to provide sufficient funds . To deal with the situation , Edward himself returned to England , arriving in London unannounced on 30 November 1340 . Finding the affairs of the realm in disorder , he purged the royal administration of a great number of ministers and judges . These measures did not bring domestic stability , however , and a stand - off ensued between the king and John de Stratford , Archbishop of Canterbury , during which Stratford 's relatives Robert Stratford Bishop of Chichester and Henry de Stratford were temporarily stripped of title and imprisoned respectively . Stratford claimed that Edward had violated the laws of the land by arresting royal officers . A certain level of conciliation was reached at the parliament of April 1341 . Here Edward was forced to accept severe limitations to his financial and administrative freedom , in return for a grant of taxation . Yet in October the same year , the king repudiated this statute and Archbishop Stratford was politically ostracised . The extraordinary circumstances of the April parliament had forced the king into submission , but under normal circumstances the powers of the king in medieval England were virtually unlimited , a fact that Edward was able to exploit . Historian Nicholas Rodger called Edward III 's claim to be the " Sovereign of the Seas " into question , arguing there was hardly any Royal Navy before the reign of Henry V ( 1413 – 22 ) . Although Rodger may have made this claim , the reality was that King John had already developed a royal fleet of galleys and had attempted to establish an administration for these ships and ones which were arrested ( privately owned ships pulled into royal / national service ) . Henry III , his successor , continued this work . Notwithstanding the fact that he , along with his predecessor , had hoped to develop a strong and efficient naval administration , their endeavours produced one that was informal and mostly ad hoc . A formal naval administration emerged during Edward 's reign which was composed of lay administrators and headed by William de <unk> , Matthew de Torksey , and John de <unk> successively with them being titled , Clerk of the King 's Ships . Sir Robert de <unk> was the last to fill this position during Edward III 's reign and would have the longest tenure in this position . It was during his tenure that Edward 's naval administration would become a base for what evolved during the reigns of successors such as Henry VIII of England 's Council of Marine and Navy Board and Charles I of England 's Board of Admiralty . Rodger also argues that for much of the fourteenth century , the French had the upper hand , apart from Sluys in 1340 and , perhaps , off Winchelsea in 1350 . Yet , the French never invaded England and France 's King John II died in captivity in England . There was a need for an English navy to play a role in this and to handle other matters , such as the insurrection of the Anglo - Irish lords and acts of piracy . Fortunes of war By the early 1340s , it was clear that Edward 's policy of alliances was too costly , and yielded too few results . The following years saw more direct involvement by English armies , including in the Breton War of Succession , but these interventions also proved fruitless at first . A major change came in July 1346 , when Edward staged a major offensive , sailing for Normandy with a force of 15 , 000 men . His army sacked the city of Caen , and marched across northern France , to meet up with English forces in Flanders . It was not Edward 's initial intention to engage the French army , but at Crécy , just north of the Somme , he found favourable terrain and decided to fight an army led by Philip VI . On 26 August , the English army defeated a far larger French army in the Battle of Crécy . Shortly after this , on 17 October , an English army defeated and captured King David II of Scotland at the Battle of Neville 's Cross . With his northern borders secured , Edward felt free to continue his major offensive against France , laying siege to the town of Calais . The operation was the greatest English venture of the Hundred Years ' War , involving an army of 35 , 000 men . The siege started on 4 September 1346 , and lasted until the town surrendered on 3 August 1347 . After the fall of Calais , factors outside of Edward 's control forced him to wind down the war effort . In 1348 , the Black Death struck England with full force , killing a third or more of the country 's population . This loss of manpower led to a shortage of farm labour , and a corresponding rise in wages . The great landowners struggled with the shortage of manpower and the resulting inflation in labour cost . To curb the rise in wages , the king and parliament responded with the Ordinance of Labourers in 1349 , followed by the Statute of Labourers in 1351 . These attempts to regulate wages could not succeed in the long run , but in the short term they were enforced with great vigour . All in all , the plague did not lead to a full - scale breakdown of government and society , and recovery was remarkably swift . This was to a large extent thanks to the competent leadership of royal administrators such as Treasurer William Edington and Chief Justice William de <unk> . It was not until the mid - 1350s that military operations on the Continent were resumed on a large scale . In 1356 , Edward 's eldest son , Edward , the Black Prince , won an important victory in the Battle of Poitiers . The greatly outnumbered English forces not only routed the French , but captured the French king , John II and his youngest son , Philip . After a succession of victories , the English held great possessions in France , the French king was in English custody , and the French central government had almost totally collapsed . There has been a historical debate as to whether Edward 's claim to the French crown originally was genuine , or if it was simply a political ploy meant to put pressure on the French government . Regardless of the original intent , the stated claim now seemed to be within reach . Yet a campaign in 1359 , meant to complete the undertaking , was inconclusive . In 1360 , therefore , Edward accepted the Treaty of Brétigny , whereby he renounced his claims to the French throne , but secured his extended French possessions in full sovereignty . Later reign While Edward 's early reign had been energetic and successful , his later years were marked by inertia , military failure and political strife . The day - to - day affairs of the state had less appeal to Edward than military campaigning , so during the 1360s Edward increasingly relied on the help of his subordinates , in particular William Wykeham . A relative upstart , Wykeham was made Keeper of the Privy Seal in 1363 and Chancellor in 1367 , though due to political difficulties connected with his inexperience , the Parliament forced him to resign the chancellorship in 1371 . Compounding Edward 's difficulties were the deaths of his most trusted men , some from the 1361 – 62 recurrence of the plague . William Montague , Earl of Salisbury , Edward 's companion in the 1330 coup , died as early as 1344 . William de Clinton , who had also been with the king at Nottingham , died in 1354 . One of the earls created in 1337 , William de Bohun , Earl of Northampton , died in 1360 , and the next year Henry of Grosmont , perhaps the greatest of Edward 's captains , succumbed to what was probably plague . Their deaths left the majority of the magnates younger and more naturally aligned to the princes than to the king himself . Increasingly , Edward began to rely on his sons for the leadership of military operations . The king 's second son , Lionel of Antwerp , attempted to subdue by force the largely autonomous Anglo - Irish lords in Ireland . The venture failed , and the only lasting mark he left were the suppressive Statutes of Kilkenny in 1366 . In France , meanwhile , the decade following the Treaty of Brétigny was one of relative tranquillity , but on 8 April 1364 John II died in captivity in England , after unsuccessfully trying to raise his own ransom at home . He was followed by the vigorous Charles V , who enlisted the help of the capable Constable Bertrand du <unk> . In 1369 , the French war started anew , and Edward 's younger son John of Gaunt was given the responsibility of a military campaign . The effort failed , and with the Treaty of Bruges in 1375 , the great English possessions in France were reduced to only the coastal towns of Calais , Bordeaux , and Bayonne . Military failure abroad , and the associated fiscal pressure of constant campaigns , led to political discontent at home . The problems came to a head in the parliament of 1376 , the so - called Good Parliament . The parliament was called to grant taxation , but the House of Commons took the opportunity to address specific grievances . In particular , criticism was directed at some of the king 's closest advisors . Chamberlain William Latimer and Steward of the Household John Neville were dismissed from their positions . Edward 's mistress , Alice Perrers , who was seen to hold far too much power over the ageing king , was banished from court . Yet the real adversary of the Commons , supported by powerful men such as Wykeham and Edmund de Mortimer , Earl of March , was John of Gaunt . Both the king and the Black Prince were by this time incapacitated by illness , leaving Gaunt in virtual control of government . Gaunt was forced to give in to the demands of parliament , but at its next convocation , in 1377 , most of the achievements of the Good Parliament were reversed . Edward himself , however , did not have much to do with any of this ; after around 1375 he played a limited role in the government of the realm . Around 29 September 1376 he fell ill with a large abscess . After a brief period of recovery in February 1377 , the king died of a stroke at Sheen on 21 June . He was succeeded by his ten - year - old grandson , King Richard II , son of the Black Prince , since the Black Prince himself had died on 8 June 1376 . Achievements of the reign Legislation The middle years of Edward 's reign were a period of significant legislative activity . Perhaps the best - known piece of legislation was the Statute of Labourers of 1351 , which addressed the labour shortage problem caused by the Black Death . The statute fixed wages at their pre - plague level and checked peasant mobility by asserting that lords had first claim on their men 's services . In spite of concerted efforts to uphold the statute , it eventually failed due to competition among landowners for labour . The law has been described as an attempt " to legislate against the law of supply and demand " , which made it doomed to fail . Nevertheless , the labour shortage had created a community of interest between the smaller landowners of the House of Commons and the greater landowners of the House of Lords . The resulting measures angered the peasants , leading to the Peasants ' Revolt of 1381 . The reign of Edward III coincided with the so - called Babylonian Captivity of the papacy at Avignon . During the wars with France , opposition emerged in England against perceived injustices by a papacy largely controlled by the French crown . Papal taxation of the English Church was suspected to be financing the nation 's enemies , while the practice of provisions – the Pope providing benefices for clerics – caused resentment in the English population . The statutes of <unk> and <unk> , of 1350 and 1353 respectively , aimed to amend this by banning papal benefices , as well as limiting the power of the papal court over English subjects . The statutes did not , however , sever the ties between the king and the Pope , who were equally dependent upon each other . Other legislation of importance includes the Treason Act of 1351 . It was precisely the harmony of the reign that allowed a consensus on the definition of this controversial crime . Yet the most significant legal reform was probably that concerning the Justices of the Peace . This institution began before the reign of Edward III but , by 1350 , the justices had been given the power not only to investigate crimes and make arrests , but also to try cases , including those of felony . With this , an enduring fixture in the administration of local English justice had been created . Parliament and taxation Parliament as a representative institution was already well established by the time of Edward III , but the reign was nevertheless central to its development . During this period , membership in the English baronage , formerly a somewhat indistinct group , became restricted to those who received a personal summons to parliament . This happened as parliament gradually developed into a bicameral institution , composed of a House of Lords and a House of Commons . Yet it was not in the upper , but in the lower house that the greatest changes took place , with the expanding political role of the Commons . Informative is the Good Parliament , where the Commons for the first time – albeit with noble support – were responsible for precipitating a political crisis . In the process , both the procedure of impeachment and the office of the Speaker were created . Even though the political gains were of only temporary duration , this parliament represented a watershed in English political history . The political influence of the Commons originally lay in their right to grant taxes . The financial demands of the Hundred Years ' War were enormous , and the king and his ministers tried different methods of covering the expenses . The king had a steady income from crown lands , and could also take up substantial loans from Italian and domestic financiers . To finance warfare on Edward III 's scale , however , the king had to resort to taxation of his subjects . Taxation took two primary forms : levy and customs . The levy was a grant of a proportion of all moveable property , normally a tenth for towns and a fifteenth for farmland . This could produce large sums of money , but each such levy had to be approved by parliament , and the king had to prove the necessity . The customs therefore provided a welcome supplement , as a steady and reliable source of income . An " ancient duty " on the export of wool had existed since 1275 . Edward I had tried to introduce an additional duty on wool , but this unpopular <unk> , or " unjust exaction " , was soon abandoned . Then , from 1336 onwards , a series of schemes aimed at increasing royal revenues from wool export were introduced . After some initial problems and discontent , it was agreed through the Ordinance of the Staple of 1353 that the new customs should be approved by parliament , though in reality they became permanent . Through the steady taxation of Edward III 's reign , parliament – and in particular the Commons – gained political influence . A consensus emerged that in order for a tax to be just , the king had to prove its necessity , it had to be granted by the community of the realm , and it had to be to the benefit of that community . In addition to imposing taxes , parliament would also present petitions for redress of grievances to the king , most often concerning misgovernment by royal officials . This way the system was beneficial for both parties . Through this process the commons , and the community they represented , became increasingly politically aware , and the foundation was laid for the particular English brand of constitutional monarchy . Chivalry and national identity Central to Edward III 's policy was reliance on the higher nobility for purposes of war and administration . While his father had regularly been in conflict with a great portion of his peerage , Edward III successfully created a spirit of camaraderie between himself and his greatest subjects . Both Edward I and Edward II had been limited in their policy towards the nobility , allowing the creation of few new peerages during the sixty years preceding Edward III 's reign . The young king reversed this trend when , in 1337 , as a preparation for the imminent war , he created six new earls on the same day . At the same time , Edward expanded the ranks of the peerage upwards , by introducing the new title of duke for close relatives of the king . Furthermore , Edward bolstered the sense of community within this group by the creation of the Order of the Garter , probably in 1348 . A plan from 1344 to revive the Round Table of King Arthur never came to fruition , but the new order carried connotations from this legend by the circular shape of the garter . Polydore Vergil tells of how the young Joan of Kent , Countess of Salisbury – allegedly the king 's favourite at the time – accidentally dropped her garter at a ball at Calais . King Edward responded to the ensuing ridicule of the crowd by tying the garter around his own knee with the words <unk> soit qui mal y pense – shame on him who thinks ill of it . This reinforcement of the aristocracy must be seen in conjunction with the war in France , as must the emerging sense of national identity . Just as the war with Scotland had done , the fear of a French invasion helped strengthen a sense of national unity , and nationalise the aristocracy that had been largely Anglo - Norman since the Norman conquest . Since the time of Edward I , popular myth suggested that the French planned to extinguish the English language , and as his grandfather had done , Edward III made the most of this scare . As a result , the English language experienced a strong revival ; in 1362 , a Statute of Pleading ordered the English language to be used in law courts , and the year after , Parliament was for the first time opened in English . At the same time , the vernacular saw a revival as a literary language , through the works of William Langland , John Gower and especially The Canterbury Tales by Geoffrey Chaucer . Yet the extent of this Anglicisation must not be exaggerated . The statute of 1362 was in fact written in the French language and had little immediate effect , and parliament was opened in that language as late as 1377 . The Order of the Garter , though a distinctly English institution , included also foreign members such as John IV , Duke of Brittany and Sir Robert of Namur . Edward III – himself bilingual – viewed himself as legitimate king of both England and France , and could not show preferential treatment for one part of his domains over another . Assessment and character Edward III enjoyed unprecedented popularity in his own lifetime , and even the troubles of his later reign were never blamed directly on the king himself . Edward 's contemporary Jean Froissart wrote in his Chronicles that " His like had not been seen since the days of King Arthur " . This view persisted for a while but , with time , the image of the king changed . The Whig historians of a later age preferred constitutional reform to foreign conquest and discredited Edward for ignoring his responsibilities to his own nation . In the words of Bishop Stubbs : Edward III was not a statesman , though he possessed some qualifications which might have made him a successful one . He was a warrior ; ambitious , unscrupulous , selfish , extravagant and ostentatious . His obligations as a king sat very lightly on him . He felt himself bound by no special duty , either to maintain the theory of royal supremacy or to follow a policy which would benefit his people . Like Richard I , he valued England primarily as a source of supplies . — William Stubbs , The Constitutional History of England Influential as Stubbs was , it was long before this view was challenged . In a 1960 article , titled " Edward III and the Historians " , May McKisack pointed out the teleological nature of Stubbs ' judgement . A medieval king could not be expected to work towards the future ideal of a parliamentary monarchy ; rather his role was a pragmatic one — to maintain order and solve problems as they arose . At this , Edward III excelled . Edward had also been accused of endowing his younger sons too liberally and thereby promoting dynastic strife culminating in the Wars of the Roses . This claim was rejected by K.B. McFarlane , who argued that this was not only the common policy of the age , but also the best . Later biographers of the king such as Mark Ormrod and Ian Mortimer have followed this historiographical trend . However , the older negative view has not completely disappeared ; as recently as 2001 , Norman Cantor described Edward III as an " avaricious and sadistic thug " and a " destructive and merciless force . " From what is known of Edward 's character , he could be impulsive and temperamental , as was seen by his actions against Stratford and the ministers in 1340 / 41 . At the same time , he was well known for his clemency ; Mortimer 's grandson was not only absolved , but came to play an important part in the French wars , and was eventually made a Knight of the Garter . Both in his religious views and his interests , Edward was a conventional man . His favourite pursuit was the art of war and , in this , he conformed to the medieval notion of good kingship . As a warrior he was so successful that one modern military historian has described him as the greatest general in English history . He seems to have been unusually devoted to his wife , Queen Philippa . Much has been made of Edward 's sexual licentiousness , but there is no evidence of any infidelity on the king 's part before Alice Perrers became his lover , and by that time the queen was already terminally ill . This devotion extended to the rest of the family as well ; in contrast to so many of his predecessors , Edward never experienced opposition from any of his five adult sons . Issue Ancestry Relationship to French monarchs Edward 's claim on the French throne was based on his descent from King Philip IV of France , through his mother Isabella .
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Red Lips " Red Lips " is a song recorded by American recording artist Sky Ferreira for her second extended play ( EP ) Ghost ( 2012 ) . It was released on July 17 , 2012 by Capitol Records . The song was written and produced by Greg Kurstin , with additional songwriting provided by Shirley Manson . " Red Lips " is a pop rock song that describes the emotional deterioration of an individual that Ferreira disliked . It differs from the previous electropop styles displayed in her earlier works ; this was deliberately done to prevent Ferreira from being branded in a similar fashion as recording artist Britney Spears , which she felt that Capitol Records had intended to do . Despite Ghost itself garnering mixed reviews , " Red Lips " received generally favorable reviews from music critics , who complimented its overall production . However , the track failed to impact any national record charts . An accompanying music video for " Red Lips " was directed by Terry Richardson , and was premiered through Richardson 's YouTube channel on June 12 , 2012 . Critics directed their commentaries towards Ferreira 's increasingly risqué public persona , shifting from the more innocent image with which she launched her career . Background and composition With her debut studio album having been frequently delayed throughout the early 2010s , Ferreira released her second extended play Ghost on October 2 , 2012 while simultaneously continuing production of her full - length record . " Red Lips " appears as the fourth of five songs on the track listing ; a preview of the song was first released through YouTube earlier that February . " Red Lips " was later heard on the television series Gossip Girl , during the episode " Save the Last Chance " from its sixth and final season on November 26 . " Red Lips " was written and produced by Greg Kurstin , with additional songwriting provided by Shirley Manson . Ferreira first collaborated with Kurstin on her demo track " Femme Fatale " , and first came into contact with Manson through her Myspace profile which she had been uploading her music on . They were concerned that her record label intended to brand her like recording artist Britney Spears ; these conversations prompted Manson to offer Ferreira the track " Red Lips " . She made lyrical adjustments to remove slang commonly used in British English , including the term " taking a piss " , to better suit the American Ferreira . The track incorporates pop rock musical styles , becoming a departure from the electropop elements explored in her earlier tracks ; it additionally incorporates elements of grunge music , which was popularized in the 1990s . " Red Lips " also includes prominent guitar instrumentation , which Michael Cragg from The Guardian felt signaled a musical transition for Ferreira ; he further compared the song to the works of the band Yeah Yeah Yeahs . Bradley Stern from MuuMuse noted that the blending of " intimidating stabs of guitars and a wicked drum pulse " showcased " the acidic side of Sky ’ s attitude " . Ferreira stated that the lyrics for " Red Lips " were intended as a narrative of the emotional breakdown of " a very specific person or a type [ that ] always made me feel uncomfortable " . In October 2012 , DJ Com Truise released a synthpop remix of " Red Lips " , which a writer for Fact felt complimented the songs on his debut studio album Galactic Melt ( 2011 ) . The DSL Remix of the original track is included in the soundtrack album of the feature film Vampire Academy : Blood Sisters ( 2014 ) . Critical reception " Red Lips " received generally favorable reviews from music critics , who complimented its overall production . Writing for Consequence of Sound , Tony Hardy offered a favorable review and appreciated the grunge music elements seen throughout the track , despite opining that its parent extended play Ghost ( 2012 ) lacked a creative focus . Michael Cragg from The Guardian recognized the track as a " welcome return for Sky Ferreira " , and compared it to the works of the band Garbage , which songwriter Shirley Manson is a member of . Bradley Stern from MuuMuse shared a similar sentiment , elaborating that the track " plays like the unofficial sequel " to " Cherry Lips " by the band . Jon Caramanica from The New York Times drew comparisons to the tracks " Owner of a Lonely Heart " by Yes and " In Bloom " by Nirvana . Writing for Pitchfork Media , Katherine St. Asaph appreciated that Ferreira " fares better and sounds far more comfortable " on tracks including " Red Lips " , which she felt that Ferreira " [ sells ] with a distant , almost tossed - off vocal . " However , in a more mixed review , a writer for Tiny Mix Tapes was disappointed that Ferreira came across as an " imitation " of Avril Lavigne and Fefe Dobson on the track . Music video An accompanying music video for " Red Lips " was directed by Terry Richardson . She went into its filming open - minded in regards to its concept , and ultimately agreed with the creative direction that Richardson proposed . The final product was premiered through Richardson 's YouTube channel on June 12 , 2012 ; it later appeared on Ferreira 's Vevo channel on July 13 . The clip sees Ferreira , dressed in underwear , applying lipstick on her entire face , and is interspersed with footage of its co - star , the spider " Toby the Tarantula " , crawling across her body . She stated that her wardrobe was intended to complement the simplistic nature of the music video , rather than an attempt to create sex appeal . Critics directed their commentaries of the music video towards Ferreira 's increasingly risqué public persona , shifting from the more innocent image with which she launched her career . A writer from MuuMuse provided a favorable review , comparing it to the visuals for " Criminal " by Fiona Apple and summarizing that " Sky Ferreira is cooler than anything you and I could ever be . " Becky Bain from Idolator stated that the appearance of Toby the Tarantula was " somehow nowhere near as disconcerting as the image of Sky , looking washed out with platinum hair against a white background , crazily painting her face with a tube of red lipstick . " Michael Cragg of The Guardian felt that Ferreira 's friendship with the controversial Richardson showcased a " shift away from the pop princess she felt she was being moulded into " , and commented that the spider was " not for the faint - hearted " . Track listing Release history
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Caffo Caffo was a sixth - century Christian in Anglesey , north Wales , who is venerated as a saint and martyr . The son of a king from northern Britain who took shelter in Anglesey , Caffo was a companion of St Cybi , and is mentioned as carrying a red - hot coal in his clothes to Cybi without his clothes getting burnt . After leaving Cybi , Caffo was killed by shepherds in the south of Anglesey , possibly acting in retaliation for insults Caffo 's brother had paid to the local ruler . The area where he died has a village , Llangaffo , named after him , as well as the parish church of St Caffo , Llangaffo . Life and martyrdom Little is known for certain about Caffo ; his dates of birth and death are not given in the sources . He is said to have been one of the sons of St Caw , a king in northern Britain who lost his lands and sought safety with his family in Anglesey ; the ruler Maelgwn Gwynedd gave him land in the north - east of the island , in the district known as Twrcelyn . Other relatives of Caffo included his uncles St Iestyn and St <unk> ( brothers of Caw ) , his sister St Cwyllog and various brothers including St Gildas ( although the number of his siblings varies from 10 to 21 in different manuscripts ) . Caffo was a companion and cousin of St Cybi , a Christian from Cornwall who was active in the mid - 6th century . Cybi established himself in Anglesey within a disused Roman fort in what is now called Holyhead : the town 's Welsh name is <unk> , or " Cybi 's fort " ) . Caffo is mentioned in connection with Cybi in a manuscript written in about 1200 , which contains two accounts of Cybi 's life . Caffo is not mentioned in the accounts of Cybi 's life until an incident when he was sent to fetch fire from a blacksmith . He returned to Cybi carrying a red - hot coal in his clothes , which were not burnt . At some point , Cybi and Caffo parted company , possibly because of a disagreement between them , but possibly because his brother Gildas had insulted Maelgwn , who then forced Cybi to dismiss Caffo – both versions appear in the manuscript accounts . Thereafter , Caffo moved towards the south of Anglesey , where he was killed by shepherds from the area now called Newborough , perhaps avenging the insult on their king . Commemoration The area of Caffo 's death became known at some point as Llangaffo , and a church was established there : the Welsh word " llan " originally meant " enclosure " and then " church " , and " <unk> " is a modified form of the saint 's name . It is thought that there may have at one point been a monastery in this location , known as " Merthyr Caffo " ( Merthyr being the Welsh word for " martyr " ) . Caffo is venerated as a saint , although he was never canonized by a pope : as the historian Jane Cartwright notes , " In Wales sanctity was locally conferred and none of the medieval Welsh saints appears to have been canonized by the Roman Catholic Church " . It is uncertain when the name " Llangaffo " was first used or when the first church was established here , but it was before 1254 , when the church and community were recorded in the Norwich Taxation ( a national survey of church names and property ) . There is still a church dedicated to Caffo in the village , used for worship by the Church in Wales . Caffo is reported to have had a bubbling " holy well " in the area , called <unk> Caffo ( " Caffo 's cauldron " ) or Ffynnon Caffo ( " Caffo 's well " ) . Parents would offer fowls to be eaten by the attendant priest , in order to stop their children from <unk> . A nearby farm is still named after the well , although the well itself has been lost .
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Great Raid of 1840 The Great Raid of 1840 was the largest raid ever mounted by Native Americans on white cities in what is now the United States . It followed the Council House Fight , in which Republic of Texas officials attempted to capture and take prisoner 33 Comanche chiefs who had come to negotiate a peace treaty , killing them together with two dozen of their family and followers . The Texas Officials were determined to force the Comanche to release all white captives among them . To avenge what the Comanche viewed as a bitter betrayal by the Texans , the Comanche war chief Buffalo Hump raised a huge war party of many of the bands of the Comanche , and raided deep into white - settled areas of Southeast Texas . Buffalo Hump gathers the tribes Main article Buffalo Hump . Comanche War Chief Buffalo Hump was determined to do more than merely complain about what the Comanches viewed as a bitter betrayal . Spreading word to the other bands of Comanches that he was raiding the white settlements in revenge , Buffalo Hump led the Great Raid of 1840 . Buffalo Hump gathered a huge raiding party , at least 400 warriors , with wives and young boys along to provide comfort and do the work . Altogether as many as a thousand Comanche may have set out from West Texas on the Great Raid . On this raid the Comanches went all the way from the plains of west Texas to the cities of Victoria and Linnville on the Texas coast . In what may have been the largest organized raid by the Comanches to that point , they raided and burned these towns and plundered at will . Victoria is the first town attacked The huge war party crossed into central Texas and first attacked the town of Victoria , August 6 . Although rangers had found the tracks of a gigantic war party coming out of West Texas , and were shadowing the onrushing Comanches , part of the war party broke off and attacked Victoria before the citizens could be warned . One resident wrote , " We of Victoria were startled by the apparitions presented by the sudden appearance of six hundred mounted Comanches in the immediate outskirts of the village . " The citizens of Victoria hid in the buildings , and the Comanches , after killing a dozen or so townspeople and riding up and down , departed Victoria when rifle fire from the buildings began to make the riding dangerous . The war party intended to gather horses and loot the coastal towns , which were not as prepared for the Comanches as the central Texas cities . After the attack on Victoria , the Comanches camped the night of August 6 on nearby Spring Creek . The Sack of Linnville Leaving Victoria August 7 , the Comanches continued on toward Linnville camping the night on Placido ( now <unk> ) Creek on the ranch of Plácido Benavides , about twelve miles from Linnville . Early August 8 , 1840 , the Comanches surrounded the small port of Linnville , Texas , which was the second largest port in the Republic of Texas at the time , and began pillaging the stores and houses . Linnville , which is now a ghost town , was located 3 . 5 miles northeast of present - day Port Lavaca . The Comanches reportedly killed three whites , including customs officer Hugh Oran Watts , who had delayed his escape to retrieve a gold watch at his home ( reportedly a family heirloom ) . After killing Watts , the Comanche captured his wife of only three weeks , the former Juliet Constance , and a black woman and child . Realizing that the plains Indians would have no experience on water , the townspeople fled prudently from the Comanche raiders to the safety of the water . They were saved by remaining aboard small boats and a schooner captained by William G. Marshall , which was at anchor in the bay . While safe in the water , the refugees witnessed the destruction and looting of their town , unable to do a thing except curse impotently . For that entire day the Comanches plundered and burned buildings , draping themselves grandly in top hats and stolen linens . They tied feather beds and bolts of cloth to their horses , and dragged them . They herded large numbers of cattle into pens and slaughtered them . One outraged citizen , Judge John Hays , grabbed a gun and waded ashore through the shallow water , and roared at the bemused warriors , but the Indians chose to spare him , believing him mad . He later found that he had waded ashore to face nearly a thousand Indians with an unloaded pistol , as if that one weapon could have made a difference . At the time of the Great Raid , many trade goods were en route from overseas to New Orleans , Louisiana to San Antonio , Texas and Austin , Texas ; a total inventory valued at over $ 300 , 000 was reported to be at Linnville at that moment , including an undisclosed amount of silver bullion . Linn noted that in addition to the cloth and other trade goods usually present in his warehouse at that time were several cases of hats and umbrellas belonging to James Robinson , a San Antonio merchant . " These the Indians made free with , and went dashing about the blazing village , amid their screeching squaws and <unk> <unk> , ' like demons in a drunken <unk> , with Robinson 's hats on their heads and Robinson 's umbrellas bobbing about on every side like tipsy young balloons . " After loading loot onto pack mules , the raiders , grandly attired in their booty , finally began their retreat on the afternoon on August 8 , 1840 . The Battle of Plum Creek Main article Battle of Plum Creek The Rangers had been trailing the war party for some time , unable to engage them because of their sheer numbers . But the three days of looting at Linnville gave the militia and Ranger companies a chance to gather . Volunteers from Gonzales , Texas under Mathew Caldwell and from Bastrop under Ed Burleson , with all the ranger companies of east and central Texas , moved to intercept the Indians . They made contact at Plum Creek , near the city of Lockhart , Texas , on August 12 , 1840 . The Comanches , who normally fared about as a fast and deadly light cavalry , were detained considerably by the captive , slower pack mules . The normal Comanche tactic was to ride as fast as possible away from the scene of a victory , but on this occasion they slowed to a gentler pace acceptable to the heavily laden pack mules . Thus , the militia and rangers caught the raiders , which normally they found impossible . The battle of Plum Creek was really a running gun battle , where the Texans attempted to kill the raiders and recover loot , and the Indians simply attempted to get away . Although only a dozen bodies were recovered , the Texans reported killing 80 Comanches , and the war party losses were probably higher than normal . But greed saved the Comanches in turn ; when the militia discovered the stolen bullion , they abandoned the fight , divided their loot , and went home . Conclusion The Great Raid of 1840 was the largest Indian raid on white cities in the history of what is now the United States — though technically when it occurred it was in the Republic of Texas and not in the United States . The war party literally burned one city to the ground . They took over 3 , 000 horses and mules , and hundreds of thousands of dollars of other plunder , ranging from silver to cloth and mirrors . Unfortunately for the war party , the sheer volume of loot slowed them down , and made them vulnerable to attack from a militia that otherwise would never have caught them . Equally , the militia missed an opportunity to destroy the bulk of the raiding party when they concentrated on recovering and dividing the recovered bullion and other plunder . Online sources Handbook of Texas Online . Dawn <unk> , Buffalo Hump . < <unk> link , February 2016 .
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London Calling London Calling is the third studio album by English punk rock band the Clash . It was released as a double album in the United Kingdom on 14 December 1979 by CBS Records , and in the United States in January 1980 by Epic Records . London Calling is a post - punk album that incorporates a range of styles , including punk , reggae , rockabilly , ska , New Orleans R & B , pop , lounge jazz , and hard rock . The album 's subject matter included social displacement , unemployment , racial conflict , drug use , and the responsibilities of adulthood . The album received widespread acclaim and was ranked at number eight on Rolling Stone 's list of The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time in 2003 . London Calling was a top ten album in the UK , and its lead single " London Calling " was a top 20 single . It has sold over five million copies worldwide , and was certified platinum in the United States . Recording and production After recording their second studio album Give ' Em Enough Rope ( 1978 ) , the band separated from their manager Bernard Rhodes . This separation meant that the group had to leave their rehearsal studio in Camden Town and find another location to compose their music . Tour manager Johnny Green and drum roadie Baker had found the group a new place to rehearse called Vanilla Studios , which was located in the back of a garage in Pimlico . Prior to this move to the Vanilla Studios rehearsal space , the Clash 's songwriters Mick Jones and Joe Strummer had experienced a period of writer 's block . They had not written a new song from scratch in over one year , with the material on their recently - released Cost of Living EP , composed of a cover song and three songs that had all been written over 12 months earlier . The Clash arrived at Vanilla in May 1979 without a single new song prepared for their third album . Once in Vanilla Studios , the group began performing cover songs from a variety of genres , such as rockabilly , rock ' n ' roll , rhythm and blues , and reggae . In contrast to previous rehearsal sessions , the band kept these rehearsals private , and disallowed hangers - on from attending the Vanilla sessions . This seclusion allowed the band to rebuild their confidence without worrying about the reaction from outsiders , who were familiar with their older punk rock musical style . The band developed an " extremely disciplined " daily routine of afternoon musical rehearsals , broken by a late - afternoon social football game , which fostered a friendly bond between the band members . The daily football match was followed by couple of drinks at a local pub , which was itself followed by a second musical rehearsal session at Vanilla Studio in the evening . The band gradually rebuilt their musical and songwriting confidence during these rehearsal sessions during the summer of 1979 , with the styles of the sessions ' early cover songs setting the template for the diverse material that would be written for London Calling . The band were also encouraged by a growing appreciation of drummer Topper Headon 's drumming skills , which they realised could be used to perform music in a wide array of genres and styles beyond punk rock . The Clash wrote and recorded demos , with Mick Jones composing and arranging much of the music and Joe Strummer generally writing the lyrics . As early as their second album , the Clash had started to depart from the punk rock sound . While touring in the United States twice in 1979 , they chose supporting acts such as rhythm and blues artists Bo Diddley , Sam & Dave , Lee Dorsey , and Screamin ' Jay Hawkins , as well as <unk> country artist Joe Ely and punk rockabilly band the Cramps . This developed fascination with rock and roll inspired their approach for London Calling . In August 1979 , the band entered Wessex Studios to begin recording London Calling . The Clash asked Guy Stevens to produce the album , much to the dismay of CBS Records . Stevens had alcohol and drug problems and his production methods were unconventional . During a recording session he swung a ladder and upturned chairs – apparently to create a rock & roll atmosphere . The Clash got along well with Stevens , especially bassist Paul Simonon , who found his work to be very helpful and productive to his playing and their recording as a band . The album was recorded during a five- to six - week period involving 18 - hour days , with many songs recorded in one or two takes . Music and lyrics According to the music critic Mark <unk> , London Calling is the first post - punk double album and exhibits a broader range of musical styles than the Clash 's previous albums . Stephen Thomas Erlewine said that the album appropriates the " punk aesthetic into rock & roll mythology and roots music " , and incorporates a wider range of styles such as punk , reggae , rockabilly , ska , New Orleans R & B , pop , lounge jazz , and hard rock . According to Greg Kot , the band 's embrace of specific musical traditions deviated from punk 's " blow - up - the - past attitude " . Writer Jack Sargeant remarked that " whether the Clash completely abandoned their punk roots or pushed punk 's musical eclecticism and diversity into new terrain [ on the album ] remains a controversial issue . " The album 's songs are generally about London and feature both fictional and life - based characters , such as an underworld criminal named Jimmy Jazz and a gun - toting Jimmy Cliff <unk> living in Brixton . Some have more widely <unk> narratives , including references to the " evil <unk> " working for the " clampdown " , the lingering effects of the Spanish Civil War , and how constant consumerism leads to unavoidable political apathy on " Lost in the Supermarket " . Sal <unk> of PopMatters felt that the songs encompass an arrangement of urban narratives and characters , and touch on themes such as sex , depression and identity crisis . Music critic Tom Carson viewed that , while the album draws on the entirety of rock and roll 's past for its sound , the concepts and lyrical themes are drawn from the history , politics and myths associated with the genre . " London Calling " , the album 's title track , was partially influenced by the March 1979 accident at a nuclear reactor at Three Mile Island in Pennsylvania . Strummer 's lyrics also discuss the problems of rising unemployment , racial conflict and drug use in Britain . The second track , " Brand New Cadillac " , was written and originally recorded by Vince Taylor and was the first track recorded for London Calling . The band cite the song as " one of the first British rock 'n'roll records " and had initially used it as a warm up song before recording . " <unk> Can 't Fail " , the album 's fifth song , features a horn section and mixes elements of pop , soul , and reggae music together . Its lyrics chronicle the life of a fun - loving young man who is criticised for his inability to act like a responsible adult . Strummer wrote " Lost in the Supermarket " after imagining Jones ' childhood growing up in a basement with his mother and grandmother . " Clampdown " began as an instrumental track called " Working and Waiting " . Its lyrics comment on people who forsake the idealism of youth and urge young people to fight the status quo . " The Guns of Brixton " was the first of Paul Simonon 's compositions the band recorded , and the first to have him sing lead . Simonon was originally doubtful about its lyrics , which discuss an individual 's paranoid outlook on life , but was encouraged by Strummer to continue working on it . On " Death or Glory " , Strummer examines his life in retrospect and acknowledges the complications and responsibilities of adulthood . While working on " The Card Cheat " , the band recorded each part twice to create a " sound as big as possible " . " Lover 's Rock " advocates safe sex and planning . The final track , " Train in Vain " , was originally excluded from the back cover 's track listing . It was intended to be given away through a promotion with NME , but was added to the album at the last minute after the deal fell through . Artwork The album 's front cover features a photograph of bassist Paul Simonon smashing his Fender Precision Bass ( on display at the Cleveland Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as of May 2009 ) against the stage at The Palladium in New York City on 20 September 1979 during the Clash Take the Fifth US tour . Simonon explained in a 2011 interview with Fender that he smashed the bass out of frustration when he learned the bouncers at the concert would not let the audience members stand up out of their seats . Pennie Smith , who photographed the band for the album , originally did not want the photograph to be used . She thought that it was too out of focus , but Strummer and graphic designer Ray Lowry thought it would make a good album cover . In 2002 , Smith 's photograph was named the best rock and roll photograph of all time by Q magazine , commenting that " it captures the ultimate rock 'n'roll moment – total loss of control " . The cover artwork was designed by Lowry and was an homage to the design of Elvis Presley 's self - titled debut album , with pink letters down the left side and green text across the bottom . The cover was named the ninth best album cover of all time by Q magazine in 2001 . In 1995 , Big Audio Dynamite ( a band fronted by former Clash member Mick Jones ) used the same scheme for their F - Punk album . The album cover for London Calling was among the ten chosen by the Royal Mail for a set of " Classic Album Cover " postage stamps issued in January 2010 . Release The album was released in the United Kingdom on vinyl in mid - December 1979 , and in the United States on vinyl and 8 - track tape two weeks later . A gatefold cover design of the LP was only released in Japan . Though London Calling was released as a double album it was only sold for about the price of a single album . The Clash 's record label , CBS , at first denied the band 's request for the album to be released as a double . In return CBS gave permission for the band to include a free 12 - inch single that played at 33 ⅓ rpm . Ultimately , the planned 12 - inch record became a second nine - track LP . Upon its release , London Calling sold approximately two million copies . The album peaked at number nine in the United Kingdom and was certified gold in December 1979 . The album performed strongly outside the United Kingdom . It reached number two in Sweden and number four in Norway . In the United States , London Calling peaked at number 27 on the Billboard Pop Albums chart and was certified platinum in February 1996 . The album produced two of the band 's most successful singles . " London Calling " preceded the album with a 7 December 1979 release . It peaked at number 11 on the UK Singles Chart . The song 's music video , directed by Letts , featured the band performing the song on a boat in the pouring rain with the River Thames behind them . In the United States , " Train in Vain " , backed with " London Calling " , was released as a single in February 1980 . It peaked at number 23 on the Billboard Hot 100 singles chart and " London Calling " / " Train in Vain " peaked at number 30 on the Billboard Disco Top 100 chart . A UK only cassette was released in 1986 . A CD was released in the US in 1987 , with a remastered version in the UK in 1999 followed by the US in 2000 , along with the rest of the band 's catalogue . In 2004 , a 25th anniversary Legacy Edition was published with a bonus CD and DVD in digipack . The bonus CD features The Vanilla Tapes , missing recordings made by the band in mid - 1979 . The DVD includes The Last Testament – The Making of London Calling , a film by Don Letts , as well as previously unseen video footage and music videos . A limited edition picture disc LP was released in 2010 . Reception and legacy London Calling received widespread critical acclaim when it was first released in 1979 . In a contemporary review for The New York Times , John Rockwell said the album finally validated the acclaim received by the Clash up to that point because of how their serious political themes and vital playing were retained in music with innovative features and broad appeal : " This is an album that captures all the Clash 's primal energy , combines it with a brilliant production job by Guy Stevens and reveals depths of invention and creativity barely suggested by the band 's previous work . " Charles Shaar Murray wrote in NME that it was the first record to be on - par with the band 's hype , while Melody Maker critic James Truman said the Clash had " discovered themselves " by embracing American music styles . Rolling Stone magazine 's Tom Carson claimed the music celebrated " the romance of rock & roll rebellion " and was vast , engaging , and enduring enough to leave listeners " not just exhilarated but exalted and triumphantly alive " . In the opinion of Down Beat journalist Michael Goldberg , the Clash had produced " a classic rock album which , literally , defines the state of rock and roll and against which the very best of [ the 1980s ] will have to be judged . " Charlie Gillett was less impressed , believing some of the songs sounded like poor imitations of Bob Dylan backed by a horn section . In Sounds , Garry Bushell was more critical and gave the record two out of five stars , claiming the Clash had " <unk> " to Rolling Stones - style " outlaw imagery " and " tired old rock clichés " . London Calling was voted the best album of 1980 in the Pazz & Jop , an annual poll of American critics published by The Village Voice . Robert Christgau , the poll 's creator and supervisor , also named it the year 's best record in an accompanying piece and remarked that " it generated an urgency and vitality and ambition ( that Elvis P. cover ! ) which overwhelmed the pessimism of its leftist world - view . " In a retrospective review , he called it the best double album since the Rolling Stones ' Exile on Main St. ( 1972 ) and said it expanded upon rather than compromised the Clash 's driving guitar sound in a " warm , angry , and thoughtful , confident , melodic , and hard - rocking " showcase of their musical abilities . According to the English music writer Dave Thompson , London Calling established the Clash as more than " a simple punk band " on what was a " potent " record of neurotic post - punk , despite its amalgam of disparate and occasionally disjointed musical influences . Don McLeese from the Chicago Sun - Times hailed it as their best album and " punk 's finest hour " , as it found the band broadening their artistry without compromising their original vigor and immediacy . PopMatters critic Sal <unk> called it a " big , loud , beautiful collection of hurt , anger , restless thought , and above all hope " that still sounds " relevant and vibrant " . In a review of its reissue , Uncut wrote that the songs and characters in the lyrics cross - referenced each other because of the album 's exceptional sequencing , adding that " The Vanilla Tapes " bonus disc enhanced what was already a " masterpiece " . Accolades London Calling has been considered by many critics to be one of the greatest rock albums of all time , including AllMusic 's Stephen Thomas Erlewine , who said that it sounded more purposeful than " most albums , let alone double albums " . According to Acclaimed Music , it is the 6th most ranked record on critics ' lists of the all - time greatest albums . In 1987 , Robert Hilburn of the Los Angeles Times named it the fourth best album of the previous 10 years and said while the Clash 's debut was a punk masterpiece , London Calling marked the genre 's " coming of age " as the band led the way into " fertile post - punk territory " . In 1989 , Rolling Stone ranked it as the best album of the 1980s . In 1999 , Q magazine named London Calling the fourth greatest British album of all time , and wrote that it is " the best Clash album and therefore among the very best albums ever recorded " . In 2002 , Q included it on its list of the 100 Best Punk Albums , and in 2003 , Mojo ranked it twenty second on their list of the Top 50 Punk Albums , while British writer Colin Larkin named it the second greatest punk album of all time . London Calling was ranked as the sixth greatest album of the 1970s by NME , and the second best by Pitchfork Media , whose reviewer Amanda Petrusich said that it was the Clash 's " creative apex " as a " rock band " rather than as a punk band . In 2003 , London Calling was ranked number eight on Rolling Stone 's list of The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time . Entertainment Weekly 's Tom Sinclair declared it the " Best Album of All Time " in his headline for a 2004 article on the album . In 2007 , London Calling was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame , a collection of recordings of lasting qualitative or historical significance . The album was included in the BBC Radio 1 2009 Masterpieces Series , marking it as one of the most influential albums of all time , some thirty years after its original release . Film In December 2010 , the BBC reported that a film about the recording of London Calling was in the early stages of production . Mick Jones and Paul Simonon are working as executive producers for the film . The script was written by Jez Butterworth and shooting would begin in 2011 . Alison Owen and Paul <unk> had been chosen as the producers . Track listing All songs written and composed by Joe Strummer and Mick Jones , except where noted . On the original version of the album , " Train in Vain " was not listed on the sleeve , nor the label on the record itself , but an extraneous sticker indicating the track was affixed to the outer cellophane wrapper . It was also scratched into the vinyl in the run - off area on the fourth side of the album . Later editions included the song in the track listing . Personnel The Clash Joe Strummer – lead and backing vocals , rhythm guitar , piano Mick Jones – lead guitar , piano , harmonica , backing and lead vocals Paul Simonon – bass guitar , backing vocals , lead vocals on " The Guns of Brixton " Topper Headon – drums , percussion Additional performers Mickey Gallagher – organ The Irish Horns – brass Production Guy Stevens – producer Bill Price – engineer Jerry Green – additional engineer Ray Lowry – design Pennie Smith – photography Charts Notes Certifications
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Sonam Kapoor Sonam Kapoor ( pronounced [ <unk> kəˈpuːr ] ; born 9 June 1985 ) is an Indian actress who appears in Bollywood films . Kapoor is one of the highest - paid actresses in the industry . She has been nominated for four Filmfare Awards . The daughter of actor Anil Kapoor , Kapoor studied theatre and arts at the United World College of South East Asia in Singapore . She was an assistant director to Sanjay Leela Bhansali on the 2005 film Black . Kapoor made her acting debut in Bhansali 's romantic drama Saawariya ( 2007 ) , for which she was nominated for a Filmfare Award for Best Female Debut . She had her first commercial success three years later in the romantic comedy I Hate Luv Storys ( 2010 ) . After a series of commercial failures , the sleeper hit Raanjhanaa ( 2013 ) marked a turning point in her career , earning her several Best Actress nominations . She then featured in the 2014 romantic comedy <unk> and the 2015 comedy drama Dolly Ki Doli , both of which earned her Filmfare Award for Best Actress nominations . Kapoor played a princess in the melodrama Prem Ratan Dhan <unk> ( 2015 ) , one of the highest - grossing Bollywood films of all time . She garnered critical acclaim for portraying the titular role in the biographical thriller Neerja ( 2016 ) , one of the highest - grossing Bollywood films featuring a female protagonist . Kapoor supports various charities and causes , such as raising awareness of breast cancer and LGBT rights . She is known in the media for her outspoken personality , and is a prominent celebrity endorser for brands and products . Life and career Early life ( 1985 – 2006 ) Kapoor was born in the Mumbai suburb of Chembur on 9 June 1985 . Her father is actor and producer Anil Kapoor , the son of the late filmmaker Surinder Kapoor and the founder of the Anil Kapoor Films Company . Her mother , Sunita , is a former model and designer . Kapoor has two younger siblings : film producer Rhea and brother <unk> . She is the niece of film producer Boney Kapoor and actor Sanjay Kapoor ; actress Sridevi and producer Mona <unk> ( Boney 's wives ) are her aunts . Kapoor 's paternal cousins are actors Arjun Kapoor and Mohit Marwah , and maternal cousin is actor Ranveer Singh . The family moved to the suburb of Juhu when Kapoor was one month old . She was educated at the Arya Vidya Mandir school in Juhu , where she confessed to being a " naughty " and " carefree " child who would bully the boys . She excelled at sports such as rugby and basketball , and trained in Kathak , classical music and Latin dance . Kapoor , who practices Hinduism , states that she is " quite religious " , and that it is a way of " reminding myself that I need to be thankful for so much " . Kapoor 's first job was as a waitress at age 15 , although it lasted only a week . As a teenager , she struggled with her weight : " I had every issue related to weight that I could have . I was unhealthy , I had bad skin , and I had hair growing on my face ! " Kapoor was diagnosed with insulin resistance and polycystic ovarian disease , and has since begun an initiative to increase awareness of diabetes . Kapoor enrolled at the United World College of South East Asia in Singapore for her pre - university education , where she studied theatre and arts . She has said she later started courses in economics and political science through University of Mumbai correspondence programme , after returning from University of East London where she began her bachelor 's degree in the same subjects but returned to Mumbai soon after she began . The actress Rani Mukerji , a family friend , visited her family in Singapore on holiday while working on Black ( 2005 ) . Kapoor , who had originally wanted to be a director and writer , expressed a desire to work as a crew member on the film . On her father 's recommendation to director Sanjay Leela Bhansali , she was appointed as his assistant . Debut and career fluctuations ( 2007 – 12 ) During the production of Black , Kapoor developed an interest in acting when Bhansali professed that he wanted to cast her in the lead in his next film , Saawariya . She was advised to lose weight ; at the time , she weighed about 80 kilograms ( 180 lb ) . Motivated by Bhansali 's confidence in her , she lost 35 kilograms ( 77 lb ) in two years . Kapoor studied acting with Roshan Taneja , <unk> Bhatia and Feroz Abbas Khan , and has cited actresses Waheeda Rehman and Nutan as influences , admiring their " path - breaking films … [ and ] quality of doing different things " . Released in 2007 , Saawariya saw Kapoor play a Muslim woman awaiting the return of her lover opposite Mukerji and Ranbir Kapoor . It was the first Indian feature film produced by a Hollywood studio , Sony Pictures Entertainment . Saawariya proved to be a major critical and commercial failure . Writing for BBC , Jaspreet Pandohar called the film a " misfire on a massive scale " . Raja Sen of Rediff.com described her laugh as " almost as infectious as her father 's " , but wished that she had been " allowed to <unk> softly , instead of having a clearly overdubbed plastic giggle plastered onto her . " The film earned her a Filmfare Award for Best Female Debut nomination and the Stardust Award for Superstar of Tomorrow – Female . In 2009 , Kapoor played an aspiring singer opposite Waheeda Rehman and Abhishek Bachchan in the Rakeysh Omprakash Mehra - directed drama Delhi - 6 . Despite critical acclaim , the film was not a box - office success . CNN - IBN 's Rajeev Masand referred to Kapoor as a " revelation " , writing that she was " a firecracker , instinctive and uninhibited in what isn 't even a conventional female lead " . Sonia Chopra of Sify described Kapoor as an " earnest and effortless performer " , and found her character likeable , despite the " typical Delhi - girl recipe " . Kapoor 's first release in 2010 was Punit Malhotra 's romantic comedy I Hate Luv Storys , opposite Imran Khan . She played an engaged woman who develops a one - sided attraction to her commitment - phobic co - worker . Khan said about Kapoor 's craft , " We 'd be shooting a scene from multiple angles — for three or four hours you 're doing the same scene , the same lines — and here is this person [ Kapoor ] who brings consistency to her work , from the way she talks , to her accent . " Although Shubhra Gupta of The Indian Express called Kapoor 's performance " stiff and rehearsed " , Daily News and Analysis ' Johnson Thomas found her " likeable and believable " . I Hate Luv Storys was Kapoor 's first commercial success , earning ₹ 725 . 2 million ( US $ 11 million ) worldwide . Kapoor next played the eponymous role in Aisha , a romantic comedy adaptation of Jane Austen 's novel Emma , which was produced by her sister Rhea . She described her role opposite Abhay Deol , Ira Dubey and Amrita Puri as " a meddlesome busybody with a passion for matchmaking and playing Cupid " . An Indo - Asian News Service reviewer thought that Kapoor had stood out with her performance , making " the best of a rather rare opportunity for an Indian leading lady to be part of a Bollywood film that salutes Victorian mores and Delhi 's elitist affectations in one clean cool sweep " . In 2011 , Kapoor starred in Thank You , a comedy about three women who teach a lesson to their philandering husbands . The film , along with Kapoor 's performance , received poor reviews ; Nikhat Kazmi of The Times of India called her " terribly out of sync " . She then played the romantic interest of Shahid Kapoor in the Pankaj Kapur - directed romantic drama , <unk> , which was also poorly received . Despite doubts about her acting ability , critic Saibal Chatterjee of NDTV thought Kapoor conveyed " the essential vulnerability of a girl forever under duress , bringing out just the right mix of feminine fragility and native resolve " . The following year , Kapoor played a computer hacker opposite Abhishek Bachchan and Bipasha Basu in the Abbas – Mustan - directed action film , Players , a remake of 2003 's The Italian Job . Her role was originally written for Katrina Kaif , who was unavailable for the film . Although journalists had high expectations , it failed commercially , and Raja Sen of Rediff.com remarked <unk> that Kapoor " truly entertains with her childish attempt to pass off as a Gold - medalist hacker " . Kapoor 's string of poorly - received films began to hinder her career . Raanjhanaa and beyond ( 2013 – present ) Kapoor 's role in the Anand L. Rai - directed romantic drama Raanjhanaa ( 2013 ) marked a turning point in her career ; <unk> Sahgal called it her best performance to date in The Indian Express . Kapoor 's role was that of Zoya Haider , a young Muslim student from Varanasi who is drawn into politics after the murder of her Sikh lover . To prepare for her part , Kapoor interacted with students , attended workshops and practiced with theatre groups associated with Jawaharlal Nehru University . She also studied Jaya Bachchan 's work in <unk> ( 1971 ) , which she felt was " perfect " for her role . Discussing her character in the film , Kapoor described her approach to acting : " I have always tried to do different films and … I try to be different for every character . I like doing different things to challenge myself in every way and don 't like to repeat myself . " Although Raanjhanaa received mixed reviews , her performance was praised ; Rajeev Masand wrote that she " does some of her best work here , going smoothly from innocent to manipulative to cynical , without ever losing Zoya 's inherent vulnerability " . With worldwide earnings of over ₹ 1 billion ( US $ 15 million ) , Raanjhanaa was a commercial success and Kapoor received her first nomination for the Filmfare Award for Best Actress . Kapoor followed the success of Raanjhanaa with a brief appearance in Bhaag Milkha Bhaag ( 2013 ) , a biopic on athlete Milkha Singh . She received ₹ 11 ( 16 ¢ US ) for the film , made on a budget of ₹ 300 million ( US $ 4 . 5 million ) , citing her admiration for director Rakeysh Omprakash Mehra and the film itself as reasons for her appearance . Critically praised , Bhaag Milkha Bhaag was one of the top - grossing Bollywood films of the year . The critic Sarita A. Tanwar wrote in her review that despite her minor role , Kapoor proved to " be the perfect warm counterpart to Milkha " . Both Raanjhanaa and Bhaag Milkha Bhaag received Filmfare Award for Best Film nominations , the latter of which won . In 2014 , Kapoor portrayed the banker <unk> opposite Ayushmann Khurrana and Rishi Kapoor in the Yash Raj Films comedy - drama <unk> , in a role which Anupama Chopra found to be poorly written and an " uphill climb " . She next starred in the romantic comedy <unk> , an adaptation of the 1980 film of the same name , playing the role which had originally been given to Rekha . Though she received a Filmfare Best Actress nomination for her performance , critics were divided in their response , with Shilpa Jamkhandikar of Reuters calling her " loud and exasperating " , and Andy Webster of The New York Times ' comparing her to a young Anne Hathaway and highlighting her " Julia Roberts - like smile " . Later that year she met entrepreneur - model Sahir Berry on a social media network , and began a romantic relationship with him , although they broke up a few months later . In 2015 , Kapoor starred as a runaway bride in Dolly Ki Doli , a comedy co - starring <unk> <unk> , Rajkummar Rao and Varun Sharma . Mint 's Udita Jhunjhunwala criticised Kapoor 's performance in the film , writing that her " range is too limited to bring alive a character that may have had heaps of potential on paper " . Shubhra Gupta wrote : " Kapoor is in almost every frame , and should have filled them all . But the treatment of the character shows up her limitations . " Despite the negative reviews for her performance , she was nominated for the Filmfare Award for Best Actress . While filming Sooraj R. Barjatya 's Prem Ratan Dhan <unk> with Salman Khan in <unk> , Gujarat in February 2015 , Kapoor was diagnosed with swine influenza , from which she recovered the following month . Kapoor portrayed <unk> Maithili Devi , a princess looking for love . The film became one of the highest - grossing Bollywood films of all time . She was praised by Rachit Gupta for her credibility as a royal , and Komal Nahta thought that the role was significant enough to be a turning point in her career . However , she won a Golden Kela Award for Worst Actress . Following an appearance in the music video of Coldplay 's " Hymn for the Weekend " ( featuring Beyoncé ) , Kapoor starred in Ram Madhvani 's biographical thriller Neerja ( 2016 ) . She was cast as the eponymous air hostess Neerja Bhanot , who died while saving the passengers of the hijacked Pan Am Flight 73 in 1986 . Kapoor added that she felt a " little more responsible towards the film as it is based on a real person " , and to prepare for her role , she met Bhanot 's family . The film garnered wide critical acclaim , and several commentators considered Kapoor 's performance to be her best to date . Raja Sen found her performance to be career - defining , while Hindustan Times ' Rohit Vats wrote that " she carries [ the film ] entirely on her shoulder . She looks earnest , scared , benevolent and bold , all at the same time . " With a worldwide gross of ₹ 1 . 47 billion ( US $ 22 million ) , the film emerged as one of the highest - grossing Bollywood films featuring a female protagonist . As of June 2016 , Kapoor has committed to play one of the lead roles in <unk> Ghosh 's directorial debut film <unk> Di Wedding , a romantic comedy co - starring Kareena Kapoor , Swara Bhaskar and Shikha Talsania about four girls who embark on a trip from Delhi to Europe . In the media Born into a prominent actor family , Kapoor has appeared in the media from an early age , and is one of the highest - paid actresses in Bollywood . After the success of Raanjhanaa and Bhaag Milkha Bhaag she was cited by Subhash K. Jha as one of the top actresses in India , though a commentator for Rediff.com notes that several of her films have been commercial failures . In 2009 she was the first Indian actress to appear on The Hollywood Reporter 's " Next Generation : Asia Class " , a list of newcomers in film . Outspoken publicly , Kapoor 's comments about contemporaries and others in the Indian film industry have occasionally caused controversy . In a 2015 interview , she acknowledged that her opinions often get her into trouble , but remarked that " I believe it pays to be honest in the longer run " . Kapoor is a popular figure nationally , with a significant following on Twitter since 2009 and Facebook . She appeared on The Huffington Post 's list of " 100 most influential women on Twitter " in 2015 . She has been described by the media as a style icon , and featured on Rediff.com 's list of " Bollywood 's Best Dressed Actresses " in 2012 and 2013 . Though Kapoor has earned praise for her dress sense and style , she has faced some criticism for wearing traditional Indian dresses . She was ranked seventh on The Times of India 's 2010 " Most Desirable Woman " list , placing 14th , 28th and 14th the next three years , and was in the top ten of UK magazine Eastern Eye 's " World 's Sexiest Asian Women " list from 2011 to 2014 . In 2012 and 2013 she also held 48th and 45th place , respectively , on the Indian edition of Forbes ' " Celebrity 100 " lists , based on the income and popularity of Indian celebrities . In 2014 , Kapoor reached 31st place , with an estimated annual income of ₹ 112 million ( US $ 1 . 7 million ) , and peaked at the 26th position the following year . As well as endorsing brands such as Colgate , Electrolux , Lux , Mont Blanc , Oppo Mobile , Salvatore Ferragamo S.p.A. and Signature , Kapoor is the Indian ambassador for international cosmetics manufacturer L 'Oréal . Rediff.com reported in 2012 that she received ₹ 30 million ( US $ 450 , 000 ) for each endorsement , making her one of the highest - paid celebrity endorsers in India . Philanthropy Kapoor has supported charitable organisations for various causes . In 2009 , she participated in the International Indian Film Academy Awards fashion show , which supports widows and orphans of Indian film - industry workers . On behalf of People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals ( PETA ) she wrote to Maharashtra Home Minister R. R. Patil , protesting against the use of glass - coated <unk> ( used on fighter kites ) , which kills birds who become entangled in it . Kapoor is vocal in her support for LGBT rights in India . In 2012 , Kapoor asked fans to donate to the <unk> Cancer Foundation for her birthday , and collaborated with the foundation to increase awareness of breast cancer . She is also the brand ambassador for the Elle Breast Cancer Campaign . Kapoor auctioned some of her clothes on stylist <unk> Qureshi 's online fashion boutique , <unk> 's Pop - Up Shop , in 2012 . The proceeds were donated to Smile Foundation , a child - welfare organisation . In 2014 , she attended a charitable art exhibition organised by the <unk> Nagi Art Foundation , and donated clothing and accessories to a website raising funds for In Defense of Animals . Kapoor walked the ramp in a 2015 fashion show by Manish Malhotra for the Mijwan Welfare Society , a non - profit organisation dedicated to empowering girls . The same year , she appeared with Hrithik Roshan in the music video for " Dheere Dheere " , whose profits were donated to charity . Awards and nominations Other honours 2011 : NDTV Brand Ambassador of the Year 2013 : Hindustan Times ' Style Icon ( Reader 's Choice ) 2013 : Indian GQ Woman of the Year 2013 : Indian Vogue Beauty Award Beauty of the Year Filmography
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Tommy Thompson presidential campaign , 2008 The Tommy Thompson presidential campaign of 2008 began when the former Wisconsin Governor and Secretary of Health and Human Services Tommy Thompson announced his candidacy for the Republican nomination for president of the United States on April 1 , 2007 . Thompson centered his campaign in Iowa , focusing primarily on the issues of health care reform and the War in Iraq . He dropped out of the race on August 12 , 2007 following a sixth - place finish in the Ames straw poll and went on to endorse Rudy Giuliani for president and then John McCain following Giuliani 's withdrawal . Had he been elected , Thompson would have become the second Roman Catholic president ( after John F. Kennedy ) and the first Wisconsin - born president . He was the first former Secretary of Health and Human Services to seek the presidency . Background Tommy Thompson 's political career began in 1966 upon his election to the Wisconsin State Assembly after graduating from law school at University of Wisconsin – Madison . While in the assembly , he received the nickname of " Dr. No " for blocking legislation through parliamentary procedure . He was named assistant minority leader of the body in 1973 and became minority leader in 1981 . He unsuccessfully ran for United States Congress in 1979 , losing in the Republican primary to Tom Petri . Thompson was elected Governor of Wisconsin in 1986 . He was re - elected three times . During his tenure , he successfully pushed for welfare reform through Wisconsin Works , a workfare program . Welfare participation decreased by 90 % under the program . Thompson also successfully backed a school voucher program . Near the end of his governorship , Thompson implemented <unk> , which provided health coverage for children ineligible for Medicaid . As governor , Thompson vetoed bills frequently and often exercised the line - item veto . None of his vetoes were overturned . Thompson served as chairman of the National Governors Association from 1995 to 1996 . He was considered as a potential running mate for Republican presidential nominee Bob Dole in 1996 , but was passed over for Jack Kemp . Thompson left as governor during his fourth term in 2001 to serve as Secretary of Health and Human Services in the George W. Bush administration . As Secretary of Health and Human Services , Thompson introduced measures to increase funding for the National Institutes of Health and reorganized the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services . His position attained a unique significance following the attacks of 9 / 11 and the subsequent anthrax attacks . He was responsible for national preparedness in the event of bioterrorism . Though he wished to resign from the position in 2003 , Bush asked that he stay on for the rest of Bush 's first term . Thompson announced his resignation at a press conference in December 2004 in which he surprisingly admitted , " I , for the life of me , cannot understand why the terrorists have not attacked our food supply . " He officially left the position in January 2005 and began work in the private sector . Exploration Beginning in 2006 , Thompson spent every weekend in Iowa to build an organization for his potential presidential run . He opened an exploratory committee on November 16 , 2006 to test the waters , stating that " The times are right for my ideas . " He hired Rodman P. Hise as the treasurer of the committee , and gained the assistance of former advisers from his previous campaigns , including fundraiser Phil Prange , and former press secretary Darrin Schmitz , who was eventually hired as political director . A Washington Post - ABC News poll placed Thompson at 2 % in December 2006 . He fell to 1 % in January 2007 , but climbed back to 2 % the following month . As his eventual entrance neared , Thompson spent additional time in Iowa and announced that his campaign strategy would focus on the state and its nonbinding straw poll held in August . Former Iowa State Representative Steve Grubbs was added as the campaign 's consultant for the state . Grubbs had planned to work on the presidential campaign of Senator George Allen , but his usage of an offensive term prevented him from entering the race . Though Thompson was not yet considered a " viable candidate " , Grubbs felt that the frontrunners John McCain , Rudy Giuliani and Mitt Romney were unacceptable to the Republican base . He believed that Thompson " had more experience " than any other candidate , and could unify the party . In order to be a " viable candidate " , Cook Political Report editor Jennifer Duffy commented that Thompson would have to raise at least $ 35 to $ 50 million by June . He raised $ 314 , 000 in the first quarter of 2007 . On the campaign trail Announcement Thompson officially entered the race on April 1 , 2007 following the announcement that he would seek the Republican Party 's nomination for president during an interview on This Week with George Stephanopoulos . He branded himself as a reliant conservative whose campaign was " looking good " due to the base he was attempting to establish in Iowa . The state would hold the nation 's first presidential caucus in January 2008 . His entrance into the race slightly increased voter 's recognition of " Thompson " in polls but pollsters stated that this increase was most likely attributed to the exposure of potential candidate Fred Thompson . He remained at 2 % in presidential polls , in sixth place overall behind potential candidates Newt Gingrich and Fred Thompson , but ahead of declared candidates Ron Paul , Jim Gilmore , Tom Tancredo , Sam Brownback , Duncan Hunter and Mike Huckabee . Statewide polls placed Thompson at 24 % in his home state of Wisconsin , which was considerably higher than the marks achieved by other lower tiered candidates in their home states . Upon his entrance , the candidate set forth his position on the War in Iraq , holding that as president , he would allow Iraqis to vote on whether or not the United States military should remain in the nation . He stated that if the Iraqis " don 't want us there ... we should get out . " April 2007 Thompson first hit the trails in Iowa . His strategy in the state was to spend more time there than any other candidate , emphasizing that he " intend [ ed ] to win Iowa " because of his midwest roots . He commented on fiscal responsibility at an event in a Des Moines suburb stating that " Republicans went to Washington and we lost our way " because " we tried to spend [ money ] like Democrats . " He introduced a health care platform that emphasized prevention and called for reforms in the current system to ensure that all Americans be covered in the future . In the financial sphere of the campaign , Thompson acknowledged that he could not compete with funds being raised by the upper - tiered candidates , but he stated that he did not intend to do so because his campaign was " different " than the others ; according to Thompson , his was more centered around a strong ground organization in Iowa . Thompson was criticized when he stated at a Jewish event that he believed earning money is " part of the Jewish tradition . " Later at the event he stated that he was not trying to " imply anything about Jews and finances " but that he was " compliment [ ing ] " Jews for being " outstanding business people . " His spokesman later said that he had " misspoke . " Despite this setback , the campaign was given a boost later in the month when columnist George Will wrote in an editorial that Thompson was the " Republican presidential candidate with perhaps the most impressive résumé . " He finished April campaigning in Iowa continuing with the strategy he planned . May 2007 Thompson began May at the first Republican debate at the Ronald Reagan Presidential Library in Simi Valley , California sponsored by MSNBC on May 3 . During the debate , he again voiced his support for an Iraqi vote , and included the plan 's second phase if the Iraqis chose for American forces to remain in the nation . He stated that the oil revenues could have been split and a system of federalism could have been established . When asked about abortion , Thompson stated that he believed its legalization should be left up to the individual states , disagreeing with the precedent set in Roe v. Wade . He was also given the opportunity to discuss his governorship of Wisconsin , highlighting his record of 1 , 900 vetoes and the overall cutting of taxes by $ 16 . 4 billion . On the subject of taxes , he articulated his support for the option of a flat tax for the taxpayer , if it was to their benefit . At the end of the debate , Thompson differentiated himself from President George W. Bush stating that as president he would " transform the health care system " and settle the situation in Iraq . A comment he made during the debate became another campaign issue for Thompson . He again apologized for remarks , this time over an answer to a question in which he stated that he believed the decision to fire a gay worker based on the morals of the employer is something that should be " left up to the individual business . " A few days following the debate , the candidate rescinded the comments , and blamed the gaffe on a malfunctioning hearing aid , stating that he " didn 't hear the question . " Thompson also said that he was sick during the debate , having been hospitalized three days earlier with the flu and bronchitis , and that all he could think about " was getting off the stage . " Campaign adviser Steve Grubbs would later point to this episode as the moment Thompson 's campaign became " unrecoverable . " Thompson was harshly criticized for the remarks . Jason Stephany , the political director of the Democratic Party of Wisconsin , rhetorically asked " How many times is he going to say something that 's completely offensive to the majority of Americans before people start to say , ' What 's going on here ? ' " Thompson tried to reassure the public that there was " nothing discriminatory about [ himself ] at all . " Afterwards , he finished second in a poll of state convention members from Wisconsin , with 84 of the 306 members polled , trailing Fred Thompson who received 95 votes . He stood at 16 % in an average of statewide polls for the state in May , and stood at 4 . 3 % in Iowa , where he based his campaign . Thompson participated in the May 15 GOP debate , where he discussed his insistence to trim bureaucracy in the federal government , and his support for the advancements made in stem cell research , lauding the achievements of the his alma mater University of Wisconsin – Madison in the field . He was asked what he would do in the event of a looming preemptive attack against a hypothetical anti - American nation promoting terrorism . The candidate quoted former Secretary of State Colin Powell reflecting the need to be sure the intelligence was correct , to deploy the right amount of troops and to make sure that an exit strategy was planned . Following the debate , Thompson campaigned in New Hampshire before taking a break for the rest of the month . June 2007 After a day of campaigning in Iowa , Thompson returned to New Hampshire to participate in the June 5 GOP Debate . He discussed the issue of illegal immigration , arguing that the border should be secured before passing Comprehensive Immigration Reform . He later commented that once the border was secured , " there should be no amnesty " for illegal immigrants and that the proposed Comprehensive Immigration Reform Act of 2007 was " an amnesty bill " , which he opposed . When asked about the potential candidate of his namesake , Thompson responded by saying " if you ’ re talking about a reliable conservative , it is THIS Thompson — Tommy Thompson , not the actor ( Fred Thompson ) . " After being questioned about the biggest mistake of the George W. Bush presidency , as a former member of the cabinet Thompson responded : We went to Washington to change Washington and Washington changed us . We didn ’ t come up with new ideas . We got to transform health care . We got to wind — we got to wind down the war in Iraq . We got to make sure that we really are conservatives . If we ’ re going to spend money like — as foolishly and as stupidly as the Democrats , the voters are going to vote for the professional spending , the Democrat not the amateur <unk> , the Republican . He later joked that " I would certainly not send him to the United Nations . " Following the debate , Thompson continued his criticism of the Bush administration . While campaigning in New Hampshire , he stated that he " would be a much more open president " than Bush . He criticized the handling of the Iraq War as " a terrible mistake " and assessed the president as " very cloistered ... [ with ] very few inner - circle people . " A few days later , Thompson sent out an e - mail alerting the press about a conference call where he would make major announcement about the campaign . Though some speculated that Thompson would drop out of the race during the call , he instead announced his intentions to participate in the Ames Straw Poll . The move reaffirmed his strategy of relying on the straw poll to propel him from the lower tier , despite moves by the campaigns of Rudy Giuliani and John McCain to withdraw from the event . Drake University political science professor Dennis Goldford analyzed the straw poll strategy and commented that if Thompson " didn 't make some sort of substantive showing " it would be hard for his money flow to continue . In late June , the three Republican Representatives from Wisconsin commented on Thompson 's campaign . Though Representative Tom Petri identified himself as a supporter and hailed Thompson for doing " a lot for the country and the state and the Republican Party of Wisconsin " he called Thompson " a long shot " and stopped short of endorsing him . Representative Jim <unk> described Thompson 's campaign as " anemic " and Representative Paul Ryan commented that " I think a lot of us are hoping the best for Tommy and are wishing him well but are just sort of watching the field to see how it materializes . " Other Republicans wondered if Thompson was running just to " get it out of his system . " Strategist Mark Graul argued that the former governor " had a profound impact " on party members in Wisconsin , which had created a familiarity complex that caused people to say " ' Oh , come on ' " after hearing of his run . Despite the qualms , spokesman Steve Grubbs remarked that Thompson wants " for people to give him a chance ... [ because ] he knows he has a lot to prove , and he is working 90 hours a week to prove it . " A Strategic vision poll of Iowa voters placed Thompson in fifth place among the candidates , with only 6 percent support . To improve his standing ahead of the Ames Straw Poll , Thompson planned to escalate his Iowa campaign after July 4 in a swing labeled the " Common Sense Solutions Tour " . Communications director <unk> Remley remarked that despite low amounts of capital , Thompson would spend " scads of time in Iowa in July . " He compared Thompson 's strategy to Jimmy Carter 's 1976 " retail politics " strategy that led to victory in the Iowa caucuses . To close the month , Thompson campaigned in Iowa , and made a brief stop in New Hampshire on June 25 . On June 26 , he won the Linn County straw poll at Kirkwood Community College in Cedar Rapids . July 2007 In July , Thompson campaigned extensively in Iowa , hoping to gain traction before the Ames Straw poll . As planned , he began his " Common Sense Solutions Tour " after the July 4 holiday , and traveled throughout Iowa in an ethanol - fueled Winnebago . After Mitt Romney embarked on a similar campaign bus tour , Thompson accused Romney of " copying " his idea . Thompson 's first stop of the month was scheduled in Ames on the evening of July 6 , but he was unable to make the event due to plane malfunction . He instead opened his tour in Webster City on July 7 . During one stop on the first leg of his " Common Sense Solutions Tour " , Thompson made a bold promise . He proclaimed that if elected president , his administration would eliminate breast cancer by 2015 . Once accomplished , he planned to " then attack every major cancer one after the other . " Thompson explained that the disease had afflicted his family as well as millions of others and stated that " there 's no candidate in either party more prepared and more motivated to lead this effort than me . " He compared the announcement to President Kennedy 's pledge to put a man on the moon before the end of the 1960s . The plan consisted of increases in funding for cancer research , including a doubling of the National Institute of Health 's budget and additional incentives for private medical professionals to find a cure . Furthermore , Thompson remarked that as part of the plan , he would travel the world to promote cures , improving the United States ' international standing . David Miller of CBS News questioned whether the announcement was " a desperate measure by a desperate candidate , or a well - thought out policy by a former Health and Human Services secretary . " He added , " we can 't say for sure , but this item is proof that it did succeed in drawing attention to the other Thompson in the race . " After eight straight days of campaigning , Thompson concluded the first leg of his tour on July 14 . Like all other Republican presidential candidates except Congressman Tom Tancredo , Thompson chose to skip the July 12 presidential debate sponsored by the NAACP . On July 15 , new financial reports were released that revealed that Thompson had raised $ 445 , 000 during the second quarter of 2007 and had $ 115 , 000 cash on hand . This showed a slight increase from his first quarter figures , but was still far below his fellow Republican candidates . Among the candidates , he ranked second to last in fundraising , just ahead of Jim Gilmore , who dropped out of the race a day before the financial disclosure . Thompson stated earlier in the month that he was " pleased at the strong growth " in fundraising , and that he was still " able to run a campaign equal to that of the better - funded candidates despite the differences in funding . " Additionally , Thompson remained low in nationwide polls , standing at three percent in a July 21 Washington Post - ABC News survey , which actually reflected a two - point increase in support from June . Thompson addressed the monthly meeting of the San Diego Republican Party on July 16 , before returning to Iowa on July 19 for the second leg of the " Common Sense Solutions Tour " . He campaigned in the state for the next four days before taking a few days off . He returned to Iowa for the third and final leg of the tour on July 28 and remained there until the end of the month . David Wise of <unk> following Thompson during part of the final leg of the tour . He maintained a blog that described every event attended by Thompson and his interaction with voters . Wise also witnessed a spat between Thompson and fellow presidential candidate Tom Tancredo . Thompson criticized Tancredo for negative campaigning after discovering that he had sent out a mailer that referred to Thompson as a " moderate governor " that supported amnesty for illegal immigrants . He labelled the mailer a " hate piece " put out by " somebody who 's way behind and is trying to attack me " . At one event , as he countered Tancredo 's claims , Tancredo himself entered the building , leading Thompson to point him out . He proceeded to list his accomplishments as governor and remarked " I have been against amnesty my whole career , contrary to what one of my opponents has said . " Around this time , Thompson accepted an invitation to CNN 's YouTube debate despite assurances from Rudy Giuliani and Mitt Romney that they would not appear . Romney referenced the Democratic Party 's YouTube debate , and commented that " the presidency ought to be held at a higher level than having to answer questions from a snowman . " In response , Thompson 's spokesman Steve Grubbs remarked : " We 'll answer questions from any American who wants to ask one and that includes one dressed up like a snowman ... Tommy Thompson is ready to take on all questions " . After spending nearly all of the month campaigning in Iowa , Thompson said at the end of July that if he failed to win or come in second at the state 's straw poll , he would drop out of the race . He admitted that the campaign significantly lacked funding and that he was spending large amounts of his own money to stay afloat . He believed that a strong showing could improve his ability to raise funds , and planned to bus supporters to the straw poll and pay the $ 35 entrance fee for each . In an interview with <unk> , Thompson commented that he had more experience than any other candidate in the race , and that only Democrat Bill Richardson came close . He believed that his experience , combined with his efforts in Iowa would make up for his lack of funds . Thompson proclaimed to Pajamas Media that he would be " shocked " if he did not win the straw poll , and in his own personal analysis of the race , commented : " I wouldn 't say Romney 's in trouble , but I 'd say I think it 's going to be between Romney and myself . " In late July 2007 , at a Des Moines coffee shop , with an audience of 40 , Thompson said : " I wouldn 't be doing this if I didn 't think I could win . " August 2007 Thompson continued his strategy in Iowa heading into August , speaking on the trail about how " remarkably well " his campaign had been going . It was revealed that the campaign was running on an $ 890 , 000 budget and that no speechwriters or pollsters had been hired . In August , Thompson achieved his goal of having campaigned in all 99 Iowa counties . He competed in his final debate on August 5 in Des Moines . During the discourse , the candidate made the same points he had in previous debates , emphasizing health care , federalism , and popular sovereignty in Iraq . He described the war on terrorism as a " holy war " the United States was losing because of a lack of unity . At the end of the debate , Thompson made his last plea before the upcoming Ames straw poll , addressing his wish for Republicans , Democrats and Independents to unite to " start building America a stronger and healthier and better tomorrow than ever before . " Withdrawal On August 11 , 2007 , Thompson finished in sixth place at the Ames straw poll with 1 , 039 votes or about seven percent of the total . Romney won the most votes , but his victory was overshadowed by the surprisingly strong showing of the second place Mike Huckabee . Huckabee considered skipping the straw poll , but decided to participate after a conversation with Thompson earlier in the summer . After the event , Thompson dropped out of the race . Campaign spokesman Brian Dumas commented that he had " worked very hard ... [ and ] did everything we asked of him and more . " The next day , Thompson released a statement on his withdrawal : I felt my record as Governor of Wisconsin and Secretary of Health and Human Services gave me the experience I needed to serve as president , but I respect the decision of the voters . I am leaving the campaign trail today , but I will not leave the challenges of improving health care and welfare in America . Endorsements List of campaign events Aftermath Two months after his withdrawal , Thompson endorsed Rudy Giuliani for president . He praised the former New York City mayor as someone who " can and will win the nomination and the presidency " and argued that " during a period of time of great stress for this country he showed tremendous leadership " as " America 's mayor " . After Giuliani 's withdrawal in 2008 , Thompson backed John McCain , who ultimately won the Republican Party 's nomination . During the general election , Thompson told The New York Times that he was not satisfied with McCain 's campaign and that " I don ’ t know who is . " McCain lost the election to Democratic Senator Barack Obama . In 2011 , Thompson entered the 2012 race for the Senate seat vacated by retiring Democratic Senator Herb Kohl of Wisconsin . Thompson won the GOP nomination but lost to Representative Tammy Baldwin .
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The Equation " The Equation " is the eighth episode of the first season of the American science fiction drama television series Fringe . The episode follows the Fringe team 's investigation into the kidnapping of a young musical prodigy ( Charlie Tahan ) who has become obsessed with finishing one piece of music . Dr. Walter Bishop ( John Noble ) returns to St. Claire 's Hospital in an effort to find the boy 's whereabouts . The episode was written by supervising producer J. R. Orci and co - executive producer David H. Goodman , and was directed by Gwyneth Horder - Payton . Actress Gillian Jacobs guest starred as the boy 's kidnapper . The episode featured her character in a " pretty violent and quite messy " fight with Olivia Dunham ( Anna Torv ) , Torv 's first for the series . The two actresses spent several weeks practicing the fight 's choreography . " The Equation " first aired in the United States on November 18 , 2008 , garnering an estimated 9 . 175 million viewers . The episode was the Fox network 's fifth ranked show for the week , and helped Fox win the night among adults aged 18 to 49 . Critical reception to " The Equation " ranged from mixed to positive , with most reviewers praising the asylum storyline . Plot While helping fix a woman 's car engine on the side of a Middletown , Connecticut road , Andrew <unk> ( Adam Grupper ) sees a sequence of red and green flashing lights and is hypnotized into a suggestive state . Upon ' waking up ' , he does not have any memory of what happened while hypnotized , but sees that the woman and his son Ben ( Charlie Tahan ) , a young musical prodigy , are missing . Phillip Broyles ( Lance Reddick ) reveals that similar cases have ended with the victims being returned , but left insane from the trauma of the incident . All the victims were academics and accomplished in their respective fields . When interviewing Andrew , Olivia Dunham ( Anna Torv ) learns that nine months previously , Ben survived a car accident with a new , extraordinary ability to play the piano , despite never taking lessons . Dr. Walter Bishop ( John Noble ) recalls memories of red and green lights but is unable to remember more . While trying to dredge up the old memories , Walter recounts a previous unsuccessful mind control experiment he had worked on for an advertising agency , who wished to compel customers to buy their products using flashing lights . He deduces that someone succeeded in producing the lights using wavelengths , and these caused Andrew to sustain a " hypnagogic trance " that allowed his son to be abducted . He successfully tests an experiment on Peter Bishop ( Joshua Jackson ) . Andrew 's sketch leads to the identification of the kidnapper as Joanne Ostler ( Gillian Jacobs ) , a MIT neurologist who was previously believed deceased . Joanne tricks Ben into helping her complete an unfinished equation by using the image of his mother , who died in the car accident . Meanwhile , Walter suddenly remembers that he heard about the lights from former mathematician Dashiell Kim ( Randall Duk Kim ) , an old bunkmate at St. Claire 's Hospital who disappeared under similar circumstances . To discover the child 's whereabouts , Olivia encourages Walter to return to St. Claire 's . The visit does not go well , and Walter is held by hospital administrator Dr. Bruce Sumner ( William Sadler ) , who remains unconvinced of Walter 's sanity . Peter figures out Joanne 's assumed name using a FBI database , while Walter manages to convince Kim into giving up a vague description of Joanne 's whereabouts by telling him there is a little boy who needs their help . Kim says he was kept in " a dungeon in a red castle . " Olivia and Peter use the information to find the boy once they arrange for Walter 's release . However , Joanne escapes with the completed formula , which she gives to Mitchell Loeb ( Chance Kelly ) . Loeb kills her , but not before using the equation to allow him to pass through solid matter . Production " The Equation " was written by supervising producer J. R. Orci and co - executive producer David H. Goodman . Both would go on to separately write other first season episodes , including Orci 's " The Transformation " and Goodman 's " Safe " , which resolved the fate of the eponymous equation . " The Equation " was directed by filmmaker Gwyneth Horder - Payton , her first and only credit for the series to date . The episode featured guest actress Gillian Jacobs as the kidnapper Joanne Ostler . Jacobs explained her character 's motivations , " I 'm a very mysterious figure , and at the beginning of the episode you see that I have taken this boy , have kidnapped him . I have taken him to this room and have him hooked him up to these EKG machines . I 'm trying to get him to finish writing this piano piece which I need to help solve an equation ... It 's very important to me . " Horder - Payton considered the confrontation between Olivia and Joanne to be the former 's " first big fight scene . " She added , " It 's been well choreographed and they 've been practicing for several weeks . " According to Torv , she and Jacobs broke the moves down " really simply " and then " put them together into really small little bits . " The director called it a " pretty violent and quite messy " fight , to which first assistant director Colin MacLellan added , " It 's a pretty phenomenal brawl actually to have two women kick the crap out of each other . " The first season DVD includes several scenes that were omitted from the final cut of the episode . The first centers on Walter waking up in the middle of the night , explaining to a disgruntled Peter that he 's attempting to " shift my circadian rhythm to the nocturnal cycle . " The other scene shows Olivia and Peter playing poker , which leads her to realize an important part of the episode 's case . Themes and analysis Flashing multicolored lights , specifically red and green , are a consistent theme of the first season , with Into the Looking Glass : Exploring the Worlds of Fringe author Sarah Clarke Stuart calling them " noteworthy recurring images . " They can also be seen in the computer graphics of the Observer 's binoculars , as well as during the second and third seasons as a way to distinguish the two universes . The character of Walter goes through much development during the first season . Stuart believed that he changes the most out of the main cast , and his return to St. Claire 's reflects this progression . Actor John Noble explained his character 's evolution in a November 2008 interview , " We see Walter from a different angle , very vulnerable . He goes back to the asylum again , and we see the very , very fearful man return for a while . Although he does have some wonderful moments earlier in the episode , when he goes back inside he turns into this incredibly fearful , stuttering fellow that we saw when we first met him . It 's a very interesting journey we see Walter go through . " In the episode , Walter sees himself several times while staying in the mental institution . Many reviewers expressed curiosity about this " Visitor " or " Second Walter " . After looking through " Walter 's Lab Notes , " released by Fox after each episode , Ramsey Isler of IGN speculated that Walter suffered from a multiple personality disorder , while AOL TV 's Jane Boursaw thought it was either an hallucination or his alternate universe counterpart . Reception Ratings " The Equation " first broadcast on the Fox network in the United States on November 18 , 2008 . It was watched by an estimated 9 . 18 million viewers , earning a 4 . 1 / 10 ratings share among adults aged 18 to 49 , meaning that it was seen by 4 . 4 percent of all 18- to 49 - year - olds , and 11 percent of all 18- to 49 - year - olds watching television at the time of broadcast . The episode also received a 5 . 6 / 8 ratings share among all households . Fringe and its lead - in show , House M.D. , helped Fox win the night in the adult demographic , as it was Fringe 's highest rating since the season 's second episode . It was Fox 's fifth ranked show for the week . Reviews The episode received mixed to positive reviews from television critics . Fearnet columnist Alyse Wax called it a " pretty good episode " , and believed it to be " far more enjoyable than last week 's " , as it lacked that episode 's " conspiracy nonsense " and John Scott storyline . However , Wax continued that " The Equation " " seemed rather pedestrian " because " nothing too freaky " happened , and wished that Walter and Peter had been used more . Jane Boursaw of AOL TV considered Walter 's return to the asylum " heartbreaking " . IGN 's Travis Fickett rated " The Equation " 7 . 5 / 10 , and called it a " solid episode " despite a few perceived plotholes . He liked Walter and Peter 's actions in the asylum , and concluded " At this point , whether a solid single episode is enough to keep you watching Fringe likely has to do with your overall patience with the series and whatever its ultimate goals might be . " Erin Dougherty of Cinema Blend called it the best episode since " The Same Old Story " since it contained " suspense and drama and a minimal amount of conspiracy theories " , making her feel " seriously giddy " . While still calling it " entertaining " , she disliked Walter seeing himself in the asylum , believing it " was really strange and didn ’ t go with the flow of the story " . The A.V. Club writer Noel Murray graded the episode with a B + , explaining that he believed it to be mainly an original story ; what kept him from promoting it to the " elusive ' A ' level – something no Fringe episode has yet done for me " was the ending , which was " like something out of dozens of mediocre cop shows " . Despite this , Murray found it and the asylum storyline to be " compelling " . Conversely , UGO Networks was critical of the episode , writing " Fringe continues to wobble in story quality . Last night 's episode was a perfectly good way to waste an hour , but far off the track of last week 's episodes . The episode featured some plot conveniences that were a bit hard to swallow " .
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Webster 's Brewery Webster 's Brewery ( Samuel Webster & Sons Ltd ) , was founded in 1838 by Samuel Webster and operated at the Fountain Head Brewery in Halifax , West Riding of Yorkshire , England . Webster 's Green Label , a light mild , and Yorkshire Bitter gained national distribution after the company was taken over by Watney Mann in 1972 . Throughout the 1970s it was known for the advertising slogan : " Drives out the northern thirst " . The brewery was closed with the loss of 400 jobs in 1996 . The brand had suffered lower sales after marketing support was withdrawn following its acquisition by Courage Brewery in 1990 . After the brewery 's closure , Webster 's beers were initially brewed at the John Smith 's Brewery in Tadcaster before moving to the Thomas Hardy Brewery at Burtonwood in 2004 . Silvan Brands have owned the company since 2003 when they acquired it from Scottish & Newcastle . History Origins : 1838 – 1900 Samuel Webster ( 1813 – 1872 ) was born in Ovenden , a small village about 2 miles from Halifax town centre . He was the eldest of seven brothers born into a Congregationalist family of the 10 acre - owning farmer James Webster . Webster acquired the small Fountain Head Brewery in Ovenden Wood in 1838 when he was 25 and opened an office in Union Cross Yard , Halifax . The company bought its first public house in 1845 . In 1860 he was joined in partnership by his three sons Isaac , George Henry and Samuel Green , and the firm began trading as Samuel Webster & Sons . Samuel Webster died in 1872 , leaving his sons to continue the business . The firm also imported and sold wines and cigars , in addition to its brewing concerns . By 1880 the company had 100 tied houses . In March 1890 Samuel Webster & Sons became a registered company with £ 175 , 000 ( £ 17 . 5 million in 2010 ) of capital and Isaac Webster , Samuel 's eldest son , its first chairman . In 1892 net profit was £ 20 , 000 ( £ 2 million in 2010 ) . In 1896 the company took over H & T T Ormerod of <unk> , West Yorkshire which could trace its origins back to 1760 . Isaac Webster died in 1899 , leaving an estate of £ 87 , 454 ( £ 9 million ) . By 1900 the company 's office had moved to 57 Northgate , Halifax . 20th - century consolidation The temperance movement of the late nineteenth and early twentieth century , and emergency laws aimed at restricting drinking during the First World War created difficult trading conditions for brewers . In 1919 net profit was reported at £ 22 , 325 ( £ 900 , 000 at 2010 prices ) . Samuel Wentworth Webster , a director of the company and grandson of the founder , died in 1928 with a <unk> of £ 45 , 000 ( £ 2 . 2 million in 2010 ) . In 1928 , one of the brewery 's most successful beers was launched ; Webster 's Green Label , a light mild ale . In 1929 the company 's entire stock of properties , land and brewery buildings was valued at £ 468 , 833 ( £ 23 . 2 million in 2010 ) . The company took over Joseph Stocks of Halifax in December 1932 , which could trace its origins back to 1790 . In 1957 , Webster 's took over the brewer , John Ainley & Sons of Huddersfield and Woodhead Brothers of Elland , near Halifax , a mineral water manufacturer . The company dray horses , used for local beer deliveries , were retired by the end of the 1950s . In 1961 Webster 's bought Daniel Fielding & Sons of Halifax , which added 19 public houses to their tied estate . The same year the company sought out partnership with the national brewer Watney Mann in order to benefit from the technical knowledge of the much larger company . In return Webster 's brewed and sold the brewery conditioned Watney 's Red Barrel ale throughout their tied estate . In 1962 , a reciprocal trading agreement was reached with Ind Coope 's North East division which saw Webster 's houses stock lager for the first time . That same year the group won the contract to bottle <unk> for West Yorkshire . In September 1966 , a friendly takeover of the Bradford brewers J. Hey & Company Ltd added 73 public houses to their estate . Webster 's had a market value of £ 3 . 3 million , and J. Hey had a value of £ 1 million . The combined group had assets of over £ 4 . 5 million ( £ 65 million in 2010 prices ) . Webster 's continued to bottle Guinness under their Hey & Humphries subsidiary label into the late 1980s . Throughout the 1960s and early 1970s , consolidation , a good product and successful marketing made the company successful , according to The Times , with the social club trade accounted for around half of turnover . By 1967 Watney Mann owned 18 . 4 per cent of the company , and Webster 's had a market capitalisation of £ 6 million ( £ 85 million in 2010 prices ) and owned 320 public houses and 12 off licences . Watney Mann had gradually increased their share to 27 . 1 per cent by 1972 when it initiated a takeover of the rest of the company . Samuel Webster & Sons was offered £ 18 million for the 73 per cent of the company that Watney did not already own . The Watney Mann offer valued the entire company at almost £ 250 million in 2010 prices . The takeover was a friendly one , and dependent upon the agreement of the Webster family , who owned 20 per cent of the company . Watney Mann was motivated by an increase to their tied estate . Following the takeover , Webster 's continued as a regional subsidiary of the Watney Mann brewing empire , responsible for Yorkshire , Humberside , north Derbyshire and north Nottinghamshire . The takeover saw heavy investment in the brewery and the Webster 's brands enjoyed increased distribution nationally . That same year , Watney Mann itself was taken over by Grand Metropolitan . In 1979 , Webster 's employed a total of 1 , 500 people across production , distribution and retailing . The early 1980s saw the " gradual transformation " of Webster 's into a national brand . In 1985 , Grand Met merged the Wilson Brewery of Manchester ( which Watney Mann had bought in 1960 ) with Webster 's to form Samuel Webster and Wilsons Ltd . In 1986 , Wilsons Brewery was closed down and production of Wilsons Original Bitter and Wilsons Mild was moved to Halifax . By 1988 Webster 's was supplying around 1000 pubs in the North of England , and as far afield as North Wales . Moving out of the brewing industry , Grand Met sold Webster 's to Courage in 1990 . By that year Webster 's had an annual revenue of around £ 100 million and claimed 7 per cent of the national bitter market . However Courage owned the higher selling John Smith 's ale brand , and Webster 's was <unk> . The brands suffered further after the Scottish & Newcastle takeover of Courage , as S & N , with their own <unk> brand , now owned three major bitter brands from Yorkshire alone . By 1996 Scotland on Sunday described the brand as " staid " and argued that it " never caught on outside its Yorkshire heartland . " By this time John Smith 's was outselling Webster 's three to one . Following the closure of the Fountain Head Brewery in 1996 , Webster 's beers were initially brewed at Scottish Courage 's John Smith 's Brewery in Tadcaster , but were subsequently moved to the Thomas Hardy Brewery at Burtonwood in 2004 . Scottish & Newcastle sold the Webster 's brands to Silvan Brands in 2003 . The chairman Brian Stewart defended the sale , claiming : " Webster 's was a brand that did not have a strong brand franchise . What has happened is that brands [ which ] consumers demand are still here " . In 2011 , H B Clark took over the distribution rights for the Webster 's brands in the north of England . The bitter is now simply known as Webster 's Bitter . In 2015 , Silvan Brands Ltd dissolved and the brand is believed no longer to be sold . Fountain Head Brewery The brewery site was chosen for its Pennine spring which provided the ready water supply necessary for brewing . The water was rich in magnesium sulphate which added bitterness to the beer and provided it with a dry finish . In 1873 the brewery was extended and redeveloped . In 1890 the brewery was linked to the Halifax High Level Railway network , which facilitated the brewery 's distribution . In 1900 the Château - influenced maltings building was built as part of a £ 10 , 000 ( £ 1 million in 2010 ) development project . By 1958 the company 's existing offices in Northgate , Halifax , were proving too small for the expanding company , and new offices were custom built on the Ovenden Wood site . The landmark maltings building was closed in 1960 as its 12 , 000 stone ( 76 , 000 kg ) per annum capacity proved insufficient for the brewery 's increasing needs , and the building was used for storage . In 1973 , Watney Mann commissioned a new brewhouse . In 1979 a new £ 6 million lager plant was started , initially brewing <unk> . By the early 1980s the brewery had beer production volumes of around 400 , 000 barrels per annum and employed around 600 people . At this time , the brewery was described as " wonderfully traditional " by Roger Protz and had open fermentation vessels , mash tuns and copper brewing vessels . Production of Budweiser began in 1984 . Having previously been used for storage , in 1986 the historic Long Can Hall was converted to function as the brewery 's visitor 's centre . A £ 10 million expansion project was embarked upon at the brewery in 1988 . Construction of a new plant increased brewing capacity from 1 million to 1 . 3 million barrels a year . In 1989 , the derelict former maltings building was converted into brewery offices in a £ 4 million project . Also , a new distribution depot was constructed in Elland . In 1990 , the Old Maltings was categorised as a Grade II listed building . By 1990 , most of the Fountain Head Brewery was dedicated to brewing Webster 's and Wilsons ales . The brewery 's bottling line was closed in 1991 , resulting in the loss of 54 jobs . At the time of the brewery 's closure in November 1996 , it employed 184 people on a ten hectare site . As well as Webster 's and Wilson 's beers , the brewery had been producing the lager brands Foster 's and Molson . The brewery had been running at " well below " 50 per cent of its 1 . 3 million barrel capacity which was deemed " unsustainable " according to Scottish & Newcastle management . Although productivity per employee had been the highest of any of Scottish & Newcastle 's brewing plants it was claimed that it would have required substantial investment if it was to remain competitive . In 2004 , housing was built on the former brewery site . After a period of dormancy , the Old Maltings reopened as a children 's day nursery in 2007 , and a school and community centre was opened alongside the nursery in 2011 . The Maltings College sixth form opened at the site in 2013 . Webster 's Yorkshire Bitter Webster 's Yorkshire Bitter was launched in the summer of 1982 . Largely a cask product , by 1984 Grand Metropolitan had transformed Yorkshire Bitter into a " massive " national brand , available in the company 's 5 , 000 tied houses and 15 , 000 free houses . It was marketed as their response to the growing popularity of Yorkshire bitter in the south of England , particularly John Smith 's . Yorkshire Bitter was the highest selling off trade bitter by 1985 with 18 per cent of the market . It had become the fifth best selling bitter nationally by 1989 , helped by a competitive pricing policy , and was the highest selling bitter in London . The beer was not without its critics , with the 1990 Good Beer Guide describing it as " weak flavour [ ed ] , reminiscent of a poor quality home brew – <unk> , bland , cloying , with a dirty finish on the tongue " . In 1993 , Yorkshire Bitter was reduced from 3 . 8 per cent to 3 . 5 per cent ABV in order to save money on duty . When Scottish & Newcastle acquired the John Smith 's and Webster 's bitter brands as part of their takeover of Courage in 1995 , the lower selling Webster 's brands were <unk> , and virtually all marketing support ceased . Roger Protz has described the brand as " almost redundant " and production of cask conditioned Webster 's beer was ended in 2010 . Advertising Webster 's Pennine Bitter was known for its slogan : " Drives out the northern thirst " , first used in 1970 and supported throughout the 1970s by a local television campaign featuring Yorkshire cricketer Fred Trueman . In the advertisements , Trueman would breathe fire after drinking his pint of Pennine Bitter and say " We like things right in Yorkshire – like our beer . Webster 's Pennine Bitter . Drives out the northern thirst " . The comedian Charlie Williams appeared in television advertisements for Yorkshire Bitter in 1984 – 85 . One of the Williams advertisements featured a cameo from Yorkshire cricketers Fred Trueman and Ray Illingworth . The Webster 's Yorkshire Bitter " Talking horses " campaign ran from 1986 until 1992 with the slogan " It 's right tasty is Webster 's " . <unk> horses were used in the 1980s , but replaced by animatronic puppets in the 1990s . Sponsorship The company sponsored The Hallé orchestra to appear in Halifax to sell out audiences in 1966 and 1967 . In the summer of 1984 , Webster 's Yorkshire Bitter invested £ 100 , 000 into English cricket , with the aim of finding six fast bowlers by winter . From 1986 to 1992 , Webster 's sponsored Bradford Northern RLFC rugby league team , and Halifax RLFC from 1992 to 1993 , <unk> Colliery Band from 1987 to 1990 , the UK Open darts championship in 1989 and 1990 , and the World Matchplay darts tournament in 1995 and 1996 .
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Jadovno concentration camp The Jadovno concentration camp was a concentration and extermination camp in the Independent State of Croatia ( NDH ) during World War II . Commanded by <unk> <unk> , it was the first of twenty - six concentration camps in the NDH during the war . Established in a secluded area about 20 kilometres ( 12 mi ) from the town of Gospić , it held thousands of Serbs and Jews over a period of 122 days from May to August 1941 . Inmates were usually killed by being pushed into deep ravines located near the camp . Estimates of the number of deaths at Jadovno range from 10 , 000 to 68 , 000 , mostly Serbs . The camp was closed on 21 August 1941 , and the area where it was located was later handed over to the Kingdom of Italy and became part of Italian Zones II and III . <unk> was replaced by the greater sized Jasenovac concentration camp and its extermination facilities . The camp site remained unexplored after the war due to the depth of the gorges where bodies were disposed and the fact that some of them had been filled with concrete by Yugoslavia 's Communist authorities . Additional sites containing the skeletal remains of camp victims were uncovered in the 1980s . Commemoration ceremonies honouring the victims of the camp have been organized by the Serb National Council ( <unk> ) , the Jewish community in Croatia , and local anti - fascists since 2009 , and 24 June has since been designated as a " Day of Remembrance of the Jadovno Camp " in Croatia . A monument commemorating those killed in the camp was constructed in 1975 and stood for fifteen years before being removed in 1990 . A replica of the original monument was constructed and dedicated in 2010 , but disappeared within twenty - four hours of its inauguration . As of 2013 , the construction of a new monument is planned . History Background On 6 April 1941 , Axis forces invaded the Kingdom of Yugoslavia . Poorly equipped and poorly trained , the Royal Yugoslav Army was quickly defeated . After the invasion , the extreme Croat nationalist and fascist Ante Pavelić , who had been in exile in Benito Mussolini 's Italy , was appointed Poglavnik ( " leader " ) of an Ustaše - led Croatian state – the Independent State of Croatia ( often called the NDH , from the Croatian : Nezavisna Država Hrvatska ) . The NDH combined most of modern Croatia , all of modern Bosnia and Herzegovina and parts of modern Serbia into an " Italian - German quasi - protectorate " . NDH authorities , led by the Ustaše militia , then implemented genocidal policies against the Serb , Jewish and Romani populations living in the new state . Aiming to exterminate the entire Serb population of the NDH , the Ustaše sought to murder one - third of Serbs , convert one - third to Roman Catholicism , and force the rest from the country . A series of massacres were committed by the Ustaše , and the degree of cruelty with which the Serb population was persecuted shocked even the Germans . The Cyrillic script was banned , Orthodox Christian church schools were closed , and Serbs were ordered to wear identifying armbands . Similar measures were enacted against Jews , who were required to wear a yellow armband with a black - on - yellow Star of David for identification . These armbands bore the word " Jew " in two languages : German ( " Jude " ) and Croatian ( " <unk> " ) . Operation Located in a secluded area about 20 kilometres ( 12 mi ) from the town of Gospić , the Jadovno camp was formed during the early stages of the persecution of Serbs in the NDH and was placed under the command of the Ustaša <unk> <unk> . Intended as an extermination camp , it was established between 11 and 15 April 1941 and was the first of twenty - six concentration camps located in the NDH during the war . Most inmates at Ustaše camps – including Jadovno – were Croatian Serbs . Other victims included Jews and anti - Ustaše Croats . Notable Jadovno inmates included the mayor of Koprivnica , Ivica <unk> , and Croatian Jewish Communist Aleksandar Savić . Immediately , the Ustaše trucked several hundred detainees to a site intended almost exclusively for extermination near Gospić . Located on Mount Velebit , the town contained gorges – some up to 91 . 5 metres ( 300 ft ) deep – that were used as dumping grounds . The Jadovno camp itself was surrounded by such <unk> ( Serbo - Croatian : <unk> ) which were difficult to gain access to and characteristic of the karstic mountain range . The camp itself acted as a " way station " en route to these pits . Here , prisoners had to work the entire day with almost no food until exhaustion . The nearest pit to the camp was the <unk> pit , located 1 kilometre ( 0 . 62 mi ) away , while the pit where inmates were executed and dumped was 5 kilometres ( 3 . 1 mi ) from the camp . Here , inmates were bound together in a line and the first few victims were murdered with rifle butts or other objects . Afterwards , an entire row of inmates were pushed into the ravine . In some cases , inmates were also killed by gunfire , as well as with knives and blunt objects . Once inmates were thrown into the ravine , hand grenades were hurtled inside in order to kill off the victims . Dogs would also be thrown in to feed on the wounded and the dead . The pits in the vicinity of the camp were filled with the bodies of Jewish and later Serb inmates . However , killings were not confined to these two groups , and the bodies of some Croats and Roma were disposed of in this fashion as well . By the end of June , the Ustaše transferred several hundred Jewish families from Zagreb to Jadovno . Afterwards , the camp was visited by Ustaše commander Vjekoslav Luburić , who opened his visit by cutting the throat of a two - year - old Jewish child . Luburić then forced a camp guard to murder and squash the skull of a second child with his foot . The last group of inmates at Jadovno were killed with machine guns . The camp was closed on 21 August 1941 , and the remaining Croat inmates were transferred to other NDH - controlled camps , while the remaining Serbs and Jews were murdered . Work on the replacement Jasenovac concentration camp started in the same month . The area in which the Jadovno camp was located was later handed over to the Italians and became part of Italian Zones II and III . Aftermath and legacy The Jadovno camp site remained unexplored after the war due to the depth of the gorges where bodies were disposed of and the fact that some of these had been filled with concrete by Yugoslavia 's Communist authorities . Additional sites containing the skeletal remains of camp victims were uncovered in the 1980s . The number of deaths at the camp is difficult to establish as many inmates often went unregistered as they were taken directly to the edge of ravines and murdered . Historian Paul Mojzes lists 38 , 010 Serbs , 1 , 998 Jews , 88 Croats and several " others " as being killed at Jadovno . 1 , 000 children also perished in camp , as did 55 Serbian Orthodox priests . Mojzes states that the total number of deaths at the camp was 40 , 123 . As it operated over a period of 122 days , this would suggest that an average of 329 people were killed there every day . Sources generally offer a range of 10 , 000 – 68 , 000 deaths at the camp . Estimates of the number of Jewish deaths range from several hundred to 2 , 500 – 2 , 800 . The Military Encyclopedia of Yugoslavia estimates that 72 , 000 inmates perished in the camp . On the other hand , the Encyclopedia of Yugoslavia states that at least 35 , 000 were killed in Jadovno , with a possible final death toll of 50 , 000 – 60 , 000 . The highest recorded estimate of Jadovno deaths was made in 1983 by Reverend <unk> Jevtić , when he claimed that 80 , 000 inmates were killed . However , historian Jozo Tomasevich has referred to this claim as being " exaggerated " , stating that it is not based on any documentation or detailed investigation . Franjo Tuđman , the President of Croatia from 1990 until his death in 1999 , denied that any deaths took place in Jadovno during the war . This claim was put forward in his 1989 book Horrors of War : Historical Reality and Philosophy . Tuđman has since been called a Holocaust denier by some , including the World Jewish Congress . Commemoration ceremonies honouring the victims of the camp have been organized by the Serb National Council ( <unk> ) , representatives of the Jewish community in Croatia , and local anti - fascists since 2009 . 24 June has since been designated as a " Day of Remembrance of the Jadovno Camp " in Croatia . A monument commemorating those who perished was constructed in 1975 and stood for fifteen years before being removed in 1990 prior to the outbreak of ethnic violence during the Croatian War of Independence . A replica of the original monument was constructed and dedicated in 2010 , but disappeared within twenty - four hours of its inauguration . The construction of a new monument is planned . Books Websites
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Adriatic Sea The Adriatic Sea / <unk> / is a body of water separating the Italian Peninsula from the Balkan peninsula and the Apennine Mountains from the Dinaric Alps and adjacent ranges . The Adriatic is the northernmost arm of the Mediterranean Sea , extending from the Strait of Otranto ( where it connects to the Ionian Sea ) to the northwest and the Po Valley . The countries with coasts on the Adriatic are Italy , Croatia , Albania , Montenegro , Bosnia - Herzegovina , and Slovenia . The Adriatic contains over 1 , 300 islands , mostly located along its eastern , Croatian , coast . It is divided into three basins , the northern being the shallowest and the southern being the deepest , with a maximum depth of 1 , 233 metres ( 4 , 045 ft ) . The Otranto Sill , an underwater ridge , is located at the border between the Adriatic and Ionian Seas . The prevailing currents flow counterclockwise from the Strait of Otranto , along the eastern coast and back to the strait along the western ( Italian ) coast . Tidal movements in the Adriatic are slight , although larger amplitudes are known to occur occasionally . The Adriatic 's salinity is lower than the Mediterranean 's because the Adriatic collects a third of the fresh water flowing into the Mediterranean , acting as a dilution basin . The surface water temperatures generally range from 30 ° C ( 86 ° F ) in summer to 12 ° C ( 54 ° F ) in winter , significantly moderating the Adriatic Basin 's climate . The Adriatic Sea sits on the Apulian or Adriatic <unk> , which separated from the African Plate in the Mesozoic era . The plate 's movement contributed to the formation of the surrounding mountain chains and Apennine tectonic uplift after its collision with the Eurasian plate . In the Late Oligocene , the Apennine Peninsula first formed , separating the Adriatic Basin from the rest of the Mediterranean . All types of sediment are found in the Adriatic , with the bulk of the material transported by the Po and other rivers on the western coast . The western coast is alluvial or terraced , while the eastern coast is highly indented with pronounced karstification . There are dozens of marine protected areas in the Adriatic , designed to protect the sea 's karst habitats and biodiversity . The sea is abundant in flora and fauna — more than 7 , 000 species are identified as native to the Adriatic , many of them endemic , rare and threatened ones . The Adriatic 's shores are populated by more than 3 . 5 million people ; the largest cities are Bari , Venice , Trieste and Split . The earliest settlements on the Adriatic shores were Etruscan , Illyrian , and Greek . By the 2nd century BC , the shores were under Rome 's control . In the Middle Ages , the Adriatic shores and the sea itself were controlled , to a varying extent , by a series of states — most notably the Byzantine Empire , the Serbian Empire , the Republic of Venice , the Habsburg Monarchy and the Ottoman Empire . The Napoleonic Wars resulted in the First French Empire gaining coastal control and the British effort to counter the French in the area , ultimately securing most of the eastern Adriatic shore and the Po Valley for Austria . Following Italian unification , the Kingdom of Italy started an eastward expansion that lasted until the 20th century . Following World War I and the collapse of Austria - Hungary and the Ottoman Empire , the eastern coast 's control passed to Yugoslavia and Albania . The former disintegrated during the 1990s , resulting in four new states on the Adriatic coast . Italy and Yugoslavia agreed on their maritime boundaries by 1975 and this boundary is recognised by Yugoslavia 's successor states , but the maritime boundaries between Slovenian , Croatian , Bosnian – Herzegovinian and Montenegrin waters are still disputed . Italy and Albania agreed on their maritime boundary in 1992 . Fisheries and tourism are significant sources of income all along the Adriatic coast . Adriatic Croatia 's tourism industry has grown faster economically than the rest of the Adriatic Basin 's . Maritime transport is also a significant branch of the area 's economy — there are 19 seaports in the Adriatic that each handle more than a million tonnes of cargo per year . The largest Adriatic seaport by annual cargo turnover is the Port of Trieste , while the Port of Split is the largest Adriatic seaport by passengers served per year . Geography The Adriatic Sea is a semi - enclosed sea , bordered in the southwest by the Apennine or Italian Peninsula , in the northwest by the Italian regions of Veneto and Friuli - Venezia Giulia , and in the northeast by Slovenia , Croatia , Bosnia - Herzegovina , Montenegro , and Albania — the Balkan peninsula . In the southeast , the Adriatic Sea connects to the Ionian Sea at the 72 - kilometre ( 45 mi ) wide Strait of Otranto . The International Hydrographic Organization ( IHO ) defines the boundary between the Adriatic and the Ionian seas as a line running from the <unk> River 's mouth ( latitude 39 ° <unk> ) in Albania to the <unk> Cape in Corfu , through this island to the <unk> Cape ( these two capes are in latitude 39 ° <unk> ) , and on to the Santa Maria di Leuca Cape ( latitude 39 ° <unk> ) . It extends 800 kilometres ( 500 mi ) from the northwest to the southeast and is 200 kilometres ( 120 mi ) wide . It covers 138 , 600 square kilometres ( 53 , 500 sq mi ) and has a volume of 35 , 000 cubic kilometres ( 8 , 400 cu mi ) . The Adriatic extends northwest from 40 ° to 45 ° 47 ' north , representing the Mediterranean 's northernmost portion . The sea is geographically divided into the Northern Adriatic , Central ( or Middle ) Adriatic , and Southern Adriatic . The Adriatic Sea drainage basin encompasses 235 , 000 square kilometres ( 91 , 000 sq mi ) , yielding a land – sea ratio of 1 . 8 . The drainage basin 's mean elevation is 782 metres ( 2 , 566 ft ) above sea level , with a mean slope of 12 . 1 ° . Major rivers discharging into the Adriatic include the Po , Soča , Krka , Neretva , Drin , Bojana , and <unk> . In the late 19th century , Austria - Hungary established a geodetic network with an elevation benchmark using the average Adriatic Sea level at the Sartorio pier in Trieste , Italy . The benchmark was subsequently retained by Austria , adopted by Yugoslavia , and retained by the states that emerged after its dissolution . The Adriatic Sea contains more than 1300 islands and islets , most along the Adriatic 's eastern coast — especially in Croatia , with 1 , 246 counted . The number includes islands , islets , and rocks of all sizes , including ones emerging at ebb tide only . The Croatian islands include the largest — Cres and Krk , each covering about the same area of 405 . 78 square kilometres ( 156 . 67 sq mi ) — and the tallest — Brač , whose peak reaches 780 metres ( 2 , 560 ft ) above sea level . The islands of Cres and the adjacent Lošinj are separated only by a narrow navigable canal dug in the time of classical antiquity ; the original single island was known to the Greeks as <unk> . The Croatian islands include 47 permanently inhabited ones , the most populous among them being Krk , Korčula and Brač . The islands along the Adriatic 's western ( Italian ) coast are smaller and less numerous than those along the opposite coast ; the best - known ones are the 117 islands on which the city of Venice is built . The northern shore of the Greek island of Corfu also lies in the Adriatic Sea as defined by the IHO . The IHO boundary places a few smaller Greek islands ( ones northwest of Corfu ) in the Adriatic Sea . Bathymetry The Adriatic Sea 's average depth is 259 . 5 metres ( 851 ft ) , and its maximum depth is 1 , 233 metres ( 4 , 045 ft ) ; however , the North Adriatic basin rarely exceeds a depth of 100 metres ( 330 ft ) . The North Adriatic basin , extending between Venice and Trieste towards a line connecting Ancona and Zadar , is only 15 metres ( 49 ft ) deep at its northwestern end ; it gradually deepens towards the southeast . It is the largest Mediterranean shelf and is simultaneously a dilution basin and a site of bottom water formation . The Middle Adriatic basin is south of the Ancona – Zadar line , with the 270 - metre ( 890 ft ) deep Middle Adriatic Pit ( also called the Pomo Depression or the Jabuka Pit ) . The 170 - metre ( 560 ft ) deep Palagruža Sill is south of the Middle Adriatic Pit , separating it from the 1 , 200 - metre ( 3 , 900 ft ) deep South Adriatic Pit and the Middle Adriatic basin from the South Adriatic Basin . Further on to the south , the sea floor rises to 780 metres ( 2 , 560 ft ) to form the Otranto Sill at the boundary to the Ionian Sea . The South Adriatic Basin is similar in many respects to the Northern Ionian Sea , to which it is connected . <unk> , the Adriatic Sea is also asymmetric : the Apennine peninsular coast is relatively smooth with very few islands and the Monte <unk> and Gargano promontories as the only significant protrusions into the sea ; in contrast , the Balkan peninsular coast is rugged with numerous islands , especially in Croatia . The coast 's ruggedness is exacerbated by the Dinaric Alps ' proximity to the coast , in contrast to the opposite ( Italian ) coast where the Apennine Mountains are further away from the shoreline . Hydrology The coastal water dynamics are determined by the asymmetric coasts and the Mediterranean seawater 's inflow through the Straits of Otranto and further on along the eastern coast . The smooth Italian coast ( with very few protrusions and no major islands ) allows the Western Adriatic Current 's smooth flow , which is composed of the surface 's relatively freshwater mass and the bottom 's cold and dense water mass . The coastal currents on the opposite shore are far more complex , due to the jagged shoreline , several large islands and the Dinaric Alps ' proximity to the shore . The last produces significant temperature variations between the sea and the hinterland , which leads to the creation of local jets . The tidal movement is normally slight , usually remaining below 30 centimetres ( 12 in ) . The <unk> point is at the mid - width east of Ancona . The normal tide levels are known to increase significantly in a conducive environment , leading to coastal flooding ; this phenomenon is most famously known in Italy — especially Venice — as <unk> <unk> . Such tides can exceed normal levels by more than 140 centimetres ( 55 in ) , with the highest tide level of 194 centimetres ( 76 in ) observed on 4 November 1966 . Such flooding is caused by a combination of factors , including the alignment of the Sun and Moon , meteorological factors such as sirocco related storm surges , and the basin 's geometric shape ( which amplifies or reduces the astronomical component ) . Moreover , the Adriatic 's long and narrow rectangular shape is the source of an oscillating water motion ( French : seiche ) along the basin 's minor axis . Finally , Venice is increasingly vulnerable to flooding due to coastal area soil subsidence . Such unusually high tides resulting in flooding have also been observed elsewhere in the Adriatic Sea , and have been recorded in recent years in the towns of Koper , Zadar and Šibenik as well . It is estimated that the Adriatic 's entire volume is exchanged through the Strait of Otranto in 3 . 4 ± 0 . 4 years , a comparably short period . ( For instance , approximately 500 years are necessary to exchange all the Black Sea 's water . ) This short period is particularly important as the rivers flowing into the Adriatic discharge up to 5 , 700 cubic metres per second ( 200 , 000 cu ft / s ) . This rate of discharge amounts to 0 . 5 % of the total Adriatic Sea volume , or a 1 . 3 - metre ( 4 ft 3 in ) layer of water each year . The greatest portion of the discharge from any single river comes from the Po ( 28 % ) , with an average discharge from it alone of 1 , 569 cubic metres per second ( 55 , 400 cu ft / s ) . In terms of the annual total discharge into the entire Mediterranean Sea , the Po is ranked second , followed by the Neretva and Drin , which rank as third and fourth . Another significant contributor of freshwater to the Adriatic is the submarine groundwater discharge through submarine springs ( Croatian : <unk> ) ; it is estimated to comprise 29 % of the total water flux into the Adriatic . The submarine springs include thermal springs , discovered offshore near the town of Izola . The thermal <unk> is rich with hydrogen sulfide , has a temperature of 22 to 29 . 6 ° C ( 71 . 6 to 85 . 3 ° F ) , and has enabled the development of specific ecosystems . The inflow of freshwater , representing a third of the freshwater volume flowing into the Mediterranean , makes the Adriatic a dilution basin for the Mediterranean Sea . The Middle and South Adriatic <unk> ( SAG ) , are significant cyclonic circulation features , with the former being intermittent and the latter permanent . The SAG measures 150 kilometres ( 93 miles ) in diameter . It contributes to the flow of bottom water from the Adriatic to the Levantine Basin through the Ionian Sea . Through that process , the Adriatic Sea produces most of the East Mediterranean deep water . Temperature and salinity The Adriatic 's surface temperature usually ranges from 22 to 30 ° C ( 72 to 86 ° F ) in the summer , or 12 to 14 ° C ( 54 to 57 ° F ) in the winter , except along the western Adriatic coast 's northern part , where it drops to 9 ° C ( 48 ° F ) in the winter . The distinct seasonal temperature variations , with a longitudinal gradient in the Northern and transversal gradient in the Middle and Southern Adriatic , are attributed to the continental characteristics of the Adriatic Sea : it is shallower and closer to land than are oceans . During particularly cold winters , sea ice may appear in the Adriatic 's shallow coastal areas , especially in the Venetian Lagoon but also in isolated shallows as far south as <unk> ( south of Zadar ) . The Southern Adriatic is about 8 to 10 ° C ( 14 to 18 ° F ) warmer during the winter than the more northerly regions . The Adriatic 's salinity variation over the year is likewise distinct : it ranges between 38 and 39 <unk> . The southern Adriatic is subjected to saltier water from the Levantine Basin . Climate According to the Köppen climate classification , the upper half of the Adriatic is classified as humid subtropical climate ( Cfa ) , with wetter summers and colder and drier winters , and the southern Adriatic are classified as hot - summer Mediterranean climate ( Csa ) . The air temperature can fluctuate by about 20 ° C ( 36 ° F ) during a season . The predominant winter winds are the bora and sirocco ( called <unk> along the eastern coast ) . The bora is significantly conditioned by wind gaps in the Dinaric Alps bringing cold and dry continental air ; it reaches peak speeds in the areas of Trieste , Senj , and Split , with gusts of up to 180 kilometres per hour ( 97 kn ; 110 mph ) . The sirocco brings humid and warm air , often carrying Saharan sand causing rain dust . Population On the Adriatic Sea 's coasts and islands , there are numerous small settlements , and a number of larger cities . Among the largest are Bari , Venice , Trieste , and Rimini in Italy , Split , Rijeka and Zadar in Croatia , Durrës and Vlorë in Albania and Koper in Slovenia . In total , more than 3 . 5 million people live on the Adriatic coasts . There are also some larger cities that are located very near the coast , such as the Italian cities of Ravenna and Lecce . Coastal management Venice , which was originally built on islands off the coast , is most at risk due to subsidence , but the threat is present in the Po delta as well . The causes are a decrease in sedimentation rate due to loss of sediment behind dams , the deliberate excavation of sand for industrial purposes , agricultural use of water , and removal of ground water . The sinking of Venice slowed after artesian wells were banned in the 1960s , but the city remains threatened by the <unk> <unk> floods . Recent studies have suggested that the city is no longer sinking , but a state of alert remains in place . In May 2003 , then - Prime Minister Silvio Berlusconi inaugurated the <unk> project ( Italian : <unk> <unk> <unk> ) , an experimental model for evaluating the performance of inflatable gates . The project proposes laying a series of 79 inflatable pontoons across the sea bed at the three entrances to the Venetian Lagoon . When tides are predicted to rise above 110 centimetres ( 43 in ) , the pontoons will be filled with air and block the incoming water from the Adriatic Sea . This engineering work is due to be completed by 2014 . Geology Geophysical and geological information indicate that the Adriatic Sea and the Po Valley are associated with a tectonic microplate — identified as the Apulian or Adriatic Plate — that separated from the African Plate during the Mesozoic era . This separation began in the Middle and Late Triassic , when limestone began to be deposited in the area . Between the Norian and Late Cretaceous , the Adriatic and Apulia Carbonate Platforms formed as a thick series of carbonate sediments ( dolomites and limestones ) , up to 8 , 000 metres ( 26 , 000 ft ) deep . Remnants of the former are found in the Adriatic Sea , as well as in the southern Alps and the Dinaric Alps , and remnants of the latter are seen as the Gargano Promontory and the <unk> mountain . In the Eocene and early Oligocene , the plate moved north and north - east , contributing to the Alpine orogeny ( along with the African and Eurasian Plates ' movements ) via the tectonic uplift of the Dinarides and Alps . In the Late Oligocene , the motion was reversed and the Apennine Mountains ' orogeny took place . An unbroken zone of increased seismic activity borders the Adriatic Sea , with a belt of thrust faults generally oriented in the northeast – southwest direction on the east coast and the northeast – southwest normal faults in the Apennines , indicating an Adriatic counterclockwise rotation . An active 200 - kilometre ( 120 mi ) fault has been identified to the northwest of Dubrovnik , adding to the Dalmatian islands as the Eurasian Plate slides over the Adriatic microplate . Furthermore , the fault causes the Apennine peninsula 's southern tip to move towards the opposite shore by about 0 . 4 centimetres ( 0 . 16 in ) per year . If this movement continues , the seafloor will be completely consumed and the Adriatic Sea closed off in 50 – 70 million years . In the Northern Adriatic , the coast of the Gulf of Trieste and western Istria is gradually subsiding , having sunk about 1 . 5 metres ( 4 ft 11 in ) in the past two thousand years . In the Middle Adriatic Basin , there is evidence of Permian volcanism in the area of <unk> on the island of Vis and the volcanic islands of Jabuka and <unk> . Earthquakes have been observed in the region since the earliest historical records . A recent strong earthquake in the region was the 1979 Montenegro earthquake , measuring 7 . 0 on the Richter scale . Historical earthquakes in the area include the 1627 Gargano peninsula and the 1667 Dubrovnik earthquakes , both followed by strong tsunamis . In the last 600 years , fifteen tsunamis have occurred in the Adriatic Sea . Seafloor sediment All types of seafloor sediments are found in the Adriatic Sea . The Northern Adriatic 's comparatively shallow seabed is characterised by relict sand ( from times when the water level was lower and the area was a sandy beach ) , while a muddy bed is typical at depths below 100 metres ( 330 ft ) . There are five geomorphological units in the Adriatic : the Northern Adriatic ( up to 100 metres ( 330 ft ) deep ) ; the North Adriatic islands area protected against sediments filling it in by outer islands ( pre - Holocene karst relief ) ; the Middle Adriatic islands area ( large Dalmatian islands ) ; the Middle Adriatic ( characterized by the Middle Adriatic Depression ) ; and the Southern Adriatic consisting of a coastal shelf and the Southern Adriatic Depression . Sediments deposited in the Adriatic Sea today generally come from the northwest coast , being carried by the Po , Reno , Adige , <unk> , Tagliamento , Piave and Soča rivers . The volume of sediments carried from the eastern shore by the Rječina , Zrmanja , Krka , Cetina , Ombla , Dragonja , Mirna , <unk> and Neretva rivers is negligible , because these sediments are mostly deposited at the river mouths . The Adriatic 's western shores are largely either alluvial or terraced , whereas the eastern shores are predominantly rocky , except for the southernmost part of the shore located in Albania that consists of sandy coves and rocky capes . Coasts The eastern Adriatic shore 's Croatian part is the most indented Mediterranean coastline . Most of the eastern coast is characterised by a karst topography , developed from the Adriatic Carbonate Platform 's exposure to weathering . Karstification there largely began after the Dinarides ' final uplift in the Oligocene and the Miocene , when carbonate deposits were exposed to atmospheric effects ; this extended to the level of 120 metres ( 390 ft ) below the present sea level , exposed during the Last Glacial Maximum . It is estimated that some karst formations are from earlier sea level drops , most notably the Messinian salinity crisis . Similarly , karst developed in Apulia from the Apulian Carbonate Platform . The largest part of the eastern coast consists of carbonate rocks , while flysch ( a particular type of sedimentary rock ) is significantly represented in the Gulf of Trieste coast , especially along Slovenia 's coast where the 80 - metre ( 260 ft ) Strunjan cliff — the highest cliff on the entire Adriatic and the only one of its type on the eastern Adriatic coast — is located , on the Kvarner Gulf coast opposite Krk , and in Dalmatia north of Split . Rocks of the same type are found in Albania and on the western Adriatic coast . There are alternations of maritime and alluvial sediments occurring in the Po Valley , at the Adriatic 's north - west coast , and as far west as Piacenza , dating to the Pleistocene as the sea advanced and receded over the valley . An advance began after the Last Glacial Maximum , which brought the Adriatic to a high point at about 5 , 500 years ago . Since then , the Po delta has been prograding ( expanding / extending ) . The rate of coastal zone <unk> between 1000 BC and 1200 AD was 4 metres ( 13 ft ) per year . In the 12th century , the delta advanced at a rate of 25 metres ( 82 ft ) per year . In the 17th century , the delta began to become a human - controlled environment , as the excavation of artificial channels started ; the channels and new distributaries of the Po have been prograding at rates of 50 metres ( 160 ft ) per year or more since then . There are more than 20 other rivers flowing into the Adriatic Sea in Italy alone , also forming alluvial coastlines , including the lagoons of Venice , Grado and <unk> . There are smaller eastern Adriatic alluvial coasts — in the deltas of the Dragonja , Bojana and Neretva rivers . Biogeography and ecology The Adriatic Sea is a unique water body in respect of its overall biogeochemical physiognomy . It exports inorganic nutrients and imports particulate organic carbon and nitrogen through the Strait of Otranto — acting as a mineralization site . The exchange of the substances is made more complex by bathymetry of the Adriatic Sea — 75 % of water flowing north through the strait <unk> at the Palagruža Sill and North Adriatic adds no more than 3 – 4 % of water to the South Adriatic . This is reflected in its biogeography and ecology , and particularly in the composition and properties of its ecosystems . Its main biogeographic units are the Northern Adriatic , the Central Adriatic , and the Southern Adriatic . Flora and fauna The unique nature of the Adriatic gives rise to an abundance of endemic flora and fauna . The Croatian National Biodiversity Strategy Action Plan identified more than 7 , 000 animal and plant species in the Adriatic Sea . The Central Adriatic is especially abundant in endemic plant species , with 535 identified species of green , brown and red algae . Four out of five Mediterranean seagrass species are found in the Adriatic Sea . The most common species are <unk> nodosa and Zostera <unk> , while Zostera marina and Posidonia oceanica are comparably rare . A number of rare and threatened species are also found along the Adriatic 's eastern coast ; it is relatively clearer and less polluted than the western Adriatic coast — in part because the sea currents flow through the Adriatic in a counterclockwise direction , thus bringing clearer waters up the eastern coast and returning increasingly polluted water down the western coast . This circulation has significantly contributed to the biodiversity of the countries along the eastern Adriatic coast ; the common bottlenose dolphin is frequent in the eastern coast 's waters only , and the Croatian coast provides refuge for the critically endangered monk seal and sea turtles . Recent studies revealed that cetaceans and other marine <unk> , that were once thought to be vagrants to Adriatic Sea , migrate and live in the semi - closed sea on larger scales . Largest of these live normally is the fin whale , and sperm whale , the largest of toothed whales also migrate but less common than fin whales , followed by Cuvier 's beaked whales . Basking sharks and manta rays are some of migrant species to the sea . The Northern Adriatic in particular is rich in endemic fish fauna . Around thirty species of fish are found in only one or two countries bordering the Adriatic Sea . These are particularly due to or dependent upon the karst morphology of the coastal or submarine topography ; this includes inhabiting subterranean habitats , karst rivers , and areas around freshwater springs . There are 45 known subspecies endemic to the Adriatic 's coasts and islands . In the Adriatic , there are at least 410 species and subspecies of fish , representing approximately 70 % of Mediterranean taxa , with at least 7 species endemic to the Adriatic . Sixty - four known species are threatened with extinction , largely because of overfishing . Only a small fraction of the fish found in the Adriatic are attributed to recent processes such as Lessepsian migration , and escape from mariculture . Protected areas The biodiversity of the Adriatic is relatively high , and several marine protected areas have been established by countries along its coasts . In Italy , these are Miramare in the Gulf of Trieste ( in the Northern Adriatic ) , Torre del <unk> and Isole Tremiti in the Middle Adriatic basin and Torre Guaceto in southern Apulia . The Miramare protected area was established in 1986 and covers 30 hectares ( 74 acres ) of coast and 90 hectares ( 220 acres ) of sea . The area encompasses 1 . 8 kilometres ( 1 . 1 mi ) of coastline near the Miramare promontory in the Gulf of Trieste . The Torre del <unk> protected area was created in 2009 , extending 3 nautical miles ( 5 . 6 km ; 3 . 5 mi ) into the sea and along 7 kilometres ( 4 . 3 mi ) of coastline . Various zones of the protected area cover 37 square kilometres ( 14 sq mi ) of sea surface . The Isole Tremiti reserve has been protected since 1989 , while the Tremiti islands themselves are part of the Gargano National Park . The Torre Guaceto protected area , located near Brindisi and <unk> , covers a sea surface of 2 , 227 hectares ( 5 , 500 acres ) and is adjacent to the Torre Guaceto State Reserve covering 1 , 114 hectares ( 2 , 750 acres ) of coast and sharing an 8 - kilometre ( 5 . 0 mi ) coastline with the marine protected area . Furthermore , there are 10 internationally important ( Ramsar ) wetland reserves in Italy located along the Adriatic coast . There are seven marine protected areas in Croatia : Brijuni and the Lim Canal off the Istria peninsula 's coast , near Pula and Rovinj respectively ; Kornati and Telašćica in the Middle Adriatic basin , near Zadar ; and Lastovo , Bay of Mali Ston ( Croatian : <unk> <unk> ) and Mljet in southern Dalmatia . The Brijuni national park encompasses the 743 . 3 - hectare ( 1 , 837 - acre ) archipelago itself and 2 , 651 . 7 hectares ( 6 , 552 acres ) of surrounding sea ; it became a national park in 1999 . The Lim Canal is a 10 - kilometre ( 6 . 2 mi ) ria of the Pazinčica river . The Kornati national park was established in 1980 ; it covers approximately 220 square kilometres ( 85 sq mi ) , including 89 islands and islets . The marine environment encompasses three quarters of the total area , while the island shores ' combined length equals 238 kilometres ( 148 mi ) . Telašćica is a nature park established on <unk> Otok in 1988 . The park covers 69 kilometres ( 43 mi ) of coastline , 22 . 95 square kilometres ( 8 . 86 sq mi ) of land and 44 . 55 square kilometres ( 17 . 20 sq mi ) of sea . The Bay of Mali Ston is located at the border of Croatia and Bosnia – Herzegovina , north of the Pelješac peninsula . The marine protected area covers 48 square kilometres ( 19 sq mi ) . The Lastovo nature park was established in 2006 , and it includes 44 islands and islets , 53 square kilometres ( 20 sq mi ) of land and 143 square kilometres ( 55 sq mi ) of sea surface . The Mljet national park was established in 1960 , covering a 24 - square - kilometre ( 9 . 3 sq mi ) marine protection area . In addition , there is a Ramsar wetland reserve in Croatia — the Neretva river 's delta . In Slovenia , the marine and coastal protected nature areas are the <unk> Salina Landscape Park , Strunjan Landscape Park , <unk> Inlet Nature Reserve , and the <unk> <unk> , Cape Madona and Lakes in <unk> natural monuments . The <unk> Salina Landscape Park was established in 1990 , covers 721 hectares ( 1 , 780 acres ) , and includes four nature reserves . In 1993 , the area was designated a Ramsar site ; it is also a site of international importance for waterbird species . The 429 - hectare ( 1 , 060 - acre ) Strunjan Landscape Park was established in 2004 and comprises two nature reserves . It includes a 4 kilometres ( 2 . 5 mi ) long cliff , the northernmost Mediterranean salt field and the only Slovenian lagoon system . It is also the northernmost point of growth of some Mediterranean plant species . The <unk> Inlet Nature Reserve was established in 1998 and covers 122 hectares ( 300 acres ) . The <unk> <unk> natural monument covers 24 hectares ( 59 acres ) , the Cape Madona natural monument covers 12 hectares ( 30 acres ) , and the Lakes in <unk> natural monument , with the coastal lake as the only brackish lake in Slovenia , covers 2 . 1 hectares ( 5 . 2 acres ) . In 2010 , Albania established its first marine protection area , the Karaburun - Sazan National Marine Park at the Karaburun Peninsula where the Adriatic and Ionian Seas meet . The park covers a total of 12 , 570 hectares ( 31 , 100 acres ) . Two additional marine protection areas are planned in Albania : the Cape of <unk> ( Albanian : Kepi i <unk> ) and Porto Palermo . In addition , Albania is home to two Ramsar wetland reserves : <unk> Lagoon , and Butrint . Neither Bosnia – Herzegovina nor Montenegro have or plan to establish any marine protection areas . Pollution The Adriatic Sea ecosystem is threatened by excessive input of nutrients through drainage from agricultural land and wastewater flowing from cities ; this includes both along its coast and from rivers draining into the sea — especially from the Po River . Venice is often cited as an example of polluted coastal waters where shipping , transportation , farming , manufacturing and wastewater disposal contribute to polluting the sea . A further risk is presented by ballast water discharge by ships , especially tankers . Still , since most of the cargo handled by the Adriatic ports , and virtually all liquid ( tanker ) cargo handled by the ports , is coming to — not coming from — the Adriatic Basin , the risk from ballast water ( from tankers expelling ballast water then loading in the Adriatic ) remains minimal . However , proposed export oil pipelines were objected to specifically because of this issue . Oil spills are a major concern in terms of potential environmental impact and damage to tourism and fisheries . It is estimated that if a major oil spill happened , a million people would lose their livelihoods in Croatia alone . An additional risk is presented by oil refineries in the Po River basin where oil spills have occurred before , in addition to accidents occurring in the Adriatic already , so far with no significant environmental consequences . Since 2006 , Italy has been considering the construction of an offshore and an onshore LNG terminal in the Gulf of Trieste , as well as a pipeline , in the immediate vicinity of the Slovenian – Italian border . The Slovenian government and municipalities , the municipal council of Trieste , and non - governmental organisations have voiced concern over their environmental hazards , effect on transport and effect on tourism . Another source of pollution of the Adriatic is solid waste . Drifting waste — occasionally relatively large quantities of material , especially waste plastic — is transported northwest by the sirocco . Air pollution in the Adriatic Basin is associated with the large industrial centres in the Po River valley and the large industrial cities along the coast . Italy and Yugoslavia established a joint commission to protect the Adriatic Sea from pollution in 1977 ; the organization later changed with Slovenia , Croatia and Montenegro replacing Yugoslavia . Future pollution hazards are addressed and pollution hotspots are assessed not only by nations in the basin but also through regional projects with World Bank support . 27 such hotspots have been determined as of 2011 , 6 warranting an urgent response . Name The origins of the name Adriatic are linked to the Etruscan settlement of Adria , which probably derives its name from the Illyrian <unk> meaning water or sea . In classical antiquity , the sea was known as Mare <unk> ( Mare <unk> , also sometimes simplified to Adria ) or , less frequently , as Mare <unk> , " [ the ] upper sea " . The two terms were not synonymous , however . Mare <unk> generally corresponds to the Adriatic Sea 's extent , spanning from the Gulf of Venice to the Strait of Otranto . That boundary became more consistently defined by Roman authors — early Greek sources place the boundary between the Adriatic and Ionian seas at various places ranging from adjacent to the Gulf of Venice to the southern tip of the Peloponnese , eastern shores of Sicily and western shores of Crete . Mare <unk> on the other hand normally encompassed both the modern Adriatic Sea and the sea off the Apennine peninsula 's southern coast , as far as the Strait of Sicily . Another name used in the period was Mare <unk> , applied to waters off the coast of Dalmatia or Illyricum . Names for the sea in the languages of the surrounding countries include : Albanian : <unk> <unk> ; Croatian : <unk> more ; <unk> - Romanian : marea <unk> ; Italian : mare Adriatico ; Slovene : <unk> <unk> ; Greek : <unk> <unk> <unk> Thalassa . In Croatian , Montenegrin and Slovene , the sea is often referred to simply as <unk> . History Settlements along the Adriatic dating to between 6100 and 5900 BC appear in Albania and Dalmatia on the eastern coast , related to the Cardium Pottery culture . During classical antiquity , Illyrians inhabited the eastern Adriatic coast , and the western coast was inhabited by the peoples of Ancient Italy , mainly Etruscans , before the Roman Republic 's rise . Greek colonisation of the Adriatic dates back to the 7th and 6th centuries BC when <unk> and Apollonia were founded . The Greeks soon expanded further north establishing several cities , including Epidaurus , Black Corcyra , Issa and Ancona , with trade established as far north as the Po River delta , where the <unk> ( trading station ) of Adria was founded . Roman era Roman economic and military influence in the region began to grow with the creation by 246 BC of a major naval base at Brundisium ( now Brindisi ) , which was established to bar Carthaginian ships from the Adriatic during the Punic Wars . This led to conflict with the Illyrians , who lived in a collection of semi - Hellenized kingdoms that covered much of the Balkans and controlled the eastern shore of the sea , resulting in the Illyrian Wars from 229 – 168 BC . The initial Roman intervention in 229 BC , motivated in part by a desire to suppress Illyrian piracy in the Adriatic , marked the first time that the Roman navy crossed that sea to launch a military campaign . Those wars ended with the eastern shore becoming a province of the Roman Republic . However , resistance to Roman rule continued sporadically and Rome did not completely consolidate control of the region until Augustus 's general Tiberius put down the Great Illyrian Revolt , a bitter struggle waged from 6 to 9 AD . Following the repression of the revolt the Roman province of Illyricum was split into Dalmatia and Pannonia . Most of the eastern shore of the Adriatic was part of Dalmatia , except for the southernmost portion , part of the province of Macedonia , and the peninsula of Istria on the northern part of the eastern shore ; Istria contained the important Roman colony at Pula and was incorporated into the province of Italy . During the Roman period Brundisium , on the western shore , and Apollonia and Dyrrachium ( originally called <unk> , now Durrës in Albania ) on the eastern shore became important ports . Brundisium was linked by the Via Appia road to the city of Rome , and Dyrrachium and Apollonia were both on the Via Egnatia , a road that by about 130 BC the Romans had extended eastward across the Balkans to Byzantium ( later Constantinople , now Istanbul ) . This made the sea passage across the Adriatic between Brundisium and Dyrrachium ( or Apollonia ) a link in the primary route for travelers , trade , and troop movements , between Rome and the East . This route played a major role in some of the military operations that marked the end of the Roman Republic and start of the imperial period . Sulla used it during the First Mithridatic War . During Caesar 's Civil War , there was a three - month delay in Caesar 's Balkan campaign against Pompey caused when winter storms on the Adriatic and a naval blockade held up Mark Antony from reaching him from Brundisium with reinforcements ; after the reinforcements finally arrived Caesar made an unsuccessful attempt to capture Dyrrachium before the campaign moved inland . Marc Antony and Octavian ( later Augustus ) crossed the Adriatic to Dyrrachium with their armies in their campaign against two of Caesar 's assassins , Brutus and Cassius , that culminated in the Battle of Philippi . Brundisium and Dyrrachium remained important ports well after the Roman period , but an earthquake in the 3rd century AD changed the path of a river causing Apollonia 's harbor to silt up , and the city to decline . Another city on the Italian coast of the Adriatic that increased in importance during the Roman era was Ravenna . During the reign of Augustus it became a major naval base as part of his program to re - organize the Roman navy to better protect commerce in the Mediterranean . During the 4th century AD the emperors of the Western Roman Empire had moved their official residence north from Rome to Mediolanum ( now Milan ) in order to be better able to control the military frontier with the Germanic tribes . In 402 AD , during a period of repeated Germanic invasions of Italy , the capital was shifted to Ravenna because nearby marshes made it more defensible , and the Adriatic provided an easy escape path by sea . When the Western Empire fell in 476 AD Ravenna became the capital of the Ostrogothic Kingdom of Italy . Middle Ages In the Early Middle Ages , after the Roman Empire 's decline , the Adriatic 's coasts were ruled by Ostrogoths , Lombards and the Byzantine Empire . The Ostrogothic Kingdom ruled Italy following the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 AD . However , during the reign of Justinian the Byzantine Empire sent an army under the general Belisarius to regain control of Italy , resulting in the Gothic War ( 535 – 554 ) . The Byzantines established the Exarchate of Ravenna and by 553 AD their viceroy ( Exarch ) ruled almost the entire Italian peninsula from that city . In 568 AD the Lombards invaded northern Italy , and over the course of the next century or so the importance of the Exarchate declined as the territory under Lombard control expanded and as the Byzantine outpost of Venice became increasingly independent . In 752 AD the Lombards overthrew the Exarchate , ending the influence of the Byzantine Empire on the western shore of the Adriatic for a few centuries . The last part of the period saw the rise of the Carolingian Empire and then the Frankish Kingdom of Italy , which controlled the Adriatic Sea 's western coast , while Byzantine Dalmatia on the east coast gradually shrunk following the Avar and Croatian invasions starting in the 7th century . The Republic of Venice was founded during this period and went on to become a significant maritime power after receiving a Byzantine tax exemption in 1082 . The end of the period brought about the Holy Roman Empire 's control over the Kingdom of Italy ( which would last until the Peace of Westphalia in 1648 ) , the establishment of an independent Kingdom of Croatia and the Byzantine Empire 's return to the southern Apennine peninsula . In addition , the Papal States were carved out in the area around Rome and central Italy in the 8th century . The High Middle Ages in the Adriatic Sea basin saw further territorial changes , including the Norman conquest of southern Italy ending the Byzantine presence on the Apennine peninsula in the 11th and 12th centuries ( the territory would become the Kingdom of Naples in 1282 ) and the control of a substantial part of the eastern Adriatic coast by the Kingdom of Hungary after a personal union was established between Croatia and Hungary in 1102 . In this period , the Republic of Venice began to expand its territory and influence . In 1202 , the Fourth Crusade was diverted to conquer Zadar at the behest of the Venetians — the first instance of a Crusader force attacking a Catholic city — before proceeding to sack Constantinople . In the 13th century , Venice established itself as a leading maritime nation . During much of the 12th and 13th centuries , Venice and the Republic of Genoa were engaged in warfare culminating in the War of <unk> , ousting the Genoese from the Adriatic . Still , the 1381 Treaty of Turin that ended the war required Venice to renounce claims to Dalmatia , after losing the territory to Hungary in 1358 . In the same year , the Republic of Ragusa was established in Dubrovnik as a city - state after it was freed from Venetian suzerainty . Venice regained Dalmatia in 1409 and held it for nearly four hundred years , with the republic 's apex of trading and military power in the first half of the 15th century . The 15th and the 16th centuries brought about the Byzantine Empire 's destruction in 1453 and the Ottoman Empire 's expansion that reached Adriatic shores in present - day Albania and Montenegro as well as the immediate hinterland of the Dalmatian coast , defeating the Hungarian and Croatian armies at Krbava in 1493 and Mohács in 1526 . These defeats spelled the end of an independent Hungarian kingdom , and both Croatian and Hungarian nobility chose Ferdinand I of the House of Habsburg as their new ruler , bringing the Habsburg Monarchy to the shore of the Adriatic Sea , where it would remain for nearly four hundred years . The Ottomans and Venetians fought a series of wars , but until the 17th century these were not fought in the Adriatic area . Ottoman raids on the Adriatic coasts effectively ceased after the massive setback in the Battle of Lepanto in October 1571 . Early modern period In 1648 , the Holy Roman Empire lost its claim on its former Italian lands , formally ending the Kingdom of Italy ; however , its only outlet on the Adriatic Sea , the Duchy of Ferrara , was already lost to the Papal States . The 17th century 's final territorial changes were caused by the Morean or Sixth Ottoman – Venetian War , when in 1699 Venice slightly enlarged its possessions in Dalmatia . In 1797 , the Republic of Venice was abolished after the French conquest . The Venetian territory was then handed over to Austria and briefly ruled as part of the Archduchy of Austria . The territory was turned back over to France after the Peace of Pressburg in 1805 , when the territory in the Po valley became an integral part of the new Napoleonic Kingdom of Italy . The new kingdom included the province of Romagna , thus removing the Papal State from the Adriatic coast ; however , Trieste , Istria and Dalmatia were joined into a set of separate provinces of the French Empire : the Illyrian Provinces . These were created in 1809 through the Treaty of Schönbrunn ; they represented the end of Venetian rule on the eastern Adriatic coast , as well as the end of the Republic of Ragusa . The Adriatic Sea was a minor theatre in the Napoleonic Wars ; the Adriatic campaign of 1807 – 1814 involved the British Royal Navy contesting the Adriatic 's control by the combined navies of France , Italy and the Kingdom of Naples . During the campaign , the Royal Navy occupied Vis and established its base there in Port St. George . The campaign reached its climax in the 1811 Battle of Lissa , and ended with British and Austrian troops seizing the coastal cities on the eastern Adriatic coast from the French . Days before the Battle of Waterloo , the Congress of Vienna awarded the Illyrian Provinces ( spanning from the Gulf of Trieste to the Bay of Kotor ) to Austria . The Congress of Vienna also created the Kingdom of Lombardy – Venetia which encompassed the city of Venice , the surrounding coast and a substantial hinterland , and was controlled by Austria . In the Apennine peninsula 's south , the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies was formed in 1816 by unifying the kingdoms of Naples and Sicily . Modern period The process of Italian unification culminated in the Second Italian War of Independence , resulting in the Kingdom of Sardinia annexing all territories along the western Adriatic coast south of Venetia in 1860 , and the 1861 establishment of the Kingdom of Italy in its place . The Kingdom of Italy expanded in 1866 : it annexed Venetia , but its navy was defeated in the Adriatic near Vis . Following the Austro - Hungarian Compromise of 1867 and the Croatian – Hungarian Settlement of 1868 , the control of much of the eastern Adriatic coast was redefined . The <unk> ( Austrian ) part of Austria - Hungary spanned from the Austrian Littoral to the Bay of Kotor , with the exception of the Croatian Littoral mainland . In the territory outside the Austrian Littoral , special status was given to Fiume ( modern day Rijeka ) as a separate part of the Kingdom of Hungary . The rest of the territory was made a part of the Kingdom of Croatia - Slavonia , which in turn was also in the Transleithanian part of the dual monarchy . The Adriatic coastline controlled by the Ottoman Empire was reduced by the Congress of Berlin in 1878 , through recognition of the independence of the Principality of Montenegro , which controlled the coast south of the Bay of Kotor to the Bojana River . The Ottoman Empire lost all territories along the Adriatic following the First Balkan War and consequent 1913 Treaty of London that established an independent Albania . The World War I Adriatic Campaign was largely limited to blockade attempts by the Allies and the effort of the Central Powers to thwart the British , French and Italian moves . Italy joined the Allies in April 1915 with the Treaty of London , which promised Italy the Austrian Littoral , northern Dalmatia , the port of Vlorë , most of the eastern Adriatic islands and Albania as a protectorate . The treaty provided the basis for all the following divisions between Italy and Yugoslavia . In 1918 , the Montenegrin national assembly voted to unite with the Kingdom of Serbia , giving the latter access to the Adriatic . Another short - lived , unrecognised state established in 1918 was the State of Slovenes , Croats and Serbs , formed from parts of Austria - Hungary , comprising most of the former monarchy 's Adriatic coastline . Later that year , the Kingdom of Serbia and the State of Slovenes , Croats and Serbs formed the Kingdom of Serbs , Croats and Slovenes — subsequently renamed Yugoslavia . The proponents of the new union in the Croatian parliament saw the move as a safeguard against Italian expansionism as stipulated in the Treaty of London . The treaty was largely disregarded by Britain and France because of conflicting promises made to Serbia and a perceived lack of Italian contribution to the war effort outside Italy itself . The 1919 Treaty of Saint - Germain - en - Laye did transfer the Austrian Littoral and Istria to Italy , but awarded Dalmatia to Yugoslavia . Following the war , a private force of demobilized Italian soldiers seized Rijeka and set up the Italian Regency of Carnaro — seen as a harbinger of Fascism — in order to force the recognition of Italian claims to the city . After sixteen months of the Regency 's existence , the 1920 Treaty of Rapallo redefined the Italian – Yugoslav borders , among other things transferring Zadar and the islands of Cres , Lastovo and Palagruža to Italy , securing the island of Krk for Yugoslavia and establishing the Free State of Fiume ; this new state was abolished in 1924 by the Treaty of Rome that awarded Fiume ( modern Rijeka ) to Italy and Sušak to Yugoslavia . Late 20th century During World War II , the Adriatic saw only limited naval action , starting with the Italian invasion of Albania and the joint Axis invasion of Yugoslavia . The latter led to the annexation of a large part of Dalmatia and nearly all the eastern Adriatic islands by Italy and the establishment of two puppet states , the Independent State of Croatia and the Kingdom of Montenegro , which controlled the remainder of the former Yugoslav Adriatic coast . In 1947 , after the Armistice between Italy and Allied armed forces and the war 's end , Italy ( now a republic ) and the Allies signed the Treaty of Peace with Italy . The treaty reversed all wartime annexations , guaranteed the independence of Albania , created the Free Territory of Trieste ( FTT ) as a city - state , and gave communist Yugoslavia most of the Slovenian Littoral , as well as Istria , the islands of Cres , Lastovo and Palagruža , and the cities of Zadar and Rijeka . The FTT was partitioned in 1954 : Trieste itself and the area to the North of it were placed under Italian control , while the rest came under Yugoslav control . This arrangement was made permanent in the 1975 Treaty of Osimo . During the Cold War , the Adriatic Sea became the southernmost flank of the Iron Curtain as Italy joined NATO , while the Warsaw Pact established bases in Albania . After the fall of communism , Yugoslavia broke apart : Slovenia and Croatia declared independence in 1991 , and Bosnia – Herzegovina followed in 1992 , while Montenegro remained in a federation with Serbia , officially called Serbia and Montenegro . The ensuing Croatian War of Independence included limited naval engagements and a blockade of Croatia 's coast by the Yugoslav Navy , leading to the Battle of the Dalmatian channels and a later withdrawal of Yugoslav vessels . Montenegro declared itself independent in 2006 , effectively land - locking Serbia . The period also saw the Adriatic Sea as the theatre of several NATO operations , including the blockade of Yugoslavia , intervention in Bosnia - Herzegovina and the 1999 bombing of Yugoslavia . Boundaries Italy and Yugoslavia defined their Adriatic continental shelf delimitation in 1968 , with an additional agreement signed in 1975 on the Gulf of Trieste boundary , following the Treaty of Osimo . The boundary agreed in 1968 extends 353 nautical miles ( 654 km ; 406 mi ) and consists of 43 points connected by straight lines or circular arc segments . The additional boundary agreed upon in 1975 consists of 5 points , extending from an end point of the 1968 line . All successor states of former Yugoslavia accepted the agreements . In the Adriatic 's southernmost areas the border was not determined in order to avoid prejudicing the location of the tripoint with the Albanian continental shelf border , which remains undefined . Before the breakup of Yugoslavia , Albania , Italy and Yugoslavia initially proclaimed 15 - nautical - mile ( 28 km ; 17 mi ) territorial waters , subsequently reduced to international - standard 12 nautical miles ( 22 km ; 14 mi ) and all sides adopted baseline systems ( mostly in the 1970s ) . Albania and Italy determined their sea border in 1992 according to the equidistance principle . Following Croatian EU membership , the Adriatic became an internal sea of the EU . The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea defines the Adriatic Sea as an enclosed or semi - enclosed sea . Adriatic Euroregion The Adriatic Euroregion was established in Pula in 2006 to promote trans - regional and trans - national cooperation in the Adriatic Sea area and serve as an Adriatic framework to help resolve issues of regional importance . The Adriatic Euroregion consists of 23 members : the Apulia , Molise , Abruzzo , Marche , Emilia - Romagna , Veneto and Friuli - Venezia Giulia regions of Italy ; the municipality of Izola in Slovenia ; the Istria , Primorje - Gorski Kotar , Lika - Senj , Zadar , Šibenik - Knin , Split - Dalmatia and Dubrovnik - Neretva counties of Croatia ; the Herzegovina - Neretva Canton of Bosnia – Herzegovina ; the municipalities of Kotor and Tivat in Montenegro ; the Fier , Vlorë , Tirana , Shkodër , Durrës and Lezhë counties of Albania ; and the Greek prefectures of <unk> and Corfu . Disputes The former Yugoslav republics ' land borders were decided by demarcation commissions implementing the AVNOJ decisions of 1943 and 1945 , but the exact course has not been agreed upon by the successor states , which makes the maritime boundaries ' definition difficult ; the maritime borders were not defined at all in the time of Yugoslavia . In addition , the maritime boundary between Albania and Montenegro was not defined before the 1990s . Croatia and Slovenia started negotiations to define maritime borders in the Gulf of Piran in 1992 but failed to agree , resulting in a dispute . Both countries also declared their economic zones , which partially overlap . Croatia 's application to become an EU member state was initially suspended pending resolution of its border disputes with Slovenia . These disputes with Slovenia were eventually settled with an agreement to accept the decision of an international arbitration commission set up via the UN , enabling Croatia to progress towards EU membership . Aside from the EU membership difficulty , even before its settling the dispute has caused no major practical problems . The maritime boundary between Bosnia – Herzegovina and Croatia was formally settled in 1999 , but a few issues are still in dispute — the <unk> peninsula and two islets in the border area . The Croatia – Montenegro maritime boundary is disputed in the Bay of Kotor , at the Prevlaka peninsula . This dispute was exacerbated by the peninsula 's occupation by the Yugoslav People 's Army and later by the ( Serbian – Montenegrin ) FR Yugoslav Army , which in turn was replaced by a United Nations observer mission that lasted until 2002 . Croatia took over the area with an agreement that allowed Montenegrin presence in the bay 's Croatian waters , and the dispute has become far less contentious since Montenegro 's independence in 2006 . Economy Fishing The Adriatic Sea fishery 's production is distributed among countries in the basin . In 2000 , the nominal — on a live weight basis — total landings of all Adriatic fisheries reached 110 , 000 tonnes ( 108 , 000 long tons ) . Overfishing is a recognised problem — 450 species of fish live in the Adriatic Sea , including 120 species threatened by excessive commercial fishing , a problem exacerbated by pollution and global warming . <unk> species include common <unk> , red scorpionfish , monkfish , John Dory , blue shark , spiny dogfish , mullet , red mullet , Norway lobster , as well as European hake , and sardines . Turtles and common bottlenose dolphins are also being killed by fishing nets . The depleted fish stock , and Croatia 's Ecological and Fisheries Protection Zone ( ZERP ) contributed to accusations of overfishing exchanged between Italian and Croatian fishermen . ZERP was introduced in 2003 , but its application to EU member states was suspended in 2004 . The depleted stocks of fish are being addressed through a new proposed EU fisheries policy that was scheduled to take effect in 2013 , when Croatia acceded to the EU , and restore the stocks to sustainable levels by 2015 . The largest volume of fish harvesting was in Italy , where the total production volume in 2007 stood at 465 , 637 tonnes ( 458 , 283 long tons ) . In 2003 , 28 . 8 % of Italian fisheries production volume was generated in the Northern and central Adriatic , and 24 . 5 % in Apulia ( from the Southern Adriatic and Ionian Sea ) . Italian fisheries , including those operating outside the Adriatic , employed 60 , 700 in the primary sector , including aquaculture ( which comprises 40 % of the total fisheries production ) . The total fisheries output 's gross value in 2002 was $ 1 . 9 billion . In 2007 , Croatia 's production in live weight reached 53 , 083 tonnes ( 52 , 245 long tons ) . In 2006 , the total Croatian fisheries production volume was 37 , 800 tonnes ( 37 , 200 long tons ) of catch and 14 , 200 tonnes ( 14 , 000 long tons ) from marine aquaculture . Croatian fisheries employed approximately 20 , 000 . The 2006 marine capture catch in Croatian waters consisted of sardines ( 44 . 8 % ) , anchovies ( 31 . 3 % ) , tunas ( 2 . 7 % ) , other pelagic fish ( 4 . 8 % ) , hake ( 2 . 4 % ) , mullet ( 2 . 1 % ) , other demersal fish ( 8 . 3 % ) , crustaceans ( largely lobster and Nephrops norvegicus ) ( 0 . 8 % ) , shellfish ( largely oysters and mussels ) ( 0 . 3 % ) , cuttlefish ( 0 . 6 % ) , squids ( 0 . 2 % ) and octopuses and other cephalopods ( 1 . 6 % ) . Croatian marine aquaculture production consisted of tuna ( 47 . 2 % ) , oysters and mussels ( 28 . 2 % combined ) and bass and bream ( 24 . 6 % combined ) . In 2007 , Albanian fisheries production amounted to 7 , 505 tonnes ( 7 , 386 long tons ) , including aquaculture production , which reached 1 , 970 tonnes ( 1 , 940 long tons ) in 2006 . At the same time , Slovenian fisheries produced a total of 2 , 500 tonnes ( 2 , 460 long tons ) with 55 % of the production volume originating in aquaculture , representing the highest ratio in the Adriatic . Finally , the Montenegrin fisheries production stood at 911 tonnes ( 897 long tons ) in 2006 , with only 11 tonnes coming from aquaculture . In 2007 , the fisheries production in Bosnia – Herzegovina reached volume of 9 , 625 tonnes ( 9 , 473 long tons ) and 2 , 463 tonnes ( 2 , 424 long tons ) in Slovenia . Tourism The countries bordering the Adriatic Sea are significant tourist destinations . The largest number of tourist overnight stays and the most numerous tourist accommodation facilities are recorded in Italy , especially in the Veneto region ( around Venice ) . Veneto is followed by the Emilia - Romagna region and by the Adriatic Croatian counties . The Croatian tourist facilities are further augmented by 21 , 000 nautical ports and moorings ; nautical tourists are attracted to various types of marine protected areas . All countries along the Adriatic coast , except Albania and Bosnia – Herzegovina , take part in the Blue Flag beach certification programme ( of the Foundation for Environmental Education ) , for beaches and marinas meeting strict quality standards including environmental protection , water quality , safety and services criteria . As of January 2012 , the Blue Flag has been awarded to 103 Italian Adriatic beaches and 29 marinas , 116 Croatian beaches and 19 marinas , 7 Slovenian beaches and 2 marinas , and 16 Montenegrin beaches . Adriatic tourism is a significant source of income for these countries , especially in Croatia and Montenegro where the tourism income generated along the Adriatic coast represents the bulk of such income . The direct contribution of travel and tourism to Croatia 's GDP stood at 5 . 1 % in 2011 , with the total industry contribution estimated at 12 . 8 % of the national GDP . For Montenegro , the direct contribution of tourism to the national GDP is 8 . 1 % , with the total contribution to the economy at 17 . 2 % of Montenegrin GDP . Tourism in Adriatic Croatia has recently exhibited greater growth than in the other regions around the Adriatic . Transport There are nineteen Adriatic Sea ports ( in four different countries ) that each handle more than a million tonnes of cargo per year . The largest cargo ports among them are the Port of Trieste ( the largest Adriatic cargo port in Italy ) , the Port of Venice , the Port of Ravenna , the Port of Koper ( the largest Slovenian port ) , the Port of Rijeka ( the largest Croatian cargo port ) , and the Port of Brindisi . The largest passenger ports in the Adriatic are the Port of Split ( the largest Croatian passenger port ) and ports in Ancona ( the largest Italian passenger seaport in the Adriatic ) . The largest seaport in Montenegro is the Port of Bar . In 2010 , the Northern Adriatic seaports of Trieste , Venice , Ravenna , Koper and Rijeka founded the North Adriatic Ports Association to position themselves more favourably in the EU 's transport systems . Oil and gas Natural gas is produced through several projects , including a joint venture of the Eni and INA companies that operates two platforms — one is in Croatian waters and draws gas from six wells , and the other ( which started operating in 2010 ) is located in Italian waters . The Adriatic gas fields were discovered in the 1970s , but their development commenced in 1996 . In 2008 , INA produced 14 . 58 million <unk> per day of gas . About 100 offshore platforms are located in the Emilia - Romagna region , along with 17 in the Northern Adriatic . Eni estimated its concessions in the Adriatic Sea to hold at least 40 , 000 , 000 , 000 cubic metres ( 1 . 4 × 1012 cu ft ) of natural gas , adding that they may even reach 100 , 000 , 000 , 000 cubic metres ( 3 . 5 × 1012 cu ft ) . INA estimates , however , are 50 % lower than those supplied by Eni . Oil was discovered in the Northern Adriatic at a depth of approximately 5 , 400 metres ( 17 , 700 ft ) ; the discovery was assessed as not viable because of its location , depth and quality . These gas and oil reserves are part of the Po basin Province of Northern Italy and the Northern Mediterranean Sea . In the 2000s , investigation works aimed at discovering gas and oil reserves in the Middle and Southern Adriatic basins intensified , and by the decade 's end , oil and natural gas reserves were discovered southeast of the Bari , Brindisi — <unk> and Giove oil discoveries . Surveys indicate reserves of 3 billion barrels of oil in place and 5 . 7 × 1010 cubic metres ( 2 , 000 , 000 , 000 , 000 cu ft ) of gas in place . The discovery was followed by further surveys off the Croatian coast . In January 2012 , INA commenced prospecting for oil off Dubrovnik , marking the resumption of oil exploration along the eastern Adriatic coast after surveys commenced in the late 1980s around the island of Brač were cancelled because of Yugoslavia 's breakup and war in Croatia . Montenegro is also expected to look for oil off its coast . As of January 2012 , only 200 exploration wells had been sunk off the Croatian coast , with all but 30 in the Northern Adriatic basin .
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Saint - Sylvestre coup d 'état The Saint - Sylvestre coup d 'état was a coup d 'état staged by Jean - Bédel Bokassa , leader of the Central African Republic ( CAR ) army , and his military officers against the government of President David Dacko on 31 December 1965 and 1 January 1966 . Dacko , Bokassa 's cousin , took over the country in 1960 , and Bokassa , a military officer in the French army , joined the CAR army in 1962 . By 1965 , the country was in turmoil — plagued by corruption and slow economic growth , while its borders were breached by rebels from neighboring countries . Dacko obtained financial aid from the communist People 's Republic of China , but despite this support , the country 's problems persisted . Bokassa made plans to take over the government ; Dacko was made aware of this , and attempted to counter by forming the gendarmerie headed by Jean Izamo , who quickly became Dacko 's closest adviser . With the aid of Captain Alexandre Banza , Bokassa started the coup New Year 's Eve night in 1965 . First , Bokassa and his men captured Jean Izamo , locking him in a cellar at Camp de Roux . Bokassa 's men then occupied the capital , Bangui , and overpowered the gendarmerie and other resistance . After midnight , Dacko headed back to the capital , where he was promptly arrested , forced to resign from office and then imprisoned at Camp Kassaï . According to official reports , eight people were killed for resisting the coup . By the end of January 1966 , Izamo was tortured to death , but Dacko 's life was spared because of a request from the French government , which Bokassa was trying to satisfy . Bokassa justified the coup by claiming he had to save the country from falling under the influence of communism , and cut off diplomatic relations with China . In the early days of his government , Bokassa dissolved the National Assembly , abolished the Constitution and issued a number of decrees , banning begging , female circumcision , and polygamy , among other things . Bokassa initially struggled to obtain international recognition for the new government . However , after a successful meeting with the president of Chad , Bokassa obtained recognition of the regime from other African nations , and eventually from France , the former colonial power . Bokassa 's right - hand man Banza attempted his own coup in April 1969 , but one of his co - conspirators informed the president of the plan . Banza was put in front of a military tribunal and sentenced to death by firing squad . Dacko , who remained in isolation at Camp de Roux , sent a letter to the Chinese ambassador in Brazzaville in June 1969 , which Bokassa intercepted . Bokassa charged Dacko with threatening state security and transferred him to the infamous Ngaragba Prison , where many prisoners taken captive during the coup were still being held . A local judge convinced Bokassa that there was a lack of evidence to convict Dacko , who was instead placed under house arrest . In September 1976 , Dacko was named personal adviser to the president ; the French government later convinced him to take part in a coup to overthrow Bokassa , who was under heavy criticism for his ruthless dictatorial rule . This coup was carried out on 20 and 21 September 1979 , when Dacko became president again , only to be overthrown in another coup two years later . Background In 1958 , after the French Fourth Republic began to consider granting independence to most of its African colonies , nationalist leader Barthélemy Boganda met with Prime Minister Charles de Gaulle to discuss terms for the independence of Oubangui - Chari , a French colonial territory which later became the Central African Republic ( CAR ) . De Gaulle accepted his request , and on 1 December 1958 , Boganda declared the establishment of the autonomous CAR , with full independence to follow soon . He became the autonomous territory 's first Prime Minister and intended to serve as the first President of the independent CAR . However , he was killed in a plane crash on 29 March 1959 , while en route to the capital , Bangui . Boganda 's right - hand man Abel Goumba , described as " intelligent , honest , and strongly nationalistic " by author Brian Titley in Dark Age : The Political Odyssey of Emperor Bokassa , succeeded him as the leader of the CAR . In May 1959 , a month into Goumba 's term , David Dacko took control of the government . Dacko , a former member of Boganda 's cabinet and party leader of the Movement for the Social Evolution of Black Africa ( MESAN ) , had the support of the French high commissioner Roger <unk> , the Bangui chamber of commerce and Boganda 's widow Michelle Jourdain . Two months later , Dacko dismissed Goumba from his new post as minister of finance . Goumba and Pierre <unk> , the former president of the National Assembly who was ousted by Dacko , left the MESAN party and organized their own opposition party , Democratic Evolution Movement of Central Africa ( MEDAC ) , on 25 June 1960 . Meanwhile , on August 13 , 1960 , Boganda 's dream was realized when the Central African Republic ( CAR ) attained formal independence from France . MEDAC became moderately popular , was approved by Etienne <unk> ( the Dacko - appointed president of MESAN ) , and received significant support in by - elections on 20 September . Dacko viewed MEDAC as a dissident party and sought to disestablish it — he soon received power from the National Assembly to deal with his opponents in any way he saw fit . In December 1960 , Dacko dissolved MEDAC and Goumba was arrested for " fomenting disorder by questioning Dacko 's assumption of power " . Goumba was eventually sentenced to life in prison , but fled into exile in France . On 1 January 1962 , Dacko 's cousin , Jean - Bédel Bokassa , left the French Army and joined the military forces of the CAR with the rank of battalion commandant . Over a year later , Bokassa became commander - in - chief of the 500 soldiers in the Central African army . Due to his relation to Dacko and experience abroad in the French military , Bokassa was able to quickly rise through the ranks of the army , becoming the Central African army 's first colonel on 1 December 1964 . Bokassa sought recognition for his status as the army 's leader ; he frequently appeared in public wearing all his military decorations , and in ceremonies often tried to sit next to President Dacko to hint at his importance in the government . Bokassa constantly involved himself in heated arguments with Jean - Paul <unk> , the government 's chief of protocol , who admonished him for not following the correct order of seating at presidential tables . At first , Dacko found his cousin 's antics for power and recognition amusing . Despite the recent rash of African military coups , Dacko publicly dismissed the possibility that Bokassa would someday try to take control of the country . At a state dinner , he said , " Colonel Bokassa only wants to collect medals and he is too stupid to pull off a coup d 'état " . Other members of Dacko 's cabinet saw Bokassa as a major threat to the regime . Jean - Arthur <unk> , the minister of interior , recommended that Bokassa be brought into the cabinet , which he hoped would both satisfy the colonel 's desire for recognition and break his connections with the army . To prevent the possibility of a military coup , Dacko created the gendarmerie , an armed police force of 500 , headed by Jean Izamo , and a 120 - member presidential security guard , led by Prosper <unk> . Origins Dacko 's government faced a number of problems during 1964 and 1965 : the economy experienced stagnation , the bureaucracy started to fall apart , and the country 's boundaries were constantly breached by Lumumbists from the south and the rebel Sudan People 's Liberation Army from the east . Under pressure from radicals in MESAN and in an attempt to cultivate alternative sources of support and display his independence in foreign policy , Dacko established diplomatic relations with the People 's Republic of China ( PRC ) in September 1964 . A delegation led by Meng <unk> and agents of the Chinese government toured the country , showing Communist propaganda films . Soon after , the PRC gave the CAR an interest - free loan of one billion CFA francs ( 20 million French francs ) ; however , the aid failed to prevent the prospect of a financial collapse for the country . Another problem which plagued the government was widespread corruption . Bokassa felt that he needed to take over the CAR government to remove the influence of Communism and solve all the country 's problems . According to Samuel Decalo , a scholar on African government , Bokassa 's personal ambitions most likely played the most important role in his decision to launch a coup against the government . Dacko sent Bokassa to Paris as part of a delegation for the Bastille Day celebrations in July 1965 . After attending a 23 July ceremony to mark the closing of a military officer training school he had attended decades earlier , Bokassa planned to return to the CAR . However , Dacko had forbidden his return , and Bokassa spent the next few months trying to obtain the support of friends in the French and Central African armed forces . Dacko eventually yielded to pressure and allowed Bokassa back in October . Tensions between Dacko and Bokassa increased . In December , Dacko approved a budget increase for Izamo 's gendarmerie , but rejected the budget proposal for Bokassa 's army . At this point , Bokassa told friends he was annoyed by Dacko 's treatment and was " going for a coup d 'état " . Dacko planned to replace Bokassa with Izamo as his personal military adviser , and wanted to promote army officers loyal to the government , while demoting Bokassa and his close associates . Dacko was not silent about his plans ; he hinted at his intentions to elders of the <unk> village , who informed Bokassa of the plan in turn . Bokassa realized he had to act against Dacko quickly , and worried that his 500 - man army would be no match for the gendarmerie and the presidential guard . He was also concerned the French would intervene to aid Dacko , as had occurred after the 23 February 1964 coup d 'état in Gabon against President Léon M 'ba . After receiving word of the coup from the country 's vice president , officials in Paris sent paratroopers to Gabon in a matter of hours and M 'ba was quickly restored to power . Bokassa found substantive support from his co - conspirator , Captain Alexandre Banza , who was commander of the Camp Kassaï military base in northeast Bangui , and , like Bokassa , had served in the French army in posts around the world . Banza was an intelligent , ambitious and capable man who played a major role in planning the coup . By December , many people began to anticipate the potential turmoil that would result . Dacko 's personal advisers alerted him that Bokassa " showed signs of mental instability " and needed to be arrested before he sought to bring down the government , but Dacko failed to heed these warnings . Coup d 'état on 31 December and 1 January Early in the evening of 31 December 1965 , Dacko left the Palais de la Renaissance to visit one of his ministers ' plantations southwest of the capital . At 22 : 30 WAT ( UTC 21 : 30 ) , Captain Banza gave orders to his officers to begin the coup : one of his captains was to subdue the security guard in the presidential palace , while the other was to take control of Radio - Bangui to prevent communication between Dacko and his followers . Bokassa called Izamo at his headquarters , asking him to come to Camp de Roux to sign some papers that needed his immediate attention . Izamo , who was at a New Year 's Eve celebration with friends , reluctantly agreed and traveled in his wife 's car to the camp . Upon arrival , he was confronted by Banza and Bokassa , who informed him of the coup in progress . When asked if he would support the coup , Izamo said no , leading Bokassa and Banza to overpower him and hold him in a cellar . Shortly after midnight , in the first minutes of 1 January 1966 , Bokassa and Banza organized their troops and told them of their plan to take over the government . Bokassa claimed that Dacko had resigned from the presidency and given the position to his close advisor Izamo , then told the soldiers that the gendarmerie would take over the CAR army , which had to act now to keep its position . He then asked the soldiers if they would support his course of action ; the men who refused were locked up . At 00 : 30 WAT , Bokassa and his supporters left Camp de Roux to take over the capital . They encountered little resistance and were able to take Bangui . Bokassa and Banza then rushed to the Palais de la Renaissance , where they tried to arrest Dacko , who was nowhere to be found . Bokassa began to panic , as he believed the president had been warned of the coup in advance , and immediately ordered his soldiers to search for Dacko in the countryside until he was found . Dacko was not aware of the events taking place in the capital . After leaving his minister 's plantation near midnight , he headed to Simon Samba 's house to ask the Aka Pygmy leader to conduct a year - end ritual . After an hour at Samba 's house , he was informed of the coup in Bangui . According to Titley , Dacko then left for the capital , in hopes of stopping the coup with the help of loyal members of the gendarmerie and French paratroopers . Others like Thomas E. O 'Toole , professor of sociology and anthropology at St. Cloud State University , believe that Dacko was not trying to mount a resistance — instead , he was planning on resigning and handing his power over to Izamo . In any case , Dacko was arrested by soldiers patrolling <unk> Junction , on the western border of the capital . He was taken back to the presidential palace , where Bokassa hugged the president and told him , " I tried to warn you — but now it 's too late " . President Dacko was taken to Ngaragba Prison in east Bangui at around 02 : 00 WAT . In a move that he thought would boost his popularity in the country , Bokassa ordered prison director Otto Sacher to release all prisoners in the jail . Bokassa then took Dacko to Camp Kassaï at 03 : 20 WAT , where the president was forced to resign from office . Later , Bokassa 's officers announced on Radio - Bangui that the Dacko government had been toppled and Bokassa had taken over control . In the morning , Bokassa addressed the public via Radio - Bangui : Central Africans ! Central Africans ! This is Colonel Bokassa speaking to you . Since 3 : 00 AM this morning your army has taken control of the government . The Dacko government has resigned . The hour of justice is at hand . The bourgeoisie is abolished . A new era of equality among all has begun . Central Africans , wherever you may be , be assured that the army will defend you and your property ... Long live the Central African Republic ! Aftermath Officially , eight people died trying to resist the coup . Afterwards , Bokassa 's officers went around the country , arresting Dacko 's political allies and close friends , including Simon Samba , Jean - Paul <unk> and more than 60 presidential security guards , who were all taken to Ngaragba Prison . Prosper <unk> , the director of the presidential security , fled the country . Weeks later , he was detained by the Congolese and handed over to Bokassa on 23 January 1966 . At Camp Kassaï , he was beaten and tortured to death , in full view of Bokassa , Banza and Dacko . Jean Izamo met a similar fate : he was transferred to Ngaragba Prison on 10 January , but was tortured to death by the month 's end . President Dacko 's life was spared , as Bokassa wanted international recognition for his government and France had threatened to cut off aid to the CAR if Dacko was killed . Bokassa had Dacko detained in a small room at Camp Kassaï , where he was cut off from communication with the outside world and placed on a highly restrictive diet . On 3 February , he was taken to Camp de Roux , where he remained in isolation . In the meantime , Bokassa engaged in self - promotion before the media , showing his countrymen his French army medals , and displaying his strength , fearlessness and masculinity . He formed a new government called the Revolutionary Council , invalidated the constitution and dissolved the National Assembly , calling it " a lifeless organ no longer representing the people " . In his address to the nation , Bokassa claimed that the government would hold elections in the future , a new assembly would be formed , and a new constitution would be written . He also told his countrymen that he would give up his power after the communist threat had been eliminated , the economy stabilized , and corruption rooted out . President Bokassa allowed MESAN to continue functioning , but barred all other political organizations from the country . In the coming months , Bokassa imposed a number of new rules and regulations : men and women between the ages of 18 to 55 had to provide proof that they had jobs , or else they would be fined or imprisoned ; begging was banned ; tom - tom playing was allowed during the nights and weekends ; and a " morality brigade " was formed in the capital to monitor bars and dance halls . Polygamy , dowries and female circumcision were all abolished . Bokassa also opened a public transport system in Bangui and subsidized the creation of two national orchestras . Despite the positive changes in the country , Bokassa had difficulty obtaining international recognition for his new government . He tried to justify the coup by explaining that Izamo and communist Chinese agents were trying to take over the government and that he had to intervene to save the CAR from the influence of communism . He alleged that Chinese agents in the countryside had been training and arming locals to start a revolution , and on 6 January 1966 , he dismissed the communist agents from the country and cut off diplomatic relations with China . Bokassa also believed that the coup was necessary in order to prevent further corruption in the government . Bokassa first secured diplomatic recognition from President François Tombalbaye of neighboring Chad , whom he met in <unk> , <unk> . After Bokassa reciprocated by meeting Tombalbaye on 2 April 1966 along the southern border of Chad at Fort Archambault , the two decided to help one another if either was in danger of losing power . Soon after , other African countries began to diplomatically recognize the new government . At first , the French government was reluctant to support the Bokassa regime , so Banza went to Paris to meet with French officials to convince them that the coup was necessary to save the country from turmoil . Bokassa met with Prime Minister Georges Pompidou on 7 July 1966 , but the French remained noncommittal in offering their support . After Bokassa threatened to withdraw from the franc monetary zone , President Charles de Gaulle decided to make an official visit to the CAR on 17 November 1966 . To the Bokassa regime , this visit meant that the French had finally accepted the new changes in the country . Banza and Dacko Alexandre Banza , who stood by Bokassa throughout the planning and execution of the coup , served as minister of finance and minister of state in the new government . Banza was successful in his efforts at building the government 's reputation abroad ; many believed that the natural - born leader would no longer accept serving as Bokassa 's right - hand man . In 1967 , Banza and Bokassa had a major argument regarding the country 's budget , as Banza adamantly opposed Bokassa 's extravagance at government events . Bokassa moved to Camp de Roux , where he felt he could safely run the government without having to worry about Banza 's thirst for power . On 13 April 1968 , Bokassa demoted Banza from minister of finance to minister of health , but let him remain in his position as minister of state . The following year , Banza made a number of remarks highly critical of Bokassa and his management of the economy . At this point , Bokassa realized that his minister would soon attempt to take over power in the country , so he removed him as his minister of state . Banza revealed his intention to start a coup to Lieutenant Jean - Claude Mandaba , the commanding officer of Camp Kassaï , who promptly informed Bokassa . When he entered Camp Kassaï on 9 April 1969 ( the coup was planned for that evening ) , Banza was ambushed , thrown into the trunk of a Mercedes and taken directly to Bokassa by Mandaba and his soldiers . At his house in <unk> , Bokassa nearly beat Banza to death before Mandaba suggested that Banza be put on trial for appearance 's sake . On 12 April , Banza presented his case before a military tribunal at Camp de Roux , where he admitted to his plan , but stated that he had not planned to kill Bokassa . Nevertheless , he was sentenced to death by firing squad , taken to an open field behind Camp Kassaï , executed and buried in an unmarked grave . Ex - President Dacko remained in isolation at Camp de Roux , where the French government , which expressed concern for his well - being , sent a military attaché to visit him . Dacko told the attaché that he had not been given anything to read for more than two years ; the attaché negotiated with the prison head to get Dacko some books . However , Dacko 's living conditions failed to improve , and in June 1969 , Dacko sent a letter to the Chinese ambassador in Brazzaville , asking that he offer financial support to his family . The message was intercepted and handed over to Bokassa , who thought the letter was ample reason for him to get rid of Dacko . Dacko was charged with threatening state security and transferred to Ngaragba Prison . However , Bokassa dropped the charges on 14 July , after Judge Albert Kouda convinced him that there was insufficient evidence to get a conviction . Dacko stayed at the Palais de la Renaissance until his health improved , after which he was sent to live in <unk> , Lobaye under house arrest . It was not until October 1969 — almost four years after the coup — that Bokassa began releasing other prisoners from Ngaragba . Dacko remained under house arrest until he was named private adviser to President Bokassa on 17 September 1976 . Bokassa dissolved the government and formed the Central African Empire , which led to increasing international criticism in the late 1970s . Dacko managed to leave for Paris , where the French convinced him to cooperate in a coup to remove Bokassa from power and restore him to the presidency . Dacko was installed as president on 21 September 1979 , but was once again removed from power by his army chief of staff , André Kolingba , in a bloodless coup d 'état on 1 September 1981 . Bokassa lived in exile in Paris and was sentenced to death in absentia in December 1980 . Upon returning to the CAR in October 1986 , he was arrested and charged with treason , murder , cannibalism and embezzlement . He was cleared on the cannibalism charges , but was convicted on the rest and sentenced to death on 12 June 1987 . Kolingba commuted his sentence to life imprisonment in February 1988 , and then commuted it again to 20 years in prison . Kolingba later declared amnesty for all prisoners , so Bokassa was released from prison on 1 August 1993 .
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No. 78 Squadron RAAF No. 78 Squadron was a Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) fighter squadron of World War II . It was formed in July 1943 as part of expansion of the RAAF 's fighter force , and was assigned to mobile striking forces for the duration of the war . After completing training , No. 78 Squadron was deployed to the combat zone north of Australia in October 1943 . From November that year until September 1944 the squadron supported the advance of the Allied ground forces through western New Britain and the north coast of New Guinea by attacking Japanese positions , providing fighter protection for recently established beachheads , and escorting Australian and United States bombers . From late 1944 until mid - 1945 it operated against Japanese positions and shipping in the eastern Netherlands East Indies . The squadron took part in the Borneo campaign during the final weeks of the war . No. 78 Squadron was reduced to a cadre after it returned to Australia in December 1945 , but received new aircraft in 1946 and undertook training exercises until being disbanded in April 1948 . History Operations during 1943 During 1943 the RAAF received 399 P - 40 Kittyhawk fighter aircraft . Their arrival allowed the service to expand its combat force by forming five new Kittyhawk - equipped squadrons to join the three squadrons that had operated the type in the South West Pacific area since 1942 . No. 78 Squadron was formed at Camden , New South Wales , on 20 July 1943 . It was the fourth of the new Kittyhawk squadrons to be established , following No. 84 Squadron in February , No. 86 Squadron in March and No. 82 Squadron in June ; the final unit , No. 80 Squadron , was formed in September . No. 78 Squadron began to receive its P - 40N Kittyhawk fighters from 2 August 1943 , and conducted training with these aircraft until early October . The squadron began moving from Camden to Woodlark Island in the war zone off New Guinea on 12 October 1943 . However , its destination was changed to Kiriwina island , and the squadron became operational there as part of No. 73 Wing on 27 November . This wing was controlled by No. 10 ( Operational ) Group , a mobile formation established on 13 November to support the planned Allied advance along the north coast of New Guinea . During late November and December 1944 , No. 78 Squadron participated in attacks against Japanese positions in New Britain alongside No. 76 and No. 77 Squadrons , which were also equipped with Kittyhawks . These operations were undertaken to support the landings conducted by American forces at Arawe on 15 December and Cape Gloucester on the 26th of the month . In addition to bombing and strafing Japanese positions , No. 78 Squadron also escorted RAAF and United States Army Air Forces ( USAAF ) bombers on several occasions . Operations during 1944 No. 78 Squadron moved to Nadzab on the mainland of New Guinea in January 1944 . This redeployment was completed on the 12th of the month , and the squadron began operations as part of No. 78 Wing the next day . Many of the ground attack and escort sorties undertaken by No. 78 Squadron during January supported the Australian Army forces engaged in the Finisterre Range campaign . The squadron was mainly used to escort Australian and USAAF bomber and transport aircraft in February and early March , but it also conducted a small number of ground attack sorties . These escort duties were unpopular among No. 78 Wing 's fighter pilots , who believed that the American officers in charge of the air effort in New Guinea were assigning Australian units to unimportant tasks . In reality , all Allied fighter units recently arrived in New Guinea were initially tasked with escort missions as part of a ' probationary ' period . In March 1944 , No. 78 Wing moved to Cape Gloucester in New Britain to replace the USAAF 's 8th Fighter Group , which was being transferred to Nadzab . No. 78 Squadron 's advance echelon departed Nadzab on 12 March , and the entire squadron became operational in New Britain late in the month . During the last week of March , No. 78 Squadron and the other units of No. 78 Wing struck Japanese positions in New Britain and nearby <unk> island in co - operation with United States Navy PT boats . On 27 March four No. 78 Squadron Kittyhawks attacked and sank two American patrol boats , killing seven sailors and wounding five more . The inquiry conducted after this incident found that the pilots had not been informed that friendly ships were in the area . During April 1944 , No. 78 Wing received orders to move again , this time to support Operation Reckless , the American landing at Hollandia in western New Guinea . The main party of the squadron departed Cape Gloucester on 17 April bound for Tadji airstrip on the mainland of New Guinea , and its <unk> arrived there on the 24th of the month . No. 78 Squadron began flying patrols over the American beachhead at Hollandia the next day . The squadron continued to provide air defence for Hollandia and Tadji throughout early May . From 7 to 10 May a detachment of 16 Kittyhawks from No. 78 Squadron operated from the Hollandia beachhead ; owing to food shortages in the area the pilots arrived with rations for four days loaded in their aircraft . On 15 May the unit moved permanently to an airfield near Hollandia , from which it escorted USAAF bombers and formed part of the force protecting the US Army landings at Wakde on 17 May and Biak on the 27th . Overall , the squadron flew 601 sorties during May . Its operations over Biak included its only air - to - air combat of the war . On 3 June , 16 Kittyhawks from No. 78 Squadron intercepted a group of 12 Nakajima Ki - 43 fighters and two Nakajima B5N bombers near Biak . The Australian airmen downed five Ki - 43s and two B5Ns for the loss of one Kittyhawk and its pilot . This was the last major air battle fought by the RAAF during the Pacific War . On 10 June , eight No. 78 Squadron Kittyhawks were escorting a convoy when they sighted a Japanese Kawasaki Ki - 61 fighter . Two of the Australian aircraft attacked the Ki - 61 and shot it down near <unk> Island . This was the final aerial victory achieved by the RAAF during the New Guinea campaign . No. 78 Squadron continued to fly defensive patrols over Hollandia until 20 July , when it was redeployed to Noemfoor island . This was the squadron 's sixth move in nine months , and the intensive effort needed to pack and unpack stores on each occasion caused widespread fatigue among airmen and ground crew . From 21 July 1944 , No. 78 Squadron supported the US military 's offensive through western New Guinea . The squadron again operated with US Navy PT boats during strikes on Japanese positions in the Vogelkop Peninsula and shipping in <unk> Bay during July ; these operations were undertaken to support the US Army landing at Sansapor on 30 July . Many of No. 78 Wing 's pilots completed their nine - month operational tour during July and were replaced by inexperienced pilots . During the first three weeks of August the squadron flew patrols over the beachhead at Sansapor . The intensive operations over Sansapor were trying , with the official history stating that No. 78 Wing was " pushed almost to the limit of its operational capacity " ; two No. 78 Squadron aircraft were lost during this period . No. 78 Wing attacked Japanese airfields in the Vogelkop Peninsula throughout September , and No. 78 Squadron flew 363 sorties against these targets . The squadron also struck airfields on the <unk> Peninsula as well as Japanese shipping in the easternmost islands of the Netherlands East Indies ( NEI ) during the last months of 1944 . These operations were undertaken to support the American landings in the Philippines , which began in October , and often involved lengthy flights . No. 10 ( Operational ) Group was redesignated the First Tactical Air Force on 25 October ; at this time No. 78 Squadron remained part of No. 78 Wing alongside No. 75 and No. 80 Squadrons . No. 78 Squadron aircraft began staging through airfields on Morotai from early December , and moved to the island between 21 December and January 1945 . During November , Len Waters , the only known Aboriginal Australian fighter pilot of World War II , was posted to No. 78 Squadron . He remained with the unit until the end of the war and completed 95 combat sorties . Operations from 1945 to 1948 No. 78 Squadron continued to attack Japanese positions in the eastern NEI from Morotai in early 1945 . The squadron flew 267 sorties in January during which its aircraft fired 77 , 000 rounds of machine - gun ammunition and dropped 153 , 630 pounds ( 69 , 690 kg ) of bombs . Fewer sorties were flown during February and March , and on 10 April No. 78 Squadron ceased operations from Morotai to prepare to take part in the invasion of Tarakan , an island off the east coast of Borneo . While No. 81 Wing had originally been intended to land at Tarakan , due to delays in moving the unit from Australia No. 78 Wing was substituted shortly before the assault convoys departed Morotai . As a result , the wing had only ten days to pack its stores and prepare for its role in the landing . The main echelon of No. 78 Squadron disembarked at Tarakan on 6 May , but it took much longer than had been anticipated to repair the island 's airfield and the unit was unable to recommence flying operations until 18 July . During this period the squadron 's ground crew worked with Australian Army engineers to build roads , and some personnel spent time on the front line . From 20 July 1945 until the end of the war , No. 78 Squadron operated over Borneo to support the invasion of Balikpapan . Its first strike from Tarakan was flown against Japanese positions in the Sandakan area , and on 24 July aircraft from No. 75 , No. 78 and No. 80 Squadrons attacked airfields near Banjarmasin . The squadron conducted its final combat operation on 9 August , and was still based at Tarakan at the time the Japanese Government 's intention to surrender was announced on the 15th of the month . No. 78 Squadron had suffered 12 fatalities during the war . Following the armistice the squadron undertook leaflet dropping and reconnaissance sorties until November , when the Kittyhawks were flown to Australia . The remainder of the unit 's personnel arrived at Sydney on 12 December 1945 on board the British aircraft carrier HMS Glory . After returning to Australia , No. 78 Squadron moved to Deniliquin in New South Wales on 17 December and most of its personnel were sent on leave until 16 January . The squadron was rapidly reduced to a cadre , and comprised only 17 personnel in July 1946 . The unit was located at RAAF Station Schofields near Sydney from May to August 1946 , and then moved to RAAF Station Williamtown outside of Newcastle . On 4 August 1946 it received four P - 51D Mustang fighters and a single CAC Wirraway trainer . No. 78 Squadron undertook training during 1947 , including exercises with Australian and British warships in March and July . During April 1947 two of the squadron 's Mustangs took part in a Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation cloud seeding experiment ; in this role the aircraft sprayed silver iodide onto clouds from tanks beneath their wings with the goal of generating rain . No. 78 Squadron was disbanded on 1 April 1948 .
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Silent Civilian Silent Civilian is an American metalcore band originating from Los Angeles , California , United States . Following his departure from nu metal band Spineshank in 2004 , frontman Jonny Santos felt he wanted to move in a different direction musically and start from scratch . Silent Civilian was thus formed and the band faced trouble from the start after experiencing several line - up changes and departing from their original record label Corporate Punishment Records . The band signed with <unk> Records and released their debut record , Rebirth of the Temple , on May 2 , 2006 . Receiving generally positive reviews , the album has sold more than 25 , 000 copies since its release in the United States . The band continues to tour supporting the record as Santos one day wants to establish the band as a headlining act . Their line - up consists of Santos ( vocals and guitar ) , Matt <unk> ( guitar ) and Robbie Young ( bass ) . Silent Civilian released their second album , Ghost Stories , on May 18 , 2010 . The band has plans to release a third studio album . History Formation Jonny Santos , who is best known as the vocalist and song writer for the Grammy Award nominated industrial metal group Spineshank was displeased with the direction the band was going in and felt it had ' run its course ' . Santos felt it was time to move on and left Spineshank , although he was unsure what direction he wanted with his music career . He would play with local bands and friends , while performing production and engineering duties in studios to ' pay the bills ' . However , after leaving Spineshank , Santos lost everything and was basically homeless , ' couch surfing ' from friend ’ s house to friend ’ s house . Realizing he wanted to start a band from scratch , Santos placed an ad for a drummer on the social networking website MySpace . After receiving a large number of e - mails , Santos received an e - mail from Chris Mora with a video of him drumming . Santos thought " You can ’ t be for real , dude " and asked Mora to come down for the first audition . 10 minutes into the audition Mora was hired as the drummer . Santos auditioned for an Australian band that moved to America called Cryogenic . Although he thought the band was not for him , he met the band 's bassist Henno . As Cryogenic and <unk> , who were working together , had both lost their vocalists , Henno contacted Santos and asked him to join the band , to which Santos accepted . Ryan Ready , who Santos had known since high - school , was recruited as the second guitarist . The band 's original name was announced as Silent Civilians , which originates from the world 's climate change by that people have opinions on life and politics and they do not voice their beliefs , living in a nation full of ' silent civilians ' . Label and line - up changes Silent Civilians signed to Corporate Punishment Records in January , 2005 and began work on their debut album , Rebirth of the Temple . However , in May Santos announced they left CPR for reasons he was unable to discuss . The band began talking to several labels after this and pushed the release of their debut to late 2005 or early 2006 . The album was recorded at Undercity Recordings , with production duties handled by former Machine Head and Soulfly guitarist Logan Mader , and co - production handled by his partner , Lucas Banker . The band also announced they had changed their name to Silent Civilian . In June , guitarist Ryan Ready left the band due to personal reasons , not relating to the band . Santos sought a replacement , and the following day to Ready 's departure set up auditions . Tim Mankowski , who Santos had known for 15 years and played in the band Basic Enigma with him , was hired as the new guitarist . In November 2005 , the band signed with <unk> records and planned a tentative release for their debut album for February 21 , 2006 . At this time , the band had three demo versions of the songs " Lies in the House of Shame " , " Divided " and the title track , " Rebirth of the Temple " . Mora and Santos were involved in the writing process of the album . While Mora was at work , Santos was at home writing riffs and would create roughly three to four ' skeletons of songs ' a week . When Mora finished work , he would help Santos with arrangements , the body of the song , and track it that night and record the vocals and melodies the following day . 30 songs were primarily written for the album as Santos wanted fans to get their moneys worth . 16 songs were recorded that included two cover versions of the thrash metal band Slayer 's " War Ensemble ” and Death Angel 's " Seemingly Endless Time " . Although neither cover songs made it onto the album . The length of the CD is 64 minutes , which features the video of the album 's title track , and an exclusive 10 - minute documentary on the creation process of the album . Rebirth of the Temple ( 2006 – 2007 ) Silent Civilian released their debut album Rebirth of the Temple on May 2 , 2006 . Blabbermouth.net reviewer , Scott Alisoglu , thought " on virtually every track , the group meshes attacking riffs , searing solos , brutal drumming , and melody - drenched bombast " . Although he did not believe it was a ' grand slam ' , he thought it was a " pleasant surprise and strong first effort " . Charlie Steffens of KNAC described the album as " goddamn electric " , while Greg Maki of live - <unk> awarded the album a perfect 10 out of 10 selecting it as his " best album I have heard so far in 2006 . " As of June 5 , 2007 , Rebirth of the Temple has sold 25 , 000 copies . The video for the first single , " Rebirth of the Temple " , was directed by Scott Culver and was filmed at Santos ' childhood home . Santos invited 50 friends over for a party and posted a bulletin that read " If you ’ re in the L.A. area , if you ’ re a Silent Civilian fan , show up at this address " two hours before filming . This resulted in another 30 people turning up . Static - X front - man Wayne Static , Stone Sour drummer Roy Mayorga and Logan make appearances in the video . Tim Mankowski departed the band and Henno broke his ankle on an on - stage mishap . The band continued to tour as a three - piece as they sought for a replacement guitarist and bassist as soon as possible — Henno was able to perform on a bar stool temporarily . While touring with Nothingface and <unk> , Santos had met guitarist Marcus Rafferty , who he became friends with and recruited him to replace Mankowski after an audition . Touring partners Bleed the Sky assisted in replacing members for live shows . Bassist Disco <unk> took to the stage replacing Henno and guitarist Kyle Moorman assisted with the replacement of the guitarist by playing half the set and Rafferty would play the other . Santos asked Rafferty if he knew any bass players who were interested in a position , he contacted a friend of his , Stan Derby , who replaced Disco after one month . In a July 2006 interview with Live - <unk> , Santos stated the band was planning on recording a tribute EP of cover versions on old Bay Area music , including such bands as Sacred Reich , Death Angel , Exodus and Testament . The band is touring on The Sweet Revenge Tour with Kittie , It Dies Today and Bring Me The Horizon and by the end of the year Santos hopes to establish the band as a headlining act . On December 28 , 2007 in a statement released to Blabbermouth.net , Mora explained his departure from the band was based on personal reasons . Ghost Stories ( 2008 – present ) As of November 12 , 2008 , their official Myspace page confirms that they are currently writing a new record . As of March 30 , 2009 , their Myspace ] page states that the new record will be called ' Ghost Stories ' . On June 11 , 2010 the band 's Myspace was updated with a new song titled " Ghost Stories " which would be featured on the upcoming album . Ryan Halpert ignited the band as Chris Mora 's replacement on drums in mid - 2009 . Silent Civilian will be back on the road January 2010 with Blind Witness and Years of Red Skies . Their sophomore album Ghost Stories was released via Century Media on May 18 , 2010 . In 2013 , bassist Robbie Young launched his new project Atlas . Members Jonny Santos – vocals , guitar ( 2005 – present ) Robbie Young – bass ( 2009 – present ) Matt <unk> - guitar ( 2011 – present ) Zac Morris - drums ( 2012 - present ) Former Ryan Ready - guitar ( 2005 ) Tim Mankowski - guitar ( 2005 - 2006 recorded " Rebirth of the Temple " ) Marcus Rafferty - guitar ( 2006 – 2007 ) Henno – bass ( 2005 - 2006 recorded " Rebirth of the Temple " ) Shaun <unk> - bass ( 2008 - 2009 recorded " Ghost Stories " ) Chris " Mad Man " Mora - drums ( 2005 - 2007 recorded " Rebirth of the Temple " ) David <unk> - lead guitar ( 2007 – 2010 recorded " Ghost Stories " ) Ryan Halpert - drums ( 2009 - 2010 recorded " Ghost Stories " ) Rodolfo Perez " Rudy " - lead guitar Jesse Nunn ( Saint ) - guitar ( 2005 ) Discography Studio Albums Singles
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Fifteen ( song ) " Fifteen " is a country pop song performed by American singer - songwriter Taylor Swift . Swift self - penned the song and co - produced it along with Nathan Chapman . " Fifteen " was released on August 30 , 2009 by Big Machine Records , as the fourth single from Swift 's second studio album , Fearless ( 2008 ) . The song was inspired by Swift 's freshman year of high school at Hendersonville High School , where she first encountered heartbreak , along with her best friend Abigail Anderson . After writing it , Swift asked Anderson for authorization to record the song ( due to personal references in the song ) ; Anderson affirmed and it was ultimately included on Fearless . " Fifteen " is a ballad , which has Swift reminiscing on events that occurred to her and her best friend at the age of 15 and cautioning young girls to not fall in love easily . " Fifteen " peaked at number 23 on the Billboard Hot 100 and sold over a million digital downloads in the United States . The music video for " Fifteen " was directed by Roman White . It was filmed using a green screen and is heavily accentuated with special effects . The video features Swift walking through a garden , where she relives many memories with Anderson . It received a nomination for the Best Female Video category at the 2010 MTV Video Music Awards , but lost to Lady Gaga 's " Bad Romance " . " Fifteen " was promoted with live performances , including many that were part of Swift 's first and second headlining tours , the Fearless Tour ( 2009 — 10 ) and the Speak Now World Tour ( 2011 – 12 ) . Swift partnered with electronics retailer Best Buy for 15 , a program that allowed teens to help decide how funds would be distributed among various charities . Background Swift began writing " Fifteen " with the lyric " And Abigail gave everything she had to a boy / Who changed his mind / We both cried " , which eventually became the song 's bridge , and continued writing everything else in a backwards manner . The song was written about Swift 's freshman year of high school at Hendersonville High School , where she met her best friend Abigail Anderson . " I just decided I really wanted to tell that story about our first year of high school because I felt in my freshman year , I grew up more than any year in my life so far " , Swift stated . The events it focused on were how both Swift and Anderson fell in love for the first time , but both suffered of heartbreaks . Aside from reminiscing on the events she and Anderson experienced , Swift wrote cautionary lyrics , intended to target teenage girls entering or already in their freshman year of high school . She described it as incorporating things she wished someone would have told her in a song when she was younger . " The thing about high school , you don 't know anything . You don 't know anything , but you think you know everything " , Swift said . After the completion of composing " Fifteen " , Swift became very nervous to show Anderson the song , for she did not know how her friend would respond . " It was a really personal song , especially from her angle of it . " However , when Swift performed the song for Anderson and asked whether she was comfortable with the song , Anderson confirmed : " She said , ' Does it bother you that your name is in a song that 's so personal ? ' And it really doesn 't just because of the way Taylor and I feel about it . If one girl can kind of learn from it or connect to a song like that , it 's totally worth it . " With Anderson 's consent , Swift recorded " Fifteen " with producer Nathan Chapman , who produced all but one track on Swift 's 2006 eponymous debut album , Taylor Swift . Recording the highly personal track caused Swift to cry . Swift attributed the event to the fact that she is most likely to cry over when her loved ones undergo pain , as she witnesses it , rather than her own experiences . She went to say " Fifteen " usually gets her every time . Composition " Fifteen " is a country pop song with a length of four minutes and 55 seconds . It is set in common time and has a moderate tempo of 96 beats per minute . The track is categorized as a ballad . It is written in the key of G major and Swift 's vocals spans a little over two octaves , from G3 to C5 . It follows the chord progression Gsus2 – Csus2 – Em – Csus2 . It concludes with an outro that consists of Swift singing " la la la " and rephrasing the song 's opening lines . The lyrics of " Fifteen " have Swift narrating about multiple events . In the first verse , Swift details first entering high school with intentions of merely staying out of her peers ' way . The second verse bears Swift meeting Anderson and gossiping about the school 's queen bees with her . Successively , Swift describes first dates and falling in love for the first time . However , Swift and Anderson become heartbroken , revealing that Anderson " gave everything she had " to someone who later changed his mind . The song 's refrains have Swift cautioning young girls to not fall in love easily and acknowledging that she came to the realization of being able to accomplish more than dating a football team member . Critical reception Jody Rosen of Rolling Stone believed " Fifteen " was exemplary in that " Swift is a songwriting savant with an intuitive gift for verse - chorus - bridge architecture " . Rosen compared her songwriting in the track to that of producers Dr. Luke and Max Martin , who he referred to as " Swedish pop gods " . He continued , " Her music mixes an almost impersonal professionalism — it 's so rigorously crafted it sounds like it has been scientifically engineered in a hit factory — with confessions that are <unk> intimate and true . " Jonathon Keefe of Slant Magazine considered the bridge one of the nicer moments of Fearless , but was unimpressed with Swift 's singing , particularly in the outro . Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic found " Fifteen " , in which Swift portrayed the role of a big sister instead of a big star , to be one of the best and the most personal song on Fearless . Ken Tucker of Billboard magazine believed " Fifteen " could appeal with teenagers looking for hope and adult women reminiscing the past . Leah Greenbelt of Entertainment Weekly stated , " When she sings about sexuality , she sounds like a real teen , not some manufactured vixen - Lolita " . Jon Caramanica of The New York Times said " Fifteen " was one of Swift 's best - written songs . James Reed of The Boston Globe believed " Fifteen " was one of Fearless 's most interesting songs and stated he could visualize the lyrics of the song scribbled in a diary that chronicled Swift 's freshman year in high school . Sean Dooley of About.com named it the best track on Fearless and said it showcased Swift 's growth as a songwriter . Josh Love of The Village Voice called the song a " standout " on the album and found it a refreshing contradiction to typical , idealistic country songs . Prior to its single release , Kate Kiefer of Paste magazine suggested for the song be released as a single from Fearless , adding that she loved it . Alexis Petridis of The Guardian called the track a fantastically good song that broadened " her potential market from teenage girls to anyone who used to be a teenage girl " . Petridis continued , " You applaud her skill , while feeling slightly unsettled by the thought of a teenager pontificating away like Yoda . " Aidan Vaziri of San Francisco Chronicle ranked it twelfth on his top 12 singles of 2009 list , commenting , " Damn it if this song isn 't too sweet , too vulnerable and just too real to ignore . " Chart performance Following the release of Fearless , on the week ending November 29 , 2008 , " Fifteen " debuted at number seventy - nine on the Billboard Hot 100 Its appearance , along with six other songs , on the chart tied Swift with Hannah Montana ( Miley Cyrus ) for the female act to have the most songs charting on the Billboard Hot 100 in the same week , a record later surpassed by Swift herself when she charted eleven songs at once in 2010 . It re - entered at number ninety - four on the week ending October 3 , 2009 , after its single release . On the week ending December 19 , 2009 , " Fifteen " reached its peak at number twenty - three on the Billboard Hot 100 , and , on the week ending February 6 , 2010 , spent its last week at number forty , after twenty - one weeks on the chart . The song is one of thirteen songs from Fearless charted within the top forty of the Billboard Hot 100 , breaking the record for the most top forty entries from a single album . The single was certified double platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America . As of November 2014 , " Fifteen " has sold over 1 , 323 , 000 copies in the United States . " Fifteen " debuted at number forty - one on Billboard Hot Country Songs . It jumped at number thirty - one on its second week and on the week - ending November 7 , 2009 , it entered the top ten at number ten . Six weeks later , it reached its peak at number seven on the week - ending December 12 , 2009 . The single became her second single that did not reach the top three of Billboard Hot Country Songs since her debut single " Tim McGraw " . " Fifteen " also peak at number ten on Billboard Pop Songs , number twelve on Billboard Adult Contemporary , and at number fourteen at Billboard Adult Pop Songs . On the week ending January 23 , 2010 , the song peaked at number nineteen in Canada . It was certified gold by Music Canada for sales of 40 , 000 digital downloads . " Fifteen " peaked at number forty - eight in Australia on the week ending December 13 , 2009 . Music video The music video for " Fifteen " was directed by Roman White , who previously directed Swift 's music video " You Belong with Me " . White began with the intention of creating a video different than others Swift did in the past . To do so , he believed he needed to set the video outside of high school . White explained , " Well , I think I really wanted this video to kind of be an evolution for Taylor [ ... ] I actually said to her , ' I don 't think we should shoot in a high school . ' And I don 't think she wanted to either . " White conceptualized the video 's setting by taking into account the literal meaning of the song and transforming into something new . He conceptualized the setting to be new world where Swift could revisit her memories , as they manifest around her . " Let 's take the literal meaning of this song and watch it evolve in front of us ... almost as a memory in your head . And create this world , somewhere you walk in on this desolate desert and you start to sing about all these great memories you have ... of everything you love blooming around you , and so we literally grew this garden around her " , White said . The world moved from one situation to the next . White decided to annex surreal elements to create a cross between a garden and the heart of the memories . He intertwined Swift 's emotions with the growth of the garden . The garden grew when Swift felt happy , but at the sight of pain and negative emotions , clouds appear and the garden dies , which also symbolized Anderson 's broken heart . Swift 's friend , Anderson , portrayed herself in the video . The love interests of both Swift and Anderson were cast by Swift after she received images of them via e - mail . The video was filmed in two days . The first day consisted of actors , including Swift and Anderson , filming before a green screen . On the set , White presented Swift with caricature drawings depicting the music video , in order to guide herself . Swift was impressed by Anderson 's acting skills , considering her lack of experience , and called it " prolific " . On the second day , scenes at a high school were filmed ; artificial rain was made . Afterward , White and a team of visual effect artists created the setting . " If you watch just the offline edit of this video , it 's just green . It 's just Taylor walking around a giant green screen . And to think that every single thing in that video was created is amazing , ' cause a lot of people worked really hard on it " , White said . The visual effects team were at work for the video for some time , sometimes staying overnight in the office to produce the video . The direction was to make the video seem " magical " . Some of the props used when filming were recreated using digital animation , such as the door and the desks . Because extras were filmed separately , White was meticulous to find the right shots to make the scene more cohesive . White believed the finished product had a sense of innocence . The video begins with Swift , barefoot and clad in a white sundress , approaching a tall , arched doorway which materializes in the middle of a barren landscape . Swift looks at a photograph of herself and her friend tucked into the arch and , then , passes through the doors . On the other side of the arch , animated flowers and vines grow across the scenes . People and objects from a high school fade in and out of view . Swift walks through the memories and begins to play an acoustic guitar beneath a tree . Afterward , Anderson appears , sitting at a desk before a chalkboard in the field of flowers . Swift sits down beside her and two begin to whisper and laugh to each other . In the next scene , Swift plays guitar while Anderson goes on her first date ; she kisses her date , but pushes him away when he tries to go further . Her love interest and all surroundings dissolve to show Anderson sitting alone on a stone bench . Swift approaches her and hugs her tightly as the field around them turns dark and stormy . The video then alternates between Swift singing in the rain and hugging her friend . After the landscape deteriorates , the video transitions to reality , where Swift , wearing a black trench coat , stands in the rain , across the street from a high school . Swift then sees a student at the entrance ; the two make eye contact and the video concludes . To date , the video has over 108 million views on YouTube . Video reception The music video premiered on October 9 , 2009 on CMT . Peter Gicas of E ! thought the video was " sweet " and said , " And while the visuals here — Taylor walking in and out of various animated scenes — are certainly nice to look at , they nevertheless take a back seat to the country star 's cuteness . " Leah Greenblatt of Entertainment Weekly graded the video a B. Greenblatt believed the video was reverential and painterly , but criticized it by saying " Fifteen " ' s most powerful lyrics were outdone by the dreamy design . Jocelyn Vena of MTV wrote , " Taylor Swift is ' Fifteen ' all over again in the new music video for her song of the same name . " At the 2010 MTV Video Music Awards , the video was nominated for the MTV Video Music Award for Best Female Video , but lost to Lady Gaga 's video for " Bad Romance " ( 2009 ) . Live performances Swift first performed " Fifteen " , as a duet with pop singer Miley Cyrus , at the 51st Grammy Awards . The duo sat on wooden stools for the acoustic performance , with Swift wearing a baggy beige dress layered over a tight black outfit and playing an acoustic guitar . Swift has also performed the song at We 're All for the Hall , a benefit concert organized by Country Music Hall of Fame and Museum , the 2009 CMA Music Festival , the 2009 V Festival , the Australian charity concert Sydney Sound Relief , and the Country Music Association Awards . In the United Kingdom , Swift performed " Fifteen " on Later ... with Jools Holland and The Paul O 'Grady Show . Swift performed the song on all venues in 2009 and 2010 of her first headlining concert tour , the Fearless Tour . The performances of " Fifteen " set on a small platform located at the opposite end , parallel to the stage in the arena . Swift , dressed in a pastel sundress , sat on a wooden stool while performing with wooden 12 - string acoustic guitar strapped to her shoulder . Nicole Frehsee of Rolling Stone favored Swift 's performance of " Tim McGraw " at the August 27 , 2009 concert at Madison Square Garden in New York City . Frehsee described the entire concert as an " elaborate spectacle that doesn 't slow down , even when the singer hauls her acoustic guitar into the audience to play a sweet , stripped down set of tunes including ' Fifteen ' . " " Fifteen " served as a performance on the setlist of Swift 's second concert tour , the Speak Now World Tour ( 2011 ) ; the performances featured Swift sitting and playing an acoustic guitar , wearing a blue cocktail dress . 15 Swift partnered with electronics retailer Best Buy for 15 , a program that allowed teens to help decide how Best Buy 's " 15 Fund " would be distributed among various charities . Swift taped a Public Service Announcement ( PSA ) , called a " Teen Service Announcement " by Best Buy , for 15 . Within the PSA , which was released on February 9 , 2009 , scenes of Swift reminiscing on high school and encouraging originality and uniqueness were inter - cut with scenes of her singing " Fifteen " . In June 2009 , 15 became a partner for Swift 's Fearless Tour . The announcement was shown at each stop during the North American leg of the tour . In fifteen tour stops , 15 donated forty concert tickets and a guitar autographed by Swift to local teen - oriented charity groups , such as chapters of Boys & Girls Clubs of America and Big Brothers Big Sisters . Track listings CD single / Digital download " Fifteen " ( Album Version ) – 4 : 54 " You Belong with Me " ( Radio Mix ) – 3 : 50 Australia Pop Mix Edit Digital Download " Fifteen " ( Pop Mix Edit ) – 4 : 01 Charts
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The Negotiation " The Negotiation " ( originally titled " Labor Negotiation " ) is the nineteenth episode of the third season of the American comedy television series The Office . The series depicts the everyday lives of office employees in the Scranton branch of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company . In this episode , Roy Anderson ( David Denman ) tries to attack Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) for kissing Pam Beesly ( Jenna Fischer ) on Casino Night , only to be pepper - sprayed by Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) . Jim repeatedly tries to thank Dwight for his actions , but each attempt is rejected . Meanwhile , with Roy fired , Darryl Philbin ( Craig Robinson ) asks for a raise and is astounded when he learns that this raise would cause him to be paid more than his boss , Michael Scott ( Steve Carell ) . It first aired on April 5 , 2007 on NBC as a longer , " super - sized " episode . It was written by Michael Schur and directed by Jeffrey Blitz , and featured the end of Roy 's plot arc to win back Pam , his former fiancé . The episode also included the return of actor Ed Helms , who portrays Andy Bernard . The episode was first screened at Paleyfest in early 2007 . According to Nielsen Media Research , it was viewed by an estimated audience of 6 . 7 million people and earned a 3 . 2 / 10 ratings share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . The episode received generally positive reviews , with television critics in particular praising the Dwight – Angela storyline . Schur received a Primetime Emmy Award nomination for Outstanding Writing for a Comedy Series , but lost to fellow Office writer Greg Daniels for his work on " Gay Witch Hunt " . Synopsis Roy Anderson ( David Denman ) enters the office and attacks Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) for kissing Pam Beesly ( Jenna Fischer ) , his former fiancé , but Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) subdues him with pepper spray . Toby Flenderson ( Paul Lieberstein ) and Michael Scott ( Steve Carell ) fire Roy , and Jim , feeling guilty about all of his pranks over the years , tries to show his appreciation to Dwight for saving him , but each gesture is coolly rejected , as Dwight believes he only acted in the line of duty and is undeserving of any special praise . Pam apologizes to Jim that Roy attacked him but her assurance that her relationship with Roy is over for good is met with polite skepticism . Roy picks up his last paycheck , apologizes to Jim for threatening him during their previous encounter , and asks Pam to join him for coffee . Their meeting at a local diner is awkward and ends with their relationship ( and even friendship ) appearing to be over ; they hug and Pam wipes a tear from her face . Roy does not understand his long - time fiancée , especially her choice to not pursue Jim . Angela Martin ( Angela Kinsey ) interviews people from the office repeatedly to hear the tale of Dwight 's heroics . Believing themselves to be alone at the end of the day , the two kiss passionately . Jim sees them and decides that keeping their relationship secret will be his gift to Dwight to make things " even " . Andy Bernard ( Ed Helms ) returns from anger management , and Dwight , unprovoked , subdues him with pepper spray . Toby confiscates the rest of Dwight 's arsenal , previously hidden in various locations in the office . Meanwhile , Darryl Philbin ( Craig Robinson ) asks Michael for a 10 percent raise due to the extra workload resulting from Roy 's absence . When he discovers that the raise would make him higher - paid than Michael , Darryl goads Michael into going to Corporate to negotiate his own raise . Jan Levinson ( Melora Hardin ) initially tries to keep their romantic relationship out of the negotiations but ultimately gives Michael the maximum 12 percent raise that was authorized despite his continued inability to negotiate properly . Elsewhere , Toby becomes considerably annoyed with Ryan Howard ( B.J. Novak ) and Kelly Kapoor ( Mindy Kaling ) ' s constant making out and arguing in the cubicle next to his . Production " The Negotiation " was written by supervising producer Michael Schur and directed by Jeffrey Blitz . It featured the end of the story arc featuring Roy Anderson 's attempt to win back Pam , his former fiancée . Roy 's portrayer , David Denman , reported he was " really grateful " that executive producer Greg Daniels allowed his character to develop , " where all of a sudden , he wasn ’ t just a complete idiot but felt bad for being a bad boyfriend and wanted to try to get the girl back . It ’ s so rare to have that on a television show , because so often everyone wants you to be the same character every week . It was quite refreshing creatively to get to do that . " Referring to Jim and Pam , Denman felt it was " inevitable that Romeo and Juliet had to get together " and end the series ' love triangle . " Otherwise , " he explained , " it gets kind of tiring and old . I think it was the appropriate time [ to leave ] , and I had such a great experience working with all those guys . " Denman also added that Daniels ' decision stemmed from a desire to advance the Jim – Pam storyline " to the next stage , " rather than having anything to do specifically with Denman himself . Denman briefly returned in the series ' fifth , seventh , and ninth seasons . Actress Kate Flannery , who plays Meredith Palmer , attributed her love of the episode to Craig Robinson , because the two shared an enjoyment of singing together ever since the first season episode " Basketball " . She explained , " We sing on the set and in the hair and makeup trailer . We sound good together , but sometimes people are not in the mood to hear our amazing duets , mostly from the ' 80s . " Flannery believed that Robinson 's performance in the episode was " very funny , " as his character served as a " great foil for Michael Scott . " " The Negotiation " featured the return of character Andy Bernard , who had last been seen in the episode " The Return " , as he was attending anger management classes . At the time " The Return " aired , no one was certain Helms would be returning , but in early February , NBC confirmed Helms had been hired on as a series regular for the rest of the year . In early 2007 , the first half of " The Negotiation " was screened before fans at Paleyfest , along with its preceding episode , " Cocktails " . According to Eric Goldman of IGN , " the crowd reacted gleefully to watching the series in the group setting , with many females ... laughing uproariously at the never ending stream of terrifically funny material . " Part of " The Negotiation " involved Michael Scott reading the Wikipedia entry on negotiations for advice in his attempt to fend off Darryl 's request for a pay raise . This scene triggered a plethora of activity around that particular article , as viewers added their own thoughts on the subject . It was ultimately placed into " semi - protection " mode by Wikipedia administrators to discourage false information and vandalism among anonymous IP users . One hundred edits were added before the security protection was added . Reception " The Negotiation " first aired on April 5 , 2007 in the United States on NBC as a " super - sized " episode , a term used by the network and media outlets to indicate an unusually long episode . According to Nielsen Media Research , it was viewed by an estimated 6 . 7 million people and earned a 3 . 2 / 10 ratings share among adults aged 18 to 49 , the highest of the night . This means that it was seen by 3 . 2 percent of all 18- to 49 - year - olds , and 10 percent of all 18- to 49 - year - olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . The episode received generally positive reviews from television critics . IGN 's Brian Zoromski rated " The Negotiation " 9 . 7 out of 10 , an indication of an " amazing " episode . He opined that it " had something for everyone -- uncomfortable moments , laugh - out - loud ridiculous situations , and scenes progressing various ongoing storylines . " Writing for AOL TV , Jay Black sympathized with Roy 's actions but faulted the writers for " just treading water " with the Jim - Pam relationship . Though he called the episode a " let down " , Black did find some episode highlights , such as Angela 's " lusty " responses to Dwight 's defense of Jim . Television Without Pity graded the episode with an A. In her review for Give Me My Remote , Kath Skerry wrote that the episode " left me satisfied and smiling , " ( a reference to a line from the episode " Sexual Harassment " ) partly attributing this to Roy 's attack as a " way to make a very heavy , not do funny moment hysterical . " She again expressed her dislike for Karen , but thought it " was a fun episode for my two favorite Dunder Mifflin couples : Ryan & Kelly and Dwight & Angela . " Entertainment Weekly columnist Abby West enjoyed the Dwight - Angela scenes , asserting that " some of the best moments on screen are when those two let their freak flags fly . " For his work on this episode , Michael Schur received a Primetime Emmy Award nomination for Outstanding Writing for a Comedy Series , but lost to Greg Daniels for his work on " Gay Witch Hunt " .
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The Concert for Bangladesh ( album ) The Concert for Bangladesh – originally titled The Concert for Bangla Desh – is a live triple album by George Harrison and celebrity friends , released on Apple Records in December 1971 in America and January 1972 in Britain . The album followed the two concerts of the same name , held on 1 August 1971 at New York 's Madison Square Garden , featuring Harrison , Bob Dylan , Ravi Shankar , Ali Akbar Khan , Ringo Starr , Billy Preston , Leon Russell and Eric Clapton . The shows were a pioneering charity event , in aid of the homeless Bengali refugees of the Bangladesh Liberation War , and set the model for future multi - artist rock benefits such as Live Aid ( 1985 ) and the Concert for New York City ( 2001 ) . Co - produced by Phil Spector and featuring the latter 's signature Wall of Sound in a live setting , the fundraiser album was delayed for three months due to protracted negotiations between Harrison and two record companies keen to protect their business interests , Capitol and Columbia / CBS . Besides the main performers , the musicians and singers on the recording include Badfinger , Jim Horn , Klaus Voormann , Alla Rakha , Jim Keltner , Jesse Ed Davis and Claudia Linnear . The box set 's original packaging included a 64 - page book containing photos from the concerts ; the album cover , designed by Tom Wilkes , consisted of an image of a malnourished child sitting beside an empty food bowl . On release , The Concert for Bangladesh was a major critical and commercial success , topping albums charts around the world , and went on to win the Grammy Award for Album of the Year in March 1973 . Together with the 1972 Apple concert film directed by Saul Swimmer , the album gained Indian classical music its largest Western audience up until that time . The album was reissued in 2005 , in remastered form , featuring a new cover . Among the many words of acclaim that have been written about The Concert for Bangladesh since its release , author Tom Moon describes it as an album to play " whenever your faith in the power of music begins to wane " . Sales of The Concert for Bangladesh continue to benefit the George Harrison Fund for UNICEF , which raised $ 1 . 2 million for children in the Horn of Africa , in a 2011 campaign marking the album 's 40th anniversary . The concerts While in Los Angeles in June 1971 , and after being made aware of the gravity of the situation in what was then known as East Pakistan by friend and musician Ravi Shankar , George Harrison set about organising two fundraising concerts at Madison Square Garden , New York , to aid the war - ravaged and disaster - stricken country . In the middle of these hurried preparations , he composed the song " Bangla Desh " in order to call further attention to the Bengalis ' cause , and rush - released it as a charity single four days before the shows . Riding high with the recent success of his All Things Must Pass triple album , Harrison then headlined the all - star UNICEF benefit concerts , backed by a 24 - piece band of musicians and singers , on Sunday , 1 August 1971 . Equally notable were appearances by fellow ex - Beatle Ringo Starr and Bob Dylan , both of whom , like Harrison , had been mostly unavailable to concert audiences for several years . In Dylan 's case , it was his first appearance on a major US concert stage in five years , and his participation in the event had been uncertain until he walked on for his segment midway through the afternoon show . The concerts were highly successful in raising international awareness of the plight of the refugees – thought to number up to 10 million – and a cheque for over US $ 243 , 000 was soon sent to UNICEF for relief . The media lavished praise on Harrison as an ambassador for rock altruism and hailed the event as proof that " the Utopian spirit of the Sixties was still flickering " , as Rolling Stone magazine put it . With concert recording having been carried out at Madison Square Garden by Gary Kellgren , using the Record Plant 's 16 - track mobile unit , Harrison intended to raise significantly more money via a live album of the event , to be issued on the Beatles ' Apple Records label , followed by Apple Films ' concert documentary , also to be titled The Concert for Bangladesh . Album preparation During his and Shankar 's press conference in New York on 27 July , Harrison had stated that a live album might be ready for release within ten days of the shows . Although this estimate would turn out to be highly optimistic , the following year , in an effort to foil concert bootleggers , Elvis Presley succeeded in delivering a live album just eight days after his own , much - publicised Madison Square Garden shows . Harrison and co - producer Phil Spector began working on the Bangladesh recordings on 2 August , and work continued there at the Record Plant for around a week . Spector later talked of them spending " six months " mixing what amounted to a total of four hours of music ; in fact , the process took just over a month , as Harrison told talk - show host Dick Cavett that November . In their book Eight Arms to Hold You , Chip Madinger and Mark Easter question the extent of Spector 's involvement , citing Harrison 's subsequent lauding of Kellgren 's role in " capturing the performances " on 1 August , as well as the fact that Spector was " in and out of hospital " during this time , similar to his erratic attendance at the All Things Must Pass sessions in 1970 . Concert recordings Speaking in 2011 , Spector identified two issues that prolonged the live album 's preparation , both of them reflective of the haste with which the concerts came together : " It was chaos [ setting up at Madison Square Garden ] – we had three hours to mic the band , then the audience came in , and we didn 't know how to mic the audience . " And rather than a standard " band " , this was a full Wall of Sound orchestra : two drummers ( Ringo Starr and Jim Keltner ) , two keyboard players ( Billy Preston and Leon Russell ) , six horn players ( led by Jim Horn ) , three electric guitarists ( Harrison , Eric Clapton and Jesse Ed Davis ) , a trio of acoustic guitars to be " felt but not heard " ( Badfinger 's Pete Ham , Tom Evans and Joey Molland ) , the seven members of Don Nix 's " Soul Choir " , together with bassist Klaus Voormann and a dedicated percussion player , Mike Gibbins of Badfinger . In his review of the Concert for Bangladesh film for NME , John Pidgeon described the scene as " a roadie 's nightmare of instruments , mikes , amps and speakers " . Before the Western portion of the concerts , there were the traditionally hard - to - record Indian string instruments of Ravi Shankar and Ali Akbar Khan to amplify , together with Alla Rakha 's tabla and the drone - enhancing tambura , played by Kamala Chakravarty – each offering natural musical tones so easily lost in the " cavernous Garden " . An additional challenge for Kellgren had been the need to capture the dynamics of a well - paced show designed around professionally presented hit songs , rather than a loose superstar jam . Post - production With ongoing friendships a priority , Harrison had promised the main participants that , should things turn out badly on 1 August , they could be excluded from any album or film release . According to Madinger and Easter , he took early mixes of the concert tapes to Dylan for the latter 's approval . Of all the featured performers , only Leon Russell chose to intervene , necessitating a reworking of his " Jumpin ' Jack Flash / Youngblood " medley , which he apparently remixed himself . Post - production on the Madison Square Garden recordings was minimal , the known examples being Harrison 's double - tracked lead vocal on the bridges of " While My Guitar Gently Weeps " , and a composite edit of his opening song , " Wah - Wah " , which was assembled from both the shows . In addition , it is possible that Shankar and Khan 's " Bangla Dhun " was severely edited down : Harrison later described their set as having lasted 45 minutes , yet the running time on the album is under seventeen minutes and in the film just fifteen . The final mix down of the recordings , for album and film use , was carried out in Los Angeles in September , by A & M Studios engineers Norman Kinney and Steve Mitchell . In their joint interview for the 2005 Concert for Bangladesh Revisited documentary , Kinney and Mitchell confirm that music from both the afternoon ( matinee ) and evening performances was used for the concert film and live album ; they also state that Spector repeatedly instructed them to increase the volume of the audience in the mixes , in a search for more " feel of the room " in the end result . The second show was preferred when it came to selecting the best concert audio . The exceptions are as follows : " Wah - Wah " , which starts off with the evening version but cuts to the matinee at 2 : 53 ; Harrison 's band introduction and " While My Guitar Gently Weeps " , both sourced from the first show ; and Russell 's medley , which is also from the matinee on the album , but in the concert film , the audio cuts to the evening show during " Youngblood " . Harrison 's geniality as a host was well represented on the recordings . As with Shankar 's pre- " Bangla Dhun " address , Harrison 's band introductions , complete with Russell and Voormann breaking into " Yellow Submarine " when Starr 's name is mentioned , and his other on - stage dialogue – particularly the concert - sealing " Like to bring on a friend of us all ... Mr Bob Dylan " – would become as integral to the legacy of the event as the music itself . Record company obstruction On 23 August , press reports appeared citing " legal problems " as the reason behind the delaying of the much - anticipated live album – problems that would turn out to be a disagreement between EMI - owned Capitol Records ( Apple 's US distributor ) and Columbia Records ( Dylan 's label ) over who had a rightful claim to release the album . Columbia / CBS were eventually mollified with the granting of tape distribution rights in North America , and record and tape distribution in the rest of the world . Another stumbling block was Capitol 's insistence that they receive monetary compensation , thought to be around $ 400 , 000 , for what the company perceived to be vast production and distribution costs for the boxed three - record set . It was a position from which EMI chairman Bhaskar Menon refused to budge , while Harrison was equally adamant that , since all the artists were providing their services for free and Apple was supplying the album packaging at no charge , the record company " must give up something " also . With the sound mix being completed in LA , Harrison spent most of September 1971 in New York working on the problematic film footage of the concert , before heading to London . There he attended the re - opening of Apple Studio on 30 September and produced new signing Lon & Derrek Van Eaton 's debut single , as well as enduring a fruitless meeting with the British Treasury 's financial secretary – the latter activity in an attempt to have the government waive its standard purchase tax , and so keep the album affordable to record - buyers . Harrison returned to New York on 5 October and announced that the Bangladesh live album would be issued during the following month . At this time , with concert bootlegs now on the market , posters were placed in record shops bearing the slogan : " Save a starving child . Don 't buy a bootleg ! " In the fourth week of November – well into the lucrative Christmas sales period and close to four months after the concerts – Harrison voiced his frustration at the stalemate with Capitol on ABC 's late - night chat show , The Dick Cavett Show . Harrison was on the program to promote the Raga documentary with Shankar , but after making a surprise guest performance with Gary Wright 's new band <unk> , he launched into a complaint about his US record company 's interference and threatened to take the whole album package to Columbia . With the outburst attracting unfavourable attention in the press , where Capitol were viewed as " profiteering on the backs of famine victims " , the company eventually backed down and agreed to release the album on Harrison 's terms . Of all the labels involved , only Columbia would make any money from The Concert for Bangladesh – 25 cents on every copy sold . Although none of these royalties went to the artist , Dylan and his record company were already benefiting from the exposure provided by the Bangladesh concerts , through the timely release of Bob Dylan 's Greatest Hits Vol . II . Of the other featured artists at the Concert for Bangladesh , the careers of both Preston ( A & M Records ) and Russell ( Shelter ) likewise prospered as a result of their participation , but their record companies imposed no such conditions on Apple and Capitol . In January 1972 , Melody Maker 's Richard Williams remarked in his Concert for Bangladesh album review : " Between them , Capitol and CBS have proved that , when it comes to awareness and enlightenment , the business is still several years behind the musicians . " Once the album had been granted a release date , Apple 's financial terms ensured that as much money as possible would be raised from each copy sold , but that it would be difficult for retailers to profit financially . Some retailers responded with " shameless price gouging " on the three - record set , apparently at Capitol 's recommendation . Following the protracted negotiations surrounding the live album 's distribution , Harrison 's disaffection with EMI / Capitol was a key factor behind his signing with A & M Records in January 1976 . Album artwork The album 's packaging was designed by Camouflage Productions partners Tom Wilkes and Barry Feinstein , the same team responsible for All Things Must Pass , rock music 's first boxed triple album . Along with Alan Pariser , both Wilkes and Feinstein had taken stills photographs at Madison Square Garden , at the soundcheck on 31 July and during the concerts the next day , the results filling the 64 - page full - colour booklet accompanying the original album . Also used as the Concert for Bangladesh movie poster , the album - cover photograph – the " haunting " image of a malnourished young child sitting naked behind a wide , empty food bowl , author Bruce Spizer writes – was a still taken from news agency film footage and airbrushed extensively by Wilkes . Having created the provocative , headline - filled picture sleeve for Harrison 's " Bangla Desh " single earlier in the year , Wilkes was keen to capture " real human compassion " in this cover and poster image . The booklet 's back - cover picture showed an open guitar case filled with food and medical supplies , below a copy of the cheque for the Madison Square Garden box - office takings . Wilkes intended this image to convey a sense of hope , signifying the completion of the task that the participants had set out to achieve for the refugees from East Pakistan . The three vinyl LPs and booklet were housed inside a deep orange - coloured box . The 1991 CD release placed the cover photo on a white background , however , replicating the front of the original album booklet . As commentators noted in 1991 , the necessary downsizing to CD dimensions meant that much of the effectiveness of the booklet photography was lost , not least because the contents had also been trimmed down to just 36 pages . Further changes to Camouflage 's design concept occurred for the 2005 CD remaster and DVD release . In 1971 , Capitol executives had been concerned that the cover image was too " depressing " and uncommercial , according to Jon Taplin , who served as production manager at the Madison Square concerts ; Harrison had been resolute , however , and so Wilkes 's design was used . In October 2005 , four years after Harrison 's death , the remastered Concert for Bangladesh releases appeared with a photo of him on the cover , although the special - edition DVD retained the original image . Release The Concert for Bangladesh was released in the United States on 20 December 1971 , and in Britain on 10 January 1972 , with the same Apple Records catalogue number ( <unk> <unk> ) in both territories . The retail price for the lavishly packaged triple album was set at $ 12 . 98 in America and an extraordinarily high £ 5 . 50 in the UK , due to the purchase tax surcharge there . The prices drew some criticism , from Harrison for one , even if it was accepted that the proceeds were going to those in desperate need – or , as Beatles Forever author Nicholas Schaffner wrote in 1977 , to " a nation still viewed as the worst pocket of misery on earth " . Similarly , the relief project 's funds controversy and tax problems , which came to light shortly after the release of the live album , were a source of frustration and embarrassment to Harrison , but commentators have noted that these problems took nothing away from the " resounding success " of Harrison and Shankar 's Bangladesh relief project . Despite the cost , the album was an immediate commercial success . In America , it spent six weeks at number 2 on the Billboard Top LPs chart , kept from the top by Don McLean 's American Pie , which was one of the top - selling albums there for 1972 . On the other US charts , compiled by Cash Box and Record World , the live album peaked at number 2 and number 1 , respectively . In the UK , The Concert for Bangladesh became Harrison 's second number 1 album , after All Things Must Pass in early 1971 . The album was certified gold by the RIAA on 4 January 1972 for sales of over 500 , 000 units . In March 1973 , The Concert for Bangladesh 's significance was further underlined when it won the Grammy Award for Album of the Year . In Harrison 's absence , Ringo Starr attended the awards ceremony in Nashville and carried off a tray of Grammys , one for each of the featured performers . Author Peter Lavezzoli writes that , with the success of the live album and Saul Swimmer 's concert documentary , which opened in US cinemas in March 1972 , Indian classical music reached its largest Western audience to date through the Concert for Bangladesh . Reissue The Concert for Bangladesh was first issued on CD on 30 July 1991 in America and 19 August in Britain . It was presented as a two - disc set , with significant editing of the breaks between songs . Having stated his disappointment in a 1988 interview that the album had been allowed to go out of print , Harrison recorded a promotional interview on the 20th anniversary of the concerts , to accompany the CD release . Harrison was working on a reissue of the album and film before his death in November 2001 . Although the project was due for release the following year , the new editions were not made available until 24 October 2005 . The album was remastered for this release , with the heavily revised packaging credited to Wherefore Art ? , and the addition of Dylan 's afternoon - show performance of " Love Minus Zero / No Limit " as a bonus track . The reissue coincided with the concert film 's first international release on DVD , accompanied by the Concert for Bangladesh Revisited with George Harrison and Friends making - of documentary , which was directed by Claire Ferguson and co - produced by Olivia Harrison . Sales of the album and DVD continue to benefit the George Harrison Fund for UNICEF . In 2011 , as one of the fund 's projects to mark the 40th anniversary of the concerts and the live album 's release , and in conjunction with UNICEF 's " Month of Giving " campaign , the George Harrison Fund for UNICEF raised over $ 1 . 2 million in emergency relief for children in <unk> and drought - stricken areas of the Horn of Africa . Critical reception On release and through the 1970s " If you buy only one LP in 1972 , make it this one , " Richard Williams wrote in Melody Maker , echoing the goodwill felt throughout the music press towards the Bangladesh relief project . Williams lavished praise on every one of the triple album 's seventeen selections : Ravi Shankar and Ali Akbar Khan 's interplay towards the end of " Bangla Dhun " made for a " marvellous opening " ( like " Charlie Parker trading licks with Johnny Hodges " , he noted ) ; Harrison 's trio of All Things Must Pass tracks were " [ u ] <unk> ... in some ways even better " than the originals , with Ringo Starr and Jim Keltner 's drumming " just breathtaking " on " Awaiting on You All " ; Billy Preston 's " That 's the Way God Planned It " was " feverishly exciting " , the audience " absolutely wild " by the end of the song . " Can all this be happening ? " Williams asked , even before moving on to the second of the three discs . Rolling Stone magazine continued its near - deification of the event as a defining moment in the evolution of rock ' n ' roll , with Jon Landau declaring : " The Concert for Bangla Desh is rock reaching for its manhood " , and as for Harrison : " the spirit he creates through his own demeanor is inspirational . From the personal point of view , Concert for Bangla Desh was George 's moment . He put it together ; and he pulled it off , and for that he deserves the admiration of all of us . " To the Rolling Stone writer , the highpoint of the album was the closing " Bangla Desh " , whose lyrics were no longer " an expression of intent but of an accomplished mission " . Landau had praise for the pacing and professionalism of the entire show , the only " incongruous " moment being Leon Russell 's " Jumpin ' Jack Flash " / " Youngblood " segment , since it was straight from the singer 's usual repertoire . The NME 's Roy Carr and Tony Tyler were equally generous in their appraisal of " probably the greatest indoor rock ' n ' roll event ever held " ; to them , Bob Dylan 's five - song set " easily justified " the album 's price tag . As at the time of the concerts , much was made by album reviewers of the change in Dylan 's singing voice , as well as his choice of songs , which harked back to the so - called " protest period " of 1962 – 64 and the subsequent creative zenith that culminated in his Blonde on Blonde album ( 1966 ) . Having attended the concerts six months before , Ed Kelleher of Circus magazine was relieved to discover that the live album didn 't just do justice to the " magic ... the sheer joy " of the event , but rather its music " practically jumps right out into your life " . After singling out as defining moments Dylan 's " Just Like a Woman " ( " it 's enough to make you cry and smile at once " ) , Russell 's medley and Harrison 's " Here Comes the Sun " , along with the talents of Shankar – " the most masterful and accomplished of them all " – Kelleher admitted to the futility of trying to identify " individual highlights " on an album that was " one consistent high " . In fact , almost every selection on the three - record set was named as a highlight by one reviewer or another : Preston 's " That 's the Way God Planned It " coming as a " sheer delight " to Landau , Harrison 's " Something " especially " delicate and moving " to Playboy 's album reviewer , Dylan 's " A Hard Rain 's A - Gonna Fall " resonating most with Nicholas Schaffner , while to Richard Williams , " Just Like a Woman " was " the masterpiece " . " While My Guitar Gently Weeps " was a track that received significant attention , thanks to the guitar " duelling " between Harrison and his ailing friend , Eric Clapton . Writing in Rolling Stone Press ' Harrison tribute , Greg Kot views the performance as " a snapshot of early - Seventies rock royalty " ; yet their joint soloing was about friendship , writes musical biographer Simon Leng , rather than the " six - string ego battles " or " macho showdowns " so typical of that decade . Author Tom Moon describes their interplay as two guitarists " finish [ ing ] each other 's thoughts " . In The Village Voice 's inaugural Pazz & Jop poll , critics voted The Concert for Bangladesh the eighth best album out of all releases for that year . Legacy While the technical imperfections of the concert recordings were overlooked in 1972 – or even applauded for their adding to the " honesty " of the moment , in the case of Starr forgetting the lyrics to " It Don 't Come Easy " – reviewers of the first CD - format album remarked on the relatively poor sound quality . In his review for AllMusic in 2001 , Bruce Eder noted the " less - than - perfect sound " while still viewing the album as a " unique live document showcasing Harrison near his best " . Another point of contention , though mainly among Harrison 's biographers , concerns Leon Russell . Alan Clayson bristles at the omnipresence of the Oklahoman singer and musician – " the epitome of the self - satisfied sexism of the Delaney and Bonnie super - sidemen " , Clayson writes – and the fact that his turn in the spotlight so blatantly became " The Leon Russell Show " . Leng likewise bemoans Russell 's " consciously extreme <unk> ' " , and finds his delivery pales beside the " unaffected naïveté " of Billy Preston and particularly the " knife - edge emotions " of Harrison and Shankar , which only Dylan can match . In The Rolling Stone Album Guide ( 1992 ) , Paul Evans gave the record three stars and preferred the Dylan set over Harrison 's songs . The Concert for Bangladesh is continually viewed in a highly favourable light by critics in retrospective reviews . Among reviews of the 2005 reissue , Mojo described the remastered sound as " sumptuous " while AllMusic 's Richard Ginell wrote : " Hands down , this epochal concert ... was the crowning event of George Harrison 's public life , a gesture of great goodwill that captured the moment in history and , not incidentally , produced some rousing music as a permanent legacy . " Writing in Rolling Stone that year , Anthony DeCurtis said : " The Concert for Bangladesh is rightly enshrined in rock history as the model for Band Aid , Live Aid , Live 8 and every other superstar benefit concert of the last three decades ... In emphasizing the concert 's idealism , however , it 's easy to overlook what a musical gem this two - disc set is . " Dan Ouellette of Billboard considered that " The star - studded package holds up well as a live greatest - hits collection " , before concluding : " But the revelation is the exhilarating concert lift - off , the improv - laced eastern Indian classical tune ' Bangla Dhun , ' featuring sitar master Ravi Shankar . " In his entry for the album in 1 , 000 Recordings to Hear Before You Die , Tom Moon advises his readers : " Pull this out whenever your faith in the power of music begins to wane . " The Concert for Bangladesh also features in Sean Egan 's 2006 book 100 Albums That Changed Music and in The Mojo Collection : The Greatest Albums of All Time . Track listing Original release 2005 remaster Disc one The first disc contains the ten tracks from side one to side three of the original release . Disc two The second disc contains the nine tracks from side four to side six of the original release , together with : 2011 40th anniversary reissue A download - only version of the album per the 2005 remaster , with a second bonus track exclusive to iTunes : Personnel Credited as " The Artists " : George Harrison – vocals , electric and acoustic guitars , backing vocals Ravi Shankar – sitar Bob Dylan – vocals , acoustic guitar , harmonica Leon Russell – piano , vocals , bass , backing vocals Ringo Starr – drums , vocals , tambourine Billy Preston – Hammond organ , vocals Eric Clapton – electric guitar Ali Akbar Khan – sarod Alla Rakha – tabla Kamala Chakravarty – tambura The Band : Jesse Ed Davis – electric guitar Klaus Voormann – bass Jim Keltner – drums Pete Ham – acoustic guitar Tom Evans – twelve - string acoustic guitar Joey Molland – acoustic guitar Mike Gibbins – tambourine , maracas Don Preston – electric guitar , vocals ( on " Jumpin ' Jack Flash " / " Young Blood " and " Bangla Desh " only ) Carl Radle – bass ( on " Jumpin ' Jack Flash " / " Young Blood " only ) The Hollywood Horns : Jim Horn – saxophones , horn arrangements Chuck Findley – trumpet Jackie Kelso – saxophones Allan Beutler – saxophones Lou McCreary – trombone Ollie Mitchell – trumpet The Backing Vocalists / Soul Choir : Claudia Linnear , Jo Green , Jeanie Greene , Marlin Greene , Dolores Hall , Don Nix , Don Preston – backing vocals , percussion Accolades Grammy Awards Charts and certifications Weekly charts
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Zaprešić Zaprešić ( pronounced [ <unk> ] ) is a city in Zagreb County in Croatia . Its population is 19 , 644 inhabitants for the city proper , and over 51 , 000 for its seven - municipality metropolitan area . Zaprešić is the third - largest , and most densely populated division of the county . It is located northwest of the Croatian capital Zagreb , and near the Slovenian border . It is centered on plains north of the Sava River , and is bordered by Medvednica Mountain to the east , and the Marija Gorica Hills to the west . The first human settlement in , and near Zaprešić dates from the Neolithic , and several Roman roads were constructed in the area . The first records of the modern town date from 1334 . Since that date , the town 's history includes being a part of a feudal estate to operating the first meat packaging plant in Croatia . However , it was not formally established as a city until 1995 . The city is governed by a mayor , a city government of seven members ( upper house ) , and a city council of twenty one ( lower house ) . The current ruling party is the Croatian Democratic Union ( HDZ ) , and the current mayor is Željko Turk . Zaprešić has its own fire department , but police coverage is provided by the city of Zagreb . <unk> <unk> Zaprešić manages all utilities except electricity . Tap water in Zaprešić is of high quality . Due to its many rail , and road transport corridors , Zaprešić has been dubbed the " northwestern gate to Zagreb County " . It lies directly next to the A2 highway connecting Zagreb to Central Europe . It also is adjacent to the main railway leading northwest out of Zagreb . Centered on the tertiary sector , the city 's economy is booming due to a large population influx . Zaprešić 's educational facilities range from kindergartens to centers of higher education . The city is home to four elementary schools , one high school , and two universities . The Zaprešić metropolitan area contains six castles that together make up what is known as the " palace path . " The town also has a museum and an art gallery . The most popular sport in the region is football , and the local team is NK Inter Zaprešić , a member of the First Football League of Croatia . Other sports are also present in Zaprešić , and the city is home to a golf resort . History The first records of human inhabitants in the Zaprešić metropolitan area date back to the Neolithic , evident through stone axes found in Brdovec , and axes from the Copper Age found in Marija Gorica . <unk> culture traces were uncovered in the area of Sveti Križ . The Romans left their imprints on Zaprešić in the form of the Siscia – <unk> – Emona road , which followed Sava River on its left bank through the Zaprešić area , passing near modern settlements . After a lack of records from the first millennium , Zaprešić again became known in the late 11th century . In 1094 , following the formation of the Zagreb Diocese , <unk> , an advisor of the Croato – Hungarian King Ladislav I , was granted land west and east of the Medvednica Mountain to protect the newly formed diocese . Zaprešić became part of the Susedgrad – Stubica manor , the second - biggest estate in the Croato - Hungarian Zagreb County . In 1334 , the parish church of St. Peter was founded in Zaprešić , marking the first evidence of the modern settlement of Zaprešić . The settlement developed rapidly , which is attributed to its position on important trade and transit routes . This was corroborated by the route of the first railway in Croatia , which passes through Zaprešić . During 15th and 16th centuries , refugees from Lika came to Zaprešić to escape the Ottomans . Some of these refugees were the so - called Brdovec Franciscans , for whom Lord <unk> of Susedgrad built an abbey in Marija Gorica . The refugees brought the <unk> accent , which was preserved for a long time in some small Zaprešić communities , although the Zaprešić area has historically been <unk> Kajkavian ( <unk> being [ e ] or [ ɛ ] rather than [ i ] ) . The area was hit hard by the 1573 peasant revolt , led by Matija <unk> , who , according to historian Ivan <unk> <unk> , managed the estate of Jablanovec , part of modern Zaprešić . One of the revolt leaders was Ilija Gregorić , a resident of Marija Gorica . Two years later , the large manor of Susedgrad and Stubica started to disperse into many small estates owned by low - level members of the nobility . Dozens of simple diocesan curia houses serve as a reminder of this nobility . After the First World War , the oldest meat industry in Croatia , the <unk> <unk> <unk> , was founded . Zaprešić was formally established for the first time in 1952 , when the Municipality of Zaprešić ( Croatian : <unk> Zaprešić was formed . The municipality operated as part of the Zagreb kotar and later City of Zagreb . The City of Zaprešić ( Grad Zaprešić ) was incorporated on 30 November 1995 . On that day , parts of the surrounding municipalities of Pušća , and Hruševec Kupljenski ( which was disbanded , leaving only a namesake settlement ) and the City of Zagreb were incorporated into a new City of Zaprešić . The settlement of <unk> came under the jurisdiction of Zaprešić on 17 January 1997 . Geography Zaprešić is a part of the metropolitan area of Croatia 's capital and largest city , Zagreb . It is located 18 kilometres ( 11 mi ) northwest of Zagreb , lying near the confluence of the Krapina River , and the Sava River . The small Lužnica River marks the western city border of Zaprešić . The Zaprešić metropolitan area consists of Zaprešić and seven surrounding municipalities : Brdovec , Bistra , <unk> , Jakovlje , Luka , Marija Gorica , and Pušća . It is formed by the northwestern part of Zagreb County , bordered on the south by the Sava River , on the east by Zagreb , and the Medvednica Mountain , and on the west by the Sutla River , and the Slovenian border . According to the official website , three distinct geographic areas make up the Zaprešić area : the western part of the Medvednica Mountain , the Marija Gorica Hills and the plains that lie between . The western part of the Medvednica Mountain is fairly lightly inhabited , with no settlements except at the base of the mountain . These include the Bistra municipality and the Zaprešić settlement of Jablanovec . The Marija Gorica Hills are located mainly in the Marija Gorica municipality between the rivers of Krapina , and Sutla . The third area , the plains , is the area where the Zaprešić itself is located . Zaprešić has a lake , Lake Zajarki , situated between the town and the Sava River in the south . It is colloquially known as <unk> ( Croatian word for excavator ) . The lake is currently still used as a gravel pit , although it is a known destination for Zaprešić swimmers and beach goers . Demographics According to the 2011 census , the town of Zaprešić has 25 , 223 inhabitants , 19 , 644 of whom live in the Zaprešić settlement ( <unk> ) . This makes Zaprešić urban area at 1 , 036 inhabitants per square kilometer ( 2 , 683 per square mile ) the most densely populated in the whole of Zagreb County . The town is administratively divided into nine settlements , the largest of which is also called Zaprešić , covering a third of the town 's area . The metropolitan area of Zaprešić had 54 , 640 inhabitants in 2011 , an increase from 51 , 040 inhabitants in 2001 . About 96 % of inhabitants are Croats and 98 . 3 % speak Croatian as their mother tongue . The sex ratio is 90 . 63 men to 100 women , and the median age is 39 . 9 years , which makes Zaprešić one of the younger towns in Zagreb County . Economy Due to its accessible location with favorable conditions for expansion , and a very high net migration , and population growth rates ( estimated to be 29 persons per 1 , 000 per year ) , Zaprešić is expecting an economic boom . Despite the ongoing financial crisis that hit many cities in Croatia , including the capital , the town operates without loans and expects a yearly budget increase in the range of 20 to 30 percent . The tertiary sector is dominant with mainly retailing , and hospitality , and a smaller presence of tourism , as well as souvenir manufacturing ) and financial services . The secondary sector is also present with ceramic industry ( Inker ) , metalworking ( <unk> Nova , <unk> , and <unk> <unk> ) and chemical industry ( Messer Croatia <unk> , <unk> ) . The primary sector mainly consists of agriculture , and is expected to continue shrinking . There are currently 3 , 040 hectares ( 7 , 512 acres ) of arable land for agricultural use , but the town 's general urban plan anticipates an economic shift will lower the amount of agricultural use to 930 hectares ( 2 , 298 acres ) by 2015 , thus speeding the process of suburbanization started by the expansion of Zagreb . The future of Zaprešić 's economy is seen in the development of small , and mid - sized businesses , tourism , and food - related industries . The city income tax rate is 12 percent . The city budget in 2008 amounted to HRK 198 million . The Shopping City Zagreb ( also called West Gate Shopping Center ) is a shopping mall planned to create a major job demand in the Zaprešić region . Located next to the Krapina River and A2 highway , the center will serve 2 . 3 million residents in the Zagreb region . It will also be the largest in the Zagreb metropolitan area with 100 , 000 square meters ( 1 , 080 , 000 sq ft ) of gross leasable area . Construction started in late 2007 . It was opened in October 2009 . Culture and media Zaprešić 's cultural heritage includes a series of six historic castles and palaces known as " the palace path " ( Croatian : <unk> <unk> ) : Lužnica mansion , <unk> palace , <unk> mansion , <unk> family mansion , Jakovlje palace , and Novi Dvori . Of these , <unk> and <unk> are in the zeroth category of cultural heritage preservation of UNESCO , Lužnica is in the first category of the Croatian Ministry of Culture , and <unk> and Novi Dvori are in the second category of the Ministry of Culture . Jakovlje palace is not involved in any cultural preservation program . Novi Dvori ( also known as Novi Dvori <unk> – New Jelačić Palace ) is known for being the residence of Josip Jelačić , one of the most famous Croatian bans . However , before that it was inhabited by five families ( the last one being <unk> ) after its construction in 1611 as a simple two - story house . It remains a well - preserved example of a manorial estate . The palace was left to the state in 1934 by Josip Jelačić 's nephew and nieces . The town is home to the Museum of Matija <unk> ( opened in 1984 ) , a gallery of works by the renowned painter . It is located in the former granary of Novi Dvori . The art gallery <unk> , that opened in 1991 , has held exhibitions of works by many important Croatian artists , such as Franjo <unk> , Ivan <unk> , Drago <unk> , Davor Vuković ( a native of Zaprešić ) and Krešimir <unk> . The Zaprešić main library , " Ante Kovačić " , is a part of the association of Zagreb City Libraries ( Croatian : <unk> Grada <unk> , <unk> ) , and has 5 , 541 members with access to 78 , 385 books . Albin <unk> , an employee of Baron Levin Rauch , founded the first library in Zaprešić area in 1921 in Brdovec . A more recent library was founded in 1958 , and moved to its present location in 1986 . Zaprešić contains the ornithological reserve Zaprešić - Sava , which is located south of the city , at Lake Zajarki . The reserve is covered mainly with woods and thick low vegetation , and criss - crossed by fluvial marshes . Zaprešić operates a hunting office , which is made of eight clubs : Zaprešić , Kuna , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> ( offices in Luka , and Bistra ) and <unk> . A radio station operates in Zaprešić : Radio Zaprešić ( also known as Round Wave Station Zaprešić , Croatian : <unk> <unk> Zaprešić ) . The station broadcasts a FM signal at 96 . 0 and 99 . 5 MHz , 24 hours each weekday . It was founded on 15 January 1987 . The local monthly newspaper <unk> Kaj has its seat in the nearby settlement of <unk> in the Brdovec municipality . Sports and recreation Organized sports in Zaprešić started in 1926 , with the first football match between unregistered teams from Zaprešić and <unk> Marof . The football club NK Sava ( now called NK Inter Zaprešić ) was soon formed in 1929 . There are 20 sport clubs and associations in Zaprešić , and the most popular ones are association football , basketball , handball , bowling , tennis , table tennis , chess , cycling , taekwondo , and bocce . Zaprešić is the home to several influential sports clubs , such as NK Inter Zaprešić ( football ) , KK Fortuna Zaprešić ( basketball ) , RK Zaprešić ( handball ) , KK Zaprešić ( bowling ) and others . NK Inter Zaprešić currently plays in Croatian Second Football League . It is currently the best - placed football club in the county . Most of the sports clubs in Zaprešić are members of the Town of Zaprešić Sports Society ( Croatian : <unk> <unk> <unk> Grada Zaprešića ) . The main sports venue is the <unk> Zaprešić ( Sports and Recreation Center Zaprešić ) , which encompasses a football stadium and a gym . There are other sports courts in Hruševec Kupljenski , Ivanec , Jablanovec , Kupljenovo , and <unk> . NK Inter Zaprešić 's home stadium is <unk> Zaprešić , located in the northwest part of the town and handling up to 5 , 528 visitors . The 140 - hectare ( 346 - acre ) golf resort " Novi dvori " was opened on 16 October 2004 , with Prime Minister Ivo Sanader being the first to tee off . However , as of 2009 , only a few parts are in use , with a 27 - hole course currently under construction . Nine of these holes will be reserved for practice and eighteen for tournament play . The center operates a driving range with two practice courses of different sizes , and an area to practice putting green play . One practice course is sheltered from weather conditions and the whole golf course has night lighting . In terms of normal play , three par 3 holes are currently operational and friendly par 9 tournaments are often held at the course . The course also has other amenities , such as a restaurant and the proximity to the Novi Dvori palace . When the construction ends , the golfers will have access to a conference room , a business center , a fitness club , a sauna , and a massage parlor . Government Despite the settlement of Zaprešić 's long history , only with the founding of the Town of Zaprešić on 30 November 1995 did it have its own elected representatives . The towns administration includes two tiers of power : a mayor and a city council . The city council is elected each four years . The mayor ( Croatian : <unk> ) has executive power . He is elected directly by the voters . Current Mayor is Željko Turk ( Croatian Democratic Union — HDZ , elected in 2006 , re - elected 2009 and 2013 ) , whose <unk> are Damir <unk> and Alan <unk> . Zaprešić is part of the 1st Croatian electoral district , which consists of western Zagreb , and the Zaprešić metropolitan area . The city council ( Croatian : <unk> vijeće ) has the legislative power over the town . It represents the residents of Zaprešić and manages city budget , and it is composed of twenty one members with one presiding and two vice - presiding members . Education The Town of Zaprešić provides education ranging from pre - school to higher education . These include four registered kindergartens ( stationed on seven locations ) , four elementary schools , one high school , and one college . Elementary schools located in Zaprešić include Antun Augustinčić , Ljudevit Gaj , and Kupljenovo elementary schools , and a branch of the Bistra elementary school from the Bistra municipality . The Ban Josip Jelačić High School is located on the Franjo Tuđman Square in the northwestern part of the town . Zaprešić has a college for business and management , named after the Croatian historian and theologian Baltazar Adam <unk> , and located in the town center on Novak Street . The open university in Zaprešić ( Croatian : <unk> <unk> <unk> Zaprešić ) offers various courses in languages , computer science , and musical instruments , as well as vocational training . Infrastructure Zaprešić is covered mostly by the postal code " <unk> Zaprešić " , and Croatian Mail operates four post offices in the city : in Ivanec <unk> , Lužnica , <unk> and Zaprešić . The city proper overlaps with the areas of postal codes " <unk> Donja Pušća " ( <unk> ) , " <unk> Kupljenovo " ( Hruševec Kupljenski , Kupljenovo , <unk> ) and " <unk> Donja Bistra " ( Jablanovec ) . Zaprešić has its own police station , PP Zaprešić , a Zagreb County branch of the City of Zagreb Police Department responsible for all of the Zaprešić metropolitan area . Fire coverage is provided by the City of Zaprešić Fire Department ( Croatian : <unk> <unk> <unk> <unk> Zaprešića ) , which also serves the complete seven - municipality metropolitan area . There are six volunteer fire brigades in Zaprešić proper , all members of the Zaprešić Firefighting Community ( Croatian : <unk> zajednica Grada Zaprešića ) . Zaprešić also has a municipal court . All utilities except electricity are managed by <unk> <unk> Zaprešić ( English : Utility company Zaprešić ) . Zaprešić 's electricity is , as in the rest of Croatia , provided by Hrvatska elektroprivreda , and distributed by Elektra Zagreb , a company managing access to electricity in Zagreb , and Zagreb County . Zaprešić receives tap water from underground water reserves through a water pump in the settlement of <unk> . The water from the water pump is of drinking quality . However , local factories Pliva , and <unk> produce waste water , which is released into the Sava River through the <unk> - Pliva - Zaprešić water treatment plant . Before the construction of the treatment plant , the polluted water was piped into the <unk> Creek , endangering the tap water quality . Possible consequences of releasing waste water into the Sava will be dealt with by the construction of the Zajarki water purification system for screening the used water . The ecological problem is multiplied by the fact that the utility company received only 400 requests to clean septic tanks in 2007 , although most households in the relatively rural surroundings of Zaprešić use septic systems . There are plans of constructing four hydroelectric power plants around Zagreb with one being in Zaprešić ( HE Zaprešić , also known as HE Podsused ) as a part of a system of exploiting natural resources of the Sava River . Transport The town is a major transport hub for the area of Zagreb County and Zagreb itself . It is thus known as the " northwestern gate to Zagreb County . " The Zagreb bypass , and the tolled A2 highway ( Zagreb – Macelj , toward Austria ; part of European Route E59 , and pan - European corridor Xa ) pass through the eastern part of Zaprešić , providing Zaprešić with highway access at a cloverleaf interchange . The State Route D225 is a major arterial road in Zaprešić . It forms the Pavao <unk> and Marshal Tito Streets , leading west towards Brdovec , Marija Gorica and Slovenia , and east towards western Zagreb , Jablanovec , and Stubica . According to the current city <unk> plan , the traffic on the D225 will be re - routed through two city bypasses along the northern and western railway lines to clear the center of Zaprešić of 25 , 000 daily commuters driving on a two - lane road . Mass transit provides intra - city and inter - city connections in form of bus and rail . Zaprešić is a major railway intersection , with railways leading west to Slovenia ( Corridor X ) , north to Zabok , and Kumrovec ( Corridor Xa ) and east to the main regional railway hub Zagreb . Croatian Railways services the Zaprešić train station with major interstate trains going to the west , but also with the suburban line <unk> Marof – Zagreb Main Station – Dugo Selo . The town is serviced by two bus companies : the regional <unk> <unk> <unk> ( <unk> ) and local Meštrović <unk> . <unk> operates line 172 to Zaprešić , which starts at the <unk> bus terminal in Zagreb and runs every 8 to 15 minutes during day , and at irregular intervals during the night . Lines 176 and 177 run to the Zaprešić suburban municipality of Bistra . Meštrović <unk> , the main intra - city bus company of Zaprešić , operates bus lines connecting Zaprešić and all municipalities in its metropolitan area . Zaprešić lies along the left bank of the Sava River , but it does not have any bridges that would connect the town to Samobor , on the other bank , as the nearest bridge is the Podsused bridge , located in the Podsused – <unk> district of Zagreb . However , two ferries connect Zaprešić with the roads in <unk> and <unk> Otok , small villages near Samobor . The widest river in the area , the Sava River , used to be navigable up to Krško , Slovenia in Roman times . However , it is , as of 2009 , navigable only up to Rugvica , leaving Zaprešić with no more possibility of river transport . The city does not have a port on any of its rivers . To establish better transport capabilities , and create a solid ground for the emerging air sports that are already available in the town ( e.g. hang gliding or paragliding ) , an airport is planned northeast of the city , between the Krapina River and the railroad . The land at this location is unused , uninhabited , and administratively selected for sports and recreation . The arrangement of the runways , taxiways , air traffic control building , hangar , and other necessary buildings have already been determined . The airport is intended to serve primarily as a sports airport , for teaching flying , and for charter flights . As of January 2009 the date when the construction starts had not yet been announced . Notable inhabitants A known historical resident of Zaprešić was Count Josip Jelačić of <unk> ( 1801 – 59 ) , the Ban of Croatia from 1848 until his death . Although born in Novi Sad , Serbia ( then Croatia ) , he received an estate in Zaprešić together with his title . He is responsible for abolishing serfdom in Croatia in 1848 , but also for an infamous suppression of Croatian intelligentsia , and the Illyrian movement during his reign under the orders of Baron Alexander von Bach , and Emperor Franz Joseph I. A statue of Jelačić riding a horse was constructed by Anton Dominik <unk> , and placed on the Zagreb 's central square , Ban Jelačić Square . The statue has been repeatedly removed , and reinstated during changes in political power and orientation in Croatia , from monarchist , through ultra - nationalist , and communist , up to democratic . After the Croatian declaration of independence , marking the start of the democratic era , the statue was returned to the square , and Zaprešić credits Jelačić with a major arterial road named in his honor . Baltazar Adam <unk> ( 1715 – 78 ) , a historian , theologian , legal expert , and a canon in Zagreb , lived in what became the Zaprešić metropolitan area . Actually born in <unk> , Brdovec , he was the rector of the Croatian language course in Vienna . He wrote 757 books in Latin , and the Kajkavian dialect of Croatian . The Illyrian movement of Slavic independence in Croatia can also be traced to Zaprešić through two of its citizens : Ivan <unk> ( 1826 – 71 ) , publicist from <unk> , Brdovec , editor of Vijenac and <unk> , secretary of Matica hrvatska , and a member of Sabor , the Croatian parliament ; and Pavao <unk> ( 1806 – 62 ) , a poet , a priest , and an important member of the Illyrian movement from <unk> . Ante Kovačić ( 1854 – 89 ) from Marija Gorica lived in the aftermath of the Illyrian movement , but nevertheless became a fruitful writer . His most important work is U <unk> ( English : In the Registry ) , a novel following the life of Ivica <unk> , a peasant who is raised in a village and goes to live in a large city . Zaprešić 's recent history includes several known Croatian public figures , such as Matija <unk> ( 1898 – 1990 ) , a Croatian naïve painter who lived in Zaprešić from 1953 until his death . He was a co - founder of the Croatian Society of Naïve Painters . An art gallery with his works was opened in Zaprešić in 1987 . This art gallery changed to a museum in 2000 . Other well - known inhabitants include Davor <unk> ( b . 1964 ) , the frontman of <unk> Pop . Although he was born in Karlovac , he is a resident of Zaprešić ; Davor Vuković ( b . 1951 ) , a painter and poet from Herceg Novi , residing in Zaprešić ; and Mira Vlahović , an opera singer . Vlahović sang at the Croatian National Theater . The music scene in Zaprešić includes Connect , a hip hop band formed in Zaprešić . Connect is the creator of the Croatian football hip hop hymn " Samo je <unk> " .
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Backlash ( 2006 ) Backlash ( 2006 ) was a professional wrestling pay - per - view event produced by World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) , which took place on April 30 , 2006 , at the Rupp Arena in Lexington , Kentucky . It was presented by Topps . It was the eighth event under the Backlash name and featured wrestlers and other talent that performed on the Raw brand . Seven professional wrestling matches were scheduled on the event 's card , which saw two main matches . The first main event was Shawn Michaels versus Vince and Shane McMahon in a Handicap match . The second main event was a " Triple Threat match " that pitted WWE Champion John Cena against Triple H and Edge , with his title on the line . The event received 273 , 000 pay - per - view buys , which was more than the previous year 's event received . This contributed to WWE 's pay - per - view revenue increasing by $ 4 . 3 million from the previous year . When the event was released on DVD , it peaked at second on Billboard 's DVD sales chart for recreational sports . Background Backlash featured professional wrestling matches that involved different wrestlers from pre - existing scripted feuds , plots , and storylines that were played out on Raw . Wrestlers portrayed a villain or a hero as they followed a series of events that built tension , and culminated into a wrestling match or series of matches . All wrestlers were from World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) ' s Raw brand — a storyline division in which WWE employees are assigned to a television program of the same name . The main event at Backlash was a triple threat match , a match involving three wrestlers , for the WWE Championship between John Cena , Triple H , and Edge . The buildup to the match began when Triple H lost the Royal Rumble match , a multi - competitor match type in which wrestlers are eliminated until one is left and declared winner but participated in the 2006 Road to WrestleMania Tournament , where the winner would become the number - one contender to the WWE Championship at WrestleMania . Triple H won the tournament . Cena defeated Triple H at WrestleMania to retain the title after forcing him to submit to the STFU , a move in which the wrestler wraps his arm around the neck of the opponent in a sleeper hold instead of pulling back on the head of the opponent . The next night on Raw , one of WWE 's primary television programs , Triple H demanded another shot at the WWE Championship , but Edge and Lita ( Edge 's girlfriend ) interrupted Triple H 's segment . Edge said that he became WWE Champion at New Year 's Revolution when he cashed in his Money in the Bank title shot , that he won at WrestleMania 21 , and defeating Cena at the event , after Cena had defeated five other men in an Elimination Chamber , a match featuring wrestlers fighting in a ring surrounded by a steel structure of chain and girders . Cena , however , reclaimed the Championship at the 2006 Royal Rumble , when he defeated Edge . Edge claimed that it was time for a new opponent for the WWE Championship , after stating that at WrestleMania , Triple H lost his opportunity when he lost to Cena . All three men had a series of Handicap matches , a match consisting of one team of wrestlers facing off against a team of wrestlers with numerical superiority such as three against two , or two against one leading up to Backlash with Triple H pinning Cena after tucking Cena 's head between his knees and jumping up to slam his head to the mat , a move that Triple H calls the Pedigree , Cena forcing Edge to submit to the STFU , and Edge executing a shoulder block takedown on Triple H and pinning him . It was then announced that Cena would defend the WWE Championship in a Triple Threat match against Triple H and Edge at Backlash . Another rivalry heading into the event was Vince McMahon and Shane McMahon versus Shawn Michaels and God . This feud started on December 26 , 2005 , when Vince McMahon made note of Bret Hart 's DVD , claiming that he " tricked " Hart in the hours of his match at Survivor Series 1997 , where Hart lost the WWE Championship to Shawn Michaels . At the event , Michaels applied Hart 's own finisher , the Sharpshooter , and McMahon called for the bell , in an event known as the " Montreal Screwjob " . Michaels interrupted McMahon and told him to " let it go " and " move on " from the events of Survivor Series . In reply McMahon told Michaels that he indeed screwed Bret Hart and added , " Shawn , do not make me screw you . " At the Royal Rumble , Shane McMahon made a surprising appearance when he eliminated Michaels from the Rumble match , though Shane was not a participant . McMahon informed Michaels that he would face his son Shane on the March 18 , 2006 , edition of Saturday Night 's Main Event in a No Holds Barred match . At the event , Vince interfered throughout the match on his son 's behalf , by stopping the referee 's count , after Michaels performed Sweet Chin Music , a move which sees the wrestler use the sole of the foot to strike an opponent 's head or chin on Shane , an enraged Michaels grabbed McMahon but before he could do anything , Shane hit Michaels with a low blow . McMahon ordered Shane to apply the Sharpshooter on Michaels , and , after he executed the submission move , McMahon called for the bell , similar to the 1997 Survivor Series match . Mr. McMahon booked himself and Michaels in a No Holds Barred match at WrestleMania 22 . At WrestleMania , the Spirit Squad and Shane McMahon interfered on McMahon 's behalf , but Michaels defeated Vince McMahon after he performed Sweet Chin Music and captured the pinfall victory . The next night on Raw , The McMahons confronted Michaels and informed him that his win at WrestleMania was " an act of God , " therefore setting up the tag team match at Backlash that would have The McMahons facing Michaels and God . The Divas rivalry between Mickie James and Trish Stratus over the WWE Women 's Championship continued entering the event . Stratus and James first fought over the title at New Year 's Revolution , with Stratus retaining . In the months that followed , James ' obsession with Stratus grew to the point that she confessed to Stratus that she was in love with her ; making Stratus uncomfortable . James made one final attempt to kiss Stratus at Saturday Night 's Main Event on March 18 , after the duo defeated Candice Michelle and Victoria . After she was rebuffed , James attacked Stratus and later vowed to destroy her , turning James into a villainess . At WrestleMania 22 , the evil James defeated Stratus to capture the Women 's Championship for the first time in her career . In the following weeks , James continued her mind games by dressing like Stratus and claiming to be her . Stratus eventually confronted James by dressing like her and mocking her personality . It was later announced that a Women 's Championship rematch between James and Stratus would take place at Backlash . Event Before the event aired live on pay - per - view , Goldust defeated Rob Conway in a match that aired on Heat . Goldust won the match after a powerslam , a move where the wrestler performing the slam falls face - down on top of his opponent . The first match of the event was between Carlito and Chris Masters . In the beginning of the match , Carlito had the advantage over Masters , as he jumped from the ring to the outside and impacts his chest against Masters ' chest , and performed a Springboard Back elbow . Masters , however , gained the advantage and executed a Powerbomb , a move which is executed by the attacking wrestler slamming the opponent after lifting them on their shoulders on Carlito into the turnbuckle . Carlito performed a Back Cracker , a move where the wrestlers goes behind the opponent and jumps up to place both his knees against the opponent 's back , forcing the wrestler 's knees to push up into the back of the opponent . Carlito then pinned Masters while using the ropes for leverage to win the match . Next was a match between Umaga and Ric Flair . Umaga had the advantage throughout the match , as Umaga hit Flair with a knee to his head . Umaga defeated Flair after hitting Flair in the throat with his thumb . The third match was between Mickie James and Trish Stratus for the WWE Women 's Championship . The match had escalated outside the ring . When Stratus delivered punches to Mickie , who was on the second turnbuckle , Mickie threw her over the top rope , causing Stratus to land on her right arm . Afterwards , Mickie choked Stratus with a wristband she was wearing that fell off during the match , therefore giving the win to Stratus by disqualification , but per WWE regulations , a title can only change hands via pinfall or submission therefore Mickie retained the Championship . The next match was for the WWE Intercontinental Championship between Rob Van Dam and Shelton Benjamin . Both Van Dam and Benjamin started the match with high spots as Benjamin performed a Sunset Flip Powerbomb , a move in which a wrestler will roll / flip over an elevated opponent facing them in a reverse body scissors and use the momentum to pull the opponent down to the floor . The match went back and forth with action , but in the end Van Dam performed a body splash , known in wrestling as a frog splash , from the top turnbuckle on Benjamin and pinned him to win the match and retain his Money in the Bank briefcase and win the Intercontinental Championship . The next match was The Big Show versus Kane , which ended in a no contest after a red hue covered the ring and voices from the speakers in the arena began taunting Kane with " May 19 " . Big Show who seemed to have enough , hit Kane with a folding chair and walked away . The sixth match was Vince and Shane McMahon versus Shawn Michaels and God in a No Holds Barred match . As soon as The McMahons made their way to the ring , Vince informed the referee to " check " God for any hidden objects , as God was being " portrayed " by the stage spotlight . The match started with Shawn Michaels executing a crossbody on both Vince and Shane McMahon on the outside of the ring . Afterwards , Michaels <unk> Vince down through a part of the Backlash staging area . Shane then hit Michaels with a folding chair and caused him to bleed . After Vince and Shane took turns assaulting Michaels , Vince grabbed a microphone and informed Michaels that " God " had left the building and used a Superkick , Michaels ' own signature finisher , against him . Michaels battled back and grabbed two tables and put both Vince and Shane on them . Michaels then grabbed a ladder and stood on top of it . The Spirit Squad ( Kenny , Johnny , Mitch , Nicky , and Mikey ) interfered and attacked Michaels , which was followed by the Spirit Squad putting Michaels through a table with a Sky lift slam , a move in which the two attacking wrestlers standing either side of an opponent ; the wrestlers then force the opponent upwards , throwing them up while releasing the hold to allow the opponent slam to the mat back - first . Vince then pinned Michaels for the win . The main event was the Triple Threat match for the WWE Championship between champion John Cena , Edge , and Triple H. As the match began , Edge chose to stand outside the ring , hoping that Cena and Triple H would simply fight the match themselves . Cena and Triple H , however , teamed up and turned against Edge . One spot in the match saw Edge catapult Triple H into the steel ringpost , which made Triple H bleed as a result . Afterwards , Edge drove Triple H 's head through a table and then focused on Cena . Cena , however , locked Edge in the STFU , but was broken when Triple H hit Cena in the head with a microphone . Triple H then went after Edge and hit him with a chair , sending him over the security wall and into the audience . Lita , who accompanied Edge , entered the ring with a chair to hit Triple H , but Triple H reversed it into a Spinebuster , a move where the wrestler lifts the opponent , turning 180 ° , and then tosses her forward onto her back . Near the end of the match , Cena had Edge on his shoulders for an FU , Triple H then delivered a low blow to Cena , which made Cena drop Edge out of the ring and attempted to execute a Pedigree . Cena , however , countered it into a jackknife roll - up , a hold that has the attacking wrestler lift the opponent 's legs from behind the knees . Still gripping the opponent 's legs , the attacking wrestler then flips forward , over the opponent , and plants their feet on the mat while bridging the back to add leverage . Cena won the match and successfully retained the WWE Championship . After the match , Triple H hit Cena , Edge , and the referee with a sledgehammer , and performed his signature taunt until performing his signature DX cross chops , receiving a standing ovation from the audience , closing the show . Aftermath On the May 15 episode of Raw , Rob Van Dam lost the WWE Intercontinental Championship to Shelton Benjamin in a rematch . The following week , after John Cena defeated Chris Masters in a singles match , Rob Van Dam came out and informed Cena that he would be cashing in his Money in the Bank contract , that he won at WrestleMania at ECW One Night Stand . On the May 29 episode of Raw , Van Dam was selected by ECW Representative Paul Heyman to be drafted from Raw to WWE 's new ECW brand . At One Night Stand , Cena lost the WWE Championship to Van Dam in an Extreme Rules match . Following the aftermath from Backlash , Kane was confronted by an Imposter Kane , who was wearing Kane 's old mask and ring attire . The Imposter executed a chokeslam on Kane during his match against Shelton Benjamin for the Intercontinental Championship . This rivalry lead to a match between the two at Vengeance , in which the real Kane lost to the Imposter . The McMahons , along with The Spirit Squad , continued their feud with Shawn Michaels . In the weeks that followed , Michaels would get revenge on both the McMahons and the Spirit Squad . On the May 22 episode of Raw , however , Michaels was in a 5 - on - 1 handicap match , and the Spirit Squad members , in storyline , injured Michaels ' left knee . Triple H , who was included during the rivalry , was ordered by Vince McMahon to " break Michaels ' skull " , with his signature sledgehammer . Triple H failed to do what Mr. McMahon ordered , turned into a crowd favorite and attacked the Spirit Squad . Weeks followed in which Triple H was supposed to become a member of Mr. McMahon 's " Kiss My Ass Club " . Triple H , however , backfired when trying to become a member , when he gave a Pedigree to McMahon and laid him and Shane out in the ring . On the June 12 episode of Raw , McMahon booked Triple H in a Handicap Gauntlet match against the Spirit Squad . The match saw Michaels return from his storyline injury , which led to Triple H and Michaels reforming their previous wrestling stable D - Generation X. At Vengeance , DX met the Spirit Squad in a 5 - on - 2 handicap match , which DX won . Reception The event received 273 , 000 pay - per - view buys , which was more buys than the previous year 's event received , however , the event made $ 19 . 9 million in revenue , which was less than the previous year 's revenue of $ 21 . 6 million . The event was released on DVD on May 30 , 2006 , by Sony Music Entertainment and reached second on Billboard 's DVD Sales Chart for recreational sports during the week of June 24 , 2006 . Results
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WhiteWater World WhiteWater World is a water park situated in the suburb of <unk> on the Gold Coast , Australia . It is owned and operated by Ardent Leisure . After years of planning and a year of construction , WhiteWater World opened to the public on 8 December 2006 . The ten Australian beach culture themed attractions cost approximately A $ 56 million . These included The Green Room , Super Tubes Hydrocoaster , The Rip , The BRO , Temple of Huey , Cave of Waves , Wiggle Bay , and Pipeline Plunge . Since then , four additional water slides : two called Little Rippers , one called The Wedgie and one called the Triple Vortex , have been added . WhiteWater World was designed to be very efficient in its water use . Since opening , the quantity of visitors has consistently been above expectations . Ardent Leisure has submitted a development application for the expansion of the water park and plans to add five new attractions . History Development In 2004 , Macquarie Leisure began planning a water park to be located next to the company 's existing Dreamworld theme park . Dreamworld 's Chief Executive Officer Stephen Gregg and General Manager of Special Projects Bob Tan visited water parks around the world to discover the most thrilling and cutting - edge water rides available . Later Tan was quoted saying " ... the drawing board for the new park was a restaurant napkin in a little cafe in the US " . On 28 November 2005 , Macquarie Leisure announced it would invest $ 56 million on the Dreamworld Water Park project , with construction commencing shortly there - after . The existing Dreamworld car park was redesigned to accommodate more cars and the addition of a water park in the southern portion . Construction of the water park began in January 2006 . In June , two of the three slide towers were complete , with several slides in the early phases of construction . One month later , several attractions were announced by the park with others being speculated upon . Some attractions were nearing completion in September and all the planned attractions had been revealed by October . WhiteWater World opened three weeks ahead of schedule on 8 December 2006 after a week of previews . The park opened with ten attractions , including The Green Room , The Rip , Super Tubes Hydrocoaster , The BRO , The Temple of Huey ( 3 individual slides ) , Pipeline Plunge , Wiggle Bay and the Cave of Waves . At this time , the park featured many Australian and world firsts : The Rip and Super Tubes Hydrocoaster were both Australian firsts ; The BRO was a world first ; and The Green Room was Australia 's biggest Tornado slide . After six months of operation Macquarie Leisure announced that WhiteWater World attracted 247 , 360 visitors , producing a revenue of $ 8 . 7 million and a profit of $ 4 million . Performance WhiteWater World performed above expectations after opening with approximately 23 , 000 guests between 8 December and 31 December 2006 . WhiteWater World continued to exceed Macquarie Leisure 's expectations during its first year of operation . The first year saw 493 , 227 guests , exceeding the 450 , 000 estimate , earning the park over $ 8 . 4 million in revenue . The park continued to perform well in subsequent years with an 18 . 4 % increase in attendance in 2008 . In June 2009 , Macquarie Leisure was renamed to Ardent Leisure as part of a corporate repositioning which saw the company split from Macquarie . In August 2010 , Ardent Leisure announced a decline in revenue and profits in its theme park division . It stated that a capital expenditure plan had been endorsed which would " ... strengthen ride inventory and consumer appeal " . <unk> is currently ranked as one of the world 's most water efficient parks because of its sustainable water management and environmentally friendly technology . Expansion In September 2007 , the park added two attractions : a pair of ProSlide Cannon Bowls called The Little Rippers and an events venue called The Shell . A month later , WhiteWater World submitted a development application to the Gold Coast City Council to extend the water park . The main feature of the application was a 25 - metre ( 82 ft ) tower featuring three new water slides : two Mammoth slides and a Tornado Tantrum Alley . The expansion proposal also featured a lazy river and a large water play area . After two years , the application was approved by the council . The expansion plans have been delayed due to the 2007 - 2010 financial crisis . In December 2009 , it was reported that WhiteWater World planned to add a WhiteWater West <unk> . However Village Roadshow Theme Parks , owner of competitor Wet 'n'Wild Gold Coast , attempted to negotiate an exclusivity agreement with the manufacturer . Three months later in February 2010 , it was announced that WhiteWater World would build an alternative attraction built by ProSlide before the April school holidays . The Wedgie , a ProSlide <unk> , opened on 1 April 2011 . It was the first ride in Australia to feature a trap door release and was marketed as Australia 's first looping water slide . In 2011 , WhiteWater World 's contract with Nickelodeon was terminated and Nickelodeon 's Pipeline Plunge was renamed Pipeline Plunge . In September 2014 , the park added ' Triple Vortex ' , a two - person tube slide by ProSlide . Attractions WhiteWater World features several water slide attractions ( all built by ProSlide ) , a large wave pool and separate children and toddler areas . There are food and beverage outlets , retail stores , a surf school , a function area and numerous shaded areas with seating . The park features three water slide towers , each featuring a collection of slides grouped by the level of thrill . The park also features three family - oriented water attractions separate from the towers . All of the park 's attractions have an Australian beach culture theme . The slide tower near the entrance contains the park 's main thrill slides . The Wedgie is a body slide featuring a trap - door release into a near - vertical 17 - metre ( 56 ft ) drop . Riders then enter a fast , downward - spiralling turn and reach speeds of nearly 45 kilometres per hour ( 28 mph ) before they are slowed in a run - out chute . The ride was the first ProSlide <unk> in the world . The Green Room consists of four people boarding a cloverleaf - shaped tube in which they traverse a 66 - metre ( 217 ft ) long tunnel followed by a 17 - metre ( 56 ft ) drop into a funnel . Within the funnel , riders oscillate back and forth up the walls at the side and drop into a splash pool . Since its opening , The Green Room has been Australia 's largest ProSlide Tornado beating Wet 'n'Wild Water World 's Tornado in height and tunnel length . On the Super Tubes Hydrocoaster , three people sit on a 45 - kilogram ( 99 lb ) raft , whose weight is mainly attributable to a large magnet on its underside . Riders experience several steep drops followed by magnet - powered inclines , ending with a splashdown in a small pool . The Super Tubes Hydrocoaster was the second ProSlide Hydro Magnetic Rocket Slide in the world and continues to be Australia 's only water coaster . The second slide tower , along the park 's southern border , features two rides with more moderate thrill ratings . On The Rip , riders hop into a four - person , cloverleaf - shaped tube . They descend a dark tunnel before entering a large , open bowl . The raft circles the centre of the bowl then exits down through the centre and into a splashdown pool . The Rip is the first and currently the only ProSlide Behemoth Bowl in Australia . The BRO ( Blue Ringed Octopus ) is a water slide consisting of eight 120 - metre ( 390 ft ) long lanes . From a height of 16 metres ( 52 ft ) , riders mount a personal mat and slide head first down an enclosed spiral tunnel before merging into open , parallel lanes to the finish . In 24 seconds , riders can reach speeds of up to 50 kilometres per hour ( 31 mph ) . The BRO has a capacity of 1000 riders per hour . When The BRO opened in 2006 , it was the largest ProSlide Octopus Racer in the world and is the only one in Australia . A third slide , Triple Vortex , was added to the tower in late 2014 . Pairs of riders will slide down an enclosed tube slide with three funnels , similar to miniature versions of the park 's Green Room funnel . The slide tower in the southeast corner of the park contains five slides designed for those who desire a mild thrill . Some of the slides on this tower interact with Dreamworld 's Cyclone roller coaster . The Little Rippers are two ProSlide duelling cannon bowl slides . The slides can accommodate guests riding in either one or two person tubes . Riders begin in one of two parallel chutes before entering tunnels and splitting off in opposite directions . Each tunnel has a steep drop into the bowl element of the ride , after which the raft drops down through the centre and into a run - out chute . The other three slides on this tower are collectively known as The Temple of Huey . Guests can ride in a single or double tube . All three slides are ProSlide Pipelines . The three slides are individually named Broken <unk> , Cut Snake and Screamin Right <unk> and are 99 , 104 and 88 metres ( 325 , 341 and 289 feet ) long respectively . Broken <unk> and Cut Snake are enclosed and Screamin Right <unk> is an open flume . Three family - oriented attractions are located on the ground level , detached from the three slide towers . Two of these are children 's areas and the third is a wave pool . Pipeline Plunge is a children 's area with four flume slides and hundreds of water activities . The area , originally called Nickelodeon 's Pipeline Plunge , is a large , multi - level water play structure featuring an 1 , 000 - litre ( 220 imp gal ; 260 US gal ) tipping bucket which dumps water on guests every few minutes . It played host to two " Slime Fest " events in 2009 that included several live shows , a dunking chair and " Australia 's biggest sliming " where 1 , 000 litres ( 220 imp gal ; 260 US gal ) of slime was dumped on park guests using green coloured water in the giant tipping bucket twice daily . The mass sliming returned in the 2010 / 2011 summer holidays as part of the Summer <unk> . Pipeline Plunge is a WhiteWater West Aqua Play area . Wiggle Bay is a Wiggles themed toddler area featuring musical and interactive water play activities , a shallow pool and four Wiggles - coloured water slides , located at the back of the area. these were manufactured by ProSlide . The interactive features are manufactured by <unk> . The Cave of Waves is a themed 2 , 685 - square - metre ( 28 , 900 sq ft ) wave pool which can generate waves of up to 1 . 5 metres ( 4 . 9 ft ) high . Built by Murphy 's Waves of Scotland , the pool has a constant temperature of 26 degrees Celsius . The Get Wet Surf School makes use of the pool for its lessons outside of normal park operating hours . Other facilities In addition to its lineup of attractions , WhiteWater World also has a retail outlet , an events venue , cabanas , and several food and beverage outlets . The Beyond the Beach shop , located near the park 's entrance , sells surf and WhiteWater World branded merchandise . The shop contains a Kodak photo centre that allows guests to purchase on - ride photos taken on the Super Tubes Hydrocoaster and photographs taken inside the park . Beyond the Beach also serves as the exit gates for the park . WhiteWater World operates three dining outlets in the peak holiday seasons : Bite Me Cafe , Sandman 's Cafe and Bar and Salty 's Kiosk . The widest range of meals is available from the Bite Me Cafe which operates all year round . Sandman 's Cafe and Bar is a licensed bar where guests can purchase alcoholic drinks and food options including Eagle Boys pizza . It is located on the park 's western border between the Cave of Waves and the splashdown of The Wedgie . Salty 's Kiosk is located next to The BRO and sells slushies , ice creams and other snack foods . Since September 2007 , WhiteWater World has hosted an undercover events venue , the largest at an Australian theme park , The Shell . The venue can cater for up to 2000 guests and is located on the southeast corner of WhiteWater World . From April 2011 , WhiteWater World has offered guests the hire of 12 luxury cabanas , located around the park . Each cabana is designed for up to four guests , who have access to deck chairs , couches , a coffee table , an iPod dock , towels and a mini refrigerator . Reception Prior to opening , WhiteWater World was criticised for being built during one of Australia 's worst droughts and in an area on Level 5 water restrictions . When designing WhiteWater World , Macquarie Leisure implemented measures to ensure that the park was one of the most water efficient water parks in the world through the minimisation of water loss . In October 2008 , staff at WhiteWater World stopped Paralympian Steve Simmonds from riding the slides . Simmonds was angry and stated that he felt like he was discriminated against . WhiteWater World cited manufacturer guidelines and safety concerns as the reasons behind the restrictions . During the first full year of operation , WhiteWater World attracted more visitors than the expected 450 , 000 guests . Attendance records show close to 500 , 000 guests attended the park during that period . In a review of several Australian entertainment attractions for The Australian , Scott Podmore rated WhiteWater World 7 . 5 out of 10 , outranking its main competitors Wet 'n'Wild Gold Coast and Sea World also on the Gold Coast and <unk> World on the Sunshine Coast . Podmore stated that " WhiteWater World is a wonderful , diverse park offering something for everyone . " and that " WhiteWater World is fantastic for a splash , some R & R or some slippery big rides " . Podmore highlighted The Rip , The BRO , Little Rippers and Temple of Huey as the park 's top attractions . Before The Wedgie opened in April 2010 , several media reporters experienced the ride . Tanya <unk> of the Gold Coast Bulletin described the ride as " ... not for the faint - hearted " . She also stated that " ... disorientation prevails for a large chunk of the ride , but the thrill is unparalleled to any other waterslide " . Phil <unk> of the Brisbane Times wrote that the ride " ... is not only the fastest , most exhilarating water ride I 've ever tried but it lives up to its name in spades " .
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Sussex Spaniel The Sussex Spaniel is a breed of dog developed in Sussex in southern England . It is a low , compact spaniel and is similar in appearance to the Clumber Spaniel . They can be slow paced , but can have a clownish and energetic temperament . They suffer from health conditions common to spaniels and some large dogs , as well as a specific range of heart conditions and spinal disc herniation . First bred in 1795 in Hastings , East Sussex for specific hunting conditions , they nearly became extinct during the Second World War . They are now more popular in the United States than any other country and are recognised by all major kennel clubs . Notably , a Sussex Spaniel won the best in show in 2009 at the 133rd Westminster Kennel Club . Description The Sussex Spaniel is a low compact spaniel similar in appearance to a small , dark Clumber Spaniel . It is normally no taller than 13 – 15 in ( 33 – 38 cm ) at the withers and the usual weight range is 35 – 45 lb ( 16 – 20 kg ) with a roughly rectangular appearance . The Clumber Spaniel meanwhile is normally between 17 – 20 in ( 43 – 51 cm ) high at the shoulder , and weighing 55 – 85 lb ( 25 – 39 kg ) . One of the noticeable features is their golden liver - coloured coat which is unique to the breed . Historically however , there have also been examples of both black and sandy coloured Sussex Spaniels . The coat is thick ( sometimes with a slight wave to it ) , feathering on the chest , legs and ears and consists of a weather resistant undercoat with a silky outer coat . The eyes are hazel in colour . The silky ears are lobe - shaped typical of the Spaniel , and set moderately low . The Sussex is a short , stocky kind of dog . Temperament The Sussex Spaniel is a slow paced , calm breed with somewhat clownish behaviour that normally keeps his energy and enthusiasm in check . He is always eager to be around people , is excellent around children , and can be quite protective of the family . They make excellent candidates for therapy dog work . Most Sussex Spaniels are primarily family pets , but they are competent enough to aid a hunter though quite stubborn to train . They tend to have a natural ability to quarter in the field , have excellent noses , and can be used to retrieve , given training . The breed is the only spaniel to howl once a game 's scent is picked up . Health The breed is generally healthy with an average life span of 12 to <unk> . Hip dysplasia , a genetic malformation of the hip joint , may be a concern but because of the breed 's compact nature is not often seriously debilitating . Surveys conducted by the Orthopedic Foundation For Animals showed that 41 . 5 % of Sussex Spaniels were affected by hip dysplasia , and the breed was ranked 9th worst affected out of 157 breeds . Another common condition is otitis externa ( outer ear infections ) , which is common to a variety of spaniels , as the long floppy ears trap moisture , making them more prone to recurrent infections than dogs with more upright ears . The infections can be caused by a variety of reasons including mites , ear fungi and generally dirt and germs . Treatment is relatively simple and can range from prescribed antibiotics to over - the - counter ear cleaning liquids . <unk> sometimes presents difficulties and require caesarean section for successful delivery of the puppies . Heart conditions in the Sussex Spaniel can include pulmonary valve stenosis , which is the most common of the congenital heart defects . Essentially , in an animal with this condition , the pulmonary valve is improperly formed which causes the heart to work much faster to pump blood around the body . The final results of this condition can be swelling of fluid in the chambers of the heart , thickening of the heart muscle known as ventricular hypertrophy leading to eventual heart failure . Patent ductus arteriosus also appears in the breed . It is a condition where a small blood vessel connecting two major arteries does not close following birth . It can cause complications as it is positioned to allow the blood flow to bypass the lungs . It also appears in American Staffordshire Terriers . A heart condition uncommon to the breed is tetralogy of <unk> , which is more common in the <unk> and English Bulldog breeds relatively . It is actually a combination of up to four conditions , including the previously mentioned pulmonary valve stenosis , with a secondary condition of right ventricular hypertrophy . The other conditions are ventricular septal defect which is a defect or hole in the wall of the heart between the two ventricles and the aorta which carries the blood from the left to the right side of the heart can be mis - positioned . The effect on the dog depends on the severity of the condition , and can range from a heart murmur through to reduced activity levels to death . Symptoms in puppies are generally a failure to grow and a reduced tolerance for exercise . Active treatment is effective in around 50 % of cases . <unk> disc syndrome Also commonly called spinal disc herniation , this is where the intervertebral disc bulges or ruptures into the vertebral canal where the spinal cord resides . When the cord is compressed , the dog can experience symptoms ranging in scope from mild back or neck pain to paralysis of limbs , loss of sensation , and loss of bladder or bowel control . It is most commonly seen in the mid - back area , but can occur anywhere along the spine . Mild cases that do not result in paralysis can be treated medically by confining the animal in a crate to restrict movement to a minimum for several weeks , which can be accompanied by pain medication . Surgery can restore sensation to a dog 's legs following paralysis but the success rate depends on how severe the herniation was . History In 1795 , Mr. Fuller of Rosehill Park , Hastings in East Sussex , England began breeding gun dogs to work in districts where the terrain was rough and the undergrowth very dense which meant that a spaniel was needed which could give tongue or to alert the hunter on his quarry . Fuller crossed various breeds such as the liver and white Norfolk Spaniel ( now extinct ) , the Field Spaniel , and possibly some early English Springer Spaniels . The Sussex was bred specifically to inherit the barking ability that was not common in most Spaniel breeds during this era . The Sussex Spaniel was one of the first ten breeds admitted into the stud book by the American Kennel Club in 1884 , but lost what little popularity it had achieved in the 1940s . During World War II , breeding was discouraged but the Sussex saved from extinction by English breeder Joy Freer . All modern Sussex Spaniels are descended from the dogs she saved . In 1947 , only ten Sussex Spaniels were registered in the English Kennel Club . In 2004 the breed was identified as a vulnerable native breed by Kennel Club of Great Britain which are described as having annual registration figures of less than 300 per year . In 2008 , only 56 puppies were registered . In 2009 a Sussex Spaniel named " <unk> Three D <unk> Glee , " call name " Stump , " won best in show at the 133rd Westminster Kennel Club Dog Show . At 10 years old , Stump is the oldest dog to win this title . The breed is more popular in the United States than any other country . It is recognised by the Continental Kennel Club , Fédération Cynologique Internationale , American Kennel Club , Kennel Club of Great Britain , Canadian Kennel Club , National Kennel Club , New Zealand Kennel Club , and the American Canine Registry .
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2000 French Grand Prix The 2000 French Grand Prix ( formally the LXXXVI Mobil 1 Grand Prix de France ) was a Formula One motor race held on 2 July 2000 at the Circuit de Nevers Magny - Cours , Magny - Cours , Burgundy , France . It was the ninth race of the 2000 Formula One season and the 86th French Grand Prix . The 72 - lap race was won by McLaren driver David Coulthard after starting from second position . His teammate Mika Häkkinen finished second with Rubens Barrichello third for the Ferrari team . Coulthard started the race alongside Ferrari driver Michael Schumacher who began from pole position . Barrichello began from third on the grid and overtook Coulthard going into the first corner . Michael Schumacher maintained his start line advantage and kept the lead after the first round of pit stops . During the course of the second stint of the race , Michael Schumacher began to struggle with tyre wear , allowing Coulthard to close the gap and passed him on lap 40 . Coulthard maintained his lead through the second round of pit stops and won the race . Michael Schumacher retired on lap 59 with an engine failure promoting Häkkinen into second position . Barrichello took third , ahead of BAR driver Jacques Villeneuve in fourth . The race was Coulthard 's third victory of the season , his first at Magny - Cours , and the result meant that he reduced Michael Schumacher 's points advantage in the Drivers ' Championship to twelve points . Häkkinen remained third on 38 points , six ahead of Barrichello . In the Constructors ' Championship , McLaren 's one - two finish allowed them to narrow the gap to Ferrari to be six points behind , with eight races of the season remaining . Report Background The Grand Prix was contested by eleven teams , each of two drivers . The teams , also known as constructors were , McLaren , Ferrari , Jordan , Jaguar , Williams , Benetton , Prost , Sauber , Arrows , Minardi and BAR . Tyre supplier Bridgestone brought two different tyre types to the race : the Soft and the Medium dry compound tyres . Going into the race , Ferrari driver Michael Schumacher led the Drivers ' Championship with 56 points , ahead of David Coulthard on 34 points and Mika Häkkinen on 32 . Rubens Barrichello was fourth with 28 points while Giancarlo Fisichella was fifth on 18 points . In the Constructors ' Championship , Ferrari were leading with 84 points , McLaren and Benetton were second and third with 66 and 18 points respectively , while Williams with 15 and Jordan with ten contended for fourth place . Ferrari and McLaren had so far dominated the Championship , winning the previous eight races . Championship competitors Fisichella and Barrichello had gained second - place finishes while Ralf Schumacher and Heinz - Harald Frentzen had achieved third place podium finishes . Following the Canadian Grand Prix on 18 June , the teams conducted testing sessions at the Circuit de Nevers Magny - Cours between 21 – 23 June to prepare for the upcoming French Grand Prix . Coulthard set the fastest times on the first day , ahead of McLaren test driver Olivier Panis . Arrows driver Jos Verstappen lost control of his car after suffering a mechanical problem and crashed into the barriers at turn two . Verstappen sustained neck strain and withdrew from testing . He was later passed fit to compete in the Grand Prix . Coulthard remained fastest on the second day . Fisichella damaged the underside of his car 's chassis , limiting his testing time as Benetton made repairs to his car . Häkkinen was quickest on the final day of testing . Michael Schumacher stopped on circuit as his Ferrari engine failed , causing his team to fit a new engine into the chassis . Ferrari went to their private testing facility , the Fiorano Circuit , on 27 June where test driver Luca Badoer shook down three Ferrari F1 - 2000 cars and also took part in pit stop practices . After a poor race in Canada , where he stalled on the grid before the formation lap before receiving a ten - second stop - go penalty as his mechanics worked on his car 15 seconds before the race started , Coulthard said that Ferrari could still be caught in the season 's nine remaining races : " We have to look towards Magny - Cours and put this ( Montreal ) race behind us . The championship is not over yet and although we cannot change what happened in Canada , we can try to close the gap . " Former World Champion and President of the British Racing Drivers Club ( BRDC ) Jackie Stewart backed Coulthard to clinch the title after Häkkinen 's continuing run of poor results . Michael Schumacher came into the race confident that his car would perform well at the circuit . Benetton team principal Flavio Briatore played down his team 's chances saying , " We need a miracle to finish on the podium . " Practice and qualifying Four practice sessions were held before the Sunday race — two on Friday , and two on Saturday . The Friday morning and afternoon sessions each lasted an hour . The third and final practice sessions were held on Saturday morning and lasted 45 minutes . The Friday morning and afternoon practice sessions were held in dry and hot weather conditions . Michael Schumacher set the fastest time in the first practice session , a 1 : 16 . 474 , two - tenths of a second quicker than Häkkinen . Prost driver Nick Heidfeld was third fastest , ahead of Ralf Schumacher . The two Jaguar drivers were fifth and seventh , Eddie Irvine ahead of Johnny Herbert . The pair were separated by Fisichella in sixth . Jean Alesi , Pedro de la Rosa and Jenson Button completed the top ten fastest drivers in the session . Four drivers did not set lap times : Coulthard 's car developed an mechanical fuel pump problem , Barrichello drove one installation lap to conserve tyres and both Jordan drivers decided to sit out the session . In the second practice session , Coulthard had a trouble - free session and was fastest with a time of 1 : 16 . 253 ; Häkkinen finished with the second fastest time . The Ferraris were second and fourth , Michael Schumacher was faster than Barrichello . Sauber 's Mika Salo was fifth quickest , ahead of Fisichella . Trulli , Heidfeld , Ralf Schumacher and Frentzen followed in the top ten . The weather remained dry and hot for the Saturday morning practice sessions . Coulthard set the fastest time of the third practice session , a 1 : 15 . 965 . Häkkinen was second fastest , almost two - tenths of a second off Coulthard 's pace . The two Jordan drivers were running quicker ; Trulli in third and Frentzen in fourth . Both Jaguars continued to be quick with Irvine fifth and Herbert eighth . The two were separated by Michael Schumacher and Button . Barrichello and de la Rosa rounded out the top ten . In the final practice session , Coulthard was unable to improve his time because of an engine failure though he remained fastest . Häkkinen managed to set a quicker time and remained with the second quickest lap . Barrichello ran quicker and was third fastest , in front of Ralf Schumacher . The Jordan drivers remained fastest – Trulli was fifth and Frentzen sixth – their best times two thousands of a second apart . Irvine was seventh quickest , ahead of Michael Schumacher who concentrated on qualifying set - up . Button and Herbert completed the top ten ahead of qualifying . Saturday 's afternoon qualifying session lasted for an hour . Each driver was limited to twelve laps , with the grid order decided by the drivers ' fastest laps . During this session , the 107 % rule was in effect , which necessitated each driver set a time within 107 % of the quickest lap to qualify for the race . The qualifying session was held in dry and hot weather conditions . The air temperature ranged between 27 – 28 ° C ( 81 – 82 ° F ) and the track temperature ranged from 33 – 35 ° C ( 91 – 95 ° F ) . Michael Schumacher clinched his fourth pole position of the season , his third at the circuit , with a time of 1 : 15 . 632 . He was joined on the front row of the grid by Coulthard with his fastest time was 0 . 102 seconds slower and used his team 's spare monocoque while the McLaren mechanics fitted his race car with a new fuel pump . Barrichello secured third having changed his car 's set - up during the session which garnered confusion over changes in the ride height . Häkkinen took fourth and was pushed down to his position by Barrichello with the Finn struggling in the slow speed corners . Ralf Schumacher qualified fifth and was happy with his starting position . Irvine was pushed down by Ralf Schumacher to sixth in the closing stages of qualifying . BAR driver Jacques Villeneuve managed seventh . The Jordan drivers of Trulli and Frentzen took seventh and eighth positions respectively although both drivers were disappointed with their performance . Button rounded out the top ten fastest qualifiers . Herbert , who took eleventh , missed out in qualifying in the top ten by nearly three - tenths of a second . Salo captured twelfth on the grid with his fastest time set when air and track temperatures were lowered by cloud cover . He was ahead of de la Rosa in the faster of the two Arrows . Fisichella started from 14th position , nearly one - tenth of a second in front of Benetton teammate Alexander Wurz ; both drivers complained that their cars had balance and grip issues . The two were split by Pedro Diniz in the other Sauber and Heidfeld . Alesi followed up in 18th . Ricardo Zonta set the 19th fastest time and used BAR 's spare car when an engine failure on his race car occurred . Verstappen and the two Minardi drivers Marc Gené and Gastón Mazzacane qualified at the rear of the grid , covering positions 20 to 22 . After the qualifying session , but before the warm - up period , the Fédération Internationale de l 'Automobile ( FIA ) safety delegate , Charlie Whiting announced that he had banned practice starts at the pit lane exit after observing the drivers ' behaviour in the area during the Saturday free practice sessions . Race The drivers took to the track at 09 : 30 CEST ( UTC + 2 ) for a 30 - minute warm - up session . Both McLaren cars maintained their good pace from qualifying ; Häkkinen had the fastest time of 1 : 19 . 329 . Coulthard was second in the other McLaren car . Michael Schumacher set the third fastest time with Trulli rounding out the top four . Michael Schumacher drove the spare Ferrari car and his race car , making adjustments to the changeable weather conditions . The race started at 14 : 00 local time . The conditions on the grid were dry before the race . The air temperature ranged from 27 – 28 ° C ( 81 – 82 ° F ) and the track temperature was between 38 – 39 ° C ( 100 – 102 ° F ) ; conditions were expected to remain consistent throughout the race . All drivers started on the Extra Soft dry compound tyres . Coulthard managed to achieve a better start of the front runners off the line , though Michael Schumacher moved into the McLaren driver 's path to defend his lead . Coulthard then moved to his right allowing Barrichello to pass him for second position . Salo made the best start in the field moving from twelfth to ninth by the end of the first lap , while Irvine lost four positions over the same distance as Ralf Schumacher dropped from fifth to seventh . At the completition of the first lap , the order was Michael Schumacher , Barrichello , Coulthard , Häkkinen , Villeneuve , Frentzen , Ralf Schumacher , Trulli , Salo , Irvine , Button , Herbert , de la Rosa , Heidfeld , Alesi , Fisichella , Verstappen , Zonta , Diniz , Wurz , Gené and Mazzacane . Michael Schumacher began to pull clear from the rest of the field and set consecutive fastest laps . Barrichello began to hold up the McLaren drivers to allow his teammate to extend his lead . Further down the field , Trulli passed Ralf Schumacher to take seventh position on lap two . Heidfeld was overtaken by Alesi for 14th on the same lap . On the following lap , Ralf Schumacher retook seventh position from Trulli . Heidfeld lost a further position to Fisichella on lap four . Ralf Schumacher started to challenge Frentzen for sixth position on the fifth lap . At the front of the pack , Michael Schumacher was in control , extending his lead over Barrichello to five seconds by lap ten . Button took tenth position from Irvine on lap twelve , while Heidfeld collided with Alesi , sending his teammate into a spin who rejoined down in 18th . Button moved into ninth place when he passed Salo on lap 13 . Zonta , who was running 17th , suffered brake problems on lap 17 and collided with the tyre barriers which caused him to retire from the Grand Prix . By the 18th lap , Michael Schumacher had extended his lead over Barrichello by 6 . 2 seconds , who in turn was continuing to hold up Coulthard in third . Häkkinen was a further 1 . 4 seconds behind his teammate but was drawing ahead of Villeneuve in fifth . Herbert made an unscheduled pit stop due to a gearbox issue and retired two laps later . Meanwhile , on the same lap , Alesi became the first driver to pit for tyres on the same lap . Trulli became the first front runner to pit on lap 21 , followed by Villeneuve , Frentzen and Ralf Schumacher . Coulthard managed to take Barrichello on lap 22 for second place at turn five . Häkkinen , Button , Michael Schumacher , Coulthard and Barrichello all made pit stops over the following three laps . Verstappen pulled onto the side of the pit straight to retire with gearbox problems on lap 26 . Coulthard was able to close the gap on Michael Schumacher to under a second by lap 32 , having set the fastest lap of the race in the process , a 1 : 19 . 479 on the 28th lap . He attempted to overtake his rival two laps later but the Ferrari driver defended his position . Coulthard lifted off the throttle to avoid a collision and made a hand gesture towards Michael Schumacher . The manoeuvre allowed Häkkinen to close up on the two leading drivers . On the previous lap , Mazzacane spun off at the third corner and retired . Wurz locked his brakes going into turn 15 , causing him to beach his car in the gravel trap and retired on lap 36 . Button became the first driver to pit twice on lap 39 . Coulthard replicated his manoeuvre into turn five on Michael Schumacher on lap 40 , with the Ferrari driver pushed to the side of the track by Coulthard who took the lead . Michael Schumacher 's right front wheel made slight contact with Coulthard 's left front tyre in the process . Michael Schumacher then immediately withstood Häkkinen 's attempts to overtake him . Frentzen and de la Rosa became the next two drivers to make pit stops on the same lap . Michael Schumacher and Häkkinen made pit stops for the second time on lap 43 and both emerged in third and fourth respectively . Barrichello 's pit stop on the 44th lap saw him drop to fifth after his team had issues with fitting his right front tyre . Coulthard and Ralf Schumacher made pit stops over the next two laps . At the completition of lap 48 , with the frontrunners completing their pit stops , the order was Coulthard , Michael Schumacher , Häkkinen , Barrichello , Villeneuve , Trulli , Ralf Schumacher , Frentzen , Button , Fisichella , Salo , Diniz , Heidfeld , Irvine , Alesi and Gené . At the tail - end of the field , Gené and Alesi made contact on lap 52 and both drivers were sent spinning sideways . Both drivers continued in their respective positions . Further up , Ralf Schumacher passed Trulli to clinch sixth position at turn five . Häkkinen , meanwhile , was less than one second behind Michael Schumacher by lap 53 and continued to battle the Ferrari driver for second position as his tyres degraded quicker than the McLarens . Irvine overtook Diniz for twelfth position two laps later . Michael Schumacher pulled over to the side of the track with an blown engine on lap 59 . Häkkinen was promoted to second place as a result of Michael Schumacher 's retirement . Coulthard crossed the finish line on lap 72 to take his third victory of the season in a time of 1 ' 38 : 05 . 538 , at an average speed of 116 . 330 miles per hour ( 187 . 215 km / h ) . Häkkinen finished second 14 . 7 seconds behind , ahead of Barrichello in third , Villeneuve in fourth , Ralf Schumacher in fifth and Trulli rounded out the points scoring positions in sixth . Frentzen , Button , Fisichella , Salo , Diniz and Heidfeld followed in the next six positions , with Irvine , Alesi and Gené the last of the classified finishers . Post - race The top three drivers appeared on the podium to collect their trophies and in the subsequent press conference . Coulthard described his race weekend as " exhausting " because of the problems his team encountered during the event . He also apologised for the hand gestures he made towards Michael Schumacher after his first overtaking manoeuvre on the Ferrari driver . Häkkinen stated that he was happy with his second - place result and praised his team 's efforts . He also spoke of how he watched Michael Schumacher 's racing lines and believed he would have passed him had he not retired with an engine failure . Barrichello revealed that he was ordered by Ferrari to reduce his pace in the race 's closing stages as he held a large gap of 35 seconds to Villeneuve . After Ferrari 's victory at the previous race , their team principal Jean Todt , said that " we seemed to be in a strong position but , of course , it is the order at the finish that counts " , while Michael Schumacher said that his car 's tyres dropped in performance after taking his first pit stop . McLaren technical director Adrian Newey said that the pit stop strategy was crucial in winning the race : " The tyre wear did not spring any surprises on us and we were able to trust our estimations and co - ordinate the pit - stops to our best advantage . " Villeneuve was happy with his strong finish and was surprised by his good start . Heidfeld , who made contact with his teammate Alesi during the race , apologised for the collision . Ralf Schumacher said that he reduced his pace to secure his fifth position . Trulli described his race as " difficult " because of the hot temperatures though he praised his mechanics for their work . The overtaking manoeuvres made by Coulthard on Michael Schumacher received much media attention after the race . Coulthard accused the Ferrari driver of unsporting behaviour and dangerous driving , saying : " I had a clean run at Michael on the outside and equally I felt he drove me wide . You could say he had the right to do that because he had the track position , but I think it was a deliberate gesture in trying to run someone wide like that and I was very angry . " Michael Schumacher later denied any wrongdoing and <unk> an similar incident at the 1999 Japanese Grand Prix where Coulthard pushed him wide although no objections were made . He also admitted that he did not see Coulthard 's hand gesture . Coulthard sought clarification with the FIA over such overtakes with a source from Formula One 's governing body noting : " It was hard racing -- they are racing drivers aren 't they ? " GrandPrix.com said that Coulthard 's overtake meant that " He is ready to stand up to Michael and he is not afraid of what will happen if Michael does not lift . " The race result meant that Coulthard narrowed the gap to Michael Schumacher in the Drivers ' Championship to twelve points . Häkkinen remained in third place , six points ahead of Barrichello . Fisichella behind them maintained fifth position . In the Constructors ' Championship , McLaren 's one - two finish reduced the lead of Ferrari to six points . Williams made up two points on the Benetton team , although they were still one point behind . Jordan retained fifth on eleventh points , with eight races of the season remaining . Classification Qualifying Race Championship standings after the race Note : Only the top five positions are included for both sets of standings .
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Rudd Concession The Rudd Concession , a written concession for exclusive mining rights in Matabeleland , Mashonaland and other adjoining territories , was granted by King Lobengula of Matabeleland to Charles Rudd , James Rochfort Maguire and Francis Thompson , three agents acting on behalf of the South African - based politician and businessman Cecil Rhodes , on 30 October 1888 . Despite Lobengula 's retrospective attempts to disavow it , it proved the foundation for the royal charter granted by the United Kingdom to Rhodes 's British South Africa Company in October 1889 , and thereafter for the Pioneer Column 's occupation of Mashonaland in 1890 , which marked the beginning of white settlement , administration and development in the country that eventually became Rhodesia , named after Rhodes , in 1895 . Rhodes 's pursuit of the exclusive mining rights in Matabeleland , Mashonaland and the surrounding areas was motivated by his wish to annex them into the British Empire as part of his personal ambition for a Cape to Cairo Railway — winning the concession would enable him to gain a royal charter from the British government for a chartered company , empowered to annex and thereafter govern the Zambezi – Limpopo watershed on Britain 's behalf . He laid the groundwork for concession negotiations during early 1888 by arranging a treaty of friendship between the British and Matabele peoples and then sent Rudd 's team from South Africa to obtain the rights . Rudd succeeded following a race to the Matabele capital Bulawayo against Edward Arthur Maund , a bidding rival employed by a London - based syndicate , and long negotiations with the king and his council of izinDuna ( tribal leaders ) . The concession conferred on the grantees the sole rights to mine throughout Lobengula 's country , as well as the power to defend this exclusivity by force , in return for weapons and a regular monetary stipend . Starting in early 1889 , the king repeatedly tried to disavow the document on the grounds of alleged deceit by the concessionaires regarding the settled terms ; he insisted that restrictions on the grantees ' activities had been agreed orally , and apparently considered these part of the contract even though the written text had been translated and repeatedly explained to him just before he signed it . He attempted to persuade the British government to deem the concession invalid , among other things sending emissaries to meet Queen Victoria at Windsor Castle , but these efforts were unsuccessful . After Rhodes and the London consortium agreed to pool their interests , Rhodes travelled to London , arriving in March 1889 . His amalgamated charter bid gathered great political and popular support over the next few months , prompting the Prime Minister Lord Salisbury to approve the royal charter , which was formally granted in October 1889 . The Company occupied and annexed Mashonaland about a year later . Attempting to create a rival for the Rudd Concession , Lobengula granted similar rights to the German businessman Eduard Lippert in 1891 , but Rhodes promptly acquired this concession as well . Company troops conquered Matabeleland during the First Matabele War of 1893 – 94 , and Lobengula died from smallpox in exile soon after . Background During the 1810s , the Zulu Kingdom was established in southern Africa by the warrior king Shaka , who united a number of rival clans into a centralised monarchy . Among the Zulu Kingdom 's main leaders and military commanders was Mzilikazi , who enjoyed high royal favour for a time , but ultimately provoked the king 's wrath by repeatedly offending him . When Shaka forced Mzilikazi and his followers to leave the country in 1823 , they moved north - west to the Transvaal , where they became known as the Ndebele or " Matabele " — both names mean " men of the long shields " . Amid the period of war and chaos locally called <unk> ( " the crushing " ) , the Matabele quickly became the region 's dominant tribe . In 1836 , they negotiated a peace treaty with Sir Benjamin d 'Urban , Governor of the British Cape Colony , but the same year Boer Voortrekkers moved to the area , during their Great Trek away from British rule in the Cape . These new arrivals soon toppled Mzilikazi 's domination of the Transvaal , compelling him to lead another migration north in 1838 . Crossing the Limpopo River , the Matabele settled in the Zambezi – Limpopo watershed 's south - west ; this area has since been called Matabeleland . Matabele culture mirrored that of the Zulus in many aspects . The Matabele language , Sindebele , was largely based on Zulu — and just like Zululand , Matabeleland had a strong martial tradition . Matabele men went through a Spartan upbringing , designed to produce disciplined warriors , and military organisation largely dictated the distribution of administrative responsibilities . The <unk> ( king ) appointed a number of izinDuna ( or <unk> ) , who acted as tribal leaders in both military and civilian matters . Like the Zulus , the Matabele referred to a regiment of warriors as an impi . The Mashona people , who had inhabited the north - east of the region for centuries , greatly outnumbered the Matabele , but were weaker militarily , and so to a large degree entered a state of tributary submission to them . Mzilikazi agreed to two treaties with the Transvaal Boers in 1853 , first with Hendrik Potgieter ( who died shortly before negotiations ended ) , then with Andries Pretorius ; the first of these , which did not bear Mzilikazi 's own mark , purported to make Matabeleland a virtual Transvaal protectorate , while the second , which was more properly enacted , comprised a more equal peace agreement . After Mzilikazi died in 1868 , his son Lobengula replaced him in 1870 , following a brief succession struggle . Tall and well built , Lobengula was generally considered thoughtful and sensible , even by contemporary Western accounts ; according to the South African big - game hunter Frederick Hugh Barber , who met him in 1875 , he was witty , mentally sharp and authoritative — " every inch a king " . Based at his royal kraal at Bulawayo , Lobengula was at first open to Western enterprises in his country , adopting Western - style clothing and granting mining concessions and hunting licences to white visitors in return for pounds sterling , weapons and ammunition . Because of the king 's illiteracy , these documents were prepared in English or Dutch by whites who took up residence at his kraal ; to ascertain that what was written genuinely reflected what he had said , Lobengula would have his words translated and transcribed by one of the whites , then later translated back by another . Once the king was satisfied of the written translation 's veracity , he would sign his mark , affix the royal seal ( which depicted an elephant ) , and then have the document signed and witnessed by a number of white men , at least one of whom would also write an endorsement of the proclamation . For unclear reasons , Lobengula 's attitude towards foreigners reversed sharply during the late 1870s . He discarded his Western clothes in favour of more traditional animal - skin garments , stopped supporting trading enterprises , and began to restrict the movement of whites into and around his country . However , the whites kept coming , particularly after the discovery in 1886 of gold deposits in the South African Republic ( or Transvaal ) , which prompted the Witwatersrand Gold Rush and the founding of Johannesburg . After rumours spread among the Witwatersrand ( or Rand ) prospectors of even richer tracts , " a second Rand " , north of the Limpopo , the miners began to trek north to seek concessions from Lobengula that would allow them to search for gold in Matabeleland and Mashonaland . These efforts were mostly in vain . Apart from the Tati Concession , which covered a small strip of land on the border with the Bechuanaland Protectorate where miners had operated since 1868 , mining operations in the watershed remained few and far between . The foremost business and political figure in southern Africa at this time was Cecil Rhodes , a vicar 's son who had arrived from England in 1870 , aged 17 . Since entering the diamond trade at Kimberley in 1871 , Rhodes had gained near - complete domination of the world diamond market with the help of Charles Rudd , Alfred Beit and other business associates , as well as the generous financial backing of Nathan Mayer Rothschild . Rhodes was also a member of the Cape Parliament , having been elected in 1881 . Amid the European Scramble for Africa , he envisioned the annexation to the British Empire of territories that would connect the Cape , at Africa 's southern tip , with Cairo , the Egyptian city at the northern end of the continent , and allow for the construction of a railway linking the two . This ambition was directly challenged in the south by the presence of the Boer republics and , just to the north of them , Lobengula 's domains . The fact that the Zambezi – Limpopo region did not fall into any of the " spheres of influence " defined at the 1884 – 85 Berlin Conference further complicated matters ; the Transvaalers , Germans and Portuguese were all also showing interest in the area , much to the annoyance of both Lobengula and Rhodes . Prelude : the Moffat treaty Rhodes began advocating the annexation by Britain of Matabeleland and Mashonaland in 1887 by applying pressure to a number of senior colonial officials , most prominently the High Commissioner for Southern Africa , Sir Hercules Robinson , and Sidney Shippard , Britain 's administrator in the Bechuanaland Crown colony ( comprising that country 's southern part ) . Shippard , an old friend of Rhodes , was soon won over to the idea , and in May 1887 the administrator wrote to Robinson strongly endorsing annexation of the territories , particularly Mashonaland , which he described as " beyond comparison the most valuable country south of the Zambezi " . It was the Boers , however , who were first to achieve diplomatic successes with Lobengula . Pieter Grobler secured a treaty of " renewal of friendship " between Matabeleland and the South African Republic in July 1887 . The same month , Robinson organised the appointment of John Smith Moffat , a locally born missionary , as assistant commissioner in Bechuanaland . Moffat , well - known to Lobengula , was given this position in the hope that he might make the king less cordial with the Boers and more pro - British . In September 1887 , Robinson wrote to Lobengula , through Moffat , urging the king not to grant concessions of any kind to Transvaal , German or Portuguese agents without first consulting the missionary . Moffat reached Bulawayo on 29 November to find Grobler still there . Because the exact text of the Grobler treaty had not been released publicly , it was unclear to outside observers precisely what had been agreed with Lobengula in July ; in the uncertainty , newspapers in South Africa were reporting that the treaty had made Matabeleland a protectorate of the South African Republic . Moffat made enquiries in Bulawayo . Grobler denied the newspaper reports of a Transvaal protectorate over Lobengula 's country , while the king said that an agreement did exist , but that it was a renewal of the Pretorius peace treaty and nothing more . In Pretoria , in early December , another British agent met Paul Kruger , the President of the South African Republic , who reportedly said that his government now regarded Matabeleland as under Transvaal " protection and sovereignty " , and that one of the clauses of the Grobler treaty had been that Lobengula could not " grant any concessions or make any contact with anybody whatsoever " without Pretoria 's approval . Meeting at Grahamstown on Christmas Day , Rhodes , Shippard and Robinson agreed to instruct Moffat to investigate the matter with Lobengula and to secure a copy of the Grobler treaty for further clarification , as well as to arrange a formal Anglo - Matabele treaty , which would have provisions included to prevent Lobengula from making any more agreements with foreign powers other than Britain . Lobengula was alarmed by how some were perceiving his dealings with Grobler , and so was reluctant to sign any more agreements with foreigners . Despite his familiarity with Moffat , the king did not consider him above suspicion , and he was dubious about placing himself firmly in the British camp ; as Moffat said of the Matabele leadership in general , " they may like us better , but they fear the Boers more " . Moffat 's negotiations with the king and izinDuna were therefore very long and uneasy . The missionary presented the proposed British treaty as an offer to renew that enacted by d 'Urban and Mzilikazi in 1836 . He told the Matabele that the Boers were misleading them , that Pretoria 's interpretation of the Grobler treaty differed greatly from their own , and that the British proposal served Matabele interests better in any case . On 11 February 1888 , Lobengula agreed and placed his mark and seal at the foot of the agreement . The document proclaimed that the Matabele and British were now at peace , that Lobengula would not enter any kind of diplomatic correspondence with any country apart from Britain , and that the king would not " sell , alienate or cede " any part of Matabeleland or Mashonaland to anybody . The document was unilateral in form , describing only what Lobengula would do to prevent any of these conditions being broken . Shippard was dubious about this and the fact that none of the izinDuna had signed the proclamation , and asked Robinson if it would be advisable to negotiate another treaty . Robinson replied in the negative , reasoning that reopening talks with Lobengula so soon would only make him suspicious . Britain 's ministers at Whitehall perceived the unilateral character of the treaty as advantageous for Britain , as it did not commit Her Majesty 's Government to any particular course of action . Lord Salisbury , the British Prime Minister , ruled that Moffat 's treaty trumped Grobler 's , despite being signed at a later date , because the London Convention of 1884 precluded the South African Republic from making treaties with any state apart from the Orange Free State ; treaties with " native tribes " north of the Limpopo were permitted , but the Prime Minister claimed that Matabeleland was too cohesively organised to be regarded as a mere tribe , and should instead be considered a nation . He concluded from this reasoning that the Grobler treaty was ultra vires and legally meaningless . Whitehall soon gave Robinson permission to ratify the Moffat agreement , which was announced to the public in Cape Town on 25 April 1888 . For Rhodes , the agreement Moffat had made with Lobengula was crucial as it bought time that allowed him to devote the necessary attention to the final amalgamation of the South African diamond interests . A possible way out of the situation for Lobengula was to lead another Matabele migration across the Zambezi , but Rhodes hoped to keep the king where he was for the moment as a buffer against Boer expansion . In March 1888 , Rhodes bought out the company of his last competitor , the circus showman turned diamond millionaire Barney Barnato , to form De Beers Consolidated Mines , a sprawling national monopoly that controlled 90 % of world diamond production . Barnato wanted to limit De Beers to mining diamonds , but Rhodes insisted that he was going to use the company to " win the north " : to this end , he ensured that the De Beers trust deed enabled activities far removed from mining , including banking and railway - building , the ability to annex and govern land , and the raising of armed forces . All this gave the immensely wealthy company powers not unlike those of the East India Company , which had governed India on Britain 's behalf from 1757 to 1857 . Through De Beers and Gold Fields of South Africa , the gold - mining firm he had recently started with Charles Rudd , Rhodes had both the capacity and the financial means to make his dream of an African empire a reality , but to make such ambitions practicable , he would first have to acquire a royal charter empowering him to take personal control of the relevant territories on Britain 's behalf . To secure this royal charter , he would need to present Whitehall with a concession , signed by a native ruler , granting to Rhodes the exclusive mining rights in the lands he hoped to annex . Concession Race to Bulawayo Rhodes faced competition for the Matabeleland mining concession from George Cawston and Lord Gifford , two London financiers . They appointed as their agent Edward Arthur Maund , who had served with Sir Charles Warren in Bechuanaland between 1884 and 1885 , towards the end of this time visiting Lobengula as an official British envoy . Cawston and Gifford 's base in England gave them the advantage of being better connected with Whitehall , while Rhodes 's location in the Cape allowed him to see the situation with his own eyes . He also possessed formidable financial capital and closer links with the relevant colonial administrators . In May 1888 , Cawston and Gifford wrote to Lord Knutsford , the British Colonial Secretary , seeking his approval for their designs . The urgency of negotiating a concession was made clear to Rhodes during a visit to London in June 1888 , when he learned of the London syndicate 's letter to Knutsford , and of their appointment of Maund . Rhodes now understood that the Matabeleland concession could still go elsewhere if he did not secure the document quickly . " Someone has to get the country , and I think we should have the best chance , " Rhodes told Rothschild ; " I have always been afraid of the difficulty of dealing with the Matabele king . He is the only block to central Africa , as , once we have his territory , the rest is easy ... the rest is simply a village system with separate headmen ... I have faith in the country , and Africa is on the move . I think it is a second Cinderella . " Rhodes and Beit put Rudd at the head of their new negotiating team because of his extensive experience negotiating the purchase of Boers ' farms for gold prospecting . Because Rudd knew little of indigenous African customs and languages , Rhodes added Francis " Matabele " Thompson , an employee of his who had for years run the reserves and compounds that housed the black labourers at the diamond fields . Thompson was fluent in Setswana , the language of the Tswana people to Lobengula 's south - west , and therefore could communicate directly and articulately with the king , who also knew the language . James Rochfort Maguire , an Irish barrister whom Rhodes had known at Oxford , was recruited as a third member . Many analysts find the inclusion of the cultured , metropolitan Maguire puzzling — it is often suggested that he was brought along so he could couch the document in the elaborate legal language of the English bar , and thus make it unchallengeable , but as the historian John Galbraith comments , the kind of agreement that was required was hardly complicated enough to merit the considerable expense and inconvenience of bringing Maguire along . In his biography of Rhodes , Robert I Rotberg suggests that he may have intended Maguire to lend Rudd 's expedition " a touch of culture and class " , in the hope that this might impress Lobengula and rival would - be concessionaires . One of the advantages held by the London syndicate was the societal prestige of Gifford in particular , and Rhodes hoped to counter this through Maguire . Rudd 's party ultimately comprised himself , Thompson , Maguire , J G Dreyer ( their Dutch wagon driver ) , a fifth white man , a Cape Coloured , an African American and two black servants . Maund arrived in Cape Town in late June 1888 and attempted to gain Robinson 's approval for the Cawston – Gifford bid . Robinson was reserved in his answers , saying that he supported the development of Matabeleland by a company with this kind of backing , but did not feel he could commit to endorsing Cawston and Gifford exclusively while there remained other potential concessionaires , most prominently Rhodes — certainly not without unequivocal instructions from Whitehall . While Rudd 's party gathered and prepared in Kimberley , Maund travelled north , and reached the diamond mines at the start of July . On 14 July , in Bulawayo , agents representing a consortium headed by the South African - based entrepreneur Thomas Leask received a mining concession from Lobengula , covering all of his country , and pledging half of the proceeds to the king . When he learned of this latter condition Leask was distraught , saying the concession was " commercially valueless " . Moffat pointed out to Leask that his group did not have the resources to act on the concession anyway , and that both Rhodes and the London syndicate did ; at Moffat 's suggestion , Leask decided to wait and sell his concession to whichever big business group gained a new agreement from Lobengula . Neither Rhodes 's group , the Cawston – Gifford consortium nor the British colonial officials immediately learned of the Leask concession . In early July 1888 , Rhodes returned from London and met with Robinson , proposing the establishment of a chartered company to govern and develop south - central Africa , with himself at its head , and similar powers to the British North Borneo , Imperial British East Africa and Royal Niger Companies . Rhodes said that this company would take control of those parts of Matabeleland and Mashonaland " not in use " by the local people , demarcate reserved areas for the indigenous population , and thereafter defend both , while developing the lands not reserved for natives . In this way , he concluded , Matabele and Mashona interests would be protected , and south - central Africa would be developed , all without a penny from Her Majesty 's Treasury . Robinson wrote to Knutsford on 21 July that he thought Whitehall should back this idea ; he surmised that the Boers would receive British expansion into the Zambezi – Limpopo watershed better if it came in the form of a chartered company than if it occurred with the creation of a new Crown colony . He furthermore wrote a letter for Rudd 's party to carry to Bulawayo , recommending Rudd and his companions to Lobengula . Maund left Kimberley in July , well ahead of the Rudd party . Rudd 's negotiating team , armed with Robinson 's endorsement , was still far from ready — they left Kimberley only on 15 August — but Moffat , travelling from <unk> in Bechuanaland , was ahead of both expeditions . He reached Bulawayo in late August to find the kraal filled with white concession - hunters . The various bidders attempted to woo the king with a series of gifts and favours , but won little to show for it . Between Kimberley and Mafeking , Maund learned from Shippard that Grobler had been killed by a group of Ngwato warriors while returning to the Transvaal , and that the Boers were threatening to attack the British - protected Ngwato chief , Khama III , in response . Maund volunteered to help defend Khama , writing a letter to his employers explaining that doing so might lay the foundations for a concession from Khama covering territory that the Matabele and Ngwato disputed . Cawston tersely wrote back with orders to make for Bulawayo without delay , but over a month had passed in the time this written exchange required , and Maund had squandered his head start on Rudd . After ignoring a notice Lobengula had posted at Tati , barring entry to white big - game hunters and concession - seekers , the Rudd party arrived at the king 's kraal on 21 September 1888 , three weeks ahead of Maund . Negotiations Rudd , Thompson and Maguire immediately went to present themselves to Lobengula , who came out from his private quarters without hesitation and politely greeted the visitors . Through a Sindebele interpreter , Rudd introduced himself and the others , explained on whose behalf they acted , said they had come for an amiable sojourn , and presented the king with a gift of £ 100 . After the subject of business was eschewed for a few days , Thompson explained to the king in Setswana what he and his confederates had come to talk about . He said that his backers , unlike the Transvaalers , were not seeking land , but only wanted to mine gold in the Zambezi – Limpopo watershed . During the following weeks , talks took place sporadically . Moffat , who had remained in Bulawayo , was occasionally called upon by the king for advice , prompting the missionary to subtly assist Rudd 's team through his counsel . He urged Lobengula to work alongside one large entity rather than many small concerns , telling him that this would make the issue easier for him to manage . He then informed the king that Shippard was going to pay an official visit during October , and advised him not to make a decision until after this was over . Accompanied by Sir Hamilton Goold - Adams and 16 policemen , Shippard arrived in mid - October 1888 . The king suspended concession negotiations in favour of meetings with him . The colonial official told the king that the Boers were hungry for more land and intended to overrun his country before too long ; he also championed Rudd 's cause , telling Lobengula that Rudd 's team acted on behalf of a powerful , financially formidable organisation supported by Queen Victoria . Meanwhile , Rhodes sent a number of letters to Rudd , warning him that Maund was his main rival , and that because the London syndicate 's goals overlapped so closely with their own , it was essential that Cawston and Gifford be defeated or else brought into the Rhodes camp . Regarding Lobengula , Rhodes advised Rudd to make the king think that the concession would work for him . " Offer a steamboat on the Zambezi same as [ Henry Morton ] Stanley put on the Upper Congo ... Stick to Home Rule and Matabeleland for the Matabele [ , ] I am sure it is the ticket . " As October passed without major headway , Rudd grew anxious to return to the <unk> gold mines , but Rhodes insisted that he could not leave Bulawayo without the concession . " You must not leave a vacuum , " Rhodes instructed . " Leave Thompson and Maguire if necessary or wait until I can join ... if we get anything we must always have someone resident " . Thus prevented from leaving , Rudd vigorously tried to persuade Lobengula to enter direct negotiations with him over a concession , but was repeatedly rebuffed . The king only agreed to look at the draft document , mostly written by Rudd , just before Shippard was due to leave in late October . At this meeting , Lobengula discussed the terms with Rudd for over an hour . Charles Helm , a missionary based in the vicinity , was summoned by the king to act as an interpreter . According to Helm , Rudd made a number of oral promises to Lobengula that were not in the written document , including " that they would not bring more than 10 white men to work in his country , that they would not dig anywhere near towns , etc . , and that they and their people would abide by the laws of his country and in fact be his people . " After these talks with Rudd , Lobengula called an indaba ( conference ) of over 100 izinDuna to present the proposed concession terms to them and gauge their sympathies . It soon became clear that opinion was split : most of the younger izinDuna were opposed to the idea of any concession whatsoever , while the king himself and many of his older izinDuna were open to considering Rudd 's bid . The idea of a mining monopoly in the hands of Rudd 's powerful backers was attractive to the Matabele in some ways , as it would end the incessant propositioning for concessions by small - time prospectors , but there was also a case for allowing competition to continue , so that the rival miners would have to compete for Lobengula 's favour . For many at the indaba , the most pressing motivator was Matabeleland 's security . While Lobengula considered the Transvaalers more formidable battlefield adversaries than the British , he understood that Britain was more prominent on the world stage , and while the Boers wanted land , Rudd 's party claimed to be interested only in mining and trading . Lobengula reasoned that if he accepted Rudd 's proposals , he would keep his land , and the British would be obliged to protect him from incursions by the Boers . Rudd was offering generous terms that few competitors could hope to even come close to . If Lobengula agreed , Rudd 's backers would furnish the king with 1 , 000 Martini – Henry breech - loading rifles , 100 , 000 rounds of matching ammunition , a steamboat on the Zambezi ( or , if Lobengula preferred , a lump sum of £ 500 ) , and £ 100 a month in perpetuity . More impressive to the king than the financial aspects of this offer were the weapons : he had at the time between 600 and 800 rifles and carbines , but almost no ammunition for them . The proposed arrangement would lavishly stock his arsenal with both firearms and bullets , which might prove decisive in the event of conflict with the South African Republic . The weapons might also help him keep control of the more rambunctious factions amid his own <unk> . Lobengula had Helm go over the document with him several times , in great detail , to ensure that he properly understood what was written . None of Rudd 's alleged oral conditions were in the concession document , making them legally unenforceable ( presuming they indeed existed ) , but the king apparently regarded them as part of the proposed agreement nonetheless . The final round of negotiations started at the royal kraal on the morning of 30 October . The talks took place at an indaba between the izinDuna and Rudd 's party ; the king himself did not attend , but was nearby . The izinDuna pressed Rudd and his companions as to where exactly they planned to mine , to which they replied that they wanted rights covering " the whole country " . When the izinDuna demurred , Thompson insisted , " No , we must have Mashonaland , and right up to the Zambezi as well — in fact , the whole country " . According to Thompson 's account , this provoked confusion among the izinDuna , who did not seem to know where these places were . " The Zambezi must be there " , said one , incorrectly pointing south ( rather than north ) . The Matabele representatives then prolonged the talks through " procrastination and displays of geographical ignorance " , in the phrase of the historian Arthur Keppel - Jones , until Rudd and Thompson announced that they were done talking and rose to leave . The izinDuna were somewhat alarmed by this and asked the visitors to please stay and continue , which they did . It was then agreed that inDuna Lotshe and Thompson would together report the day 's progress to the king . Agreement After speaking with Lotshe and Thompson , the king was still hesitant to make a decision . Thompson appealed to Lobengula with a rhetorical question : " Who gives a man an assegai [ spear ] if he expects to be attacked by him afterwards ? " Seeing the allusion to the offered Martini – Henry rifles , Lobengula was swayed by this logic , and made up his mind to grant the concession . " Bring me the fly - blown paper and I will sign it , " he said . Thompson briefly left the room to call Rudd , Maguire , Helm and Dreyer in , and they sat in a semi - circle around the king . Lobengula then put his mark to the concession , which read : Know all men by these presents , that whereas Charles <unk> Rudd , of Kimberley ; Rochfort Maguire , of London ; and Francis Robert Thompson , of Kimberley , hereinafter called the grantees , have covenanted and agreed , and do hereby covenant and agree , to pay to me , my heirs and successors , the sum of one hundred pounds sterling , British currency , on the first day of every lunar month ; and further , to deliver at my royal kraal one thousand Martini – Henry breech - loading rifles , together with one hundred thousand rounds of suitable ball cartridge , five hundred of the said rifles and fifty thousand of the said cartridges to be ordered from England forthwith and delivered with reasonable despatch , and the remainder of the said rifles and cartridges to be delivered as soon as the said grantees shall have commenced to work mining machinery within my territory ; and further , to deliver on the Zambesi River a steamboat with guns suitable for defensive purposes upon the said river , or in lieu of the said steamboat , should I so elect , to pay to me the sum of five hundred pounds sterling , British currency . On the execution of these presents , I , Lobengula , King of Matabeleland , Mashonaland , and other adjoining territories , in exercise of my sovereign powers , and in the presence and with the consent of my council of <unk> , do hereby grant and assign unto the said grantees , their heirs , representatives , and assigns , jointly and <unk> , the complete and exclusive charge over all metals and minerals situated and contained in my kingdoms , principalities , and dominions , together with full power to do all things that they may deem necessary to win and procure the same , and to hold , collect , and enjoy the profits and revenues , if any , derivable from the said metals and minerals , subject to the aforesaid payment ; and whereas I have been much molested of late by divers persons seeking and desiring to obtain grants and concessions of land and mining rights in my territories , I do hereby authorise the said grantees , their heirs , representatives and assigns , to take all necessary and lawful steps to exclude from my kingdom , principalities , and dominions all persons seeking land , metals , minerals , or mining rights therein , and I do hereby undertake to render them all such needful assistance as they may from time to time require for the exclusion of such persons , and to grant no concessions of land or mining rights from and after this date without their consent and concurrence ; provided that , if at any time the said monthly payment of one hundred pounds shall be in <unk> for a period of three months , then this grant shall cease and determine from the date of the last - made payment ; and further provided that nothing contained in these presents shall extend to or affect a grant made by me of certain mining rights in a portion of my territory south of the <unk> River , which grant is commonly known as the Tati Concession . As Lobengula inscribed his mark at the foot of the paper , Maguire turned to Thompson and said " Thompson , this is the epoch of our lives . " Once Rudd , Maguire and Thompson had signed the concession , Helm and Dreyer added their signatures as witnesses , and Helm wrote an endorsement beside the terms : Lobengula refused to allow any of the izinDuna to sign the document . Exactly why he did this is not clear . Rudd 's interpretation was that the king considered them to have already been consulted at the day 's indaba , and so did not think it necessary for them to also sign . Keppel - Jones comments that Lobengula might have felt that it would be harder to repudiate the document later if it bore the marks of his izinDuna alongside his own . Validity dispute Announcement and reception Within hours , Rudd and Dreyer were hurrying south to present the document to Rhodes , travelling by mule cart , the fastest mode of transport available . Thompson and Maguire stayed in Bulawayo to defend the concession against potential challenges . Rudd reached Kimberley and Rhodes on 19 November 1888 , a mere 20 days after the document 's signing , and commented with great satisfaction that this marked a record that would surely not be broken until the railway was laid into the interior . Rhodes was elated by Rudd 's results , describing the concession as " so gigantic it is like giving a man the whole of Australia " . Both in high spirits , the pair travelled to Cape Town by train , and presented themselves to Robinson on 21 November . Robinson was pleased to learn of Rudd 's success . The High Commissioner wanted to gazette the concession immediately , but Rhodes knew that the promise to arm Lobengula with 1 , 000 Martini – Henrys would be received with apprehension elsewhere in South Africa , especially among Boers ; he suggested that this aspect of the concession should be kept quiet until the guns were already in Bechuanaland . Rudd therefore prepared a version of the document omitting mention of the Martini – Henrys , which was approved by Rhodes and Robinson , and published in the Cape Times and Cape Argus newspapers on 24 November 1888 . The altered version described the agreed price for the Zambezi – Limpopo mining monopoly as " the valuable consideration of a large monthly payment in cash , a gunboat for defensive purposes on the Zambesi , and other services . " Two days later , the Cape Times printed a notice from Lobengula : But the king was already beginning to receive reports telling him that he had been hoodwinked into " selling his country " . Word abounded in Bulawayo that with the Rudd Concession ( as the document became called ) , Lobengula had signed away far more impressive rights than he had thought . Some of the Matabele began to question the king 's judgement . While the izinDuna looked on anxiously , Moffat questioned whether Lobengula would be able to keep control . Thompson was summoned by the izinDuna and interrogated for over 10 hours before being released ; according to Thompson , they were " prepared to suspect even the king himself " . Rumours spread among the kraal 's white residents of a freebooter force in the South African Republic that allegedly intended to invade and support <unk> , a prominent inDuna , in overthrowing and killing Lobengula . Horrified by these developments , Lobengula attempted to secure his position by deflecting blame . <unk> Lotshe , who had supported granting the concession , was condemned for having misled his king and executed , along with his extended family and followers — over 300 men , women and children in all . Meanwhile , Rhodes and Rudd returned to Kimberley , and Robinson wrote to the Colonial Office at Whitehall on 5 December 1888 to inform them of Rudd 's concession . Lobengula 's embassy While reassuring Thompson and Maguire that he was only repudiating the idea that he had given his country away , and not the concession itself ( which he told them would be respected ) , Lobengula asked Maund to accompany two of his izinDuna , Babayane and Mshete , to England , so they could meet Queen Victoria herself , officially to present to her a letter bemoaning Portuguese incursions on eastern Mashonaland , but also unofficially to seek counsel regarding the crisis at Bulawayo . The mission was furthermore motivated by the simple desire of Lobengula and his izinDuna to see if this white queen , whose name the British swore by , really existed . The king 's letter concluded with a request for the Queen to send a representative of her own to Bulawayo . Maund , who saw a second chance to secure his own concession , perhaps even at Rudd 's expense , said he was more than happy to assist , but Lobengula remained cautious with him : when Maund raised the subject of a new concession covering the <unk> valley , the king replied " Take my men to England for me ; and when you return , then I will talk about that . " Johannes Colenbrander , a frontiersman from Natal , was recruited to accompany the Matabele emissaries as an interpreter . They left in mid - December 1888 . Around this time , a group of Austral Africa Company prospectors , led by Alfred Haggard , approached Lobengula 's south - western border , hoping to gain their own Matabeleland mining concession ; on learning of this , the king honoured one of the terms of the Rudd Concession by allowing Maguire to go at the head of a Matabele impi to turn Haggard away . While Robinson 's letter to Knutsford made its way to England by sea , the Colonial Secretary learned of the Rudd Concession from Cawston and Gifford . Knutsford wired Robinson on 17 December to ask if there was any truth in what the London syndicate had told him about the agreed transfer of 1 , 000 Martini – Henrys : " If rifles part of consideration , as reported , do you think there will be danger of complications arising from this ? " Robinson replied , again in writing ; he enclosed a minute from Shippard in which the Bechuanaland official explained how the concession had come about , and expressed the view that the Matabele were less experienced with rifles than with assegais , so their receipt of such weapons did not in itself make them lethally dangerous . He then argued that it would not be diplomatic to give Khama and other chiefs firearms while withholding them from Lobengula , and that a suitably armed Matabeleland might act as a deterrent against Boer interference . Surprised by the news of a Matabele mission to London , Rhodes attempted to publicly downplay the credentials of the izinDuna and to stop them from leaving Africa . When the envoys reached Kimberley Rhodes told his close friend , associate and housemate Dr Leander Starr Jameson — who himself held the rank of inDuna , having been so honoured by Lobengula years before as thanks for medical treatment — to invite Maund to their cottage . Maund was suspicious , but came anyway . At the cottage , Rhodes offered Maund financial and professional incentives to defect from the London syndicate . Maund refused , prompting Rhodes to declare furiously that he would have Robinson stop his progress at Cape Town . The izinDuna reached Cape Town in mid - January 1889 to find that it was as Rhodes had said ; to delay their departure , Robinson discredited them , Maund and Colenbrander in cables to the Colonial Office in London , saying that Shippard had described Maund as " mendacious " and " dangerous " , Colenbrander as " hopelessly unreliable " , and Babayane and Mshete as not actually izinDuna or even headmen . Cawston forlornly telegraphed Maund that it was pointless to try to go on while Robinson continued in this vein . Rhodes and the London syndicate join forces Rhodes then arrived in Cape Town to talk again with Maund . His mood was markedly different : after looking over Lobengula 's message to Queen Victoria , he said that he believed the Matabele expedition to England could actually buttress the concession and associated development plans if the London syndicate would agree to merge its interests with his own and form an amalgamated company alongside him . He told Maund to wire this pitch to his employers . Maund presumed that Rhodes 's shift in attitude had come about because of his own influence , coupled with the threat to Rhodes 's concession posed by the Matabele mission , but in fact the idea for uniting the two rival bids had come from Knutsford , who the previous month had suggested to Cawston and Gifford that they were likelier to gain a royal charter covering south - central Africa if they joined forces with Rhodes . They had wired Rhodes , who had in turn come back to Maund . The unification , which extricated Rhodes and his London rivals from their long - standing stalemate , was happily received by both sides ; Cawston and Gifford could now tap Rhodes 's considerable financial and political resources , and Rhodes 's Rudd Concession had greater value now the London consortium no longer challenged it . There still remained the question of Leask 's concession , the existence of which Rudd 's negotiating team had learned in Bulawayo towards the end of October . Rhodes resolved that it must be acquired : " I quite see that worthless as [ Leask 's ] concession is , it logically destroys yours , " he told Rudd . This loose end was tied up in late January 1889 , when Rhodes met and settled with Leask and his associates , James Fairbairn and George Phillips , in Johannesburg . Leask was given £ 2 , 000 in cash and a 10 % interest in the Rudd Concession , and allowed to retain a 10 % share in his own agreement with Lobengula . Fairbairn and Phillips were granted an annual allowance of £ 300 each . In Cape Town , with Rhodes 's opposition removed , Robinson altered his stance regarding the Matabele mission , cabling Whitehall that further investigation had shown Babayane and Mshete to be headmen after all , so they should be allowed to board ship for England . Lobengula 's enquiry Meanwhile , in Bulawayo , South African newspaper reports of the concession started to arrive in the middle of January 1889 . William Tainton , one of the local white residents , translated a press cutting for Lobengula , adding a few embellishments of his own : he told the king that he had sold his country , that the grantees could dig for minerals anywhere they liked , including in and around kraals , and that they could bring an army into Matabeleland to depose Lobengula in favour of a new chief . The king told Helm to read back and translate the copy of the concession that had remained in Bulawayo ; Helm did so , and pointed out that none of the allegations Tainton had made were actually reflected in the text . Lobengula then said he wished to dictate an announcement . After Helm refused , Tainton translated and transcribed the king 's words : This notice was published in the Bechuanaland News and <unk> Chronicle on 2 February 1889 . A grand indaba of the izinDuna and the whites of Bulawayo was soon convened , but because Helm and Thompson were not present , the start of the investigation was delayed until 11 March . As in the negotiations with Rudd and Thompson in October , Lobengula did not himself attend , remaining close by but not interfering . The izinDuna questioned Helm and Thompson at great length , and various white men gave their opinions on the concession . A group of missionaries acted as mediators . Condemnation of the concession was led not by the izinDuna , but by the other whites , particularly Tainton . Tainton and the other white opponents of the concession contended that the document conferred upon the grantees all of the watershed 's minerals , lands , wood and water , and was therefore tantamount to a purchase receipt for the whole country . Thompson , backed by the missionaries , insisted that the agreement only involved the extraction of metals and minerals , and that anything else the concessionaires might do was covered by the concession 's granting of " full power to do all things that they may deem necessary to win and procure " the mining yield . William <unk> , a <unk> from the Cape , who had been to the diamond fields at Kimberley , pointed out that the mining would take thousands of men rather than the handful Lobengula had imagined , and argued that digging into the land amounted to taking possession of it : " You say you do not want any land , how can you dig for gold without it , is it not in the land ? " Thompson was then questioned as to where exactly it had been agreed that the concessionaires could mine ; he affirmed that the document licensed them to prospect and dig anywhere in the country . Helm was painted as a suspicious figure by some of the izinDuna because all white visitors to Bulawayo met with him before seeing the king . This feeling was compounded by the fact that Helm had for some time acted as Lobengula 's postmaster , and so handled all mail coming into Bulawayo . He was accused of having hidden the concession 's true meaning from the king and of having knowingly sabotaged the prices being paid by traders for cattle , but neither of these charges could be proven either way . On the fourth day of the enquiry , Elliot and Rees , two missionaries based at Inyati , were asked if exclusive mining rights in other countries could be bought for similar sums , as Helm was claiming ; they replied in the negative . The izinDuna concluded that either Helm or the missionaries must be lying . Elliot and Rees attempted to convince Lobengula that honest men did not necessarily always hold the same opinions , but had little success . Amid the enquiry , Thompson and Maguire received a number of threats and had to tolerate other more minor <unk> . Maguire , unaccustomed to the African bush as he was , brought a number of accusations on himself through his personal habits . One day he happened to clean his false teeth in what the Matabele considered a sacred spring and accidentally dropped some eau de Cologne into it ; the angry locals interpreted this as him deliberately poisoning the spring . They also alleged that Maguire partook of witchcraft and spent his nights riding around the bush on a hyena . Rhodes sent the first shipments of rifles up to Bechuanaland in January and February 1889 , sending 250 each month , and instructed Jameson , Dr Frederick <unk> Harris and a <unk> trader , George Musson , to convey them to Bulawayo . Lobengula had so far accepted the financial payments described in the Rudd Concession ( and continued to do so for years afterwards ) , but when the guns arrived in early April , he refused to take them . Jameson placed the weapons under a canvas cover in Maguire 's camp , stayed at the kraal for ten days , and then went back south with Maguire in tow , leaving the rifles behind . A few weeks later , Lobengula dictated a letter for Fairbairn to write to the Queen — he said he had never intended to sign away mineral rights and that he and his izinDuna revoked their recognition of the document . Babayane and Mshete in England Following their long delay , Babayane , Mshete , Maund and Colenbrander journeyed to England aboard the Moor . They disembarked at Southampton in early March 1889 , and travelled by train to London , where they checked into the Berners Hotel on Oxford Street . They were invited to Windsor Castle after two days in the capital . The audience was originally meant only for the two izinDuna and their interpreter — Maund could not attend such a meeting as he was a British subject — but Knutsford arranged an exception for Maund when Babayane and Mshete refused to go without him ; the Colonial Secretary said that it would be regrettable for all concerned if the embassy were derailed by such a technicality . The emissaries duly met the Queen and delivered the letter from Lobengula , as well as an oral message they had been told to pass on . The izinDuna stayed in London throughout the month of March , attending a number of dinners in their honour , including one hosted by the Aborigines ' Protection Society . The Society sent a letter to Lobengula , advising him to be " wary and firm in resisting proposals that will not bring good to you and your people " . The diplomats saw many of the British capital 's sights , including London Zoo , the Alhambra Theatre and the Bank of England . Their hosts showed them the spear of the Zulu king Cetshwayo , which now hung on a wall at Windsor Castle , and took them to Aldershot to observe military manoeuvres conducted by Major - General Evelyn Wood , the man who had given this spear to the Queen after routing the Zulus in 1879 . Knutsford held two more meetings with the izinDuna , and during the second of these gave them the Queen 's reply to Lobengula 's letter , which mostly comprised vague assurances of goodwill . Satisfied with this , the emissaries sailed for home . Rhodes wins the royal charter In late March 1889 , just as the izinDuna were about to leave London , Rhodes arrived to make the amalgamation with Cawston and Gifford official . To the <unk> ' dismay , the Colonial Office had received protests against the Rudd Concession from a number of London businessmen and humanitarian societies , and had resolved that it could not sanction the concession because of its equivocal nature , as well as the fact that Lobengula had announced its suspension . Rhodes was originally angry with Maund , accusing him of responsibility for this , but eventually accepted that it was not Maund 's fault . Rhodes told Maund to go back to Bulawayo , to pose as an impartial adviser , and to try to sway the king back in favour of the concession ; as an added contingency , he told Maund to secure as many new <unk> as he could . In London , as the amalgamation was formalised , Rhodes and Cawston sought public members to sit on the board of their prospective chartered company . They recruited the Duke of Abercorn , an affluent Irish peer and landowner with estates in Donegal and Scotland , to chair the firm , and the Earl of Fife — soon to become the Duke of Fife , following his marriage to the daughter of the Prince of Wales — to act as his deputy . The third and final public member added to the board was the nephew and heir apparent of the erstwhile Cabinet minister Earl Grey , Albert Grey , who was a staunch imperialist , already associated with southern Africa . Attempting to ingratiate himself with Lord Salisbury , Rhodes then gave the position of standing counsel in the proposed company to the Prime Minister 's son , Lord Robert Cecil . Horace Farquhar , a prominent London financier and friend of the Prince of Wales , was added to the board at Fife 's suggestion later in the year . Rhodes spent the next few months in London , seeking out supporters for his cause in the West End , the City and , occasionally , the rural estates of the landed gentry . These efforts yielded the public backing of the prominent imperialist Harry Johnston , Alexander Livingstone Bruce ( who sat on the board of the East Africa Company ) , and Lord Balfour of Burleigh , among others . Along with Grey 's active involvement and Lord Salisbury 's continuing favour , the weight of this opinion seemed to be reaping dividends for Rhodes by June 1889 . The amalgamation with the London syndicate was complete , and Whitehall appeared to have dropped its reservations regarding the Rudd Concession 's validity . Opposition to the charter in parliament and elsewhere had been for the most part silenced , and , with the help of Rhodes 's press contacts , prominently William Thomas Stead , editor of the Pall Mall Gazette , opinion in the media was starting to back the idea of a chartered company for south - central Africa . But in June 1889 , just as the Colonial Office looked poised to grant the royal charter , Lobengula 's letter repudiating the Rudd Concession , written two months previously , arrived in London . Maguire , in London , promptly wrote to the Colonial Office , casting doubt on the letter 's character on the grounds that it lacked the witnessing signature of an unbiased missionary . He concurrently wrote to Thompson , who was still in Bulawayo , to ask if there was any sign that the king had been misled during the repudiation letter 's drafting . Around the same time , Robinson 's strident attacks on parliamentary opponents of the Rudd Concession led to Lord Salisbury replacing him with Sir Henry Brougham Loch . Rhodes claimed not to be worried , telling Shippard in a letter that " the policy will not be altered " . Indeed , by the end of June 1889 , despite the removal of Robinson and the sensation caused by Lobengula 's letter rejecting the concession , Rhodes had got his way : Lord Salisbury 's concerns of Portuguese and German expansionism in Africa , coupled with Rhodes 's personal exertions in London , prompted the Prime Minister to approve the granting of a royal charter . Rhodes returned victorious to the Cape in August 1889 , while back in London Cawston oversaw the final preparations for the chartered company 's establishment . " My part is done , " Rhodes wrote to Maund , soon after reaching Cape Town ; " the charter is granted supporting Rudd Concession and granting us the interior ... We have the whole thing recognised by the Queen and even if eventually we had any difficulty with king [ Lobengula ] the Home people would now always recognise us in possession of the minerals [ ; ] they quite understand that savage potentates frequently repudiate . " A few weeks later , he wrote to Maund again : with the royal charter in place , " whatever [ Lobengula ] does now will not affect the fact that when there is a white occupation of the country our concession will come into force provided the English and not Boers get the country " . On 29 October 1889 , nearly a year to the day after the signing of the Rudd Concession , Rhodes 's chartered company , the British South Africa Company , was officially granted its royal charter by Queen Victoria . The concession 's legitimacy was now safeguarded by the charter and , by extension , the British Crown , making it practically unassailable . Aftermath Occupation of Mashonaland Babayane and Mshete had arrived back in Bulawayo in August , accompanied by Maund , and Lobengula had immediately written again to Whitehall , reaffirming that " If the Queen hears that I have given away the whole country , it is not so . " But this letter only reached the Colonial Office in London in late October , too late to make a difference . Meanwhile , the British appointed an official resident in Bulawayo , as Lobengula had requested ; much to the king 's indignation , it was Moffat . Maund counselled Lobengula that the concession was legal beyond doubt and that he would just have to accept it . Lobengula rued the situation to Helm : " Did you ever see a chameleon catch a fly ? The chameleon gets behind the fly and remains motionless for some time , then he advances very slowly and gently , first putting forward one leg and then another . At last , when well within reach , he darts out his tongue and the fly disappears . England is the chameleon and I am that fly . " The charter incorporating the British South Africa Company committed it to remaining " British in character and domicile " , and defined its area of operations extremely vaguely , mentioning only that it was empowered to operate north of Bechuanaland and the Transvaal , and west of Mozambique . Northern and western bounds were not indicated . This was done deliberately to allow Rhodes to acquire as much land as he could without interference . The Company was made responsible for the safeguarding of peace and law in its territory , and licensed to do so " in such ways and manners as it shall consider necessary " . It was vested with the power to raise its own police force , and charged with , among other things , abolishing slavery in all of its territories and restricting the sale of liquor to indigenous Africans . Local traditions were to be respected . The Company 's charter was otherwise made extremely equivocal with the intention that this would allow it to operate freely and independently , and to govern and develop its acquired territories while also turning a profit . Rhodes capitalised the Company at £ 1 , 000 , 000 , split into £ 1 shares , and used his other business interests to pump capital into it . Rhodes 's diamond concern , De Beers , invested more than £ 200 , 000 , while his gold firm , Gold Fields , put in nearly £ 100 , 000 . He himself put in £ 45 , 000 , along with another £ 11 , 000 jointly with Beit . Overall , about half of the Chartered Company 's capital was held by its main actors , particularly Rhodes , Beit , Rudd and their confederates . During the Company 's early days , Rhodes and his associates set themselves up to make millions over the coming years through what Robert Blake describes as a " <unk> <unk> ... which must be regarded as one of Rhodes 's least creditable actions " . Contrary to what Whitehall and the public had been allowed to think , the Rudd Concession was not vested in the British South Africa Company , but in a short - lived ancillary concern of Rhodes , Rudd and others called the Central Search Association , which was quietly formed in London in 1889 . This entity renamed itself the United Concessions Company in 1890 , and soon after sold the Rudd Concession to the Chartered Company for 1 , 000 , 000 shares . When Colonial Office functionaries discovered this chicanery in 1891 , they advised Knutsford to consider revoking the concession , but no action was taken . Rhodes became Prime Minister of the Cape Colony in July 1890 on the back of widespread support among Cape Afrikaners . He announced that his first objective as premier was the occupation of the Zambezi – Limpopo watershed . His Chartered Company had by this time raised the Pioneer Column , a few hundred volunteers referred to as " pioneers " whose lot was to both occupy Mashonaland and begin its development . To this end its ranks were filled with men from all corners of southern African society , including , at Rhodes 's insistence , several sons of the Cape 's leading families . Each pioneer was promised 3 , 000 acres ( 12 km2 ) of land and 15 mining claims in return for his service . Lobengula impassively acquiesced to the expedition at the behest of his friend Jameson , much to the fury of many of the izinDuna , who saw the column 's march to Mashonaland as an appropriation of Matabele territory . Led by Major Frank Johnson and the famed hunter Frederick Courteney Selous , and escorted by 500 British South Africa Company 's Police under Lieutenant - Colonel Edward Pennefather , the pioneers skirted their way around Lobengula 's heartlands , heading north - east from Bechuanaland and then north , and founded Fort Tuli , Fort Victoria and Fort Charter along the way . They stopped at the site of the future capital , Fort Salisbury ( named after the Prime Minister ) , on 12 September 1890 , and ceremonially raised the Union Jack the next morning . The administration of Mashonaland did not immediately prove profitable for the Company or its investors , partly because of the costly police force , which Rhodes dramatically downsized in 1891 to save money . There also existed the problem of land ownership ; Britain recognised the Company 's subsoil rights in Mashonaland , but not its possession of the land itself , and the Company therefore could not grant titles to land or accept rents and other payments from farmers . Lippert concession Edward Renny - Tailyour , representing the Hamburg businessman Eduard Lippert — an estranged cousin of Beit — had been attempting to gain a concession from Lobengula since early 1888 . Rhodes saw Lippert 's activities as unwelcome meddling and so repeatedly tried ( and failed ) to settle with him . In April 1891 , Renny - Tailyour grandly announced that he and Lobengula had made an agreement : in return for £ 1 , 000 up front and £ 500 annually , the king would bestow on Lippert the exclusive rights to manage lands , establish banks , mint money , and conduct trade in the territory of the Chartered Company . The authenticity of this document was disputed , largely because the only witnesses to have signed it , apart from inDuna Mshete , were Renny - Tailyour 's associates , one of whom soon attested that Lobengula had believed himself to be granting a concession to Theophilus Shepstone 's son , " <unk> " Shepstone , with Lippert merely acting as an agent . The Lippert concession therefore had a number of potential defects , but Lippert was still confident he could extract a princely fee for it from the Chartered Company ; he named his price as £ 250 , 000 in cash or shares at par . Rhodes , backed by Loch , initially condemned the Lippert concession as a fraud and branded Lippert 's locally based agents enemies of the peace . Loch assured Rhodes that if Lippert tried to gazette his agreement , he would issue a proclamation warning of its infringement on the Rudd Concession and the Company 's charter , and threaten Lippert 's associates with legal action . The Colonial Office agreed with Loch . Rhodes initially said that he would not pay Lippert 's price , which he described as blackmail , but after conferring with Beit decided that refusing to buy out Lippert might lead to drawn - out and similarly expensive court proceedings , which they could not be sure of winning . Rhodes told Beit to start bargaining . Lippert 's agreement turned out to be an unexpected blessing for Rhodes in that it included a concession on land rights from Lobengula , which the Chartered Company itself lacked , and needed if it were to be recognised by Whitehall as legally owning the occupied territory in Mashonaland . After two months and a number of breakdowns in talks , Rudd took over the negotiations . He and Lippert agreed on 12 September 1891 that the Company would take over the concession from Lippert on the condition that he returned to Bulawayo and had it more properly formalised by Lobengula ; in return the Company would grant the German 75 square miles ( 190 km2 ) of his choice in Matabeleland ( with full land and mineral rights ) , 30 , 000 shares in the Chartered Company and other financial incentives . The success of this plan hinged on Lobengula continuing to believe that Lippert was acting against Rhodes rather than on his behalf . The religious Moffat was deeply troubled by what he called the " palpable immorality " of this deceit , but agreed not to interfere , deciding that Lobengula was just as untrustworthy as Lippert . With Moffat looking on as a witness , Lippert delivered his side of the deal in November 1891 , extracting from the Matabele king the exclusive land rights for a century in the Chartered Company 's operative territories , including permission to lay out farms and towns and to levy rents , in place of what had been agreed in April . As arranged , Lippert sold these rights to the Company , whereupon Loch approved the concession , expressing contentment at the solving of the Company 's land rights problem ; in an internal Whitehall memorandum , the Colonial Office <unk> remarked how expediently that administrative obstacle had been removed . The Matabele remained unaware of this subterfuge until May 1892 . Conquest of Matabeleland : the end of Lobengula Lobengula 's weakened Matabele kingdom uneasily coexisted with Rhodes 's Company settlements in Mashonaland and north of the Zambezi for about another year . The king was angered by the lack of respect he perceived Company officials to have towards his authority , their insistence that his kingdom was separated from Company territory by a line between the <unk> and <unk> Rivers , and their demands that he stop the traditional raids on Mashona villages by Matabele <unk> . After Matabele warriors began slaughtering Mashonas near Fort Victoria in July 1893 , Jameson , whom Rhodes had appointed Company administrator in Mashonaland , unsuccessfully tried to stop the violence through an indaba . Lobengula complained that the Chartered Company had " come not only to dig the gold but to rob me of my people and country as well " . Monitoring events from Cape Town , Rhodes gauged Jameson 's readiness for war by telegraph : " Read Luke 14 : 31 " . Jameson wired back : " All right . Have read Luke 14 : 31 " . On 13 August 1893 , Lobengula refused to accept the stipend due him under the terms of the Rudd Concession , saying " it is the price of my blood " . The next day , Jameson signed a secret agreement with local settlers at Fort Victoria , promising each man 6 , 000 acres ( 24 km2 ) of farm land , 20 gold claims and a share of Lobengula 's cattle in return for service in a war against Matabeleland . Lobengula wrote again to Queen Victoria , and tried to send Mshete to England again at the head of another embassy , but Loch detained the izinDuna at Cape Town for a few days , then sent them home . Following a few minor skirmishes , the First Matabele War started in earnest in October : Company troops moved on Lobengula , using the inexorable firepower of their Maxim machine guns to crush attacks by the far larger Matabele army . On 3 November , with the whites nearing Bulawayo , Lobengula torched the town and fled ; the settlers began rebuilding atop the ruins the next day . Jameson sent troops north from Bulawayo to bring the king back , but this column ceased its pursuit in early December after the remnants of Lobengula 's army ambushed and annihilated 34 troopers who were sent across the Shangani River ahead of the main force . Lobengula had escaped the Company , but he lived only another two months before dying from smallpox in the north of the country on 22 or 23 January 1894 . Matabeleland was conquered . The Matabele izinDuna unanimously accepted peace with the Company at an indaba in late February 1894 . Rhodes subsequently funded education for three of Lobengula 's sons . The name applied to the Company 's domain by many of its early settlers , " Rhodesia " , was made official by the Company in May 1895 , and by Britain in 1898 . The lands south of the Zambezi were designated " Southern Rhodesia " , while those to the north were divided into North - Western and North - Eastern Rhodesia , which merged to form Northern Rhodesia in 1911 . During three decades under Company rule , railways , telegraph wires and roads were laid across the territories ' previously bare landscape with great vigour , and , with the immigration of tens of thousands of white colonists , prominent mining and tobacco farming industries were created , albeit partly at the expense of the black population 's traditional ways of life , which were varyingly disrupted by the introduction of Western - style infrastructure , government , religion and economics . Southern Rhodesia , which attracted most of the settlers and investment , was turning a profit by 1912 ; Northern Rhodesia , by contrast , annually lost the Company millions right up to the 1920s . Following the results of the government referendum of 1922 , Southern Rhodesia received responsible government from Britain at the termination of the Company 's charter in 1923 , and became a self - governing colony . Northern Rhodesia became a directly administered British protectorate the following year .
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Tropical Storm Hazel ( 1965 ) Tropical Storm Hazel was a weak East Pacific tropical cyclone that caused heavy damage in Mexico . The costliest storm of the 1965 Pacific hurricane season , it formed from a northward - moving disturbance that originated southeast of Socorro Island . After reaching tropical storm strength on the Saffir – Simpson Hurricane Scale , the cyclone turned to the east - northeast . The storm made landfall near Mazatlán on September 26 and quickly transitioned an extratropical cyclone . Although fairly weak , the system was responsible for causing heavy damage to the Mexican economy . Flooding in Mazatlán washed out many houses and submerged others in muddy water . At least six people died with damages totaling $ 10 million ( 1965 USD ) and possibly higher . The name Hazel was retired following this storm . Meteorological history On September 22 , a weak tropical disturbance was first observed southeast of Socorro Island . The disturbance moved northward uneventfully until late on September 23 , when the disturbance became a tropical depression at a distance of 100 mi ( 160 km ) . The next day , the depression intensified into a tropical storm while moving north at 8 mph ( 15 km / h ) . Later on September 24 , satellite imagery suggested winds of up to 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) near the center . Around that time , Tropical Storm Hazel reached its peak pressure of 986 mbar ( 29 . 1 inHg ) . On September 26 , a ship reported peak winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) . The storm then moved towards the east - northeast and made landfall just south of Mazatlán on September 26 and transitioned into an extratropical cyclone shortly thereafter . Preparations , impact , and aftermath Since meteorologists were expecting Hazel to remain away from land , many residents were unprepared for the storm . However , 10 , 000 people fled the low - lying areas of Mazatlán . Substantial damage was recorded in the city Many rivers overflowed its banks , and roughly 5 , 000 people were without shelter . The entire city of Mazatlán was without power and the city water system was damaged . At least 50 boats were damaged or sunk by the storm . The damage from the storm was estimated to be at least $ 10 million ( 1965 USD ) , making Hazel the costliest tropical cyclone of the season . Three people were reported killed in Mazatlán , two fishermen died when attempted to ride out the storm , and a boy who was electrocuted by a downed power line . Three additional deaths from electrocutions were reported in a rural section of Nayarit . Due to a communications breakdown , no word was received about six vacationers in Mazatlán . The city was only reachable by boat . In addition , several shacks made of wood , tin , and cardboard were either washed away or inundated by up to 6 ft ( 1 . 8 m ) of muddy water while flooding from the storm had washed out bridges and roads throughout the state and some merges were cancelled . The cyclone also had a major impact on the coastal economy since Mazatlán 's shrimp fleet , which makes up the base of the city 's economy . In southern Sinaloa , 55 , 000 acres ( 220 km2 ) of cotton , corn , and sorghum were lost . There were also reports of heavy losses to livestock . After the storm , 1 , 000 people were sought shelter in schools ; in the farm areas of Barron and El <unk> , people were taking refuge on top of trees and homes . Army units and relief agencies rushed to provide aid to coastal cities . The name Hazel was retired ; the name was replaced with Heather in 1969 .
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Nana 's Party " Nana 's Party " is the fifth episode of the second series of the British dark comedy anthology television programme Inside No. 9 . It was first broadcast on 23 April 2015 on BBC Two . Written and directed by Steve Pemberton and Reece Shearsmith , the episode starred Claire Skinner as the obsessive - compulsive and aspirational Angela , who is hosting a party for the 79th birthday of her mother Maggie , played by Elsie Kelly . Angela 's husband Jim , played by Pemberton , is keen to play a prank on Pat , Angela 's brother - in - law , who is a practical joker . Pat is played by Shearsmith , while Carol , a recovering alcoholic who is Pat 's wife and Angela 's sister , is played by Lorraine Ashbourne . The episode also features Eve Gordon as Katie , Angela and Jim 's teenage daughter , and Christopher Whitlow as a paramedic seen at the beginning and end of the episode . Much of the episode 's plot revolves around a practical joke with a fake cake that Jim has set up in an attempt to fool Pat . Moving the cake reveals the head of the person hiding under the table , but , in the mean time , the hidden character can hear conversations taking place nearby , unbeknownst to those who are not in on the joke . The episode plays on viewers ' guesses as to what has led to the arrival — seen at the opening of the episode — of a paramedic . In particular , the person under the table is at risk of injury if candles burn down or someone puts a knife into the " cake " . " Nana 's Party " was the first episode of Inside No. 9 to be written , but it was shelved when BBC executives instead suggested that it worked as the first episode of a sitcom . Pemberton and Shearsmith revisited and modified the script during the writing process for Inside No. 9 's second series . The writers aimed for a feeling of suburban darkness reminiscent of the work of the playwright Alan Ayckbourn , while commentators compared the episode to the work of the playwright and screenwriter Mike Leigh , particularly the play Abigail 's Party . The story addresses themes including alcoholism , extramarital affairs , aging and social class . Television critics responded positively to " Nana 's Party " , which was praised as a typically - strong instalment of Inside No. 9 . Particular praise was directed towards the writing and performances , especially Skinner 's performance as Angela , Ashbourne 's performance as Carol and Shearsmith 's performance as Pat . Production Writing " Nana 's Party " was the first episode of Inside No. 9 to be written by the programme 's creators Reece Shearsmith and Steve Pemberton . BBC producers felt the episode worked as the opening episode of a sitcom , but Pemberton and Shearsmith were not happy to develop the idea into its own series , given the events of the plot . As such , the script was shelved , and revisited during planning for Inside No. 9 's second series . A number of changes were made from the original script when the concept was revisited . For example , a paramedic was added to the opening scene in order to add a sense of danger and foreboding , and the character Angela 's " borderline OCD " was accentuated . Shearsmith said that the episode 's focus on a grandmother 's birthday party felt " domestic " and " homely " . Pemberton , too , called it a " domestic " story , describing it as playing upon the classic British plot device of a family party going wrong . Shearsmith suggested that the pleasant house did give the episode the feel of a sitcom , but said that the story went somewhere " darker " than a typical sitcom would . With " Nana 's Party " , the writers wanted to produce something " dark " and " suburban " , with Pemberton citing the playwright Alan Ayckbourn as an influence . Indeed , at the time the episode was written , Shearsmith was starring in an adaptation of Ayckbourn 's play Absent Friends . The writers intended to play off the idea of a hidden character being able to hear conversations revealing secrets . An initial idea of Pemberton 's was to have a large parcel on a table at the birthday party , but with Maggie — on whose birthday the episode would be set — absent . Other characters would repeatedly ask where Maggie was , until it was revealed that her head was in the parcel . This idea developed into the possibility of a hollow cake hiding a character , a device used in the final episode . For the writers , there is humour in characters spending time talking earnestly to a cake ; they noted that the prop cake had features resembling a face . In the editing stage , the production team kept reintroducing the cake in order to remind viewers of its presence . The original script ended with a knife being plunged into a fake cake followed by the revelation , contrary to viewers ' expectations , that no one was under it at the time ; instead , the writers upped the drama in the story , making it possible that any of the characters injured . For the writers , the original plot was , in a sense , darker , as some characters got away with wrongdoing in a way they do not in the final version . Casting and characters As each episode of Inside No. 9 features new characters , the writers were able to attract actors who might have been unwilling to commit to an entire series . " Nana 's Party " featured Claire Skinner as Angela , who is hosting a party . Pemberton and Shearsmith lived close to Skinner , but they had not properly met . She was one of several members of the cast of the film Life Is Sweet ( others being Alison Steadman and Jane Horrocks ) who have starred in Inside No. 9 . Skinner enjoyed the " funny " script and her " nice " character . Eve Gordon ( trained at the Nottingham Television Workshop ) starred as Angela 's daughter Katie , and Pemberton starred as Angela 's husband Jim . Pemberton and Shearsmith suggested that Pemberton 's costume made him look like Mr Chow Mein , a Benny Hill character . Elsie Kelly played Angela 's mother Maggie , on whose birthday the episode is set . The part was not written with anyone in mind , though Pemberton already knew Kelly well from their time together on the sitcom Benidorm . Lorraine Ashbourne played Angela 's sister Carol , and Pat , Carol 's husband , was played by Shearsmith . Carol was Pemberton 's favourite character in the whole series ; Shearsmith worried that an actor may not portray the character as they had hoped , but was very happy with Ashbourne 's performance . Ashbourne said she was " thrilled " to be working with Pemberton and Shearsmith , for whom she had great admiration . She described the character of Carol as " hilarious " , characterising her as " sexually frustrated " and " sad " . To reflect Carol 's alcoholism , Ashbourne <unk> whiskey around her mouth before filming . Shearsmith wore a red wig to play Pat , something he had never done before . His skin - tone needed to be changed to match the hair , necessitating a white spray on his face every morning . In order not to give the impression that Pat was a thief or murderer ( rather than simply a practical joker ) , Shearsmith was directed to chuckle while Pat set up his jokes . Christopher Whitlow plays a paramedic seen at the beginning and end of the episode . The scene featuring the paramedic at the end of the episode was longer in the final cut than had been initially intended in order to show more of the character 's actions . Filming and direction The second series of Inside No. 9 was filmed from the end of 2014 into early 2015 . " Nana 's Party " was filmed in January , and was the final episode of the second series to be filmed . The writers saw a number of houses before selecting the one used in the episode ; they wanted an open plan home to allow for easy movement between rooms . The one chosen was close to Twickenham Studios . A " deckhouse " was added to the house 's garden ; despite there already being two sheds , neither would have been visible on - screen . A new one was thus added . The executive producer Adam Tandy suggested that deckhouse would be preferable to shed , as the latter term suggested the site of something awful . Scenes in a bedroom used the room mostly as the production team found it . The room featured a number of books not seen on - screen , which reminded Shearsmith of a script ( in the end not used for Inside No. 9 's second series ) of an episode set in a library . The front room had a buffet , including a prawn ring ; by the third day of filming , this had begun to smell , and needed to be removed . Pemberton and Shearsmith , in addition to writing and starring in " Nana 's Party " , directed the episode . This was the second episode they jointly directed in the second series after " Cold Comfort " , their directorial debut . The pair did not know , while writing for the series , which episodes they would be directing , meaning that their writing was unlikely to be influenced by the knowledge . Pemberton and Shearsmith had always intended to try directing , and the second series of Inside No. 9 offered them the opportunity . David Kerr , who had directed all of the episodes in the first series , was unable to return for the second . Guillem Morales and Dan Zeff each took on directorial duties for two episodes , while Pemberton and Shearsmith decided to direct the remaining two . Shearsmith said in an interview that the pair had considered directing episodes in which they did not appear much , but scheduling concerns left them with " Cold Comfort " and " Nana 's Party " ; both episodes feature the writers quite heavily . " Nana 's Party " represented a directorial challenge insofar as Pemberton and Shearsmith were both on - screen for a relatively large amount of the episode . The pair took turns off - camera ; on one day , Shearsmith acted and Pemberton watched , and the next day , the two switched ; they were , however , tired , not least because it was the final episode of the series filmed . " Nana 's Party " required more direction than " Cold Comfort " , due in part to the larger number of actors . Pemberton and Shearsmith leaned strongly on Stephan Pehrsson , their cinematographer . While Pemberton and Shearsmith handled staging , Pehrsson handled cinematography . Plot A paramedic is let into a house to the sounds of panic . Earlier , the fastidious Angela prepares to host a party for the 79th birthday of her mother , Maggie . Angela 's daughter , Katie , heads to her room to complete her homework . When Angela moves a cake , she reveals the head of Jim , her husband . Jim plans to play a trick on Pat — a practical joker and the husband of Angela 's sister , Carol ( a recovering alcoholic ) — by hiding under the cake . Maggie , Carol and Pat — the latter wearing a wolf mask — arrive at the house . As the three settle , Pat plugs in his mobile to charge — something Jim had asked Angela to prevent — and secretly places ice in a bucket . Carol privately drinks from a sunscreen bottle while ostensibly unblocking the toilet after her mother could not flush it . Angela is proud that the party food is from Marks 's , but Carol mocks Angela 's middle class affectations . Maggie wants a photograph with the food on the table , and Carol lights the cake 's candles , which burn towards to the flammable fake cake — under which Jim is still hiding . Katie greets her nana and aunt , with Maggie insisting that she tell the joke from Pat 's card . Panicking , Angela blows out the candles . The room clears , and Jim is left frustrated . Katie shows Maggie her tablet as the pair sit in the former 's room . A visibly - drunk Carol enters and talks to Katie about the importance of having fun . Katie wants to finish her homework , but assures Carol that she would make a good mother . Downstairs , Jim persuades Angela to take up position under the table as Pat replaces the soap in the toilet . Pat joins Jim next to the table and returns a VHS ; it becomes clear that Jim 's apparent love for Countdown is actually a cover for his pornography habit , and Jim tries to steer the conversation away from the topic , worried that Angela will hear . Carol enters and puts on music . Pat sees Carol 's sunscreen , and prepares her a drink of " Adam 's ale " . Carol aggressively flirts with Jim , who does not reciprocate . When Pat hands Carol water , she throws it in his face and he leaves . Carol confronts Jim about promises he made to her , and how this house should be hers , not Angela 's . Jim remains terrified that Angela can hear the conversation . Katie and Maggie enter . Maggie talks about Pat 's " frozen willies " — novelty ice cubes — as a distressed Jim makes her a drink , and Carol dances with the uninterested Katie . Jim pulls Carol away from Katie , but Carol hits him ; when Carol talks to Katie about becoming her stepmother , Jim shouts at her . Pat stops him , and , after Carol storms out , tells Jim that " he knows " . Katie is distressed , and interrogates Jim as Maggie plunges a knife into the cake . Jim panics , believing Angela is still under the table , but Angela enters from the kitchen , and reveals that she left to buy a real cake — the story that Jim had told to cover her apparent absence . Katie wants to talk to her mother , but chaos ensues when Maggie chokes on an ice cube , which Pat reveals contains a fake spider . Carol enters , her face blackened by Pat 's fake soap , and Pat , reaching for his charging phone to call the emergency services , is electrocuted , his hands wet from the ice bucket . Angela performs the Heimlich maneuver on her mother ; Carol kneels by Pat and shouts for help . The new cake is pushed into Jim 's face by Katie , who then answers the door . The paramedic enters , then begins a striptease for Maggie to the Casualty theme . His performance , it is revealed , was Pat 's present to Maggie . Later , Jim talks to an oblivious Maggie . He sees Angela and Katie come down the stairs with bags . In silence , he watches them leave as Maggie tells him the joke from Pat 's birthday card . Analysis <unk> following a birthday party in disarray are common , particularly in plays , and an episode with a similar theme was also included in the first series of Inside No. 9 . " Nana 's Party " revolves around the relatively mundane problems of alcoholism , affairs and aging . Class is another theme , with Angela , Jim and Katie representing a typical middle class family , while Maggie , Carol and Pat are more working class . David Chater , writing for The Times , said that " Nana 's Party " was like " a more twisted version " of Abigail 's Party , with several critics likening the episode to a Mike Leigh drama . Critics also saw the influence of Ayckbourn 's work . The episode 's action revolves around the practical joke involving the cake and , in particular , viewers ' attempts to guess what has caused injury , as they know that the paramedic will be coming . Both Angela and the alcoholic Carol are " ticking time - bomb [ s ] " . Angela is the central character , and is similar to a more anxious version of Sue Brockman , Skinner 's character from Outnumbered . She is stressed and obsessive - compulsive , but aspirational , fastidious , and dutiful . The comedy critic Bruce Dessau compared Ashbourne 's characterisation of Carol to Elizabeth Taylor 's characterisation in Who 's Afraid of Virginia Woolf ? ; as the episode progresses , Carol becomes increasingly abusive . Commentators variously described Pat as " appalling " , " tiresome " , an " irritating tit " and " an insufferable booby " . For Chris Bennion , writing in The Independent , Pat 's character is more complex : " Behind Pat 's cheesy jokes and schoolboy tomfoolery lies a desperately sad and dignified man , standing by and caring for a wife whose love for him has long gone . " Pat and Carol , for Pemberton and Shearsmith , have a more honest relationship than Jim and Angela , despite the problems in their relationship . Jim is Pat 's " weary nemesis " , and a " classic everyman " . Jim and Pat , for Gerard Gilbert of i , are like " two suburban grotesques straight out of a Mike Leigh drama " . Maggie is unaware of the chaos around her , instead distracted by the tablet — on which she plays a game somewhere between Clash of Clans and Minecraft — or retelling the birthday card joke . As a " Middle England suburban " comedy , " Nana 's Party " is " all about the depths and heartaches lurking beneath apparently happy families " . As the story progresses , the characters subvert expectations , with the irritating Pat revealed as a caring husband and the alcoholic Carol revealed as recovering from an unsuccessful affair . Pemberton and Shearsmith characterised the episode 's ending as " downbeat " and lacking a twist , noting that " Nana 's Party " is the only episode of Inside No. 9 in which no character dies . Reception Critics responded positively to " Nana 's Party " , with Patrick Mulkern of Radio Times calling it " another cracker " , Chater characterising it as another " bullseye " , and Julia Raeside and John Dugdale , writing in The Sunday Times , describing it as " another perfectly judged high - wire walk : comedy and tragedy balanced evenly and artfully at all times " . Bennion called it " a tightly wound and hugely impressive half hour " , and the freelance journalist Dan Owen called it " another great instalment " that " really worked " on its own terms . The episode 's writing was praised . For Bennion , the writers displayed their intellect , but he noted that Skinner got " the lion 's share of the good lines " . He felt the ending was " as affecting as it is well - earned " . Raeside , in the course of a review of the whole series for theguardian.com , claimed that one of the writers ' strengths is " pulling at the loose threads of suburban life to reveal the worst of humanity just under the soft furnishings " , and that , in " Nana 's Party " , despite the viewers ' assumption that there would be a " gory " conclusion , the " tragedy was an altogether more gruesome punctuation to the story as Pemberton 's face betrayed the total emotional collapse going on within " . Jack Seale , also writing for theguardian.com , claimed that the script was able to move " effortlessly from funny to dark to desperately sad " . Phoebe - Jane Boyd , in a review of the episode for the entertainment website Den of Geek , wrote that the tension in " Nana 's Party " was " cranked up fantastically " , as the story 's genre , and viewer 's expectations , shift . Owen felt that the writing and cast were able to save what could have been a predictable episode , picking out Skinner as particularly compelling . Bennion also praised the cast , claiming that Skinner , Ashbourne and Kelly were strong , but that Shearsmith gave the best performance . Dessau , too , called the cast " great " , and felt that Shearsmith played his part " to perfection " . Cited sources Pemberton , Steve ; Shearsmith , Reece ( 2015 ) . Nana 's Party ( episode commentary ) . Steve & Reece IN9 ( via SoundCloud ) . Retrieved 3 April 2016 .
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The Cham - Cham " The Cham - Cham " is the 25th episode of Thunderbirds , a British 1960s Supermarionation television series co - created by Gerry and Sylvia Anderson . The penultimate instalment of series one , it first aired on 24 March 1966 on ATV Midlands . Alan Pattillo both wrote and directed the episode , which opens with a United States Air Force ( USAF ) aircraft being shot down during the radio transmission of a popular instrumental music track . International Rescue suspects sabotage , and Lady Penelope , Tin - Tin and Parker are dispatched to investigate the band 's current tour venue — a hotel in the Swiss Alps . There , it is discovered that the attacks are being co - ordinated with the aid of a " Cham - Cham " , an advanced computer sensitive to microtones and ultrasonic harmonics . Filmed in late 1965 , " The Cham - Cham " inspired innovation in AP Films ' use of puppet characters ; towards the end of the episode , the Penelope character performs a carefully choreographed cabaret dance , despite of the difficulties inherent in producing movement from the marionettes . Additionally , the episode marks the first occasion in any Supermarionation series that characters are seen skiing . Scripted to incorporate themes of espionage and show business , the filming of " The Cham - Cham " entailed the collaboration of singer Ken Barrie , who wrote the lyrics to series composer Barry Gray 's Latin rhythm " Dangerous Game " . The episode has attracted positive critical reception , with the production design and the soundtrack singled out for particular praise . Sylvia Anderson values " The Cham - Cham " for its " charm " , as well as its visualisation of the Paradise Peaks resort , but considers the plot " far - fetched " ; Stephen La Rivière compliments the episode for its technical accomplishments , in addition to its writing . Cultural historian Nicholas J. Cull comments on the undertones of some of the episode 's characterisations in the context of the Cold War . " The Cham - Cham " was adapted for audio in the 1960s . Plot A succession of RTL2 cargo aircraft running missile shipments have been shot down by enemy fighters shortly after take - off from Matthews Field USAF Base . On Tracy Island , Alan ( voiced by Matt Zimmerman ) points out that all the attacks have coincided with a live performance of " Dangerous Game " from the hit band Cass Carnaby Five , broadcast on Radio Maxwell ; with Brains ( David Graham ) , he examines a recording of the latest transmission to determine whether the tune contains a hidden code inserted to disrupt the RTL2 flights . Meanwhile , Jeff ( Peter Dyneley ) dispatches Tin - Tin ( Christine Finn ) and Lady Penelope ( Sylvia Anderson ) — the latter posing as a singer , " Wanda Lamour " — undercover to Paradise Peaks , a deluxe Swiss Alps hotel that is currently playing host to Carnaby and his group . Parker ( Graham ) secures a job at the bar . Carnaby 's manager is the mysterious Mr Olsen , who regularly makes last - minute changes to the arrangement of " Dangerous Game " before the band perform on - air . Ski - ing down the mountain to Olsen 's private lodge , Penelope and Tin - Tin film him working at an unidentified computer , which is decrypting musical notation into a typed message revealing the date and time of the next RTL2 flight . Realising that he has had uninvited guests , Olsen contacts his associate — Banino , a waiter — with orders to dispose of the International Rescue agents . Parker overhears the telephone conversation and thwarts Banino 's attempt to assassinate Penelope and Tin - Tin using a sniper rifle , tumbling down the mountainside with his adversary ( and forming a giant snowball in the process ) until Banino is knocked unconscious . On Tracy Island , Brains identifies the device in Penelope and Tin - Tin 's film as an <unk> - sensitive supercomputer known as a " Cham - Cham " . Jeff contacts Washington , D.C. to report IR 's findings , but the Matthews Field Commander refuses to postpone the upcoming missile run . That evening , the Cass Carnaby Five start to perform Olsen 's latest arrangement of " Dangerous Game " . It seems that the next flight of the RTL2 is doomed until Penelope , in the guise of Wanda Lamour , steps out onto the stage to sing a lyrical version of Brains ' own composition . Accepting without question the new coordinates encoded in Radio Maxwell 's transmission , the airbase that launched the previous attacks misdirects its own fighters , which quickly find themselves in the airspace above Matthews Field . Landing at the scene in Thunderbird 1 , Scott ( Shane Rimmer ) alerts the Commander and USAF interceptors are scrambled to shoot down the enemy . Fearing Olsen 's next move , Jeff dispatches Virgil ( David Holliday ) and Alan to fly Tin - Tin , Penelope and Parker back from the Alps in Thunderbird 2 . The IR agents depart from Paradise Peaks in the hotel 's cable car , only to find themselves speeding uncontrollably down the mountainside when Olsen sabotages the terminus . With Thunderbird 2 's electromagnetic grabs unable to connect with the car chassis , Parker climbs onto the roof to hook the wires with the end of Penelope 's umbrella and attach them himself . When the braking force of Virgil and Alan 's retro - rockets throws the butler into the air , he uses the umbrella to parachute back down . All are treated to a private piano recital of " Dangerous Game " from Cass before leaving Paradise Peaks . Production The penultimate episode to be filmed for series one , " The Cham - Cham " was written by Alan Pattillo , who attempted to imitate classic Hollywood musicals with his script 's show business plot and the exotic setting of the Paradise Peaks resort . As an in - joke , Pattillo named Penelope 's alias , Wanda Lamour , after one of the Thunderbirds puppet operators , Wanda Brown . Production was completed in November and December 1965 . Since convincing walking movements had always been difficult to accomplish with the unevenly weighted Supermarionation puppets , the common practice at AP Films Studios was to allow walking to be implied , rather than seen , by having the hand of a puppeteer move a marionette 's legs using a " bobbing motion " . The scene in which Lady Penelope sings Brains ' lyrical version of " Dangerous Game " required the puppet to waltz through the Paradise Peaks ballroom set , necessitating that Brown move the character 's legs out of shot while fellow operator Christine Glanville controlled the upper body from the overhead gantry . Gerry Anderson remembered that AP Films had never attempted to film ski - ing sequences previously , but judged the scenes of Penelope and Tin - Tin travelling to Olsen 's lodge to be suitably realistic . Anderson himself conceived the " ski thrusters " that the agents use to power their ascent up the mountainside while returning to Paradise Peaks . Praising production designer Bob Bell 's visuals , he opined that the episode " gave our art and design departments a chance to show what they could really do , and they didn 't let us down . " Series composer Barry Gray devised a Latin rhythm track for the centrepiece of the episode 's soundtrack : " Dangerous Game " . Although singer Ken Barrie was commissioned to sing the lyrics to the tune , the production staff ultimately substituted Gray 's alternative instrumental version whenever the Cass Carnaby Five are seen to be playing . For the scene featuring Penelope 's rendition , Sylvia Anderson based her singing voice on that of Marlene Dietrich . An incidental music track composed for the Supercar episode " Amazonian Adventure " , titled " Happy Flying " , accompanies the shots of Penelope and Tin - Tin ski - ing to Olsen 's lodge . As with " Attack of the Alligators ! " , the episode that had been filmed immediately prior , the technical complexity of " The Cham - Cham " resulting in the production finishing nearly a week past the deadline and considerably overspending its budget . To compensate for wasted time and costs , the Thunderbirds scriptwriters re - wrote the series one finale as a clip show , " Security Hazard " , which would make extensive use of flashback footage to limit the requirement for new scenes . Reception Sylvia Anderson considers " The Cham - Cham " to be one of the best episodes of Thunderbirds , and a rival to " Attack of the Alligators ! " in terms of quality . On her website , she comments : " Even though the plot is far - fetched , it has charm and , because of the lovely Swiss mountain setting , has credibility . " Simon Archer and Marcus Hearn , writers of What Made Thunderbirds Go ! The Authorised Biography of Gerry Anderson , describe " The Cham - Cham " as " perhaps the most lavish - looking episode of the series " , citing Lady Penelope 's deep - cover cabaret performance and the skiing sequences as examples of the instalment 's " unforgettable images " . Tom Fox of Starburst magazine is broadly complimentary , awarding the episode a score of 4 out of 5 . He comments positively on the production design and the Thunderbird 2 rescue , both of which – in his view – help to " make up " for the plot , which is judged to be " tenuous at best " . While expressing puzzlement at Brains and Penelope 's tactics for the diversion of the enemy fighters , like Archer and Hearn he praises the entertainment value of Parker 's unusual descent by umbrella . Fox 's reception to " Dangerous Game " is similarly positive . Reviewing the CD release of the original Thunderbirds soundtrack , Morag Reavley of BBC Online describes Anderson 's rendition as " slinky , sexy and slightly off - key , like a hung - over Zsa Zsa Gabor " . For Heather Phares of Allmusic , the tune is a highlight of the album : while the " Latin Rhythm Instrumental " " [ reflects ] the ' 60s ' ongoing fascination with exotica and Latin pop " , the lyrical version " could be a kissing cousin to seductive spy themes like ' Goldfinger ' . " Stephen La Rivière , writer of Filmed in Supermarionation : A History of the Future , praises the technical proficiency of the production staff , characterising the skiing and dancing scenes as " [ flying ] in the face of what puppets can and can 't do . " He sums up the episode as " a glorious example of Thunderbirds at its best , combining all the elements that made the show so popular : the characters , the adventure , the rescues and , of course , the humour . " Expanding on his last point , La Rivière emphasises the family appeal of the episode 's comedy , arguing that the subtlety of Parker 's occasional double entendres is counter - acted by his slapstick moments , such as the innovative use of Penelope 's umbrella ( described as " doing a ' Mary Poppins ' " ) . Historian Nicholas J. Cull interprets " The Cham - Cham " as a product of its Cold War context , noting the " Central / Eastern European accents " of the hostile airbase personnel . The episode achieved ratings of 2 . 82 million viewers when it was repeated on BBC2 in 1992 . Adaptation An audio adaptation of " The Cham - Cham " , narrated by voice actor David Graham in character as Parker , is included on the 1960s Century 21 mini - LP Lady Penelope .
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2002 Gator Bowl The 2002 Gator Bowl was a post - season American college football bowl game between the Virginia Tech Hokies and the Florida State Seminoles at Alltel Stadium in Jacksonville , Florida on January 1 , 2002 . The game was the final contest of the 2001 NCAA Division I - A football season for both teams , and ended in a 30 - 17 victory for Florida State . Virginia Tech was selected to play in the 2002 Gator Bowl with an 8 – 3 regular - season record despite having just played in Jacksonville at the end of the previous year . The selection of Virginia Tech over the Syracuse Orangemen ( now just the " Orange " ) despite losing head - to - head and Syracuse having better conference and overall records was controversial . Florida State , who had failed to win at least a share of the Atlantic Coast Conference title for the first time since joining the league in 1992 , and who had played in all three BCS National Championship games held to that point , was selected as the opponent . The 2002 Gator Bowl kicked off on January 1 , 2002 at Alltel Stadium in Jacksonville , Florida , exactly one year since the Hokies had last played in the game . The game 's early going seemed promising for the defense - minded Hokies . In the first quarter , Tech held Florida State scoreless despite only managing a single field goal on offense . In the second quarter , however , Florida State began to find gaps in the Hokie defense and scored 10 points . At halftime , Florida State held a 10 – 3 lead . In the third quarter , Tech struck back . The Hokies scored 14 points in the quarter , while Florida State managed just a field goal . The Hokies ' All - American tailback Lee Suggs had suffered a season - ending injury in the first game of the season , but freshman Kevin Jones had carried the offense for the season , and continued to perform well in the post - season Gator Bowl game . With a 5 - yard run from Jones and a 55 - yard pass from Grant Noel to André Davis , Tech took a 17 – 13 lead going into the fourth quarter . But the lead quickly evaporated on a 77 - yard catch and run from Chris Rix to Javon Walker . Florida State added ten more points after the long touchdown pass , and the Seminoles went on to win the game , 30 – 17 . Team selection At the start of the 2001 college football season , the Gator Bowl Committee held contracts with the Atlantic Coast Conference , Big East Conference , and Notre Dame , allowing the committee to select either Notre Dame or a team from each of the conferences to fill the two available slots . According to contract , the committee had the first selection of teams from each of the two conferences after the conferences ' champions were given automatic bids to a Bowl Championship Series game . According to contract , the Gator Bowl was allowed to select any bowl - eligible Big East team as long as it was within two wins of the second - place team in the conference . This clause generated controversy when Virginia Tech ( 8 – 3 record ) received the Big East 's Gator Bowl spot instead of Syracuse ( 9 – 2 record ) . Syracuse fans , coaches , and players protested the selection of the third - place Hokies ahead of second - place Syracuse . Representing the Atlantic Coast conference was Florida State , which finished second in its conference with a record of 7 – 4 . Florida State Florida State entered the 2001 college football season after a 13 – 2 loss to Oklahoma in the national championship game . The loss was just the second for the Seminoles that season , and they finished with an 11 – 2 record . Despite their appearance in the previous year 's national championship game , the Seminoles were ranked as the No. 5 team in the country in the USA Today college football preseason poll . Florida State , which had a 70 – 2 record in Atlantic Coast Conference games since joining the conference , was again favored to win the ACC , but the Seminoles faced challenges replacing Heisman Trophy - winning quarterback Chris Weinke and 14 other starters from the previous year 's team . Adding to the Seminoles ' challenges in the 2001 season was the loss of two starting wide receivers : Robert Morgan and Anquan Boldin , both of whom suffered season - ending injuries before the first game of the season . The bad omens of the preseason were discarded in the Seminoles ' first two games of the season : a 55 – 13 win against Duke and a 29 – 7 victory over Alabama - Birmingham . In their third game of the season , however , Florida State suffered what was then the worst defeat in its history of play as a member of the Atlantic Coast Conference , a 41 – 9 loss to North Carolina . Florida State recovered from the loss by beating Wake Forest , 48 – 24 , but lost to No. 2 Miami in the following week , 49 – 27 . Three wins followed the loss to Miami , but two losses followed the brief winning streak : to Atlantic Coast Conference rival NC State , 34 – 28 , and in - state rival Florida , 37 – 13 . The loss to NC State was the Seminoles ' first home defeat at the hands of an ACC opponent and dropped the Seminoles out of contention for the ACC championship . Following the loss to Florida , the Seminoles accepted a bid to the Gator Bowl . Florida State 's final game , a win against ACC opponent Georgia Tech , had no effect other than to improve Florida State 's regular - season record , and the Seminoles began to prepare for the Gator Bowl . Virginia Tech The Virginia Tech Hokies began the 2001 season having gone 11 – 1 the previous season , ending with a 41 – 20 victory in the 2001 Gator Bowl against Clemson . Fans ' hopes for the new season were not as high as the previous year , however . Star quarterback Michael Vick was selected with the first pick in the 2001 NFL Draft , and there were questions about how well the team would cope with the loss of Vick and several other important players . Despite those fears , the Hokies began the 2001 season ranked No. 9 in the coaches ' poll and were picked in the annual poll of media covering the Big East to finish second in that conference . In the opening game of the season , Virginia Tech defeated Connecticut , 52 – 10 , but lost starting running back Lee Suggs , who tore his anterior cruciate ligament during the game . Suggs ' absence did not affect the Hokies in their next game , as they defeated Western Michigan , 31 – 0 . The Hokies continued their winning streak through the first Virginia Tech games of the season , heading into a conference contest against Syracuse with a 6 – 0 record and ranked No. 5 in the country . On October 27 , however , Syracuse ended Tech 's 16 - game home winning streak by defeating the Hokies , 22 – 14 , in Lane Stadium . The loss to Syracuse was followed by another to Pittsburgh in the following week . The twin losses effectively knocked Tech out of contention for the Big East championship , as the Hokies were then two games behind first - place Miami . Tech won its next two games of the season , but because Miami remained undefeated , the matchup between No. 1 Miami and No. 14 Virginia Tech was played without conference title implications . Before the Miami game , Virginia Tech accepted a bid to the Gator Bowl , which had the first pick of Big East teams after the Bowl Championship Series gave an automatic bid to the Big East champion . Miami defeated Tech in the final regular - season game for both teams , 26 – 24 , and the Hokies began preparations for the Gator Bowl . Controversy Virginia Tech 's selection for the Gator Bowl was not without controversy . The Hokies ' three Big East losses pushed them to third place in the conference , behind Miami ( which earned an automatic bid to the national championship game ) and Syracuse , which lost only one Big East Conference game . Instead of attending the Gator Bowl , Syracuse earned a bid to the 2002 Insight Bowl , considered to be a less prestigious game due to its lesser payout and shorter history . Syracuse fans , coaches , and players were offended that Virginia Tech was awarded a bid to the Gator Bowl despite Syracuse 's better record due to Tech 's reputation for bringing large numbers of fans to bowl games . In the wake of Tech 's selection , Syracuse athletic director Jake <unk> vowed to lobby for changes in the way the Gator Bowl 's Big East selection was made . Pregame buildup The Florida State / Virginia Tech matchup was the 31st game between the two teams since they first met in 1955 . At the time , Florida State held the advantage in wins , with a 19 – 10 – 1 record against Virginia Tech . Heading into the 2002 Gator Bowl , however , spread bettors predicted a reversal of that trend as Virginia Tech was favored to win by two points on Dec. 10 . This was reflective of an overall feeling of pessimism toward the Seminoles , who hadn 't finished out of first place in the ACC since joining the league in 1992 , and would not participate in the national championship game for the first time in four years . Because of this decline in stature , the fact that the game was a rematch of the 2000 national championship game received less coverage than it would have otherwise . Ticket sales for the game were relatively rapid . By Dec. 7 , Virginia Tech had sold almost its entire initial allotment of 12 , 500 tickets , Florida State fans had purchased approximately 6 , 800 tickets , and total ticket sales neared the 50 , 000 mark . Tech 's sales increased to more than 13 , 000 by Dec. 14 , and Virginia Tech officials requested an initial allotment from the Gator Bowl . Four days later , more than 60 , 000 tickets had been sold , and there were expectations that the game would be a sellout . The growing demand for tickets was demonstrated by an incident in which nearly 200 all - access passes to the game were stolen in transit from the printer and resold , causing a police search for the culprits . Florida State offense At the conclusion of the regular season , Florida State was ranked No. 26 in total offense , averaging 426 . 09 yards per game . The Seminoles ' rushing offense was ranked No. 55 ( 159 . 64 yards per game ) , but their passing offense was No. 26 ( 266 . 45 ypg ) and their scoring offense was No. 21 , averaging 33 . 91 points per game on average . On the field , the Seminoles ' offense was led by quarterback Chris Rix , whose passer rating of 150 . 76 was the seventh - highest in the country . Rix completed 165 of his 286 pass attempts for 2 , 734 yards and 24 touchdowns , setting an Atlantic Coast Conference record for total offense by a freshman . In recognition of the achievement , he was named the ACC Freshman of the Year . Rix 's preferred passing target was wide receiver Javon Walker , who led the team by catching 45 passes for 944 yards and seven touchdowns . Fellow wide receiver Talman Gardner outpaced Walker in touchdowns , catching 11 during the season , enough for No. 5 in Florida State history to that point . The Seminoles ' ground offense was led by running back Greg Jones , who finished the regular season with 713 yards and six rushing touchdowns . Florida State 's rushing game also was assisted by the mobility of Chris Rix , who gained 389 yards during the regular season , enough for No. 3 on the team in rushing yards . The Seminoles ' kicking game was run by placekicker Xavier Beitia , who successfully kicked 13 of 14 field goals and 44 of 48 extra points during the season for a total of 83 points . Virginia Tech offense Virginia Tech 's offense was slightly worse than the national average during the regular season . The Hokies were ranked No. 64 in total offense , averaging 374 . 09 yards per game . In particular , Tech 's passing offense was lacking . That segment of the offense was ranked No. 86 , averaging 179 . 36 yards . This figure was somewhat balanced by the Hokies ' rushing attack , which was ranked No. 55 ( 194 . 73 ypg ) . Despite the worse - than - average yardage totals , Tech was ranked No. 25 in scoring offense , or 32 . 64 points per game . Prior to the Gator Bowl , it was announced that Virginia Tech offensive coordinator Rickey Bustle would be leaving the team to take the same position at the Louisiana - Lafayette . Despite the move , he confirmed he would coach the Hokies during the bowl game in his last act as a Virginia Tech coach . On the field , the Hokies were led by quarterback Grant Noel , who completed 146 of his 254 pass attempts for 1 , 826 passing yards , 16 touchdowns , and 11 interceptions . Noel 's favorite passing target was André Davis , who caught 39 passes for 623 yards and seven touchdowns . In recognition of his success , Davis was named a first - team all - Big East selection . Fullback Jarrett Ferguson also set three single - season receiving records by catching 25 passes for 256 yards and three touchdowns , all of which were school records for a fullback . Despite those numbers , most of Virginia Tech 's offense was gained on the ground . At the beginning of the season , running back Lee Suggs was the leader of the Hokies ' rushing offense . He set Virginia Tech records for career rushing touchdowns and career touchdowns before suffering a season - ending injury in the Hokies ' game against Connecticut . Following Suggs ' injury , his role was taken up by freshman running back Kevin Jones , who set a Tech freshman running record by accumulating 957 yards . That figure also was the fifth most in Division I - A , and he was named Big East rookie of the year and an All - American by The Sporting News . Florida State defense Florida State 's defense was ranked No. 43 in the country at the conclusion of the regular season . The Seminoles allowed 356 . 36 yards per game , on average . State 's rushing defense was ranked No. 32 ( 126 ypg ) , while its passing defense was ranked No. 76 ( 230 . 36 ypg ) . The Seminoles ' defensive squad was led by middle linebacker Bradley Jennings , who had 121 tackles during the regular season — the most on the team . Defensive tackle Darnell Dockett also was a standout performer statistically for the Seminoles , leading the team in tackles for loss and setting the single - season and single - game Florida State records in that category . Virginia Tech defense During the 2001 regular season , the Hokies ' defense was the second - best in the country , allowing 237 . 91 yards per game . In no defensive statistical category were the Hokies worse than No. 10 , and that ranking came in punt return defense , where Tech allowed 13 . 33 yards per return . The Hokies were No. 2 in rushing defense ( 71 . 64 ypg ) and No. 8 in passing defense ( 166 . 27 ypg ) . Defensively , the Hokies were led by linebacker Ben Taylor , who had 121 tackles ( the most on the team ) and was named a semifinalist for the Butkus Award , given annually to the best linebacker in the country . Free safety Willie Pile was the team 's No. 2 tackler , accumulating 94 tackles , four interceptions , and two fumble recoveries . Unexpectedly , linebacker Chad Cooper was diagnosed with Guillain - Barré syndrome and had to be hospitalized prior to the game . Game summary The 2002 Gator Bowl kicked off at 12 : 30 p.m. EST on January 1 , 2002 , at Alltel Stadium in Jacksonville , Florida . The in - person attendance was announced as 72 , 202 , and the television broadcast earned a Nielsen rating of 6 . 9 . The Gator Bowl was the only New Year 's Day bowl game in 2002 to see a ratings increase over the previous year . The broadcast was provided by NBC , and Tom Hammond , Pat Haden , and Chris Wragge were the sportscasters . Country music artist Lee Greenwood performed his song " God Bless the USA " prior to the game , and sang the traditional pre - game national anthem . At kickoff , the weather was sunny with variable winds at 5 miles per hour ( 8 . 0 km / h ) . The temperature was 46 ° F ( 8 ° C ) , and the humidity was 42 percent . David <unk> was the referee . In exchange for playing in the game , the two teams split a payout of $ 3 , 212 , 364 . Virginia Tech won the traditional pre - game coin toss to determine first possession and elected to kick off to Florida State to begin the state . First quarter The kickoff was fielded near the Florida State six - yard line and returned 16 yards to the State 22 - yard line . The first play of the game was a long pass by quarterback Chris Rix , but the throw was not caught . On the second play , Rix was sacked for a loss of nine yards . A third - down pass was incomplete , and Florida State punted . Virginia Tech returned the kick into Florida State territory , and the Hokies ' offense began Tech 's first possession of the game at the State 48 - yard line . The Hokies ' first play was an 18 - yard pass from quarterback Grant Noel to tight end Bob Slowikowski , long enough for a first down at the Florida State 29 - yard line . From there , running back Kevin Jones gained 12 yards and a first down on a run up the middle of the field . Jones gained three yards on the next play , then Noel was sacked by the Seminoles for a loss of nine yards . On third down , Jones regained some of the lost yardage but was unable to pick up a first down . Facing fourth down , Tech sent in kicker Carter Warley to attempt a 36 - yard field goal . The kick was successful , and with 10 : 56 remaining in the first quarter , Virginia Tech took a 3 – 0 lead . Virginia Tech 's post - score kickoff was downed in the end zone for a touchback , and Florida State 's second possession of the game began at its 20 - yard line . On first down , running back Greg Jones gained four yards . A second - down pass from Rix to Gardner gained 11 yards and the Seminoles ' first first down of the game . They were unable to gain another first down , however , and punted for the second time in the game . During the return , Florida State was penalized five yards for violating the halo rule that required two yards between the player catching the ball and the nearest defender . The rule has since been rescinded . Virginia Tech 's second drive of the game started at its 28 - yard line after the penalty . Jones was stopped for little or no gain on the first two plays of the drive , then Noel completed a long pass to wide receiver Andre Davis , who dodged defenders and advanced the ball to the Florida State 17 - yard line , a gain of 55 yards and a first down . Two running plays after the long play gained little yardage , then Tech appeared to gain a touchdown on a passing play from Noel to wide receiver Ernst Wilford . During the play , however , a Tech offensive lineman committed a holding penalty that negated the score . After a 10 - yard penalty , Noel fumbled the ball . The loose ball was recovered by Florida State at the State 45 - yard line , and Tech was denied a chance to score . On State 's first play after the turnover , Rix was sacked for a four - yard loss . On the next play , Virginia Tech defender Eric Green jumped in front of an errant Rix pass and intercepted it . Green returned the ball to the State 44 - yard line , and the Hokies ' offense started a drive inside Florida State territory . On the first play of the drive , Tech attempted a reverse pass , but the ball fell incomplete . Two subsequent plays were stopped for no gain , and Tech punted for the first time in the game . The kick was stopped at the State five - yard line , and with 3 : 56 remaining in the first quarter , State was pinned deep in its half of the field . After a running play gained four yards , State earned a first down at the 11 - yard line with a seven - yard pass . After the first down , Rix fumbled the ball , recovered it , and was sacked by the Tech defense at the State nine - yard line . Two long rushing plays made up the lost yardage , and State earned a first down at their 27 - yard line . From there , Rix completed a 44 - yard pass to Javon Walker for a first down at the Tech 29 - yard line . In the final seconds of the quarter , Rix attempted a touchdown pass , but the ball fell incomplete . With one quarter elapsed , Virginia Tech led , 3 – 0 . Second quarter The second quarter of the Gator Bowl began with the Seminoles facing third down and 12 from the Virginia Tech 30 - yard line . The first play of the quarter resulted in the third Virginia Tech sack of the game as Nathaniel Adibi tackled Rix for a long loss . The sack pushed Florida State out of field goal range , and the Seminoles punted . The ball bounced out of bounds at the Tech 11 - yard line , and the Hokies began their first possession of the second quarter . After a running play that was stopped for no gain , Noel completed a 20 - yard pass to Slowikowski for a first down at their 31 - yard line . Tech fumbled on the first play after the first down , Noel threw an incomplete pass , were pushed back five yards by a false start penalty , then had a first - down run negated by a 10 - yard holding penalty . Tech was unable to gain a first down after the penalties , and punted . With 11 : 23 remaining in the first half , Florida State returned the kick to its 18 - yard line and began its first full possession of the second quarter . After a running play was stopped for no gain , Florida State gained a first down on a short pass and a short run . After a 10 - yard holding penalty against the Seminoles , Rix scrambled for eight yards and completed a 19 - yard pass for a first down at the 50 - yard line . After Rix gained five yards on another scramble , he threw two incomplete passes and the Seminoles punted . The ball rolled into the end zone , and Tech 's offense began a drive at its 20 - yard line with 7 : 43 remaining in the first quarter . Two incomplete passes and a one - yard run later , Tech prepared to punt the ball away . During the kick , Florida State 's defense broke through the Virginia Tech offensive line and blocked the kick . The ball rolled inside the one - yard line , where Florida State 's offense took over . On the first play after the block , Rix leaped across the goal line for the game 's first touchdown . The extra point attempt was a success , and with 6 : 32 remaining in the first half , Florida State took a 7 – 3 lead . The post - score kickoff was returned to the Tech 34 - yard line , and the Hokies began another drive . Two rushing plays resulted in a first down for the Hokies at their 49 - yard line . The Hokies were unable to enter Florida State 's half of the field , however , as two incomplete passes and a running play resulted in a loss of yardage . Florida State 's offense returned to the game at their 30 - yard line following the kick with 4 : 17 remaining in the first half . On the first play of the drive , Rix completed a 42 - yard pass to <unk> Thorpe . On the next play , the Seminoles advanced the ball 11 more yards on a running play . From the Tech 18 - yard line , the Seminoles were stopped for no gain , endured a sack of Rix , then committed a five - yard false start penalty . After being pushed back to the Tech 34 - yard line , the Seminoles were unable to get a first down and elected to try a long field goal kick . Florida State placekicker Xavier Beitia entered the game to attempt a 50 - yard kick . The kick was successful , and with 1 : 27 remaining in the first half , Florida State extended its lead to 10 – 3 . After Virginia Tech went three - and - out , the Hokies punted to Florida State , who proceeded to run out the remaining seconds on the clock . The first half ended with Florida State leading , 10 – 3 . Third quarter Because Florida State received the ball to begin the game , Virginia Tech received the ball to begin the second half . Florida State 's kickoff was returned to their 29 - yard line , and Virginia Tech 's offense had the first possession of the second half . Jones rushed for six yards , then Noel completed a first - down pass to Andre Davis at the Florida State 45 - yard line . The Seminoles sacked Noel , but Noel regained the lost yardage and earned a first down with a completed pass to the 20 - yard line . Three Tech rushes advanced the ball to the nine - yard line and earned a first down . Two plays later , Jones dashed across the goal line for the first Tech touchdown of the game . The extra point kick was good , and Tech tied the score , 10 – 10 , with 10 : 02 remaining in the third quarter . Florida State received the Tech kickoff and returned it to their 23 - yard line . After an incomplete pass from Rix , Virginia Tech 's defense was caught offsides , resulting in a five - yard gain for Florida State . A short run after the penalty gained a first down , but on the first play after the first down , the Seminoles fumbled the ball . The loose ball was recovered by Virginia Tech 's defense , and the Hokies began their second possession of the second half at the State 31 - yard line . Tech was unable to capitalize on the field position , however . Noel threw an incomplete pass , was sacked , then threw a pass for a loss of yardage . Tech punted the ball , which was downed at the Florida State 12 - yard line . The Seminoles ' second possession of the second half began with more success than their first possession . State gained a first down on two running plays , then Rix completed a 14 - yard pass for another first down . Now at their 36 - yard line , the Seminoles advanced the ball for short ground gains on the next two plays , then Rix completed a 30 - yard pass to Bell . Following the pass and first down , the Seminoles were at the Tech 34 - yard line . Two short gains and an incomplete pass failed to gain another first down , so State head coach Bobby Bowden ordered kicker Beitia into the game to attempt a 47 - yard field goal . The kick attempt was successful , and Beitia gave Florida State a 13 – 10 lead with 1 : 42 remaining in the quarter . Following Florida State 's kickoff and a 38 - yard return , Virginia Tech 's offense began work at its 45 - yard line . On the second play of the drive , Noel completed a 55 - yard pass to Andre Davis , who ran into the end zone for Virginia Tech 's second touchdown of the game . The extra point kick was good , and Virginia Tech regained the lead , 17 – 13 , with 40 seconds remaining in the quarter . Virginia Tech kicked the ball off , and Florida State returned the kick 12 yards to its 18 - yard line . The Seminoles gained five yards on two rushing plays before time ran out on the quarter , which ended with Virginia Tech leading , 17 – 13 . Fourth quarter The fourth quarter began with Florida State in possession of the ball and facing a third down and five yards . On the first play of the quarter , Rix was hit by a Virginia Tech defender , but not before he released a 77 - yard pass to Walker , who ran into the end zone for a touchdown . The extra point try was good , and Florida State regained the lead , 20 – 17 , with 14 : 48 remaining in the game . Florida State 's post - score kickoff sailed through the end zone for a touchback , and Tech 's offense began its first drive of the quarter from its 20 - yard line . Tech 's first play of the quarter was a 15 - yard completed pass by Noel for a first down . That was followed by an 11 - yard run by Jones for another first down . After an incomplete pass , Noel ran for a first down at the State 41 - yard line . Inside Florida State territory , gaining ground became much more difficult . The next three plays netted Tech only nine yards , setting up a critical fourth - and - one play . With Virginia Tech outside field goal range and trailing , the Hokies needed another first down to move within potential scoring range . But on fourth down , Jones was stopped for no gain on a running play , and the Hokies turned the ball over on downs . The play later was cited as the game 's turning point . After the turnover , Florida State received the ball at its 32 - yard line with a 20 – 17 lead and 12 : 08 remaining in the game . On the first play after the turnover , Rix completed a 51 - yard pass to Walker for a first down at the Tech 18 - yard line . The three plays that followed netted only three yards , and Beitia was sent into the game to attempt a 35 - yard field goal . The kick ricocheted off one of the uprights but through the goal posts , extending the Seminoles ' lead to 23 – 17 with 10 : 13 remaining in the game . Florida State 's kickoff was fielded inside the Virginia Tech five - yard line and returned to the Tech eight - yard line . Tech gained five yards on two running plays , then Noel completed a 15 - yard pass to Davis for a first down at the Tech 28 - yard line . Noel and Jones each carried the ball , together gaining enough for a first down at the Tech 39 - yard line . A completed pass and a short run by Jones resulted in another first down , this time at the 50 - yard line . Florida State committed a five - yard offsides penalty , but the Hokies were unable to gain a first down on the Seminoles ' side of the field . Rather than attempt to convert another fourth down , the Hokies punted the ball . The kick was downed by Virginia Tech at the State 22 - yard line with 5 : 22 remaining in the game . On the first play of the drive , Jones gained 13 yards and a first down at the 45 - yard line of Florida State . This was followed by a 22 - yard run and a first down by Jones at the Tech 33 - yard line . Three more runs by Jones gained another nine yards , but rather than attempt a field goal , Bowden ordered his offense to attempt to convert the first down . A quarterback sneak resulted in just enough of a gain for a first down , and State 's drive continued . On the first play after the conversion , Rix completed a 23 - yard pass to Walker for a touchdown . The score and subsequent extra point gave State a 30 – 17 lead with 2 : 14 remaining in the game . Virginia Tech returned Florida State 's kickoff to their 23 - yard line . After an incomplete pass , the Hokies gained a first down at their 33 - yard line with a short pass . After the first down , Noel was sacked on successive plays . During the second sack , Florida State lineman Darnell Dockett collided with Noel 's helmet , twisting Dockett 's knee . Following the injury , Tech sent in backup quarterback Bryan Randall to attempt a long pass . The pass was intercepted by Florida State with 19 seconds remaining in the game . Following the interception , the Seminoles ran out the clock and secured a 30 – 17 win . Statistical summary In recognition of their performances during the game , Florida Statewide receiver Javon Walker was named the most valuable player of the winning team , and Virginia Tech wide receiver André Davis was named the most valuable player of the losing team . Walker finished the game with 195 receiving yards on just four receptions , an average of almost 50 yards — half the field — per reception . On the opposite side of the ball , Davis caught five passes for 158 yards , an average of more than 31 yards per catch . The two teams ' quarterbacks benefited from their receivers ' success in eluding the opposing defenses . Florida State quarterback Chris Rix completed 12 of his 25 pass attempts for two touchdowns , 269 yards , and one interception . Rix also ran the ball 12 times during the game . Although he lost a total of 19 yards , one of his positive rushes resulted in a rushing touchdown . Despite that score , the game marked the first time all season that Rix had been held to negative rushing yardage . For Virginia Tech , quarterback Grant Noel completed 15 of 27 pass attempts for 269 yards and a touchdown . Backup quarterback Bryan Randall threw an interception on his only pass attempt of the game , and wide receiver Richard Johnson 's trick pass attempt fell incomplete . On the ground , Florida State running back Greg Jones led all players with 23 carries for 120 yards . Virginia Tech running back Kevin Jones was second in overall rushing , having carried the ball 23 times for 55 yards and a touchdown . Defensively , Florida State had 12 tackles for loss , causing the Hokies negating 66 yards of offense . Virginia Tech had eight tackles for loss , encompassing 48 yards of loss . Five of Virginia Tech 's tackles for loss were sacks , while four of Florida State 's tackles for loss were sacks . Beitia 's three successful field goals tied a Gator Bowl record . Rix 's 326 passing yards were the sixth - most recorded in Gator Bowl history to that point , and Javon Walker 's 195 receiving yards were the second - most ever recorded in a Gator Bowl . The 77 - yard pass from Rix to Walker was the third - longest in Gator Bowl history . On the opposite side of the ball , Davis ' 158 receiving yards were the ninth - most recorded in Gator Bowl history , and his 55 - yard reception from Noel was the ninth - longest in Gator Bowl history . The two receivers ' totals also were Virginia Tech bowl - game records : in one case , for receiving yards gained by a single player , in the other , for receiving yards allowed by a single player . Postgame effects Florida State 's victory raised it to a final record of 8 – 4 , and Virginia Tech 's loss brought it also to a final record of 8 – 4 . Following the loss , the Hokies had a 5 – 10 record in bowl games , including 1 – 3 in the Gator Bowl and 4 – 5 in bowl games under head coach Frank Beamer . Florida State 's victory gave Seminoles head coach Bobby Bowden the 322nd win of his career , tying him for second in the overall Division I career wins list with Bear Bryant . 2002 NFL Draft Because of their strong performance in college and during the 2002 Gator Bowl , several players from each team were selected to play in the National Football League during the 2002 NFL Draft . Florida State had three players selected , led by wide receiver Javon Walker , who was picked in the first round ( 20th overall ) by the Green Bay Packers . Following Walker were defensive back Chris Hope ( 94th ) and Milford Brown , who was taken in the supplemental draft by the expansion Houston Texans . In addition to the Seminoles who were drafted , Florida State running back Eric Shelton transferred from the team because of a lack of playing time . Virginia Tech had eight players selected in the 2002 draft . The first of these was wide receiver Andre Davis , who was selected in the second round ( 47th overall ) , by the Cleveland Browns . Following Davis were linebacker Ben Taylor ( 111th ) , defensive back Kevin McAdam ( 148th ) , David Pugh ( 182nd ) , Bob Slowikowski ( 211th ) , Chad Beasley ( 218th ) , <unk> Monroe ( 224th ) , and Jarrett Ferguson ( 251st ) . Coaching changes Following the Gator Bowl loss , Virginia Tech offensive coordinator and quarterbacks coach Rickey Bustle became the head coach at Louisiana - Lafayette as had been announced prior to the game . His position offensive coordinator was filled by then - offensive line coach Bryan Stinespring . To fill the quarterbacks coach position vacated by Bustle , Tech hired former Notre Dame offensive coordinator Kevin Rogers .
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Koli Point action The Koli Point action , during 3 – 12 November 1942 , was an engagement between U.S. Marine Corps and U.S. Army forces and Imperial Japanese Army forces around Koli Point on Guadalcanal during the Guadalcanal campaign . The U.S. forces were under the overall command of Major General Alexander Vandegrift , while the Japanese forces were under the overall command of Lieutenant General Harukichi Hyakutake . In the engagement , U.S. Marines from the 7th Marine Regiment and U.S. Army soldiers from the 164th Infantry Regiment under the tactical command of William H. Rupertus and Edmund B. Sebree , attacked a concentration of Japanese Army troops , most of whom belonged to the 230th Infantry Regiment , commanded by Toshinari Shōji . Shōji 's troops had marched to the Koli Point area after the failed Japanese assaults on U.S. defenses during the Battle for Henderson Field in late October 1942 . In the engagement , the U.S. forces attempted to encircle and destroy Shōji 's forces . Although Shōji 's unit took heavy casualties , he and most of his men were able to evade the encirclement attempt and escape into the interior of Guadalcanal . As Shōji 's troops endeavored to reach Japanese positions in another part of the island , they were pursued and attacked by a battalion - sized patrol of U.S. Marine Raiders . Background Guadalcanal campaign On 7 August 1942 , Allied forces ( primarily U.S. ) landed on Guadalcanal , Tulagi , and Florida Islands in the Solomon Islands . The landings on the islands were meant to deny their use by the Japanese as bases for threatening the supply routes between the U.S. and Australia , and to secure the islands as starting points for a campaign with the eventual goal of isolating the major Japanese base at Rabaul while also supporting the Allied New Guinea campaign . The landings initiated the six - month - long Guadalcanal campaign . Taking the Japanese by surprise , by nightfall on 8 August the 11 , 000 Allied troops — under the command of Major General Alexander Vandegrift and mainly consisting of U.S. Marines — had secured Tulagi and nearby small islands as well as an airfield under construction at Lunga Point on Guadalcanal . The airfield was later named Henderson Field by Allied forces . The Allied aircraft that subsequently operated out of the airfield became known as the " Cactus Air Force " ( CAF ) after the Allied codename for Guadalcanal . To protect the airfield , the U.S. Marines established a perimeter defense around Lunga Point . In response to the Allied landings on Guadalcanal , the Japanese Imperial General Headquarters assigned the Imperial Japanese Army 's 17th Army — a corps - sized command based at Rabaul and under the command of Lieutenant - General Harukichi Hyakutake — with the task of retaking Guadalcanal from Allied forces . Beginning on 19 August , various units of the 17th Army began to arrive on Guadalcanal with the goal of driving Allied forces from the island . Because of the threat by CAF aircraft based at Henderson Field , the Japanese were unable to use large , slow transport ships to deliver troops and supplies to the island . Instead , the Japanese used warships based at Rabaul and the Shortland Islands to carry their forces to Guadalcanal . The Japanese warships , mainly light cruisers or destroyers from the Eighth Fleet under the command of Vice Admiral Gunichi Mikawa , were usually able to make the round trip down " The Slot " to Guadalcanal and back in a single night , thereby minimizing their exposure to CAF air attack . Delivering the troops in this manner , however , prevented most of the soldiers ' heavy equipment and supplies , such as heavy artillery , vehicles , and much food and ammunition , from being carried to Guadalcanal with them . These high - speed warship runs to Guadalcanal occurred throughout the campaign and were later called the " Tokyo Express " by Allied forces and " Rat Transportation " by the Japanese . The first Japanese attempt to recapture Henderson Field failed when a 917 - man force was defeated on 21 August in the Battle of the Tenaru . The next attempt took place from 12 – 14 September , with the 6 , 000 soldiers under the command of Major General Kiyotake Kawaguchi being defeated in the Battle of Edson 's Ridge . After their defeat at Edson 's Ridge , Kawaguchi and the surviving Japanese troops regrouped west of the Matanikau River on Guadalcanal . As the Japanese regrouped , the U.S. forces concentrated on shoring up and strengthening their Lunga defenses . On 18 September , an Allied naval convoy delivered 4 , 157 men from the U.S. 7th Marine Regiment to Guadalcanal . These reinforcements allowed Vandegrift — beginning on 19 September — to establish an unbroken line of defense completely around the Lunga perimeter . General Vandegrift and his staff were aware that Kawaguchi 's troops had retreated to the area west of the Matanikau and that numerous groups of Japanese stragglers were scattered throughout the area between the Lunga Perimeter and the Matanikau River . Vandegrift , therefore , decided to conduct a series of small unit operations around the Matanikau Valley . The first U.S. Marine operation against Japanese forces west of the Matanikau , conducted between 23 and 27 September 1942 by elements of three U.S. Marine battalions , was repulsed by Kawaguchi 's troops under Colonel Akinosuke Oka 's local command . In the second action , between 6 and 9 October , a larger force of U.S. Marines successfully crossed the Matanikau River , attacked newly landed Japanese forces from the 2nd ( Sendai ) Infantry Division under the command of generals Masao Maruyama and Yumio Nasu and inflicted heavy casualties on the Japanese 4th Infantry Regiment . The second action forced the Japanese to retreat from their positions east of the Matanikau . In the meantime , Major General Millard F. Harmon — commander of U.S. Army forces in the South Pacific — convinced Vice Admiral Robert L. Ghormley — commander of Allied forces in the South Pacific Area — that U.S. Marine forces on Guadalcanal needed to be reinforced immediately if the Allies were to successfully defend the island from the next expected Japanese offensive . Thus on 13 October , a naval convoy delivered the 2 , 837 - strong 164th U.S. Infantry Regiment , a North Dakota Army National Guard formation from the U.S. Army 's Americal Division , to Guadalcanal . Battle for Henderson Field Between 1 and 17 October , the Japanese delivered 15 , 000 troops to Guadalcanal , giving Hyakutake 20 , 000 total troops to employ for his planned offensive . Because of the loss of their positions on the east side of the Matanikau , the Japanese decided that an attack on the U.S. defenses along the coast would be prohibitively difficult . Thus , after observation of the American defenses around Lunga Point by his staff officers , Hyakutake decided that the main thrust of his planned attack would be from south of Henderson Field . His 2nd Division ( augmented by troops from the 38th Division ) — under Lieutenant General Masao Maruyama and comprising 7 , 000 soldiers in three infantry regiments of three battalions each — was ordered to march through the jungle and attack the American defenses from the south near the east bank of the Lunga River . The 2nd Division was split into three units ; the Left Wing Unit under Major General Yumio Nasu containing the 29th Infantry Regiment , the Right Wing Unit under Major General Kiyotake Kawaguchi consisting of troops from the 230th Infantry Regiment ( from the 38th Infantry Division ) , and the division reserve led by Maruyama comprising the 16th Infantry Regiment . On 23 October , Maruyama 's forces struggled through the jungle to reach the American lines . Kawaguchi — on his own initiative — began to shift his right wing unit to the east , believing that the American defenses were weaker in that area . Maruyama — through one of his staff officers — ordered Kawaguchi to keep to the original attack plan . When he refused , Kawaguchi was relieved of command and replaced by Colonel Toshinari Shōji , commander of the 230th Infantry Regiment . That evening , after learning that the left and right wing forces were still struggling to reach the American lines , Hyakutake postponed the attack to 19 : 00 on 24 October . The Americans remained completely unaware of the approach of Maruyama 's forces . Finally , late on October 24 Maruyama 's forces reached the U.S. Lunga perimeter . Over two consecutive nights Maruyama 's forces conducted numerous , unsuccessful frontal assaults on positions defended by troops of the 1st Battalion , 7th Marines ( 1 / 7 ) under Lieutenant Colonel Chesty Puller and the U.S. Army 's 3rd Battalion , 164th Infantry Regiment , commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Robert Hall . U.S. Marine and Army rifle , machine gun , mortar , artillery and direct canister fire from 37 mm ( 1 . 46 in ) anti - tank guns " wrought terrible carnage " on the Japanese . More than 1 , 500 of Maruyama 's troops were killed in the attacks while the Americans lost about 60 killed . Shōji 's right wing units did not participate in the attacks , choosing instead to remain in place to cover Nasu 's right flank against a possible attack in that area by U.S. forces that never materialized . At 08 : 00 on 26 October , Hyakutake called off any further attacks and ordered his forces to retreat . Maruyama 's left wing and division reserve survivors were ordered to retreat back to the Matanikau River area while the right wing unit under Shōji was told to head for Koli Point , 13 mi ( 21 km ) east of the Lunga River . To provide support for the right wing units ( now called the Shōji Detachment ) marching towards Koli , the Japanese dispatched a Tokyo Express run for the night of 2 November to land 300 fresh troops from a previously uncommitted company of the 230th Infantry Regiment , two 75 mm ( 2 . 95 in ) mountain guns , provisions , and ammunition at Koli Point . American radio intelligence intercepted Japanese communications concerning this effort and the Marine command on Guadalcanal determined to try to intercept it . With many of the American units currently involved in an operation west of the Matanikau , <unk> could spare only one battalion . The 2nd Battalion , 7th Marine Regiment ( 2 / 7 ) — commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Herman H. Hanneken — marched east from Lunga Point at 06 : 50 on 2 November and reached Koli Point after dark the same day . After crossing the Metapona River at its mouth , Hanneken deployed his troops along 2 , 000 yd ( 1 , 800 m ) in the woods facing the beach to await the arrival of the Japanese ships . Action Early on the morning of 3 November , the five Japanese destroyers on the express run arrived at Koli Point and began to unload their cargoes and troops about 1 , 000 yd ( 910 m ) east of Hanneken 's battalion . Hanneken 's force remained concealed and attempted in vain to contact their headquarters by radio to report the landing . At dawn , after a Japanese patrol discovered the Marines , both adversaries began to engage each other with mortar , machine gun , and small arms fire . Soon after , the Japanese <unk> and began to fire the two mountain guns that they had landed during the night . Hanneken , still unable to contact his headquarters to request support and now taking casualties plus running low on ammunition , decided to retreat . Hanneken 's battalion withdrew by bounds , recrossing the Metapona and then the Nalimbiu River 5 , 000 yd ( 4 , 600 m ) further west , where Hanneken was finally able to establish contact with his superiors at 14 : 45 to report his situation . In addition to Hanneken 's report of sizable Japanese forces at Koli Point , Vandegrift 's staff also possessed a captured Japanese document that outlined a plan to land the remainder of the 38th Infantry Division at Koli to attack the Marine Lunga defenses from the east . Unaware that the Japanese had abandoned the plan , Vandegrift decided that the threat from Koli Point needed to be dealt with immediately . Thus , he ordered most of the Marine units currently engaged west of the Matanikau to return to Lunga Point . Puller 's battalion ( 1 / 7 ) was ordered to prepare to move to Koli Point by boat . The 2nd and 3rd Battalions of the 164th Infantry Regiment ( 2 / 164 and 3 / 164 ) prepared to march inland to the Nalimbiu River . The 3rd Battalion , 10th Marines began to move its 75 mm pack howitzers across the Ilu river to provide artillery support . Marine Brigadier General William Rupertus was placed in command of the operation . At the same time that the U.S. forces were mobilizing , Shōji and his troops were beginning to reach Koli Point east of the Metapona River at Gavaga Creek . Late in the day , 31 CAF aircraft attacked Shōji 's forces , inflicting about 100 deaths and injuries on the Japanese . Some of the CAF aircraft also mistakenly attacked Hanneken 's men , causing several deaths and injuries to the Marines . At 06 : 30 on 4 November , the 164th troops began their march towards Koli Point . Around the same time , Rupertus and Puller 's battalion landed at Koli Point near the mouth of the Nalimbiu River . Rupertus decided to wait for the army troops to arrive before attacking Shōji 's forces . Because of heat , humidity , and difficult terrain the 164th troops didn 't complete the 7 mi ( 11 km ) march to the Nalimbiu until nightfall . In the meantime , the U.S. Navy cruisers Helena , San Francisco , and destroyer Sterett bombarded Shōji 's positions with artillery fire , killing many officers and soldiers from the 9th and 10th Companies , 230th Infantry . On the morning of 5 November , Rupertus ordered the 164th troops to cross to the east bank of the Nalimbiu and envelop the inland flank of any Japanese forces that might be facing Puller 's battalion . The two battalions crossed the river about 3 , 500 yd ( 3 , 200 m ) inland and pivoted north to advance along the east bank . The army troops encountered few Japanese but were greatly slowed by difficult terrain and stopped short of the coast for the night . That same day , the Japanese troops that had been landed by the warships on 3 November , made contact with and joined Shōji 's forces . The next day , Puller 's battalion crossed the Nalimbiu as the 164th troops resumed their march towards the coast . On 7 November , the Marines and army units joined forces at the coast and pushed east to a point about 1 mi ( 1 . 6 km ) west of the Metapona , where they dug in near the beach because of sightings of a Japanese Express run heading for Guadalcanal that might land reinforcements at Koli that night . The Japanese , however , successfully landed the reinforcements elsewhere on Guadalcanal that night and these reinforcements were not a factor in the Koli Point action . Meanwhile , Hyakutake ordered Shōji to abandon his positions at Koli and rejoin Japanese forces at Kokumbona in the Matanikau area . To cover the withdrawal , a sizable portion of Shōji 's forces dug - in and prepared to defend positions along Gavaga Creek near the village of Tetere , about 1 mi ( 1 . 6 km ) east of the Metapona . The two mountain guns landed on 3 November — in combination with mortars — kept up a constant rate of fire on the advancing Americans . On 8 November , Puller 's and Hanneken 's battalions and the 164th soldiers attempted to surround Shōji 's forces by approaching Gavaga overland from the west and landing by boat near Tetere in the east . In action during the day , Puller was wounded several times and was evacuated . Rupertus , who was suffering from dengue fever , relinquished command of the operation to U.S. Army Brigadier General Edmund B. Sebree . On 9 November , the U.S. troops continued with their attempt to encircle Shōji 's forces . On the west of Gavaga Creek , 1 / 7 and 2 / 164 extended their positions inland along the creek while 2 / 7 and other 164th troops took positions on the east side of Shōji 's positions . The Americans began to compress the pocket while subjecting it to constant bombardment by artillery , mortars , and aircraft . A gap , however , existed by way of a swampy creek in the southern side of the American lines , which 2 / 164 was supposed to have closed . Taking advantage of this route , Shōji 's men began to escape the pocket . The Americans closed the gap in their lines on 11 November , but by then Shōji and between 2 , 000 and 3 , 000 of his men had escaped into the jungle to the south . On 12 November , Sebree 's forces completely overran and killed all the remaining Japanese soldiers left in the pocket . The Americans counted the bodies of 450 – 475 Japanese dead in the area and captured most of Shōji 's heavy weapons and provisions . The American forces suffered 40 killed and 120 wounded in the operation . Aftermath As Shōji 's forces began their march to rejoin the main body of Japanese forces west of the Matanikau River , the U.S. 2nd Marine Raider Battalion — under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Evans Carlson , which had been guarding an airfield construction effort underway at Aola Bay , 30 mi ( 48 km ) further east from Koli Point — set off in pursuit . Over the next month , with the aid of native scouts , Carlson 's raiders repeatedly attacked trailing elements and stragglers from Shōji 's forces , killing almost 500 of them . In addition , a lack of food and tropical diseases felled more of Shōji 's men . By the time the Japanese reached the Lunga River , about halfway to the Matanikau , only 1 , 300 men remained with Shōji 's main body . Several days later , when Shōji reached the 17th Army positions west of the Matanikau , only 700 – 800 survivors were still with him . Survivors from Shōji 's force later participated in the Battle of Mount Austen , the Galloping Horse , and the Sea Horse in December 1942 and January 1943 . Speaking of the Koli Point action , U.S. Sergeant ( later Brigadier General ) John E. Stannard , who participated as a member of the 164th Regiment , stated that the battle for Koli Point was " the most complex land operation , other than the original landing , that the Americans had conducted on Guadalcanal up to that time . " He added , " The Americans learned once again that offensive operations against the Japanese were much more complicated and difficult than was defeating banzai charges . " The Americans later abandoned the attempt to construct an airfield at Aola . Instead , the Aola construction units moved to Koli Point where they successfully built an auxiliary airfield beginning on 3 December 1942 . The next major Japanese reinforcement effort failed during the Naval Battle of Guadalcanal , undertaken as Shōji and his troops struggled to reach friendly lines near the Matanikau . Although most of Shōji 's troops had escaped from Koli Point , the inability of the Japanese to keep their forces on Guadalcanal adequately supplied or reinforced prevented them from contributing effectively to what turned out to be Japan 's ultimately unsuccessful effort to hold the island or retake Henderson Field from Allied forces . Books Dull , Paul S. ( 1978 ) . A Battle History of the Imperial Japanese Navy , 1941 – 1945 . Naval Institute Press . ISBN 0 - 87021 - 097 - 1 . Frank , Richard ( 1990 ) . Guadalcanal : The Definitive Account of the Landmark Battle . New York : Random House . ISBN 0 - 394 - 58875 - 4 . Griffith , Samuel B. ( 1963 ) . The Battle for Guadalcanal . Champaign , Illinois , USA : University of Illinois Press . ISBN 0 - 252 - 06891 - 2 . Hammel , Eric ( 2007 ) . Guadalcanal : The U.S. Marines in World War II . St. Paul , Minnesota , USA : Zenith Press . ISBN 0 - 7603 - 3148 - 0 . Jersey , Stanley Coleman ( 2008 ) . Hell 's Islands : The Untold Story of Guadalcanal . College Station , Texas : Texas A & M University Press . ISBN 1 - 58544 - 616 - 5 . Morison , Samuel Eliot ( 1958 ) . The Struggle for Guadalcanal , August 1942 – February 1943 , vol . 5 of History of United States Naval Operations in World War II . Boston : Little , Brown and Company . ISBN 0 - 316 - 58305 - 7 . Rottman , Gordon L. ( 2005 ) . Japanese Army in World War II : The South Pacific and New Guinea , 1942 – 43 . Dr. Duncan Anderson ( consultant editor ) . Oxford and New York : Osprey . ISBN 1 - 84176 - 870 - 7 . Smith , Michael T. ( 2000 ) . Bloody Ridge : The Battle That Saved Guadalcanal . New York : Pocket . ISBN 0 - 7434 - 6321 - 8 . Web Anderson , Charles R. ( 1993 ) . Guadalcanal . The U.S. Army Campaigns in World War II . United States Army Center of Military History . CMH Pub 72 - 8 . Retrieved 2006 - 07 - 09 . Hough , Frank O. ; Ludwig , Verle E. ; Shaw , Henry I. , Jr . " Pearl Harbor to Guadalcanal " . History of U.S. Marine Corps Operations in World War II . Retrieved 2006 - 05 - 16 . CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link ) Miller , John Jr . ( 1995 ) [ 1949 ] . Guadalcanal : The First Offensive . United States Army in World War II ( Washington , D.C. : United States Army Center of Military History ) . CMH Pub 5 - 3 . Retrieved 2006 - 07 - 04 . Shaw , Henry I. ( 1992 ) . " First Offensive : The Marine Campaign For Guadalcanal " . Marines in World War II Commemorative Series . Retrieved 2006 - 07 - 25 . Zimmerman , John L. ( 1949 ) . " The Guadalcanal Campaign " . Marines in World War II Historical Monograph . Retrieved 2006 - 07 - 04 .
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Emanuelle Goes to Dinosaur Land " Emanuelle Goes to Dinosaur Land " is the twenty - first episode of the fourth season of the American television comedy series 30 Rock , and the 79th overall episode of the series . It was written by supervising producer Matt Hubbard and directed by Beth McCarthy - Miller . The episode originally aired on the National Broadcasting Company ( NBC ) network in the United States on May 13 , 2010 . Guest stars in this episode include John Anderson , Elizabeth Banks , Jon Hamm , Kristin McGee , Julianne Moore , Michael Sheen , Jason Sudeikis , and Dean Winters . In the episode , Jack Donaghy ( Alec Baldwin ) becomes even more entangled in his love triangle between Avery Jessup ( Banks ) and Nancy Donovan ( Moore ) , and he turns for advice to Liz Lemon ( Tina Fey ) , who is focusing on her own romantic problems . When Liz cannot find a date to her ex - boyfriend 's ( Sudeikis ) wedding , she revisits her old boyfriends ( Hamm and Winters ) in hope that a spark will reignite . Meanwhile , Tracy Jordan ( Tracy Morgan ) continues his journey to earn his EGOT . " Emanuelle Goes to Dinosaur Land " received generally positive reviews from television critics . According to the Nielsen Media Research , the episode was watched by 4 . 996 million households during its original broadcast , and received a 2 . 5 rating / 7 share among viewers in the 18 – 49 demographic . For his performance in this episode , Jon Hamm received a Primetime Emmy Award nomination in the category for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Comedy Series . Plot Liz Lemon ( Tina Fey ) is dateless for ex - boyfriend Floyd DeBarber 's ( Jason Sudeikis ) wedding , and does not want to be alone . She revisits her old boyfriends — Drew Baird ( Jon Hamm ) and Dennis Duffy ( Dean Winters ) — but the visits do not go well . Later , at a party , Liz learns from Cerie Xerox ( Katrina Bowden ) , her office assistant , that she will be seated next to Wesley Snipes ( Michael Sheen ) — a man whom Liz despises — at Cerie 's wedding . As a result of this , Liz invites Wesley as her date to Floyd 's wedding . At the wedding , Wesley reveals that he has lost his job , and needs Liz to get him U.S. residency , and proposes marriage to her . After an unsuccessful conversation with Mike ( John Anderson ) , a friend of Floyd 's , Liz agrees to marry Wesley . Meanwhile , Jack Donaghy ( Alec Baldwin ) is still in a dilemma in who to choose from between CNBC host Avery Jessup ( Elizabeth Banks ) and his high school sweetheart Nancy Donovan ( Julianne Moore ) . Avery decides not to be Jack 's date to Cerie 's wedding , and that while she is gone , Jack should think about whether or not he wants to be with her . As soon as Avery leaves , Nancy shows up at the 30 Rock building unannounced , and decides to spend the weekend with Jack . Liz tries to talk him out of going on a date with Nancy , after he asked her for advice . He decides to keep things platonic with Nancy , so that no problem ensues in his decision to choose between them , but Jack ends up sleeping with Nancy . The next morning , Nancy admits that the two spending the night together was a big deal , as Jack was the first man she slept with after her divorce . At Floyd 's wedding , Jack tells Nancy about Avery , and as a result , Nancy threatens to leave him forever once the ceremony is over . While Liz gives a reading , Jack texts her to stall , resulting in Liz reading inappropriate scripture recitations at the wedding . Finally , Tracy Jordan ( Tracy Morgan ) informs " Dot Com " Slattery ( Kevin Brown ) and NBC page Kenneth Parcell ( Jack McBrayer ) that he wishes to be part of the film Garfield 3 : Feline Groovy . Dot Com and Kenneth tell Tracy that he should instead focus on his chances of getting an Oscar , as part of his EGOT quest . The two encourage him to audition for Hard To Watch , a story of an inner - city boy living in the ghetto , something that Tracy can directly relate to . Tracy decides to audition for Hard To Watch , but realizes that playing the role may bring up too many repressed memories . Dot Com and Kenneth , along with Tracy , visit all the places from Tracy 's childhood in order to prepare him for the role , but this backfires when Tracy is brought to tears because of his past . Production " Emanuelle Goes to Dinosaur Land " was written by series supervising producer Matt Hubbard , making it his tenth writing credit after " The Rural Juror " , " Hard Ball " , " The Collection " , " MILF Island " , " Reunion " , " Larry King " , " Cutbacks " , " Audition Day " , and " Anna Howard Shaw Day " . The episode was directed by Beth McCarthy - Miller , making it her twelfth for the series . " Emanuelle Goes to Dinosaur Land " originally aired in the United States on May 13 , 2010 , on NBC as the twenty - first episode of the show 's fourth season and the 79th overall episode of the series . This episode was filmed on March 10 , 2010 . Saint Cecilia 's Catholic Church in Greenpoint , Brooklyn served as the church for Floyd and Kaitlin 's ( Kristin McGee ) wedding . This episode of 30 Rock was actress Julianne Moore 's fourth appearance as Nancy Donovan on the show , and was actress Elizabeth Banks ' sixth guest spot . Comedian actor Jason Sudeikis , who played Floyd DeBarber in this episode , has appeared in the main cast of Saturday Night Live ( SNL ) , a weekly sketch comedy series which airs on NBC in the United States . Tina Fey , the series creator of 30 Rock , was the head writer on SNL from 1999 until 2006 . This was Sudeikis 's eleventh appearance on the show . Actor Michael Sheen made his third appearance as Wesley Snipes . In addition , actors Jon Hamm and Dean Winters reprised their roles as Drew Baird and Dennis Duffy , respectively , as former boyfriends of Liz Lemon . This was the third time the show referenced Tracy Jordan trying to get his EGOT . This plot first began in the December 3 , 2009 , episode " Dealbreakers Talk Show " in which Tracy finds a diamond encrusted " EGOT " necklace and sets a new life goal to achieve EGOT status by winning four major awards : an Emmy , a Grammy , an Oscar , and a Tony . In " Emanuelle Goes to Dinosaur Land " , Tracy decides to do the movie Hard To Watch , in hopes that he can get an Oscar for his performance . Cultural references Tracy decides to play the Garfield character — an orange tabby cat — in an upcoming film Garfield 3 : Feline Groovy . When Liz visits Drew , in hopes that he can be her date to Floyd 's wedding , Drew is surprised to see Liz , but tells her that he was thinking about her when he saw " this gorgeous woman ... putting glasses on her daughter 's Mr. Potato Head . " Later , at a park , Liz visits Dennis , in which she sees that he is building a strange contraption . Dennis tells her that he is trying to recreate and improve on the Balloon boy incident , a reference to the October 2009 hoax in which two parents claimed their son was on board a helium balloon that had floated away , but later turned out to be a publicity stunt . At Floyd 's wedding , Wesley , who is English , tells Liz that he does not want to go back to England , as he does not want to witness the 2012 Summer Olympics , which is scheduled to take place in London , explaining " Did you see the Beijing opening ceremonies ? We don 't have control over our people like that . " The episode 's title is a reference to the Emmanuelle series of erotic films . Reception According to the Nielsen Media Research , " Emanuelle Goes to Dinosaur Land " was watched by 4 . 996 million households in its original American broadcast . It earned a 2 . 5 rating / 7 share in the 18 – 49 demographic . This means that it was seen by 2 . 5 percent of all 18- to 49 - year - olds , and 7 percent of all 18- to 49 - year - olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . This was a decrease from the previous episode , " The Moms " , which was watched by 5 . 420 million American viewers . During its original broadcast , " Emanuelle Goes to Dinosaur Land " ranked fourth in its 9 : 30 p.m. slot , behind ABC 's Grey 's Anatomy , CBS ' CSI : Crime Scene Investigation , and Fox 's Fringe . Jon Hamm received a Primetime Emmy Award nomination for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Comedy Series at the 62nd Primetime Emmy Awards for his work in this episode , but lost it to actor Neil Patrick Harris for his guest appearance on Glee . " Emanuelle Goes to Dinosaur Land " received generally positive reviews from television critics . Bob Sassone of AOL 's TV Squad liked the episode because of its " non - stop one liners and great guest cameos . " Sassone 's only complaint was that the Jack , Nancy , and Avery love triangle be over , pointing out that he was sick of seeing Jack running around trying to keep Avery and Nancy from seeing each other . IGN contributor Robert Canning said that " we got one of the best episode titles of any show this year " , and was favorable to the guest spots from Jon Hamm , Dean Winters , and Michael Sheen , observing " [ t ] he episode joyfully gave us three great pairings for Liz to deal with , each presenting their own unique set of laughs . " In conclusion , Canning gave the episode a 9 out of 10 rating . Linda Holmes for National Public Radio said that " Emanuelle Goes to Dinosaur Land " was " very funny " , and commented that her favorite scene was when Liz visited Drew in hopes that the two can get back together . The A.V. Club 's Nathan Rabin commented that this episode might have been the " best Tracy [ Jordan ] episode of the season " explaining that Tracy Morgan " delivered one genius non sequitur after another describing the comically over - the - top horrors of his childhood . [ ... ] The insane , eminently quotable one - liners were flying so fast and so furious that I could barely keep up with them . " In regards to Jack 's love triangle , Rabin opined that this arc " could easily have worn out its welcome long ago " but that Alec Baldwin , Julianne Moore , and Elizabeth Banks " have kept lively and vibrant . " In conclusion , he gave it an A − grade rating . Meredith Blake , writing for the Los Angeles Times , was positive about Liz getting engaged , noting that she has become a woman , and concluded that " it will no doubt be one of television 's most memorable weddings " if Liz and Wesley get married . Nick Catucci of New York magazine said that " Emanuelle Goes to Dinosaur Land " was good , " [ m ] aybe the best episode ever . " TV Guide 's Adam Mersel said that Banks played her role " perfectly " , but that he was still not convinced that Sheen 's Wesley is the right man for Liz .
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Hurricane Gustav ( 2002 ) Hurricane Gustav was a Category 2 hurricane that paralleled the East Coast of the United States in September 2002 during the 2002 Atlantic hurricane season . It was the seventh named storm and first hurricane of the season . Initially a subtropical depression north of the Bahamas , Gustav passed slightly to the east of the Outer Banks of North Carolina as a tropical storm before moving northeastward and making two landfalls in Atlantic Canada as a Category 1 hurricane . The storm was responsible for one death and $ 100 , 000 in damage , mostly in North Carolina . The interaction between Gustav and a non - tropical system produced strong winds that caused an additional $ 240 , 000 ( 2002 USD ) in damage in New England , but this damage was not directly attributed to the hurricane . Gustav spent the early part of its existence as a subtropical storm , and was the first such storm to be named from the current lists by the National Hurricane Center . Previously , subtropical storms were not given names . The cyclone was also the latest - forming first hurricane of the season since 1941 . Meteorological history An area of disturbed weather in association with a weak surface trough and a stronger upper - level trough between the Bahamas and Bermuda developed on September 6 . High pressure ridging strengthened by Tropical Storm Fay caused the trough to become more organized and close off into a broad non - tropical low on September 7 . By September 8 , the system had developed enough convection near its center of circulation to be classified Subtropical Depression Eight while located southeast of Cape Hatteras , North Carolina . Later that day , data from a Hurricane Hunter reconnaissance aircraft indicated that the system had strengthened into a subtropical storm , and the depression was upgraded to Subtropical Storm Gustav . Gustav moved erratically to the west - northwest toward the North Carolina - South Carolina border over the next two days , it slowly strengthened , acquiring more tropical characteristics . On September 10 , a poorly organized band of stronger winds developed around the center , and Gustav was designated a fully tropical storm shortly before turning toward the north and brushing Cape Hatteras , then accelerating toward the northeast and away from the coast . On September 11 , while under the influence of a non - tropical system over New England , Gustav quickly strengthened into a hurricane , in a process similar to the intensification of Hurricane Michael in 2000 . Gustav reached its peak intensity of 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) later that day . The hurricane began to slowly weaken and lose tropical characteristics on early September 12 as it moved over colder waters and encountered increasing wind shear . However , the storm was moving quickly enough to make landfall over Cape Breton , Nova Scotia as a Category 1 hurricane on September 12 . Later that morning , Gustav made a second landfall in Newfoundland and became extratropical shortly after . The extratropical low continued moving slowly to the northeast before dissipating over the Labrador Sea on September 15 . Preparations On September 8 , forecasters at the National Hurricane Center predicted that Gustav would approach the North Carolina coast , and issued a tropical storm watch from Cape Fear to the North Carolina – Virginia border . The tropical storm watch was upgraded to a tropical storm warning on September 9 , and a new tropical storm watch was issued later that day for areas of southeastern Virginia , from the North Carolina – Virginia border to New Point Comfort . The new watch was upgraded to a tropical storm warning on September 10 . As Gustav began to turn to the northeast and away from the Mid - Atlantic coast , the tropical storm warnings were gradually discontinued . The last warning was discontinued on September 11 . As Gustav approached Atlantic Canada , Environment Canada and the Canadian Hurricane Centre issued heavy rain and wind warnings for southern New Brunswick , Prince Edward Island , Nova Scotia , and Newfoundland . Impact North Carolina and Virginia Although the center of Gustav passed just to the east of Cape Hatteras , areas of North Carolina and southeastern Virginia experienced heavy rain and tropical storm force winds . Parts of the Outer Banks received 2 – 5 inches ( 50 – 125 mm ) of rain and winds of up to 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) , and the Coast Guard station at Cape Hatteras reported a wind gust of 78 mph ( 125 km / h ) . The storm produced storm surges of 3 – 6 feet ( 1 . 8 m ) along the Outer Banks , and 1 – 3 feet ( 0 . 91 m ) along the southeastern coast of Virginia . These surges , combined with strong winds and high sea swells , resulted in minor flooding , mainly in Ocracoke and Hatteras Village , North Carolina . A weak waterspout also touched down on Silver Lake near Ocracoke and moved onshore , but only minor roof damage was reported . Sporadic power outages were also reported . One person died after suffering injuries in the high surf , and 40 other people had to be rescued from riptides and storm surges . Damage in the region amounted to $ 100 , 000 ( 2002 USD ) . New Jersey Although the center of Gustav remained well offshore , the difference in pressure between it and a high pressure area over the central United States caused strong winds in areas of New Jersey on September 11 . Wind gusts ranged from 35 – 45 mph ( 55 – 70 km / h ) , with stronger winds reported near the coast . A maximum wind gust of 60 mph ( 100 km / h ) was reported at Keansburg . The strong winds downed trees and power lines throughout the eastern half of the state , damaging homes and blocking streets . At least 14 , 000 homes in the vicinity of Burlington and Ocean Counties were left without power . In West Windsor Township , a man was killed when the upper section of a concrete wall he was working on blew over and crushed him . The other death occurred in West Amwell Township , where a tree limb fell on two elderly women , killing one and injuring the other . Elsewhere , while there were reports of trees falling on vehicles , no other serious injuries or deaths were reported . New York and New England The interaction between Gustav and the non - tropical system caused strong winds that affected areas of coastal New England , mainly in eastern New York and Massachusetts . Some areas reported storm - force wind gusts of over 55 mph ( 90 km / h ) , and a maximum wind gust of 67 mph ( 108 km / h ) was reported by a weather spotter in Catskill , New York . Wind gusts of up to 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) were reported in areas of Massachusetts . The winds downed trees and power lines , and several homes and cars were damaged by fallen trees . Over 29 , 000 homes were left without power in eastern New York , and 19 , 000 homes lost power in Massachusetts . In all , the winds caused $ 240 , 000 ( 2002 USD ) in damage , but this damage was not directly attributed to Gustav in the National Hurricane Center 's analysis . In the New York City area , a peak wind gust of 60 mph ( 100 km / h ) was reported at John F. Kennedy International Airport . The winds caused some minor roof damage to buildings , and forced officials in New York City to cordon off parts of Manhattan as debris ranging from wrapping paper to crushed soda cans was blown about . This debris injured four people , one critically , and disrupted a 9 / 11 memorial service , though it continued as planned . Sustained winds of 25 – 35 mph ( 40 – 55 km / h ) , with gusts up to 55 mph ( 90 km / h ) , were reported throughout Long Island . Damage on the island was mainly limited to downed trees and power lines , although the Long Island Power Authority reported that at least 93 , 000 homes lost power during the day on September 11 . One person was killed when his boat capsized in the Long Island Sound . Atlantic Canada Despite gradually losing its tropical characteristics , Gustav brought heavy rain , storm and hurricane force winds , and storm surges to areas of Atlantic Canada for several days . Strong winds knocked down trees and damaged docks in Nova Scotia , and a wind gust of 75 mph ( 122 km / h ) was reported on Sable Island . Gusts to over 60 mph ( 100 km / h ) were reported in Newfoundland for several days after the center of Gustav moved out of the area . Rainfall amounts generally ranged from 0 . 3 – 2 . 7 inches ( 10 – 70 mm ) , with a maximum of 4 inches ( 102 mm ) in Ashdale , Nova Scotia . Several locations set new daily rainfall records . Localized flooding was reported in areas of Prince Edward Island , and 4 , 000 people in Halifax , Nova Scotia and Charlottetown , Prince Edward Island were left without power . Despite the heavy rain and wind , there were no reports of deaths or significant damage in Atlantic Canada . Naming and records Gustav was the first subtropical storm to be given a name from the current name lists by the National Hurricane Center . Prior to the 2002 season , Atlantic subtropical storms were either not named or given a number from a separate numbering list than tropical cyclones . When Gustav attained hurricane status on September 11 , it became the latest first hurricane to form in any season since the 1941 season , when the first hurricane developed on September 16 . According to climatology , an average of three hurricanes form by September 11 of each year .
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Kidung Abadi " Kidung Abadi " ( Indonesian for " Eternal Ballad " ) is a song written by father and daughter team Erwin and Gita Gutawa for the Kidung Abadi Chrisye concert ; the concert was held on 5 April 2012 to commemorate the fifth anniversary of Chrisye 's death . The song was created over a period of three months by splicing syllables from previously recorded vocals by Chrisye . At the concert , spliced black - and - white footage of Chrisye was shown lip synching to the song while Erwin 's orchestra performed the music . The song was well received : the audience gave it a rowdy ovation , while critics praised its lyrics and described it as one of the best parts of the concert . Background Chrisye had a forty - year career in Indonesia 's music industry , starting as a bassist with Sabda Nada before his first stint as a vocalist on the indie album Guruh Gipsy ( 1976 ) . After the success of the song " Lilin - Lilin Kecil " ( " Small Candles " ; 1977 ) and album Badai Pasti Berlalu ( The Storm Shall Surely Pass ; 1977 ) , he began a solo career with Musica Studios . Before his death of lung cancer on 30 March 2007 , he released nineteen albums with Musica . In 2011 Rolling Stone Indonesia listed Chrisye as the third - greatest Indonesian musician of all time . Towards the fifth anniversary of Chrisye 's death , Chrisye 's widow Yanti Noor , director Jay Subiyakto , and composer Erwin Gutawa began collaborating for a concert ; the concert was announced on 29 February 2012 and marketed as Chrisye 's fourth concert . It was held on 5 April 2012 at Plenary Hall in the Jakarta Convention Centre and featured a hologram of Chrisye singing with Once <unk> , Vina Panduwinata , Sophia Latjuba , and the band Gigi . Another feature of the concert was " Kidung Abadi " ( " Eternal Ballad " ) . Composition and performance The song was composed by Erwin Gutawa , who had previously collaborated with Chrisye on five albums . In an interview with The Jakarta Post , he said that he felt guilty as he had never written anything for Chrisye in the time they had worked together ; he had intended to make a new song with Chrisye 's voice since soon after the latter 's death . The lyrics were written by Gutawa 's daughter , Gita , who was asked by her father to write as if Chrisye were singing about having died , but his songs living on . Gita , who also sang at the concert , felt she owed something to Chrisye as her first stage performance was at his 2003 Dekade concert . To record the vocals , the elder Gutawa and a ten - member team of researchers compiled thousands of syllables from Chrisye 's older songs , obtained from the masters , in a database . Some syllables were kept unaltered , while others were amalgamated to form a single sound or more than one ; according to Kompas , the " ku " syllables in " Kidung Abadi " were an amalgamation of 1 , 056 " ku " syllables in Chrisye 's previous songs . Ultimately , a total of 246 syllables were combined in Pro Tools to form the new song ; the program was also used to change the pitch of numerous syllables . Gutawa inserted pauses where he assumed Chrisye would have paused if singing the song in real life ; he based his choices on his previous experience with Chrisye . The entire process , from writing to recording , took three months . The song was initially performed at the Kidung Abadi concert on as the penultimate song . It was overlaid on a black - and - white video of Chrisye singing projected on an 8 - by - 4 - metre ( 26 by 13 ft ) screen . The video was created by Jay Subiyakto , who spliced together archived footage of Chrisye performing . Chrisye 's lips were synchronised to move in time with the vocals . Subiyakto stated that he did not base the work on foreign shows , choosing instead to start from scratch . The music was provided by a live orchestra . Reception Eko <unk> , writing for <unk> , called the song one of the best parts of the concert , although he considered the synchronisation off . Frans <unk> wrote in Kompas that the song was " touching " , quoting the lyrics " See the times pass , I 'm here and you 're there .... Though now I 'm far from you , I 'll keep singing . Hear my melody flow ; this is for you " as reflecting Chrisye 's unique style . The thousands - strong crowd gave the song a rowdy ovation after the performance .
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Nikita Filatov Nikita Vasilyevich Filatov ( <unk> <unk> <unk> ; born May 25 , 1990 ) is a Russian professional ice hockey left winger currently playing for Admiral Vladivostok of the Kontinental Hockey League ( KHL ) . He has previously played for CSKA Moscow and Salavat Yulaev Ufa of the KHL . Prior to 2012 , Filatov played in North America for the Ottawa Senators and Columbus Blue Jackets of the National Hockey League ( NHL ) , along with their respective affiliates in the American Hockey League ( AHL ) . At the 2008 NHL Entry Draft , Filatov was selected sixth overall by the Columbus Blue Jackets . Filatov was the top - ranked European skater by the NHL Central Scouting Bureau . Filatov played two seasons with the Blue Jackets organization . During the 2009 – 10 season , Filatov was unhappy with his situation in Columbus and was loaned to CSKA Moscow for the remainder of the season . At the 2011 NHL Entry Draft , the Blue Jackets then traded him to Ottawa in exchange for a third - round draft pick . In December 2011 , the Senators loaned Filatov to CSKA Moscow for the balance of the 2011 – 12 season . The following season , Filatov signed with Salavat Yulaev . The Senators chose not to tender Filatov a qualifying offer , making him a free agent . Filatov has represented Russia in international hockey at two World U18 Championships , winning gold and silver medals , and three World Junior Championships , where he has won two bronze medals . He was named to the Tournament All - Star Team at the 2008 World U18 Championships and the 2009 World Junior Championships . Playing career Junior Filatov played minor and junior hockey in the CSKA Red Army hockey system from the age of 13 . At the age of 15 during the 2005 – 06 season , he made his debut for CSKA - 2 — the club 's junior team — where he continued to play during the 2006 – 07 season , and averaged more than three points per game . In the same season , Filatov made his international debut for Russia at the World Under 18 Championship . During the 2007 – 08 season , Filatov made his professional Russian Superleague ( RSL ) debut with CSKA , seeing limited action in five games . He spent the majority of the season playing at the junior level in Russia . With his CSKA junior team , Filatov played in 23 games , scoring 23 goals and providing 24 assists . Leading up to the 2008 NHL Entry Draft , the League 's annual meeting at which the rights to amateur players are divided among teams , NHL 's Central Scouting Bureau , ranked Filatov as the top European skater in their mid - term and final rankings . After the 2007 – 08 season , Filatov was subsequently selected sixth overall at the Draft by the Columbus Blue Jackets . Filatov was also the first overall selection in the 2008 Canadian Hockey League Import Draft , selected by the Sudbury Wolves of the Ontario Hockey League ( OHL ) . Sudbury General Manager Mike <unk> was comfortable with the risks of not knowing whether Filatov would play at junior or professional level when he came to North America . Blue Jackets General Manager Scott Howson would not guarantee Filatov a place on their team , saying , " We 've already told Nikita that we 'll see how things go in training camp and we 'll decide what 's best for him . " Professional After being drafted by the Blue Jackets , Filatov signed a three - year contract with the club on July 10 , 2008 . His base salary for the contract was $ 875 , 000 , with bonus clauses that could bring the value as high as $ 1 . 35 million per season . His signing with Columbus created some controversy within the Kontinental Hockey League ( KHL ) , however , as League President Alexander Medvedev claimed that the Blue Jackets owed CSKA Moscow compensation of at least $ 1 . 5 million for signing Filatov . Medvedev claimed that although the term of the contract had expired , under Russian law it did not terminate until an indemnity amount had been negotiated . The Blue Jackets and Filatov believed that giving his club 30 days notice was sufficient to terminate the contract . CSKA threatened to withhold Filatov 's transfer card , thus impeding his ability to play in another league , but Filatov , his lawyers and the Blue Jackets believed they had followed the necessary tenets of Russian law . Filatov 's contract was one of six reviewed by the International Ice Hockey Federation ( IIHF ) in an attempt to mediate the disputes between the KHL and NHL . During this investigation , the players were unable to play international hockey sanctioned by the IIHF . In September , the KHL dropped its opposition to Filatov 's contract with the Blue Jackets , and he received his transfer . Filatov did not make the team after attending training camp with the Blue Jackets , instead making his North American professional debut for the Blue Jackets ' American Hockey League ( AHL ) affiliate , the Syracuse Crunch . On October 15 , 2008 , however , Filatov was called up to the NHL , playing in his first game and scoring his first goal with the Blue Jackets on October 17 against the Nashville Predators . For the rest of the 2008 – 09 season , Filatov split time between the AHL and the NHL . He played eight games with the Blue Jackets , finishing the season with four goals . He became the first Blue Jackets rookie to record a hat - trick in the January 10 , 2009 , game against the Minnesota Wild . At the end of the season , Filatov had played 39 games with the Crunch in the AHL , scoring 16 goals and 16 assists . For his performances , he was named as a starter for the PlanetUSA team in the 2009 AHL All - Star Game . At the start of the 2009 – 10 season , Filatov made the Blue Jackets roster after training camp . Although healthy , he did not play in six of the team 's first 18 games , a decision made by Columbus Head Coach Ken Hitchcock . Filatov was unhappy with his playing time and role on the team under Hitchcock and requested to be transferred back to his Russian club team . Hitchcock and the Blue Jackets coaching staff tried to improve Filatov 's attention to defensive aspects of the game . The Blue Jackets management agreed to Filatov 's request to return to Russia for the remainder of the season . This arrangement resulted from direct dealings between the Blue Jackets and CSKA Moscow , where Filatov 's salary was paid by the Russian club , and the Blue Jackets retained his rights . Shortly after his return to Russia , Filatov set a KHL record by scoring the game - winning goal in three consecutive games . He was named the League 's best newcomer ( defined by the KHL as " a player born in 1987 or later , who has played no more than 20 top - level matches in previous national tournaments " ) for November , and the League 's best rookie for the 11th week of the season . In his shortened season in Russia , Filatov played 26 games , scoring nine goals and adding 13 assists . Initial statements by both sides indicated the player would return to Columbus after the 2009 – 10 season , but since returning to Russia , Filatov has been less clear about his intentions for the 2010 – 11 season , stating , " I hope I 'll be back next year , but right now , it 's really hard to say because it will again be a tough decision . " Howson did not comment on Filatov 's stance , except to say that he expects Filatov to be at the team 's training camp prior to the 2010 – 11 season . Subsequently , Filatov stated after the 2009 – 10 season that he intended to return to Columbus for training camp . During the off - season , the Blue Jackets sent Development Coach Tyler Wright to Russia to train with Filatov to assess his readiness for the upcoming season , and to communicate the team 's desire to work with him . Blue Jackets Head Coach Scott Arniel was pleased to see Filatov arrive in Columbus six weeks ahead of the teams ' 2010 – 11 season , allowing him a chance to mend relationships with his teammates who may have been annoyed by Filatov 's departure . Howson said the team never doubted Filatov 's skill : " Nikita has the skill and the ability to play in a top - six role . " Arniel was optimistic about Filatov 's return to the team , offering him a clean slate and a chance to earn a spot on one of the team 's top two lines . After speaking with his friend Sergei Shirokov ( who played for Arniel on the Manitoba Moose ) , Filatov was optimistic about working with Columbus ' new head coach . Filatov started the season with the Blue Jackets at the NHL level and recorded seven assists in 23 games . In December 2010 , Filatov was demoted to the AHL and spent the remainder of the season with the Springfield Falcons , Columbus ' new AHL affiliate . With the Falcons , he played in 36 games , scoring nine goals and adding 11 assists . At the 2011 NHL Entry Draft , Columbus severed their ties with Filatov , trading him to the Ottawa Senators in exchange for a third - round pick . Filatov left his family vacationing in the Dominican Republic and joined the Senators for their development camp at Scotiabank Place in Ottawa . He made the Senators out of training camp , but was a healthy scratch several times , splitting his time with Ottawa and the Binghamton Senators of the AHL . In November 2011 , the Ottawa Citizen 's Allen <unk> reported from sources in Columbus that Filatov had refused to play the style the Blue Jackets asked of him , saying to his coach , " Filly [ Filatov ] don 't do rebounds . " In December , the Senators offered Filatov the choice to play the rest of the season with CSKA Moscow of the KHL and Filatov agreed . Senators General Manager Bryan Murray suggested it was better for his development as Murray felt that Filatov needed to work on becoming stronger and compete harder to make it in the NHL . Head Coach Paul MacLean felt Filatov 's struggles in the NHL were surprising , considering he had 12 points in 15 games in the AHL . Filatov himself stated that he had to get better . MacLean had hoped that Filatov would have stayed and worked on his game in Binghamton , but Murray explained that it was more lucrative for Filatov to play in the KHL than at Binghamton , and did not block the transfer . Filatov did not immediately agree to terms with CSKA . For a few days it appeared that Filatov would not sign a contract with CSKA , so the Senators assigned him to Binghamton and threatened to suspend him in order to remove him from the Senators ' salary cap . On December 18 , 2011 , Filatov agreed to a contract with CSKA Moscow . Despite Filatov leaving for the KHL , the Senators still had hopes to develop Filatov . Filatov 's contract was ready to expire in June 2012 , and the Senators planned to make a qualifying contract offer to Filatov to retain his NHL rights . However , in May 2012 , Filatov chose to stay in the KHL and agreed to a one - year contract with Salavat Yulaev Ufa . After he signed with Salavat Yulaev , the Senators chose to not make the offer , making him an unrestricted free agent . After three seasons in the NHL , Filatov left with only six goals and eight assists in 53 NHL games . Stephen <unk> of The Globe and Mail identified him as one of the top five biggest " draft busts " in recent NHL history . Hockey 's Future also rated Filatov a bust . In the 2012 – 13 season , Filatov played in 47 games with Salavat Yulaev , scoring ten goals and adding 11 assists . He remained with Salavat for the 2013 – 14 season . International play Filatov has played extensively for Russia 's national teams in under - 18 and under - 20 tournaments . His first IIHF competition for Russia was the 2007 U18 Championship held in the Finnish cities of Rauma and Tampere . Russia won a gold medal in that tournament , and as an underaged player , Filatov contributed four goals and five assists in seven games . He led the Russian team in total points and was second to Alexei <unk> in goals scored . After this tournament , Russia 's coaches named Filatov as one of the team 's three best players . Filatov also played at the 2008 U18 Championship held in his native Russia , in Kazan . Filatov captained the team to a silver medal , scoring three goals and adding six assists . He was named to the Tournament All - Star Team . At the 2008 World Junior Championship in Pardubice and Liberec , Czech Republic , Filatov made his debut with Russia 's under - 20 junior squad . At the tournament , he scored four goals and added five assists , leading the Russian squad in total points and placing second to Viktor Tikhonov in goals scored . The Russian team captured bronze at the tournament after defeating the United States 4 – 2 . Filatov scored two goals in the bronze medal game , and was named Russia 's best player of the game by the IIHF . The AHL 's Syracuse Crunch released Filatov to participate in the 2009 World Junior Championship held in Ottawa . Filatov served as Russia 's captain for the tournament . In seven games at the tournament , he scored eight goals and added three assists , which tied him for fourth in tournament scoring . The Russian team again captured the bronze medal , this time by defeating Slovakia 5 – 2 . Filatov was named best player of the game for a preliminary round game against Finland and for the bronze medal game against Slovakia , and he was named to the Tournament All - Star Team . After returning to Russia early in the 2009 – 10 season , Filatov had the opportunity to compete in a third World Junior Championship at the 2010 tournament held in Saskatoon and Regina . As in 2009 , he served as Russia 's team captain . During preliminary round play , Filatov was named best player for Russia in their game against Finland . The tournament , however , was a disappointment for the Russians after they lost to Switzerland in the quarterfinals . Prior to the fifth place game against the Czech Republic , Filatov was stripped of his captaincy and replaced by teammate Kirill Petrov after criticizing the team personnel during a media scrum . After participating in three World Junior Ice Hockey Championships , Filatov is tied with Evgeny Kuznetsov as Russia 's all - time leading scorer at the event — both forwards finished their junior careers with 26 points . Playing style Scouting reports on Filatov were mixed in advance of the 2008 NHL Entry Draft . Sergei <unk> , head coach of Russia 's national junior team , said of Filatov , " He definitely has an NHL upside because he can score , is a well - rounded player and is responsible in the defensive zone . " Independent scouting service Red Line Report at one point declared Filatov " the next best thing to Steven Stamkos " ( who was eventually selected first overall in the 2008 Draft ) . McKeen 's Hockey scouts described him as a cross between Ilya Kovalchuk and Maxim <unk> . His strengths included his skating and vision , as well as the inclination to play at high intensity . The NHL 's Director of European Scouting , Goran Stubb , assessed Filatov 's NHL readiness as , " Nikita is a leader , has a great attitude , an excellent work ethic and tons of talent . " Other scouts were not as impressed with his defensive game , however , preferring to focus on his offensive abilities . Off the ice , Filatov does not train in a traditional gym or weight room , preferring to run outside in sand and lift objects such as trees and boulders . Personal life Filatov was born in Moscow , Russia , to parents Slava and Yelena . He speaks fluent English due in large part to his mother , a teacher who gave him lessons at home . When he started playing professional hockey in North America for Syracuse , his mother stayed for several weeks to help him get acclimated to his new surroundings . Career statistics Regular season and playoffs International Statistics Sources Awards International Professional
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Hurricane Cora Hurricane Cora was the first tropical cyclone of the 1978 Atlantic hurricane season to reach hurricane strength . Forming from a disturbance that exited the African coast on August 7 , the storm moved at an unusually high forward speed for a cyclone in the Atlantic Ocean in August . The storm later reached hurricane strength and formed a well - defined eye that lasted only 12 hours before the eye rapidly lost organization for unknown reasons , though the post - season report on the storm mentions the possibility that its high speed caused the eye to dissipate . The storm moved west - southwestward , weakening before making landfall on the island of Grenada . The storm lost its circulation and became a tropical wave on August 12 . The remnant crossed over Central America into the Pacific Ocean , where it reintensified , becoming Hurricane Kristy . Cora was an unusual cyclone , maintaining an unusually low latitude for the Atlantic in August at high speeds , similar to the tracks of Tropical Storm Alma in 1974 and Tropical Storm Fran in 1990 . The hurricane was also upgraded into a hurricane based solely on satellite photography , the second time this occurred . Although it passed through the Windward Islands and the Lesser Antilles , only minor effects were reported . Cora was also responsible for altering weather conditions allowing for a takeoff of the historical flight of the Double Eagle II hot air balloon . Meteorological history In early August , a disturbance was observed in satellite images moving off the coast of Africa on August 4 . Moving westward along the Intertropical Convergence Zone at a forward speed of roughly 20 mph ( 32 km / h ) , the disturbance showed no signs of development until a cloud mass broke away from the ITCZ on August 6 . The separated mass began rapidly organizing , becoming Tropical Depression Three late on August 7 . The tropical depression continued to gain organization and was upgraded to a tropical storm on August 8 , receiving the name Cora . The newly named tropical storm continued to grow , reaching hurricane strength later that day after developing a well - defined eye , peaking early on August 9 with 90 mph ( 140 km / h ) winds , a minimum pressure of 980 mbar , and gale – force winds extending 100 mi ( 160 km ) from the center . The hurricane began to shift into a west - southwest track while moving at 23 mph ( 37 km / h ) . The hurricane would continue in this direction throughout its lifespan . Only 12 hours after forming , the eye rapidly dissipated on satellite imagery for unknown reasons , although the hurricane 's high forward speed may have played a part . After becoming disorganized , a Hurricane Hunter aircraft — the first one to fly in the storm — reported that the cyclone had winds of only 65 mph ( 105 km / h ) , the highest winds recorded in the storm . After the report , Cora was downgraded into a tropical storm early on August 10 . The dissipating storm continued on , striking the island of Grenada on August 11 as it weakened into a tropical depression . On August 12 , the depression weakened into a tropical wave near Aruba due to continental influence despite atmospheric conditions being favorable for development . The wave was notable in that it was almost completely devoid of any cloudiness or convection . The remnants of Cora crossed Central America and uneventfully continued westward until August 18 , when its remains contributed to the formation of Hurricane Kristy . Impact , records , and naming While passing through the Lesser Antilles , reports of squalls with wind speeds of 45 mph ( 72 km / h ) were received from St. Lucia and Barbados . Rain was also reported , but totals were not large due to the storm 's quick passage . One death was attributed to Cora on St. Lucia when a 22 – year old stepped on a high tension power line that was downed by the winds from the storm in Castries . In addition , an industry on the island reported tree losses of two to four percent from the storm . No reports of damage were received from the other Windward Islands and damage on Grenada , if any , is unknown . Although it remained far to the south , Hurricane Cora affected weather conditions that reached as far north as Presque Isle , Maine , where balloonists Ben Abruzzo , Maxie Anderson , and Larry Newman were preparing to make the first ever transatlantic balloon flight on the Double Eagle II . The winds created by Cora 's influence would give the hot air balloon the northerly push required for takeoff according to Anderson . After six days , the Double Eagle II completed the flight , landing near <unk> , France . Cora also affected another record attempt when swimmer Diana <unk> was delayed due to the hurricane 's influence . The planned marathon swimming record attempt was for her to swim from Cuba to Florida , a total of 103 mi ( 166 km ) . The record attempt ultimately failed after 42 hours . According to the preliminary report on the hurricane , neither track forecasts or intensity forecasts panned out for the storm . The track forecasts called for a path more northward than the actual track whereas following the development of the eye , intensity forecasts called for further strengthening until it became clear the cyclone was weakening . When it was upgraded to a hurricane on August 8 , Cora became the second hurricane to have been upgraded to that intensity based solely on satellite presentation after 1975 's Hurricane Doris . The hurricane was also the second of three storms in the season to reform or be reclassified as East Pacific storms . The other two were Tropical Storm Bess ( which became Hurricane Iva ) , and Hurricane Greta - Olivia . Of these , only Greta maintained its circulation over land . This was the only time an Atlantic hurricane was named Cora .
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Thank God I Found You " Thank God I Found You " is a song by American singer and songwriter Mariah Carey . It features guest vocals from R & B singer Joe and American boy band 98 Degrees . Written and produced by Carey along with Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis , the song was released on January 25 , 2000 , through Columbia Records as the second single from her seventh studio album , Rainbow ( 1999 ) . " Thank God I Found You " is an R & B power ballad that was inspired by a relationship Carey was going through at the time , and lyrically recounts a powerful love relationship in which the protagonist tells her lover " thank God I found you . " " Thank God I Found You " received mixed reviews from contemporary music critics ; some felt it was a great album closer while others deemed it as " un - listenable " and " forgettable " . Nevertheless , the song became Carey 's fifteenth number - one single on the United States Billboard Hot 100 and remained her last chart topping single until 2005 's comeback single " We Belong Together " . The single was later certified Gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) . Aside from its peak of number two in Canada , the song achieved moderate international charting , reaching the top ten in the United Kingdom and peaking within the top thirty in Australia , Belgium ( Wallonia ) , France , Germany , the Netherlands , and Switzerland . A music video for " Thank God I Found You " , directed by Brett Ratner , features Carey , Joe , and 98 Degrees performing the song at an outdoor concert . The Make It Last Remix had its own video commissioned , which was shot in a grainy fashion in Hamburg , Germany , and shows Carey and the song 's featured artists performing at a small club . Carey performed the song 's original version and accompanying remix live at the 27th Annual American Music Awards . It was featured on the set - lists of the Rainbow World Tour ( 2000 ) and The Adventures of Mimi Tour ( 2006 ) , with Trey Lorenz serving as the male vocalist . Carey re - recorded her vocals for the song 's main remix titled " Thank God I Found You " ( Make It Last Remix ) , which features vocals from Joe and Carey 's label - mate , rapper Nas . The remix is a remake of Keith Sweat 's song " Make It Last Forever " ( 1988 ) , and incorporates a few verses from the original version of " Thank God I Found You " . DJ Clue produced the remix , transforming it into a slow groove R & B number . In September 2000 , US songwriters Seth Swirsky and Warryn Campbell filed a copyright infringement lawsuit against Carey claiming that " Thank God I Found You " borrowed heavily from the song " One of Those Love Songs " they composed for R & B group Xscape . The court awarded the case in Carey 's favor , not finding sufficient similarities between the two songs . Background and recording Carey and her husband , Tommy Mottola , who was a Sony CEO , separated in 1997 . This resulted in a strained relationship with Sony . By the spring of 1999 , Carey had begun work on her last album of her contract with Columbia Records , titled Rainbow . Her relationship with Sony had affected her collaboration with writing partner Walter Afanasieff , who had worked with her throughout the first half of her career . As a result , she worked extensively with many other songwriters and producers for the album , including the duo Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis , known for their work with Janet Jackson . " Thank God I Found You " was written by Jam and Lewis and co - written by Carey . When Jam and Lewis first started working with Carey , they did not have a definite idea of what Carey expected from them . In an interview with Fred Bronson , Jam and Lewis explained : It wasn 't like Janet [ Jackson ] , where we all grew up together . Mariah had done her own thing and had been very involved with the arranging and production of her records , so we respected that and said , ' What can we do for you ? ' She would fly into town for five or six hours . She 'd get on a plane and fly to whatever was the next thing she was doing . One night , Jam and Lewis received a call from Carey 's assistant telling them that Carey had an idea for a song . She asked them to meet her at the studio later that night , and when they arrived , Carey sang the song 's melody for them . Normally when Carey was composing songs , James " Big Jim " Wright would play the chords . He was not present at the studio that night , so Lewis played the chords for Carey . After composing the melody , Carey recorded her vocals . When Carey requested male singers to sing along with her on the track , Jam and Lewis recruited R & B singer Joe . Although Jam and Lewis wanted to feature K - Ci & JoJo on the song , they dropped the idea because they are signed to a different record label . About the recording , Joe said : She [ Carey ] gave me a call , and she was like , " I would love to do a duet with you . Come by the studio . " When I got there , she played the song for me . I didn 't expect to record the song , but when I heard it , I said , " Man , there 's no way I 'm going to leave this studio without my voice being on that record . " Everything just happened so fast . I didn 't expect for it to be a single or a video . Everything was just great . Jam and Lewis also asked the boy band 98 Degrees to join Carey and Joe on the track , as they wanted male harmonies . Carey talked about the collaboration in an interview with MTV . " It 's like when I was writing ' One Sweet Day ' . It really cried out for a group to be singing with me and for a strong male - female thing in terms of going back and forth , vocally . So you know , we just naturally came together . " The vocals were recorded at Capri Digital Studios , Capri , Italy and Avatar Studios , New York City . The track was mixed by Supa Engineer Duo at Right Track Recording and mastered by Herb Powers . Composition " Thank God I Found You " was produced by Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis , and co - produced by Carey . The song is a moderately - paced R & B power ballad . Arion Berger of Rolling Stone noted that the song also exhibits influences of gospel music . The song carries an upbeat tone , backed by slow " manufactured pop beats " . According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by EMI Music Publishing , " Thank God I Found You " is written in the key of B ♭ major . The beat is set in common time , and is set at a tempo of sixty - five beats per minute . The song follows the sequence of B ♭ – F / A – Gm7 – F – E ♭ – F as its chord progression . Carey 's and Joe 's vocals in the song span over two octaves , from the note of D ♭ 4 to the high note of D6 . Composed in verse – chorus – bridge form , the chorus of " Thank God I Found You " is sung in the key of B ♭ major ; Carey also makes use of melisma in the song . The arrangement is similar to Carey 's " One Sweet Day " . Lyrically , the song is an inspirational love song , in which the protagonist thanks God for finding her the perfect partner . According to Carey , it was inspired by the relationship she was in with Latin singer Luis Miguel at that time . She stated that she was telling a story through the song . Remixes Carey re - recorded her vocals for the song 's main remix titled " Thank God I Found You " ( Make It Last Remix ) . The remix is a remake of Keith Sweat 's " Make It Last Forever " ( 1988 ) , and bears few lyrical similarities to the original version of the song . Carey wrote new lyrics for the song , preserving the chorus of the original song . Produced by DJ Clue of Desert Storm Records , the remix is a midtempo tune backed by " R & B - savvy rhythms " over a slow groove . It features vocals from Joe and rapped verses by Columbia Records label - mate Nas . The remix is included on Joe 's third studio album My Name Is Joe ( 2000 ) . Jose F. Promis of Allmusic wrote that he felt the remix seemed unfinished . He added that could have " simply covered the song and kept its integrity intact , instead of meshing it into a sort of half- " Thank God I Found You " / " Make It Last Forever " creation . " However , while reviewing My Name Is Joe , Matt Diehl of Entertainment Weekly picked the track as the best from the album . He wrote " Nas ' grit and Carey 's expert emoting make Joe sing with unexpected feeling . " Derek Ali of Dayton Daily News commended the collaboration , saying " it works out well . " The " Make It Last " remix is featured on Carey 's first remix album The Remixes ( 2003 ) . The Norwegian production team Stargate produced the UK Stargate radio mix . Critical response " Thank God I Found You " garnered mixed reviews from music critics . Jose F. Promis of Allmusic wrote that the song is " [ a ] lush , classic Carey - styled adult contemporary ballad , with uplifting lyrics and a sea of soaring vocals . " The Austin American - Statesman viewed the song as a " dramatic closer " . Arion Berger of Rolling Stone praised the song 's production and the harmony that 98 Degrees ' contributed . Chuck Campbell of The Daily News was also positive stating the song was a " grandiose " album - closer . Steve Jones of USA Today wrote that Carey excelled in the song . Melissa Ruggieri of the Richmond Times - Dispatch noted that Carey found solace in the song . Anthony Johnson , also of the Richmond Times - Dispatch wrote that the track is a " surefire winner " . However , a few other critics deemed the song as forgettable . Dan DeLuca of The Philadelphia Inquirer dismissed the song as a " colorless quality romance " . Robert Hilburn of Los Angeles Times was also negative in his review , calling it as an " overwrought ballad " and wrote it was un - listenable . Dara Cook of MTV Southeast Asia named the song as " a big - production tragicomedy of hilarious histrionics and absurdly dramatic lyrics . " While reviewing Carey 's compilation The Ballads ( 2009 ) , Chuck Campbell of The Press of Atlantic City wrote that at some point in Carey 's career , the quality her songs got " <unk> " and commented that " Thank God I Found You " is such an example . He went on to say that the song was a " trifle " . In 2005 Andrew Unterberger of Stylus gave a negative review , writing the song was " a sub - par , extremely lazy example of an artist reaching the top spot almost solely on reputation . " He wrote that the song would have been the end of Carey 's career . At the 43rd Grammy Awards held in February 2001 , the song was nominated in the category of the Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals , but lost to B.B. King and Dr. John for " Is You Is or Is You Ain 't My Baby " . At the First BMI Urban Awards , held in 2001 , Jam , Lewis , and Carey received BMI 's Urban Songwriter Award . Chart performance In the United States , " Thank God I Found You " was released to radio stations as the second single from Rainbow in November 1999 . A physical single was later released on January 25 , 2000 , in the US and on February 28 , 2000 , in the United Kingdom . The issue dated December 11 , 1999 , debuted at number eighty - two on the Billboard Hot 100 — Carey 's lowest debut at the time . On the week dated February 19 , 2000 , the song reached number - one on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart , becoming Carey 's fifteenth number - one single and marked the eleventh consecutive year with a number - one song . It became the second single to surpass the sales of 100 , 000 units in the year 2000 , preceded by Christina Aguilera 's " What a Girl Wants " . It was certified Gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) in February 2000 . By February 2001 the single had sold about 1 , 700 , 000 copies in the US alone . " Thank God I Found You " also reached the top spot on the Billboard Hot R & B / Hip - Hop Songs chart , marking Carey 's seventh R & B chart topper . It finished at number forty - five on Billboard Hot 100 year - end charts of 2000 . " Thank God I Found You " remained Carey 's last number - one hit in the US until 2005 's " We Belong Together " . In Canada , the single debuted at a position of number two on the Canadian Singles Chart , on the Billboard issue dated February 12 , 2000 . The following week , it descended to number three before retreating down the chart steadily . In Australia , it entered the Australian Singles Chart at its peak of number twenty - seven , on the week dated March 12 , 2000 . The next week it dropped to number forty - seven . In New Zealand , it debuted on the singles chart at a position of number thirty - four , the week dated April 2 , 2000 . The song went down to number thirty - five next week , before dropping to number forty - four . In Europe , " Thank God I Found You " charted in a few countries . In the United Kingdom , the single debuted and peaked at number ten on the UK Singles Chart on the week dated March 11 , 2000 . The single stayed on the chart for ten weeks , including one re - entry at number seventy - one on the week dated May 20 , 2000 . In the Flanders region of Belgium , the song debuted at number forty - seven and peaked at thirty - six . In the Wallonia region , it debuted at number thirty - five and peaked at number twenty - three three weeks after its debut . In France , the single entered the singles chart at number thirty - one , the week dated March 4 , 2000 . The next week it ascended to its peak of number twenty - eight . It stayed on the chart for fifteen weeks . In the Netherlands , " Thank God I Found You " entered the Single Top 100 at number fifty - five , before peaking at number twenty - three the next week . The song also peaked at number twenty - eight in Germany , forty - three in Sweden , thirty - one in Ireland , and at number seventeen in Switzerland . Music video The music video for " Thank God I Found You " was filmed by Brett Ratner in Minneapolis . The video is a tape of the performance Carey , Joe , and 98 Degrees gave at the Last Chance Summer Dance summer music concert , organized by 101 . 3 KDWB - FM . It premiered on October 4 , 1999 , on MTV 's Total Request Live ( TRL ) . The video opens with scenes of Carey and Joe in the studio . Carey is with her puppy and talking on a mobile phone . The video shows saturated blue skies and behind - the - scenes footage of Carey carousing with her dog Jack and writing lyrics on a notepad . As the song starts , Carey is shown lying on red sofa , writing the lyrics on the notepad . Then she performs the song on the stage , joined by Joe and 98 Degrees . Additionally , there is a video for the " Make It Last Remix " that features Carey with braids in a nightclub with Joe and Nas . Directed by Sanaa Hamri . The video is grainy ; it was shot at Bar Rosso in Hamburg , Germany on October 16 and 17 , 1999 . Live performances " Thank God I Found You " was performed a number of times between 2000 and 2005 . Carey opened the 27th Annual American Music Awards , held at the Shrine Auditorium , with a medley of the original and remix versions of the song . After Carey appeared on stage wearing a black skirt with a high slit and sporting a blond and straightened hairstyle , Joe joined her with several male and female back - up dancers , all of whom who wore black outfits . After performing the first verse and chorus , Nas joined the duo on stage for the Make It Last Remix . Later on in the show , she was honored with the " Award of Achievement " for earning a number one single in every year of the 1990s . Vibe commended the performance , writing that it " offered an insight into how a little girl from Long Island , New York became hip hop 's answer to Celine Dion . " In 2000 , Carey performed the song on the Italian television show Quelli che ... il Calcio . Aside from the several televised and the award show performance , Carey included the song on the set - list of her concert tours , starting with the Rainbow World Tour . During the tour , Trey Lorenz , her only male background singer , replaced Joe as the song 's main male vocalist . At the show at Madison Square Garden on April 11 , 2000 , Carey wore a long orange cocktail gown with a long cascading neck line . Lorenz , wearing a black leather sports jacket and matching pants , made another featured appearance on the tour , performing his song " Make You Happy " during an interval of costume changes following the performance . Following the release of her tenth studio effort The Emancipation of Mimi in 2005 , Carey embarked on The Adventures of Mimi Tour in mid 2006 . On several stops of the tour , Carey performed the song as part of the set - list , usually towards the end of the show . Similar to the Rainbow World Tour , Lorenz performed the song alongside Carey instead of Joe . Carey , wearing a midsection - baring turquoise evening gown , introduced the song to the audience by telling of its conception , concept and featured artists , followed by a performance of the song 's remix . Lawsuit On September 15 , 2000 , US songwriters Seth Swirsky and Warren Campbell filed a lawsuit against Carey at the 9th Circuit for copyright infringement , " reverse passing off " and false designation , claiming that " Thank God I Found You " borrowed heavily from a song they composed called " One of Those Love Songs " . It was recorded by the R & B group Xscape in 1998 for their album Traces of My Lipstick . The lawsuit claimed that Carey wrongfully gave the songwriting credits to Jam and Lewis . Swirsky and Campbell had sold the rights of the song to So So Def Recordings in 1998 . " I 'm a fan of Mariah Carey ; this is nothing personal against her . But I really do believe there 's accountability , and it 's very clear what happened here . I 've never sued anybody before " , Swirsky said . According to the district court , an expert witness ( chair of the Musicology Department at the University of California at Los Angeles ) determined that the songs shared a " substantially similar chorus " . The expert stated that although the lyrics and verse melodies of the two songs were different , the songs ' choruses " shared a ' basic shape and pitch emphasis ' in their melodies , which were played over ' highly similar basslines ' and chord changes , at very nearly the same tempo and in the same generic style . " He noted both the songs had their choruses sung in the key of B ♭ . The expert further remarked that " the emphasis on musical notes " on the two songs was the same , which " contribute [ d ] to the impression of similarity one hears when comparing the two songs . " He presented a series of visual transcriptions of his observations . The transcriptions contained details about the pitch sequence of both the songs ' chorus , melody , and bassline . The district court labeled this evidence as insufficient to survive a motion for summary judgment . It noted the expert 's methodology to be " flawed " and stated that through its own analysis , no instance of substantial similarity was found . The lawsuit was settled in favor of Carey by the US District Judge , who noted that there was no similarity in key , harmonic structure , tempo , or genre between the two songs . The judgement was later reversed and the lawsuit reinstated in 2004 ; Carey and Swirsky settled out of court in 2006 . Track listing Credits and personnel Credits adapted from Rainbow liner notes . Charts
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2010 Shanghai fire The 2010 Shanghai fire was a fire on 15 November 2010 that destroyed a 28 - story high - rise apartment building in the city of Shanghai , China , killing at least 58 people and injuring more than 70 others ( with at least one source reporting more than 120 others injured ) . An investigation under the PRC State Council was announced on 16 November , the day after the fire , to determine the cause of the blaze . A preliminary finding by investigators concluded that sparks from welding work being done on the building , undertaken by unlicensed welders , ignited scaffolding around the structure , which led to the apartment 's destruction . The municipal government also placed the blame on illegal multi - layered subcontracting , and detained four managers from several construction companies . In all , sixteen individuals have been arrested in connection to the fire , including four others accused of being unlicensed welders . The week after the fire , city officials announced a compensation plan for victims of the fire and their families . The fire also prompted the government to pass stricter regulations on the construction industry , as well as increased fire safety inspections . Some citizens have criticized the government , accusing it of censoring the media and providing an inadequate response to the fire . Fire The fire began at 2 : 15 pm local time ( 06 : 15 UTC ) around the tenth floor . The building , constructed in 1997 , was located at the intersection of Jiaozhou Road and Yuyao Road in Shanghai 's Jing 'an District , and was being renovated at the time of the fire . Witnesses said that the fire started with construction materials and spread throughout the building . It took over 80 fire engines and several hours to contain the fire . Shanghai residents were able to see smoke from the fire several kilometres away . Firefighters were unable to hose water on the top of the 85 metres ( 279 ft ) -tall building from the ground . China Youth Daily reported that the contractor for the construction said the cause of the fire was probably sparks caused by welding work done on the 20th floor . Qiu <unk> , a worker on the 18th floor , said sparks from welding being done on another building flew over and caused the scaffolding to catch fire . Afterward , it was established that the fire " was caused by unlicensed welders improperly operating their equipment " , and several welders were arrested . Rescue efforts Firefighters were able to save over 100 people out of 156 families living in the high - rise apartment building . According to Al Jazeera , the fire began at the scaffolding that surrounded the building , but spread to the complex 's main building of around 500 apartments . Xinhua News Agency said the fire was contained at about 6 : 30 pm local time ( 10 : 30 UTC ) , more than four hours after it began . Three helicopters had been called in to assist in the rescue , but were prevented by thick smoke generated by the fire . The upper portion of the building was beyond the reach of fire apparatus ; the blaze was brought under control only after firefighters set up hoses atop a nearby building . In all , 25 fire stations and over 100 fire appliances were mobilised in response to the incident . Television coverage of the event showed people holding on to scaffolding around the building , and some were able to climb down to safety . One worker on the 28th floor said that workers were adding insulation to the building when the fire broke out . Victims not in hospitals , as well as evacuees from three surrounding city blocks , were sent to public buildings , including a school and a stadium , until their housing situation could be addressed . Casualties The building housed around 440 people , mainly retired teachers . An early report showed that the ages of those injured in the fire range from 3 to 85 , with the majority ( 64 . 5 % ) over the age of 50 . Most of the injured appeared to be elderly residents or children , and it was confirmed that the youngest victim of the fire was 16 months old . A firefighter said that 57 of the 58 killed had died inside the building . Earliest reports put the death toll at eight , but Xinhua later revised the count several times , and then finally confirmed 53 deaths . 26 bodies were identified using DNA tests . Some media outlets reported 79 fatalities by adding the number of identified victims to the number of previously reported fatalities , although Xinhua later said that the 26 identified were included amongst the 53 . As of 24 November , 58 people ( 22 males and 36 females ) were officially reported dead while 56 people remained missing . The Global Times reported that , as of 28 December 2010 , 71 people had been injured , and 36 were still missing . Of the deceased , 57 were identified by DNA tests early on , while one male , from Japan , was still being identified when the official death count was released . A doctor at Shanghai 's Jing 'an Hospital said that over 20 people injured in the fire had been admitted , many suffering from asphyxia caused by smoke inhalation . State media reports said the hospital was treating 55 survivors , including nine in serious condition . At least 70 people , and possibly more than 120 people were reported to have been injured . According to BBC News , people who survived the blaze were searching hospitals for missing family and friends . As of 24 November , 66 wounded people , 14 of which were in critical condition , were being treated at seven area medical centers . In all , nine hospitals received victims of the fire . The list of the dead was not released as the victims ' families wanted privacy . Authorities said more than one - third of the families did not want the names of the deceased published . However , several newspapers listed some of the names of the dead . The artist Ai Weiwei compiled an unofficial list of the victims ' names by contacting their relatives , along with officials and journalists . He claimed that the actual death toll was two more than the official count , but authorities did not provide access to the list of casualties . Response Investigation Meng <unk> , the Minister of Public Security , went to Shanghai to manage rescue operations . Jing 'an officials set up temporary lodging and food at area hotels , and some survivors stayed at a gymnasium overnight . After the flames were extinguished , the Shanghai Municipal Government held a press conference about the damage caused by the fire . Liu <unk> , Vice Minister of Public Security , described the firefighting as " a successful model " , leading to a dispute by Chinese netizens . Later in the week of the fire , government officials began a drive to increase fire and safety inspections at buildings and construction sites . They also said that improvements would be made to the city 's firefighting capabilities . Local residents said that fire safety requirements at the high - rise were lax , and that workers often tossed used cigarettes into the building 's hallways . Week - long safety inspections were done on the two other buildings of the apartment complex , both of which were unharmed . The several hundred people living in those buildings were expected to be allowed to move back on 20 December 2010 . Until then , the survivors would live in 17 nearby hotels . According to Ming Pao , family members of the victims were dissatisfied with the official investigation and held a sit - in protest , calling for a fair judgement . Some locals blamed the official rescue work by comparing it with a large emergency response exercise on a 330 - meter building several days before , and the successful firefighting for a blaze at Shanghai World Financial Center in 2007 . Others blamed an ineffective firefighting system for the high death toll , and were dissatisfied that they were not given more details about the fire . In Beijing , authorities halted renovation projects similar to the one being done on the apartment in Shanghai shortly after the blaze . The projects , intended to save energy by installing insulation , were stopped on 19 November , pending safety evaluations of the work . The insulation is still flammable , despite the use of fire retardants . Shanghai officials temporarily stopped such renovations after the fire , but later allowed them to resume . On 20 December 2010 , the mayor of Shanghai , Han Zheng , said that the city would crack down on unfair practices of construction companies and contracting firms . Han said that there is little regulation of the construction industry and that certain companies have had advantages over other companies when being awarded contracts . On 11 January 2011 , Shanghai authorities placed into effect a new set of regulations aimed at better official supervision of construction companies . The city will also require that such companies will not be permitted to have any non - official relationship with local government offices after one year . Some media organizations had been questioning the connections between Jing 'an District 's government and the contracting groups involved in the fire , leading to accusations of corruption . Compensation On 23 November , it was announced that the families of each victim of the fire would receive 960 , 000 yuan in compensation for the ordeal . The compensation would include 650 , 000 yuan for every death and 310 , 000 yuan in financial assistance from the government and charities . Zhang <unk> , the top official of Jing 'an District , said that Shanghai residents and foreign workers would be compensated equally . Survivors of the blaze would be fully compensated for the loss of possessions and property . Some who lost relatives in the disaster , however , were not satisfied with the announcement . They said that the compensation plan was not enough to pay for another apartment in the district , and that would rather have a new apartment than the money . Media censorship allegations Hong Kong - based Sing Tao Daily and Singapore - based <unk> <unk> reported that four journalists from <unk> News ( <unk> ) , China Daily , Reuters and a local newspaper were detained for one hour as security forces demanded a guarantee for positive news coverage by the journalists , before they were to interview families of the victims at a funeral parlour . The reporters wrote about their detainment on two websites . A Chinese webmaster said that the authorities demanded for Chinese websites to cut down on their reporting of the fire , and only allowed usage of the official Xinhua news source . The New York Times reported that Chinese website <unk> Online was blocked by government censors after criticizing the country 's real - estate industry . Responsibility Han Zheng said on 22 November that the city was largely responsible for the disaster . He said , " Poor supervision of the city 's construction industry was one of the causes behind the high - rise apartment building fire . And we are responsible for that . " Willy Wo - Lap Lam , a professor at the Chinese University of Hong Kong , said Han was trying " to do some damage control to dispel anger and to comfort the families of the victims and the Shanghai people . " Luo Lin , chief of the PRC State Administration of Work Safety , blamed the fire on illegal employment methods , poor project oversight , and incompetent , inexperienced workers . On the day following the fire , Meng <unk> said he wanted an investigation into the fire to determine who was responsible for it , so those at fault could be punished appropriately . He told rescue officials to be meticulous in their efforts and that information regarding the fire should be released to the public . He also asked local governments across China to take preventative measures against such fires , including building inspections . A team of investigators , led by the State Administration of Work Safety , was formed under the PRC State Council to look into the incident . Many details about the " November 15 Relief and Rehabilitation Working Team " have not been publicly announced . The investigation into the fire made a preliminary conclusion that negligence by unlicensed welders on the tenth floor caused the bamboo scaffolding and attached nylon netting to catch fire , which subsequently spread to the entire structure . Shanghai authorities detained eight individuals on 16 November , at least four of whom were accused of being unlicensed welders . As of 19 November , a total of twelve individuals were being held by officials in connection to the blaze , including four more who were detained that day . The four were representatives of <unk> Building Decoration , a part of renovation contractor Jing 'an Construction , Shanghai Jing 'an Construction Supervision , and the apartment management company . On 24 December 2010 , Shanghai officials announced that three government employees had been taken into custody in connection with the fire . Those detained were accused of abusing their authority to permit illicit construction practices to occur . The three were reported to be Gao <unk> , director of Jing 'an 's construction and transportation commission ; Zhang Quan , of the commission 's main office ; and Zhou <unk> , of the organization 's construction department . Cause of fire The fire may have been caused by the accidental ignition of polyurethane foam insulation used on the building 's outer walls . In China , the foam is commonly used as insulation material without the addition of flame retardants , and the foam produces toxic gases and carbon monoxide when burned . The Beijing Television Cultural Center was said to have used polyurethane insulation , which magnified the ferocity of a 2009 fire that consumed the center . In a 24 November press conference , local authorities said that the two apartments next to the destroyed building would be renovated as well , and that foam cladding on their exteriors would be replaced switched out in favor of fire - resistant materials . Chinese citizens have also questioned the lack of an indoor fire sprinkler system in high rise buildings . Public mourning Local citizens put flowers and wreaths near the site , and offered prayers around the destroyed building . Mourners , including Government officials , came bearing chrysanthemums . At one point , the crowd stretched around 250 metres ( 820 ft ) down the road . According to Xinhua , about 10 , 000 people attended a public mourning at the site on 21 November , seven days after the fire ; mourners left large amounts of flowers surrounding the burnt building . The seventh day after death is the day that Chinese people believe the souls of the dead return to their relatives before departing , and mourners at the site burned paper and made a feast for the deceased , in accordance with Chinese tradition . During the event , the Shanghai Symphony Orchestra played " Ave Maria " and monks recited <unk> at a local temple . On 19 December 2010 , the 35th day following the fire , authorities were reported to be detaining mourners who were visiting the site . According to Chinese legend , souls of the dead also visit humans 35 days after death , but police were taking mourners away on buses . Local officials did not provide an explanation for the event .
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Shadows ( The X - Files ) " Shadows " is the sixth episode of the first season of the American science fiction television series The X - Files . It premièred on the Fox network on October 22 , 1993 . It was written by Glen Morgan and James Wong , directed by Michael Lange , and featured guest appearances by Barry Primus and Lisa Waltz . The episode is a " Monster - of - the - Week " story , unconnected to the series ' wider mythology . " Shadows " earned a Nielsen household rating of 5 . 9 , being watched by 5 . 6 million households in its initial broadcast . The episode was not well received by the production staff , and received mixed reviews from critics . The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X - Files . In this episode , Mulder and Scully investigate the death of two muggers and encounter an office worker who may be haunted by the spirit of her dead boss , who is using her to uncover his murderer ; and discover covert arms deals made with Middle Eastern radicals . This episode , inspired by the 1982 horror film The Entity , was written due to insistence that the creators write more episodes where Mulder and Scully help people . This allowed the writers some space to create other episodes they had in mind . Plot Two muggers are found dead in a back alley of Philadelphia after robbing a woman , Lauren Kyte , at an automated teller machine . Mulder and Scully investigate the case when called in by a pair of agents from an unknown agency . The bodies of the muggers are found to have an electrical charge and their throats have been crushed from the inside . Lauren sees her boss , Robert Dorlund , and resigns due to her grief over the death of Dorlund 's partner , Howard Graves , who committed suicide weeks before . Mulder and Scully determine that one of the dead men belonged to an Islamic terrorist group , the Isfahan , and using the ATM video are able to track down Lauren . A screenshot of the video reveals a blurry figure who appears to be Howard Graves . The agents meet with Lauren at her home and after initially denying it , she admits to the incident but knows nothing about the murders . Upon leaving , the agents find their car going out of control on its own . The car is found to have no evidence of tampering , but an electrical charge is detected within it . Later , upon visiting the grave of Graves , Mulder and Scully learn of his suicide and the death of his daughter at a young age , a daughter who would be Lauren 's age were she still alive . Scully suspects that Graves faked his death , but on consulting the pathologist who examined his body and testing the organs he donated to others it is proved that he indeed died . Lauren meanwhile witnesses a vision at night , including blood appearing in the bathtub , that leads her to believe that Graves was murdered . At her going - away party , Lauren is threatened by Dorlund , who believes she has knowledge of confidential information that could implicate him . Lauren calls Mulder and Scully to her home , but before the agents can get there , two assassins hired by Dorlund arrive to kill her . An invisible force kills both of them , just as Mulder and Scully arrive ( with Mulder witnessing the body of one of the assassins being hanged in midair ) . Lauren is interrogated by Mulder and Scully , and the two unknown agents that called them in , who say they are involved because they believe Graves and Dorlund 's company sold technology to the Isfahan . Lauren admits to Mulder and Scully that the sales did indeed take place and that she believes Dorlund had Graves killed . After hearing Lauren recount the eerie circumstances that she believes are being caused by Graves ' spirit , Scully - the usually reserved skeptic - readily accepts her story . Mulder is confused but , after Lauren leaves , Scully admits she was just <unk> her . The agents search the company 's premises , but are unable to find any evidence . When Dorlund attacks Lauren with a letter opener Graves ' spirit takes it and cuts open the wallpaper , revealing a disc with evidence . Weeks later , Lauren starts her new job , but it appears that Graves ' spirit may have followed her there . Production This episode was created on Fox 's insistence that the creators write more episodes where Mulder and Scully help people . This episode was written to accomplish that , and to allow the writers some space to create other episodes they had in mind . Co - writer Glen Morgan claims the episode was inspired by the movie The Entity . The name Tom Braidwood , the show 's assistant director who later played Lone Gunmen member Melvin Frohike , is used in the scene where the parking lot attendant paints over the name of Howard Graves . The episode featured guest appearances by Barry Primus , Lisa Waltz , Lorena Gale and Veena Sood . Fox emphasized the horror aspect of " Shadows " by using the tagline " Don 't watch it alone " when advertising the episode . During the episode , Mulder jokes that Elvis was the only man ever to have successfully faked his own death . The joke would eventually become the first of many similar Elvis jokes littered throughout most of the series . When Mulder wonders whether or not it could have been a poltergeist , Scully mocks him by replying " they 're here " . This is a tagline and famous quote from the film Poltergeist . Broadcast and reception " Shadows " premiered on the Fox network on October 22 , 1993 , and was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC Two on October 24 , 1994 . The episode earned a Nielsen household rating of 5 . 9 with an 11 share — meaning that in the US , 5 . 9 percent of television - equipped households , and 11 percent of all households actively watching television , were watching the program . It was viewed by 5 . 6 million households . In a retrospective of the first season in Entertainment Weekly , " Shadows " was rated a C + , with the episode being called " exceedingly awkward " , while the political context was seen as a weak point . Keith Phipps , writing for The A.V. Club , had mixed feeling about the episode , rating it a C + . He felt that the episode 's plot worked well , though the supernatural elements seemed " a little corny " . Matt Haigh , writing for Den of Geek , was more positive about the episode , calling it " fun viewing " and feeling that " with characters we could care about and a far more rounded plot , this proved one of the better episodes so far . I still wouldn ’ t call it a particularly brilliant one , though , either " . Co - writer James Wong felt that the changes he was asked to make to the script led to " Shadows " turning out to be " an average episode " , although he felt " the director did a good job with it " . His partner Glen Morgan had a similar opinion , calling it " a little too ordinary , like you have seen it before , which is exactly what the network wanted at the time . Chris Carter had a more positive view of the episode , calling it " very well done , really great effects , and more of a meat - and - potatoes kind of story . An FBI sting and a good mystery that Mulder and Scully investigate . Overall , a really solid episode . " The plot for " Shadows " was also adapted as a novel for young adults in 2000 by Ellen Steiber , under the title Haunted . Allusions to Benjamin Franklin 's Kite Experiment The episode connects several central elements around the story of Benjamin Franklin 's kite experiment on the nature of lightning and electricity . A paperweight which Lauren takes from the desk of Mr. Graves , bearing an inscription of an epigram by Franklin , appears to serve as a conduit for his psychokinetic powers , which include high voltage electrical charges . Additionally , Lauren Kyte 's surname is a homophone of " kite , " and though she works in Philadelphia , her home is given briefly by agent Scully as " 858 Franklin " in Bensalem Township , Pennsylvania , a suburb in Bucks County . Local tradition has long claimed , erroneously , that Franklin carried out his kite experiment on the grounds of <unk> Mansion in Bensalem and that the township was named in part in honor of " Ben . "
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Cobi Crispin Cobi Crispin ( born 22 December 1988 ) is a 4 point wheelchair basketball forward from Western Australia . She began playing wheelchair basketball in 2003 when she was 17 years old . The Victorian Institute of Sport and Direct Athlete Support ( DAS ) program have provided assistance to enable her to play . She played club basketball in the Women 's National Wheelchair Basketball League ( WNWBL ) for the Victorian Dandenong Rangers in 2012 after having previously played for the Western Stars . In 2015 she began playing for the Minecraft Comets . She played for the University of Alabama in the United States in 2013 - 15 . Crispin made her Australian women 's national wheelchair basketball team debut in 2006 , competing in the Joseph F. Lyttle World Basketball Challenge that year , and participated in Paralympic qualification in 2007 . She remained on the team and was part of the bronze medal winning Australia women 's national wheelchair basketball team at the 2008 Summer Paralympics . At the 2010 IWBF World Championships in Birmingham England , her team finished fourth . The following year , she was captain of the 2011 Under 25 ( U25 ) Women ’ s Wheelchair Basketball team at the World Championships and earned a silver medal . Also in 2012 , she participated in Paralympic qualifying , and went on to compete at the 2012 Summer Paralympics where her team finished second . Personal Cobi Crispin was born in Mackay , Queensland , on 22 December 1988 , the daughter of Alan and Cathy Crispin . She has three brothers . She was born missing a femur . She moved to Melbourne , Victoria as a result of switching wheelchair basketball club sides to play with the Dandenong Rangers , and now lives in Ashburton , Victoria . Other sports she has had interest in include hockey , swimming and touch football . Her role models are Paralympic wheelchair basketball players Liesl Tesch and Alison Mosely . She was educated at St Patrick 's College , Mackay , and as of 2012 attends Deakin University . Basketball Crispin 's wheelchair basketball classification is 4 . 0 point player , and she plays forward . She has played the sport since 2003 , when she was 17 years old . In 2009 , she was an Aspire to be a Champion grant recipient . In 2010 , she had a scholarship with the Victorian Institute of Sport , which provides " provide assistance with specialist coaching , sport science , sports medicine , physical preparation and education and career development services as well as training & competition expenses " . In 2010 / 11 and 2011 / 12 , the Australian Sports Commission gave her A $ 17 , 000 grants through the Direct Athlete Support ( DAS ) program , a scheme which provides direct financial support to elite athletes . She received $ 5 , 571 in 2009 / 10 and $ 10 , 000 in 2012 / 13 . National team Crispin 's first national team appearance was in 2006 . She was selected to participate in a national team training camp in 2010 , and was member of the Australia women 's national wheelchair basketball team , known as the Gliders , at the 2008 Summer Paralympics in Beijing . The Gliders defeated Japan 53 - 47 to win the bronze medal . 2012 Paralympics In October 2011 , Crispin was named to the senior national squad that would compete at the Asia / Oceania Championships 2011 in <unk> , South Korea , a qualifying tournament for the 2012 Summer Paralympics in London , with the top two teams qualifying . The Gliders lost to Japan twice in the qualifying rounds , but made the finals on percentage , and fought their way back from being seven points down at quarter time to defeat China in the gold medal match , 45 - 44 . In the first game of the 2012 Paralympics tournament against Brazil , which her team won 52 - 50 , she played 32 : 34 minutes . She scored 18 points against the Brazil women 's national wheelchair basketball team , and had seven rebounds . In the team 's third game of pool play , where they lost to Canada 50 - 57 , she played 29 : 43 minutes and scored 12 points . In the team 's fourth game of pool play against the Netherlands women 's national wheelchair basketball team that her team won 58 - 49 , she played 25 : 09 minutes , and scored ten points . In her team 's quarterfinal 62 - 37 victory over Mexico women 's national wheelchair basketball team , she played 17 : 08 minutes , and scored twelve points . Her team met the United States women 's national wheelchair basketball team in the semifinals , where Australia won 40 - 39 and she played 24 : 37 minutes , and scored six points . In the gold medal game against the Germany women 's national wheelchair basketball team , she played 29 : 40 minutes . While her team lost 44 - 58 and was awarded a silver medal , she scored six points , and had five rebounds . Other competitions In 2006 , Crispin was named the Northern Challenge Most Valuable Player . Organised by the Sporting <unk> , this competition beings together teams from across northern Queensland . She was also on the squad that competed at the Joseph F. Lyttle World Basketball Challenge that year . In 2007 , she played with the national team that the competed in the Asia Oceania Qualification tournament , and the silver medal winning team that competed at the Osaka Cup . She also played with the 2008 , 2009 and 2010 Osaka Cup - winning teams . In 2010 , she was part of the fourth place - finishing Australian national squad that competed at the IWBF World Championships , in Birmingham , England . Crispin was co - captain of the 2011 Under 25 ( U25 ) Women ’ s Wheelchair Basketball team that competed at the U25 Women ’ s World Championship of Basketball , and finished second . She was the team 's top scorer in all but last two matches in the tournament , when as reporter Pat Koopman stated , " the opposition concentrated on nullifying her influence " on the games . " In 2013 Crispin began playing for the University of Alabama , and won the Jessica Staley Impact Award and the Stephanie Wheeler Performance Award for 2013 - 14 . The Alabama team of which she was part went through the season undefeated by women 's teams , and defeated the University of Illinois 58 - 52 to win the 2015 national championship on 28 February 2015 . Club basketball In 2008 , Crispin was named one of Australia 's Women 's National Wheelchair Basketball League ( WNWBL ) All - Star Five . She played her club basketball for WNWBL 's Western Stars . In the second round of the 2008 season , the Western Stars defeated the Hills Hornets 52 - 44 . Playing for the Stars , wearing number 5 , she scored 14 points in her team 's victory . She switched to the Dandenong Rangers for the 2011 season . In her debut game , she scored 28 points and 16 rebounds against her old team . The Rangers went on to win the 2011 WNWBL title , defeating the Sydney Uni Flames 62 - 59 , in a match in which Crispin scored 16 points and was named to the league ’ s All - Star 5 . She was with the Rangers again for the 2012 season , in which was named the 2012 WNWBL MVP of the Final Series after scoring 28 points in the Rangers ' Championship win against the Stacks Goudkamp Bears . In 2015 she joined the Minecraft Comets .
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U2 Live at Red Rocks : Under a Blood Red Sky U2 Live at Red Rocks : Under a Blood Red Sky is a concert film by Irish rock band U2 . It was recorded on 5 June 1983 at Red Rocks Amphitheatre in Colorado , United States , on the group 's War Tour . Originally released in 1984 on videocassette , U2 Live at Red Rocks was the band 's first video release . It accompanied a 1983 live album entitled Under a Blood Red Sky , on which two tracks from the film appear . The video was directed by Gavin Taylor and produced by Rick Wurpel and Doug Stewart . The film was arranged by U2 management to showcase the band 's live act and to promote them to American audiences . It depicts the band 's performance at Red Rocks on a rain - soaked evening . The concert was almost cancelled because of the inclement weather , but the band had invested in the filming with Island Records and concert promoter Barry Fey and wished to proceed with the gig . The rain and the torch - lit atmosphere of the surroundings made U2 's performance dramatic . Segments of U2 Live at Red Rocks were shown in regular rotation on MTV , and were also broadcast on other television networks . Critics praised the concert and the video , and it subsequently became a best - seller . The video , along with Under a Blood Red Sky , helped establish U2 's reputation as remarkable live performers and boosted Red Rocks ' stature as a live venue . A remastered edition of U2 Live at Red Rocks was released on DVD in September 2008 with previously unreleased tracks , coinciding with a remastered edition of Under a Blood Red Sky . Rolling Stone selected the film 's performance of " Sunday Bloody Sunday " as one of the " 50 Moments that Changed the History of Rock and Roll " . Production Planning and organization In 1981 , U2 were on their Boy Tour to promote their debut album , Boy . Following their 11 May concert at Rainbow Music Hall in Denver , concert promoter Chuck Morris took the band to the nearby Red Rocks Amphitheatre — a natural amphitheatre located between sandstone cliffs in the Rocky Mountains . Bassist Adam Clayton said , " From the moment we saw it , we were thinking , ' Some day we will play here ' . It was very photogenic . " U2 's manager Paul McGuinness had long wanted to film the group for a concert video to highlight their success as a live act and to promote them to American audiences still unfamiliar with the Irish band . Concert promoter Barry Fey , who presented U2 's shows in the southwestern United States , saw the group 's potential and successfully lobbied for them to perform at Red Rocks . In early 1983 , McGuinness contacted Malcolm Gerrie , producer of the British television series The Tube , about shooting a video of U2 at Red Rocks and possibly featuring it on The Tube . Gerrie initially assumed McGuinness was interested in creating a video of a single song ; however , McGuinness was hoping to create an hour - long special . Because The Tube was not a " one - band show " , Gerrie said he would have to sell the idea to Channel 4 television , but McGuinness insisted on giving Gerrie the rights to the video and letting Channel 4 broadcast the video without payment . Filming costs were estimated at US $ 250 , 000 , which included the illumination of the cliffs , a mobile sound recording unit , and a helicopter to film aerial footage . With U2 only able to invest $ 30 , 000 , Fey agreed to help finance the project , along with Island Records . A joint production company called " U2 at Red Rocks Associates " was subsequently established to fund the filming ; the three parties split costs and shared profits from television rights and video sales . The radio rights were sold to American radio network NBC for inclusion in their concert series The Source . Throughout the United States leg of their War Tour , U2 filled venues with capacities similar to that of Red Rocks , leading the band to anticipate that the filming would take place before a sold - out audience and that the concert 's revenues would help to offset production costs . Fey 's corporation , <unk> Productions , coordinated with his production company , TTS , to manage the videotaping . Director Gavin Taylor and producer Malcolm Gerrie were selected as director and production associate , respectively . It was Taylor 's first visit to the United States , and it was the first time he filmed a major outdoor rock concert . Local producers Rick Wurpel and Doug Stewart were also on the staff . Taylor 's and McGuinness ' original plans were to feature the video on The Tube , but trade unions objected to their limited representation on the concert crew . However , a compromise was reached , allowing 15 minutes of the concert to be broadcast on The Tube . Weather challenges and preparations The group 's Red Rocks concert was scheduled for 5 June 1983 , but poor weather that day threatened to cancel the show . Torrential rain soaked the area , and flash flood warnings were issued . The weather made it difficult for the crew members to transport the band 's gear and video equipment through the mountains to the amphitheatre . The conditions also caused many technical problems for the filming and concert crews , which hampered stage construction and endangered the safety of those setting up lighting and sound equipment . Crew members used <unk> to keep rain away from the wires . The fans that attended had to hike through the Rocky Mountains in the rain . Between 15 and 20 fans were already camped out in the venue 's front rows early in the morning , and lead vocalist Bono accommodated them by serving coffee and tea . The Alarm and Divinyls cancelled their opening sets for safety reasons , and many fans thought the entire concert had been cancelled . The show was scheduled for 6 : 00 pm , and the band had until 1 : 00 pm to decide whether to move the concert elsewhere or risk the weather worsening , which could have necessitated a cancellation . U2 , their crew and McGuinness thought that too much money had been invested to abort the concert , and they sympathised with the fans who had travelled to the venue in the poor weather . Accordingly , they decided to proceed with the concert as planned . Bono informed the fans waiting outside the venue that the show would be general admission , and told everyone to get as close to the stage as possible , regardless of the seating assignment on their tickets . Fey wanted to cancel the show but was flying to Denver from the US Festival in California with Morris when the decision to continue was made . After arriving in Denver , Fey called the amphitheatre to ask to where the concert was being moved , unaware that the band had decided to proceed with the show . Guitarist The Edge said that when Fey learned of the group 's decision , he could not believe it . The Edge said , " I don 't think he 'd ever heard anything quite so crazy in his life , going on with an outdoor show in the worst kind of weather , rain and wind in the mountains . He thought we 'd lost our minds completely . " Bono went on the radio that day to confirm that the Red Rocks concert was still taking place , and to promote a concert that the band planned for the following night at the CU Events Center to accommodate fans who were unable to attend the Red Rocks show . Clayton said during the band 's radio interviews , " We know it 's raining now but we 're sure it won 't be when the show starts , so please come . " Two hours before the concert , the downpour subsided and settled into a misty drizzle . The 9 , 000 - person venue had sold out , but because of the inclement weather , only about 4 , 400 fans attended . Filming Taylor had a crew of six camera operators , including three Denver cinematographers and three others brought in by Taylor . Due to the thick fog and heavy rain on the night of the concert , very little aerial footage was suitable for the final edit . Although two " master angle " cameras on tripods provided wide and overview shots , most of the camera operators filmed with hand - held cameras . The video cameras used had tube sensors , which created trails in the footage when they were pointed at direct light sources . As a result , much of the concert footage contains red streaks , prompting a notice on the future home video release informing viewers that the coloured lines in the footage " are a result of special lighting effects , and are not caused by a tape defect or your equipment " . The weather was cold enough that steam was coming out of the band members ' mouths , and The Edge had difficulty playing guitar because his hands felt " frozen stiff " . Drummer Larry Mullen , Jr. believes the weather contributed a dramatic atmosphere to the concert . Reduced attendance at the event was largely obscured in the concert footage by the thick mist that filled the air that evening , as well as strategic shots of the crowd . Taylor had a B - stage built onto the set to reduce the gap between the audience and Bono , allowing him to perform close to the audience , surrounded by fans on three sides . Sound mixing was managed by Steve Lillywhite , who produced U2 's first three studio albums . Randy <unk> 's portable 24 - track recording system , Effanel Music , was used because a conventional mobile recording studio could not be moved close enough to the stage . Before U2 took the stage , Fey introduced the concert , making a reference to Bob Dylan 's live album Hard Rain . The concert itself featured 20 songs , with a set list identical to that of several previous shows on the tour . " Out of Control " opened the 16 - song main set , which concluded with " Gloria " . A four - song encore followed , with " 40 " being the final song performed . The band played songs from the tour 's supporting album War ( 1983 ) , as well as material from their first two albums , Boy ( 1980 ) and October ( 1981 ) . " Party Girl " — a B - side from the single " A Celebration " ( 1982 ) , and the non - album single " 11 O 'Clock Tick Tock " ( 1980 ) were played during the encore . During the song " The Electric Co . " , Bono left the stage and climbed up a lighting rig to display a white flag . In a 2004 interview , The Edge said that Bono " scared the shit out of [ him ] " by climbing onto the rig and risking electrocution by the live wires in close proximity . Bono said " good night " to the crowd on nearly a half a dozen occasions so that the post - production crew would have several choices of songs with which to end the film . Backstage , the band members were disappointed that the crowd did not initially chant " how long to sing this song ? " after the band had left the stage following the final song , " 40 " , which had become a tradition . However , tour manager Dennis Sheehan hid underneath the crowd barrier and began singing the refrain into a microphone without being asked . Eventually , the crowd joined in ; the film was edited to disguise the fact that the singing was organised . Release Broadcasts and home video The concert was first broadcast on 8 , 9 and 10 July 1983 on NBC 's radio network The Source under the title War Is Declared . The broadcast was sponsored by Budweiser and the United States Army , and was distributed to radio stations on two LP records , which included the full 20 - song concert . Twelve of the concert 's songs were later broadcast on American television network Showtime , and nine songs were broadcast on MTV . The film 's performance of " Sunday Bloody Sunday " became the song 's music video ; Malcolm Gerrie , Rick Wurpel and Paul McGuinness were credited as producers . In June 1986 , the video was one of 10 concert films aired on television stations throughout the US as part of a series of music specials presented by the Coors Brewing Company and Radio Vision International . The concert has also been broadcast on VH1 and affiliates of the Public Broadcasting Service . The Red Rocks film was screened at the CMJ Music Marathon in October 1983 to promote U2 's companion live mini - LP Under a Blood Red Sky , which was released the following month . The mini - LP , whose name was later used as a subtitle for the concert film , features eight live songs from the War Tour , two of which ( " Gloria " and " Party Girl " ) were taken from the Red Rocks concert ; the other tracks were taken from performances in Boston and West Germany , as U2 thought they were " more developed performances " . U2 Live at Red Rocks : Under a Blood Red Sky was U2 's first home video release , initially released on VHS and Betamax by MCA Home Video in 1984 . The video recording was re - released in August 1986 by RCA / Columbia Pictures Home Video , followed by a LaserDisc release from RCA / Columbia and Image Entertainment in 1988 , and two additional VHS re - releases by Virgin Video in 1987 and PolyGram in 1991 . The image of Bono atop the lighting rig during his performance of " The Electric Co . " was used as the cover of the video with the text Under a Blood Red Sky . The film begins with a brief montage that includes an interview with U2 , preparations being made by the concert crew and reactions by anxious fans . The Clannad song " Theme from Harry 's Game " , which was played after many of U2 's shows at the time , is heard in the film 's opening montage and during the end credits . The film 's subtitle " Under a Blood Red Sky " , also the title of the companion live album , originates from a lyric in " New Year 's Day " . This lyric is not sung in the film ; instead Bono sang " under a thundercloud and rain " , in reference to the weather conditions . During the band 's performance of " Cry / The Electric Co . " , Bono sang excerpts of Stephen Sondheim 's " Send in the Clowns " . The band failed to get permission or to pay the appropriate licensing and royalty fees to use the song . Initial pressings of U2 Live at Red Rocks , and the accompanying live album — which contains a different performance of the song from August 1983 — featured " Send in the Clowns " . U2 were forced to pay US $ 50 , 000 in an out - of - court settlement . The initial release of the video was 55 minutes long and featured 13 songs from the film , including " Cry / The Electric Co . " , which was omitted from the track listing for legal reasons related to the excerpt of " Send in the Clowns " . Recordings of " Twilight " and " An Cat Dubh " from the concert were featured on U2 's single " Sweetest Thing " in 1998 . In 2004 , the concert recording of " Sunday Bloody Sunday " appeared on the compilation album Carved in Stone Vol . 2 : Live at Red Rocks , a charity record to raise funds for the " Preserve the Rocks Fund " , which aimed to renovate and preserve Red Rocks Park . Following the release of the official concert recordings , video and audio bootleg recordings circulated that featured the entirety of the band 's performance . DVD re - release In 2005 , after Rick Wurpel re - opened his production business , he realised that neither he nor TTS had the master tapes in their inventory and feared that the tapes had been lost . He discovered the Denver City Council possessed the tapes among an inventory of 164 recordings . A former employee of Wurpel had been storing the tapes and intended to dispose of them unless the city was interested . The city had paid her $ 3 , 000 for the storage costs and took possession of the tapes . Legal proceedings subsequently ensued to return the tapes to Wurpel and U2 . Barry Fey later signed paperwork for a future DVD release at U2 's request . U2 Live at Red Rocks was re - released on 30 September 2008 on DVD by Interscope Records , Island Records , and Universal Music Enterprises . The " 2008 Edition " of the film was remastered , and the audio remastering was directed by The Edge . The DVD features several tracks that were previously unreleased , extending the film from 55 minutes to 82 minutes . " Cry / The Electric Co . " was included on the video 's track listing ; the performance was edited to remove the excerpt of " Send in the Clowns " that was present on the previous videocassette and LaserDisc releases . The editing - out of the song created a continuity error in the video ; the previous versions showed Bono climbing the lighting rig and singing . The new edition removes that sequence , resulting in Bono leaving the stage and appearing on top of the lighting rig in the following shot . The remastered DVD also features a version of " Two Hearts Beat as One " that was edited to remove an excerpt of " Let 's Twist Again " . The only song performed at the concert that does not appear in the remastered film is " I Fall Down " — played between " Cry / The Electric Co . " and " October " — which was omitted because of a camera malfunction . The DVD features a PCM stereo soundtrack , 5 . 1 surround sound mixes in Dolby Digital and DTS sound , and an audio commentary by director Gavin Taylor . The re - release of the film coincided with the release of a remastered version of its companion live album , Under a Blood Red Sky . These re - releases were available separately or bundled together in a CD / DVD deluxe package . The liner notes for the film re - release were written by music critic Anthony DeCurtis . Remastered versions of U2 's first three albums — Boy , October , and War — had been released earlier in 2005 , and a box set with the three albums and an open slot for the deluxe version of Under a Blood Red Sky was sold exclusively by Amazon.com. Reception Both the concert and the U2 Live at Red Rocks video received positive reviews from critics . In a review of the show , G. Brown of The Denver Post wrote , " A lot of things had to go so wrong for U2 's show at Red Rocks Amphitheater ... to come off so right . " Jon Pareles of The New York Times praised the film , saying , " The setting lent even more urgency to U2 's <unk> songs about apocalypse , pacifism and existential terror " . Pareles said , " Although there are a few too many exaggerated camera angles , the tape captures U2 's earnest intensity . " A review in the Philadelphia Daily News described the camerawork as " artful " and praised the visuals of the concert and the natural surroundings . Perry Seibert of Allmovie gave the film four - and - a - half stars , praising the band 's performance and the venue 's role in the concert , saying , " the historic Red Rocks venue provides a stirring backdrop for the band 's sweeping sound " . In November 1984 , the video was nominated for the Best Long Form award at Billboard magazines 's Video Music Conference and the performance of " Sunday Bloody Sunday " was nominated for the Best Concert Performance award . When Billboard debuted the Top Music Videocassettes chart ( later renamed Top Music Videos ) in the 30 March 1985 issue , U2 Live at Red Rocks was ranked at number seven , and was included in the year - end Top 10 Music Videocassettes charts for 1985 and 1987 . Following the 2008 DVD release , the video re - entered the chart for the first time since 1989 , listed at number 3 ; overall , U2 Live at Red Rocks spent 148 weeks on the Top Music <unk> / Top Music Videos chart . In April 1985 , the video appeared on Billboard 's Top Videocassette Sales chart at number 29 , and remained on the chart for 14 weeks . Billboard attributed the late increase in the video 's sales to U2 's sold - out Unforgettable Fire Tour , and called it " a textbook example of a group 's current status having a direct influence on video sales " . Following the release of the DVD in 2008 , Record Collector stated that " 25 years on , [ U2 Live at Red Rocks has ] lost none of its power " . Rocky Mountain News recalled that the video is " still a thrilling performance , raw but polished , passionate and sincere " . Andrew Gilstrap of PopMatters gave the remastered version of the film a rating of 8 out of 10 , stating , " It 's rare that a band can totally transform a scene — especially one with a stage show that boasts charisma as its only special effect — but it 's not hyperbole to say that U2 put on a dominating , flawless - despite - mistakes performance . This is the one that put U2 on the map . " In its review of the remastered version of Under a Blood Red Sky , online magazine Pitchfork Media said , " when the group performed at Red Rocks on a rainy June night , with lit torches above a panoramic skyline , the venue provided an ideal backdrop for U2 's literally flag - waving music , with everything — earth , wind , fire — in place to maximise and heighten the drama of the moment and the songs . " James <unk> of The Sunday Telegraph and the Sunday Herald Sun gave the DVD a score of 5 out of 5 , praising the film 's concert , but stated that the " footage is still on the fuzzy side " . The Advertiser said the DVD 's audio commentary was very informative , but criticised the picture quality , stating , " even the remastered version looks like it was shot on a mobile phone " . Legacy U2 Live at Red Rocks is often cited as a watershed moment in U2 's history which established their reputation as an exceptional live act . In the liner notes of the remastered version of the film , music journalist Anthony DeCurtis wrote , " this concert set goals for U2 that might have daunted any other young band . But in the shadow of their wild ambitions at Red Rocks , these four boys met , once again , the men of their future , and became who they would become . " Rolling Stone called the band 's performance of " Sunday Bloody Sunday " from the film one of the " 50 Moments that Changed the History of Rock and Roll " . The magazine said , " [ t ] he sight of Bono singing the anti - violence anthem ' Sunday Bloody Sunday ' while waving a white flag through crimson mist ( created by a combination of wet weather , hot lights and the illumination of those crags ) became the defining image of U2 's warrior - rock spirit and — shown in heavy rotation on MTV — broke the band nationwide . " Director Gavin Taylor said that the video " kick - started their career " and " fired them like a rocket into the sky " . In 2009 , Relix named U2 's performance at Red Rocks the 24th - best concert of all time . The Denver Post said the concert affirmed Red Rocks Amphitheatre 's status as a premier outdoor venue . Rocky Mountain News said that the concert was " [ e ] asily one of the most famous , acclaimed concerts of the 1980s ( if not all time ) " , and that people who have visited the Amphitheatre ever since have been disappointed to learn that the pyres are not part of the venue and were only used for the U2 concert . Music biographer Dave Thompson said the concert " transformed U2 ... into a very successful rock band " , and that without U2 , " Red Rocks would be just another smartly lit amphitheater " . Prior to the recording sessions for the band 's 1984 album The Unforgettable Fire , U2 wanted to work with Brian Eno on the album . However , Eno assumed that they were an " uninteresting rock band " and he was not interested in working with them . He changed his mind after listening to the Red Rocks concert and produced The Unforgettable Fire and several other U2 records — including The Joshua Tree , Achtung Baby , and All That You Can 't Leave Behind , which are among the band 's most successful — alongside his sound engineer Daniel Lanois . In June 2007 , a U2 tribute band named Under a Blood Red Sky performed a note - for - note recreation of U2 's performance at Red Rocks . That same week , the City of Denver unsuccessfully tried to persuade U2 to return to Red Rocks . During the PopMart Tour in 1997 , Bono stated that because of low ticket sales for their Denver concert at Mile High Stadium , a return to the more intimate Red Rocks setting held appeal . However , in a 2008 interview , Barry Fey said that he had questioned U2 about performing at Red Rocks again , to which they replied , " Absolutely not " . On both occasions , Fey said that U2 could never top their original performance and that returning to Red Rocks would be " foolish " and " a no - win situation " for the group . Track listing Personnel U2 Bono – vocals , guitar on " A Day Without Me " Adam Clayton – bass guitar , guitar on " 40 " The Edge – guitar , keyboards , backing vocals , lap steel guitar on " Surrender " , bass guitar on " 40 " , lead vocals on " Seconds " Larry Mullen , Jr . – drums , backing vocals Film crew Malcolm Gerrie – production associate Paul McGuinness for U2 at Red Rocks Associates – executive producer Doug Stewart – producer Gavin Taylor – director Rick Wurpel – producer
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Reunion ( 30 Rock ) " Reunion " is the fifth episode of the third season of American television comedy series 30 Rock , and the 41st episode of the series overall . It was written by supervising producer Matt Hubbard and directed by Beth McCarthy - Miller . The episode originally aired on the National Broadcasting Company ( NBC ) network in the United States on December 4 , 2008 . Guest stars in this episode include Susan Barrett , Marceline Hugot , Robyn Lively , Janel Moloney , Diane Neal , Rip Torn , and Steve Witting . In the episode , Liz Lemon ( Tina Fey ) is opposed to going to her high school reunion , but her boss , Jack Donaghy ( Alec Baldwin ) , manages to convince her otherwise . Meanwhile , Don Geiss ( Torn ) wakes up from his coma only to inform Jack of his decision to remain CEO of General Electric ( GE ) . At the same time , Tracy Jordan ( Tracy Morgan ) and Jenna Maroney ( Jane Krakowski ) feel threatened by NBC page Kenneth Parcell ( Jack McBrayer ) when he gets more laughs than they do in the elevator . " Reunion " has received generally positive reception from television critics . According to the Nielsen ratings system , it was watched by 7 . 2 million households during its original broadcast . Matt Hubbard won the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Writing for a Comedy Series , while Beth McCarthy - Miller received a nomination for Outstanding Directing for a Comedy Series . Plot Liz Lemon ( Tina Fey ) receives an invitation to her upcoming high school reunion in White Haven , Pennsylvania . She is reluctant to attend as she was a lonely nerd but is persuaded to go by her boss , Jack Donaghy ( Alec Baldwin ) . Don Geiss ( Rip Torn ) wakes up from his diabetic coma and tells Jack he will remain CEO of General Electric ( GE ) . Distraught by the revelation , as Don had chosen Jack as the CEO to run GE , Jack decides to fly to Miami for a vacation , and offers to drop Liz off on the way to her reunion . When they land in White Haven after a major snowstorm , Jack is stranded with her . Meanwhile , at the 30 Rock studios , Tracy Jordan ( Tracy Morgan ) , is shocked when NBC page Kenneth Parcell ( Jack McBrayer ) gets more laughs than he does in the elevator , compelling him to go to Jenna Maroney ( Jane Krakowski ) for help . The same thing happens to Jenna and in retaliation , she starts singing " Wind Beneath My Wings " , prompting Kenneth to start singing " 99 Bottles of Beer " , to which everyone in the elevator joins in . As revenge for upstaging them , Tracy and Jenna start doing his page duties which upsets Kenneth , and so swears never to upstage them again . Liz goes to the reunion but learns that she was not the quiet , lonely nerd she thought , but the angry bully everyone hated . Jack in search of a drink ends up at the reunion as well , and is mistaken for a former popular student Larry Braverman and still unhappy with Geiss ' decision , takes on the persona . Liz tries to regain the friendship of her classmates — Kelsey <unk> ( Robyn Lively ) , Erin O 'Neil ( Diane Neal ) , Rob Sussman ( Steve Witting ) , and Diane ( Susan Barrett ) — without success . Jack , as Larry Braverman , persuades them to like Liz , until an ex - girlfriend ( Janel Moloney ) of Larry 's reveals he has a son , at which point Jack confesses he is not Larry and Liz and Jack both make a quick escape whilst being booed off stage ; Liz happily going back to mistreating her former classmates after they attempt to reenact the pig 's blood scene from Carrie on her . Production " Reunion " was written by 30 Rock supervising producer Matt Hubbard , making it his fifth writing credit after " The Rural Juror " , " Hard Ball " , " The Collection " , and " MILF Island " . The episode was directed by Beth McCarthy - Miller , making it her fourth for the series . " Reunion " originally aired in the United States on December 4 , 2008 , on NBC as the fifth episode of the show 's third season and the 41st overall episode of the series . Actor Rip Torn made his sixth appearance on the show as GE CEO Don Geiss , after appearing in the episodes " The C Word " , " Corporate Crush " , " Jack Gets in the Game " , " Succession " , and " Sandwich Day " . This was actress Marceline Hugot 's sixth guest spot in the series as Kathy Geiss , the daughter of Don Geiss . St. Cecilia 's Catholic Church served as the high school where Liz Lemon attends her high school reunion . In September 2008 , it was reported that actresses Blake Lively and Leighton Meester , who star on Gossip Girl , were set to guest star on the show as former high school classmates of Liz 's in a flashback sequence , but the appearances fell through . 30 Rock and Gossip Girl are shot next to each other at Silvercup Studios in Queens , New York . Actress Robyn Lively , the half - sister of Blake Lively , guest starred in " Reunion " as Kelsey Winthrop , a former classmate of Liz 's . In this episode , Liz says the line " I want to go to there " , twice , which according to series creator , executive producer and lead actress Tina Fey was " coined " by her daughter , Alice . In an interview with the New York Daily News , Jane Krakowski , who portrays Jenna Maroney , revealed " Some of the great catchphrases of 30 Rock have come from Alice . Like , ' I want to go [ to ] there ! ' – that 's Alice . It 's so funny because I hear people say it on the street , and that was [ Tina 's ] daughter ! " Cultural references Jack , believing that Don Geiss will give him the CEO job , and after learning about Liz 's high school reunion , says " I wish I had a Princeton reunion right now . I 'd wipe the smug smile off Michelle Obama 's face " , a reference to Michelle Obama who graduated from Princeton , and to her husband , Barack Obama , who won the 2008 U.S. Presidential Election . At the reunion , Rob Sussman , a past classmate of Liz 's , complains that Liz said he was gayer than the volleyball scene in the 1986 action film Top Gun . During the reunion , Liz 's former classmates play Seven minutes in heaven , a game in which two people are selected to go into a closet or other dark enclosed space and do whatever they like for seven minutes , often kissing . Later , Liz 's classmates plan to " Carrie " her on stage as revenge for her being mean to them , but is stopped by Jack saying " we cannot Carrie Liz Lemon " . This is a reference to the 1976 horror film Carrie in which the title character is drenched with pig 's blood . Reception In its original American broadcast , " Reunion " was watched by 7 . 2 million households , according to the Nielsen ratings system . It received a 3 . 4 rating / 8 share among viewers in the 18 – 49 demographic , meaning that 3 . 4 percent of all people in that group , and 8 percent of all people from that group watching television at the time , watched the episode . " Reunion " finished in ninth place in the weekly ratings for the week of December 1 – 7 , 2008 . Matt Hubbard won the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Writing for a Comedy Series , while Beth McCarthy - Miller received a nomination for Outstanding Directing for a Comedy Series at the 61st Primetime Emmy Awards . This episode was submitted for consideration on the behalf of Tina Fey for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series at the same awards show , but lost it to actress Toni Collette . Hubbard was nominated for a Writers Guild of America Award for " Reunion " , but lost it in a tie to fellow 30 Rock writer Robert Carlock for the episode " Apollo , Apollo " and Modern Family 's Steven Levitan and Christopher Lloyd for the pilot episode . IGN contributor Robert Canning gave the episode an 8 . 9 rating out of 10 and wrote " ... the real reason to watch , as always , was Tina Fey and Alec Baldwin and their fantastic comedic performances . " Canning responded favorably to the episode with the exception of the Tracy , Jenna , and Kenneth storyline , calling it " silly " . Television columnist Alan Sepinwall for The Star - Ledger wrote that Jack taking on the Larry Braverman persona " gave Baldwin a chance to play a delightfully goofy strain of those occasional glimpses we get of a happy Jack . " Like Sepinwall , Bob Sassone of AOL 's TV Squad was favorable to Jack going to the reunion , but most enjoyed the character impersonating Larry Braverman , observing it was a " well - used plot device " as Baldwin " made it believable " . TV Guide 's Matt Mitovich was positive about " Reunion " , calling it a " nice " episode . Jeff Labrecque for Entertainment Weekly enjoyed the episode , and said that " Reunion " was the first episode of the season that " I think the show benefited from the refocused attention on its core characters . The reunion plot was so strong , and the Carrie finale so inspired , that I hope the viewership ratings reflect positively and encourage a continuance of this creative trend . " The A.V. Club 's Nathan Rabin wrote that he was " much more amused " by Rob Sussman 's " still - simmering rage " against Liz , because he " scored many of the show 's biggest laughs . " He said that he found the second plot " a little underwhelming though I thought there was a neat meta - textual element to it " , but wrote that it " scored some nice shots at the vapid narcissism of actors but it promised more than it could deliver . " Rick Porter of Zap2it said that despite the " super - capital - A - list guest stars " that guest starred at the beginning of the season , " Reunion " got back " to the show 's core cast ... [ and ] the show gave us probably the best episode of the season . " Time contributor James Poniewozik opined that this episode was " pretty good " and " funny in most of the usual 30 Rock ways . " Not all reviews were positive . Jeremy Medina of Paste wrote that " Reunion " was " essentially unremarkable ( especially in its portrayal of Liz ) " . Medina disliked that Tina Fey 's Liz was portrayed in " unlikable light " , and after insulting her former classmates at the high school reunion it " seemed a bit uncharacteristic and unflattering to her character . "
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A Ghost Is Born A Ghost Is Born is the fifth studio album by American alternative rock band Wilco . Released on June 22 , 2004 , it features singer Jeff Tweedy on lead guitar more than any previous Wilco album . The band streamed the album online for free , and offered a five song EP to purchasers . Tweedy entered a rehab clinic shortly before the release of the album , delaying its release by two weeks . It also shortened its promotional tour . Despite this , A Ghost Is Born 's opening week was the best sales week for the band at the time and the album was met with good reviews from major publications such as Rolling Stone and PopMatters . The album earned Wilco a Grammy Award for Best Alternative Music Album . Production Wilco signed a contract with Nonesuch Records in November 2001 after a lengthy dispute with Reprise Records over the release of the band 's fourth album Yankee Hotel Foxtrot . Foxtrot was welcomed with positive reviews from The Village Voice — where the album was rated by the critics as the best album of 2002 — and Rolling Stone . It sold over 590 , 000 copies , earning a Gold certification by the Recording Industry Association of America . Composition Recording for a new album began in November 2003 under the working title Wilco Happens . The album was produced by Jim O 'Rourke , who mixed Foxtrot and was a member of Wilco side project Loose Fur . O 'Rourke encouraged lead singer Jeff Tweedy to develop his guitar skills for the album ; Tweedy recently became the lead guitarist for the band due to the dismissal of Jay Bennett after the Yankee Hotel Foxtrot recording sessions . Tweedy sought to play solos on the album that were unlike those of jam bands such as Phish and The Grateful Dead . Instead , he performed composed solos influenced by Television such as the one during the coda of " At Least That 's What You Said " . Tweedy refers to the guitar solo at the end of the track as a " musical transcription " of one of his panic attacks . A Ghost Is Born was recorded in a manner different from Foxtrot or 1999 's Summerteeth ; whereas those recordings were performed live in the studio and then overdubbed , A Ghost Is Born was first performed on Pro Tools and only played live once completed . Tweedy was excited about writing an album this way : An unusual feature of A Ghost Is Born is the fifteen - minute long track " Less Than You Think " . The first part of the song begins as a ballad which references belief systems and atheism which after 3 minutes , fades out . The second part begins at this moment and consists of electronic drones and noise , intended to audibly represent the migraines that lead singer Jeff Tweedy had been suffering from while addicted to pain killers during the recording sessions for A Ghost Is Born . For the song , each band member created a synthesizer noise that mimicked an electronic sound . The installations were simultaneously activated in the room and recorded . The noise , which served as the coda to the song , was remixed to provide dynamics to the track . Calling it " the track that everyone will hate , " Tweedy defended the song 's inclusion on the album : A Ghost Is Born was the first Wilco album with pianist Mikael Jorgensen ; he had previously worked as an engineer with the band on their collaboration with The Minus 5 . Jeff Tweedy provided lead vocals and acted as lead guitarist for the only time since the band formed . John Stirratt , the only original member aside from Tweedy , played bass and guitar . Glenn Kotche and Jim O 'Rourke , Tweedy 's associates from Loose Fur , acted as drummer and multi - instrumentalist , respectively . Leroy Bach played a variety of keyboards as well as bass guitar . All members of the band contributed with a synthesizer part on " Less Than You Think " . Marketing and promotion Wilco began touring in support of Ghost even before the album had been released . Multi - instrumentalist Leroy Bach left the band after the recording sessions to join a theater production , so Wilco added jazz rock guitarist Nels Cline and multi - instrumentalist Pat Sansone to replace him . Sansone had been playing with The Autumn Defense , a side project led by bassist John Stirratt . However , the tour to support the album had to be abridged . In May 2004 , Tweedy checked himself into a rehabilitation clinic in Chicago , Illinois due to chronic migraine headaches , anxiety attacks , and clinical depression . In the process of treating the ailments , Tweedy became addicted to prescription painkillers . His rehab led to the cancellation of the European stage of the tour and a delay in the album 's release date . Intended for release on June 8 , 2004 , the album was officially released on June 22 , 2004 . The band also webcast the album in its entirety on the Internet in a promotion with Apple Computer . Nonesuch was willing to allow the MPEG - 4 broadcast due to the success of a similar broadcast in the promotion of Yankee Hotel Foxtrot . Additionally , Wilco offered a free EP to purchasers of the album . The EP featured two outtakes from the album — " Panthers " and " Kicking Television " — and live versions of " At Least That 's What You Said " , " The Late Greats " , and " Handshake Drugs " . The EP was later packaged with the album and sold as a " deluxe version " . Reception In its debut week , A Ghost Is Born peaked at # 8 on the Billboard 200 chart and sold over 81 , 000 copies , the highest US chart peak and best sales week ever attained by the band at that time . As of April 13 , 2007 the album has sold over 340 , 000 copies according to Nielsen SoundScan . The album was an international hit as well , peaking at # 24 in Norway , # 29 in Sweden , # 33 in New Zealand , # 34 in Belgium , and # 37 in Ireland . Like Foxtrot , A Ghost Is Born was well received by critics . On Metacritic , it has been given a score of 81 out of 100 based on " universal acclaim " . Jon Pareles of Rolling Stone called the album " as eerie as anything Wilco have recorded yet " and applauded " Tweedy offers illuminating curiosity about what can happen in a song . " Stylus Magazine gave it an " A " grade , named it " album of the week " , and claimed it was " even more brilliant " than Yankee Hotel Foxtrot . Michael <unk> of PopMatters also supported the notion that Ghost was better than Foxtrot , calling every note " purposeful " and said that the album made him " surprised and delighted enough to last several lifetimes . " James Hunter from The Village Voice gave it a positive review and said , " Wilco 's ideas are unremarkable , but are worked out with intelligence and striking conception . And as it happens , the new organic emphasis tables some of Wilco 's lamer stylistic obsessions . " Billboard also gave it a positive review and called it Wilco 's " most difficult and uncompromising album to date . " Tiny Mix Tapes gave it all five stars and said that " Unlike the first three Wilco albums and even more than Yankee Hotel Foxtrot , A Ghost is Born requires careful listening . " The A.V. Club gave it a favorable review and said that " For the most part , Ghost channels its shaggy sound into pop music . True , it 's pop music that constantly threatens to erupt into noise or fade into silence , but it 's still hard not to hum along . " E ! Online gave the album a B + and said , " If the album weren 't so agreeably off - <unk> , whispery tunes alternate with long , rambling <unk> mix of guitars and piano would almost seem like the stuff you 'd hear on rockers like Layla or Abbey Road . " <unk> gave it eight stars out of ten and stated , " If Foxtrot ' s songs were fractured pop , then Ghost is just plain fracture , a soft and brutal self - examination that pulls no punches even as it manages to remain carefully elliptical . " Playlouder gave it four stars out of five and said , " This time , as well as simply delivering the goods , Wilco come bearing a basket of extras . " Q gave the album four stars out of five and called it " Even more meandering than its celebrated , if somewhat cold , predecessor . It 's also more confident , more coherent , yielding an all - enveloping warmth that 's entirely resistant to any iPod shuffle function . " Flak Magazine also gave it a favorable review and stated : " It 's in the mournful , captivating , meditative , exasperating , pretentious , masterfully constructed experience of A Ghost Is Born that Tweedy and Wilco become true iconoclasts . " The Austin Chronicle gave it three - and - a - half stars out of five and said the album was " not a lot of fun . Still , it 's an accomplishment , because it 's an angry album . " Not all publications shared these views about the album . Pitchfork Media , who had given Yankee Hotel Foxtrot a perfect 10 rating , only gave Ghost a 6 . 6 , calling it " wildly uneven " and " less cohesive than any other Wilco release . " Village Voice critic Robert Christgau called the album a " privileged self - indulgence " due to its extreme musical dynamics . Joshua Klein of the Chicago Tribune gave it an average review and said that " the incomplete quality of " A Ghost is Born " can be quite intriguing , more of a side step than a forward leap , but a worthy experiment all the same . " NME gave the album a score of six out of ten and stated : " It 's like Scissor Sisters on <unk> . With a bit of ELO . And a dash of Ramones . And , with this eclecticism , a worrying lack of focus . " Alternative Press gave it three stars out of five and said , " It 's important that albums like Ghost <unk> unfortunately , those albums don 't always make the most enjoyable listens . " Trouser Press gave it a mixed review and called it " a textbook example of an album created to fulfill expectations the band doesn 't necessarily share . " In 2005 , A Ghost Is Born won two Grammy Awards for Best Alternative Music Album and Best Recording Package . Although the band was nominated for Grammys for work on previous albums , this was the first time that they won one . Track listing All songs written by Jeff Tweedy except where noted . Side one " At Least That 's What You Said " – 5 : 33 " Hell Is Chrome " ( Tweedy , Mikael Jorgensen ) – 4 : 38 " Spiders ( <unk> ) " – 10 : 46 Side two " Muzzle of Bees " – 4 : 56 " Hummingbird " – 3 : 11 " Handshake Drugs " – 6 : 07 Side three " Wishful Thinking " ( Tweedy , Glenn Kotche ) – 4 : 41 " Company in My Back " – 3 : 46 " I 'm a Wheel " – 2 : 37 " Theologians " ( Tweedy , Jorgensen , Chris Girard ) – 3 : 36 Side four " Less Than You Think " ( Tweedy , John Stirratt , Kotche , Jorgensen , Leroy Bach , Jim O 'Rourke ) – 15 : 04 " The Late Greats " – 2 : 31 Singles " I 'm a Wheel " ( July 26 , 2004 ) 7 " vinyl only , " I 'm a Wheel " b / w " Kicking Television " Personnel Wilco : Jeff Tweedy – vocals , guitar , bass , synthesizer , filters , loops John Stirratt – bass , guitar , piano , backing vocals , synthesizer , filters , loops Glenn Kotche – drums , percussion , hammered dulcimer , synthesizer , filters , loops Leroy Bach – piano , organ , guitar , bass , vibes , synthesizer , filters , loops Mikael Jorgensen – piano , <unk> , Farfisa , organ , synthesizer , filters , loops , engineer Jim O 'Rourke – piano , guitar , bass , ARP 2600 , synthesizer , filters , loops , engineer , mixing , producer Additional personnel : Frankie <unk> – hammered dulcimer , production assistant , technical assistance Karen Waltuch – viola Tim Barnes – percussion Steve Rooke – mastering Chris Shaw – engineer TJ Doherty , Tim <unk> – assistant engineers Stan Doty , Daniel Herbst , Deborah Miles Johnson , Haydn Johnston , Matt <unk> – production assistants , technical assistance Dan Nadel – graphic design Peter Smith – graphic design , photography Mike <unk> – photography Gladys Nilsson – drawing Ken <unk> – digital supervisor
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The Post - American World The Post - American World is a non - fiction book by American journalist Fareed Zakaria . It was published in hardcover and audiobook formats in early May 2008 and became available in paperback in early May 2009 ; the Updated and Expanded Release 2 . 0 followed in 2011 . In the book , Zakaria argues that , thanks to the actions of the United States in spreading liberal democracy across the world , other countries are now competing with the US in terms of economic , industrial , and cultural power . While the US continues to dominate in terms of political - military power , other countries such as China and India are becoming global players in many fields . The book peaked at # 2 on The New York Times non - fiction hardcover best - seller list and at # 47 on the USA Today Top 150 Best - Selling Books list . Reviewers commented that Zakaria 's writing was intelligent and sharp , yet accessible to general audiences . A few reviewers also wrote that the book was similar to an extended essay with journalistic style writing . Background At the time of publication author Fareed Zakaria was a 48 - year - old married man living in New York and working as an editor for Newsweek International . Zakaria had immigrated to the United States from India during his university career . He graduated from Harvard University with a Ph.D. in political science in 1993 after earning a B.A. from Yale University . He worked as the managing editor of Foreign Affairs magazine before accepting the editor position at Newsweek . Labeled a liberal hawk , Zakaria 's political views have shifted from supporting Reagan 's pro - democracy agenda to Clinton 's pro - market stances and to the point where Zakaria felt that the US was " unstoppable " . In subsequent years , he watched as other countries set records for the world 's tallest building , largest factory , largest refinery , and richest person . Meanwhile , he watched the US get bogged down in war in Iraq . In 2003 , his book The Future of Freedom : <unk> Democracy at Home and Abroad , in which he examines the necessary conditions for liberal democracy to survive , was published . While he initially supported US intervention in Iraq , Zakaria criticized the Bush Administration 's methods of nation - building and for trying to force Iraq into a liberal democracy without the preconditions of economic liberalisation and rule - of - law . Over the next few years , Zakaria developed his theory on shifting global power as he contributed or wrote articles profiling emerging national powers and participating in economic forums and organizations . Synopsis The content is divided into seven chapters . The first chapter introduces the thesis of the book : that a ' post - American ' world order is emerging in which the United States will continue to be the most powerful nation but its relative power will be diminished . He believes that there have been three power shifts in the last 500 years : a shift of power to the West during the Renaissance , a shift of power to the US making it a superpower , and now a shift to several surging countries , especially China and India , and to non - governmental organizations . Zakaria believes that international organizations are not adapting well to emerging challenges and that there is too much focus on problems arising from potential market failures or general crises ( e.g. terrorism ) at the expense of focus on problems stemming from success ( e.g. development causing environmental degradation , or rising demand creating high commodity prices ) . The second and third chapters examine factors that led to the current power balance . Power shifted to the West because it fostered trade with foreign peoples and developed superior labour productivity per capita . Power shifted to the US because of its strong democracy and capitalist market . Zakaria argues that the success of the US in promoting free market capitalism and globalization has led to power being dispersed to several other countries . Economies have been surging for decades , in part due to large new players entering the global market place . He compares this era 's economic growth to the economic surges of the 1890s and the 1950s which also saw new players become global powers . At the same time , Zakaria sees attitudes in the US becoming insular and distrustful of foreigners . The fourth chapter focuses on China . Its strategy of small , gradual reforms have allowed it to quietly modernize . It has become the second most powerful nation , but still unlikely to match the US for decades to come . China 's strengths include a philosophy that reflects Confucian ideals of practicality , ethics and rationalism . Its non - combative foreign policy is more appealing , most notably in Africa , over interventionist Western - style policy that demands reforms in other countries . China 's weakness , though , is a fear of social unrest . The fifth chapter focuses on India . Contrasted to China , India has a bottom - up democratic political system constantly subject to social unrest with only a few politicians losing elections . Its political system is characterized by strong regionalism — often placing high priority on regional interests rather than national . Zakaria lists India 's advantages : independent courts that enforce contracts , private property rights , rule of law , an established private sector , and many business savvy English - speaking people . The sixth chapter compares the American rise to superpower status and its use of power . He draws parallels between the British Empire in the 1890s and starting the Boer War , with the US in the 2000s and starting the Iraq War . The difference between them is that the British had unsurpassed political power but lost its economic dominance , whereas the US , in the 2000s , had huge economic power but faltering political influence . Zakaria defends the US from indicators that suggest American decline but warns that internal partisan politics , domestic ideological attack groups , special interest power , and a sensationalistic media are weakening the federal government 's ability to adapt to new global realities . The final chapter outlines how the US has used its power and provides six guidelines for the US to follow in the ' post - American world ' envisioned by Zakaria . Style and comparisons The Post - American World , at 292 pages long , was described as " a book - length essay " and a " thin book that reads like one long , thoughtful essay " . Written with an optimistic tone , it features little new research or reporting , but rather contains insights and identification of trends . The reviewer for The Wall Street Journal described the tone as " infectious ( though not naive ) <unk> ... but without Panglossian simplicity " . The American Spectator reviewer noted that the prose had a journalistic style while the reviewer for The Guardian noticed the writing sometimes displayed " news magazine mannerisms " . Zakaria 's view on globalization was said to be similar to journalist and author Thomas Friedman . Friedman reviewed The Post - American World and called it " compelling " . The review in American Conservative compared this book with Rudyard Kipling 's poems " <unk> " and " The White Man 's Burden " , both written at the height of British power and warning against imperial hubris . The American Spectator review listed it as adding to similar themed books , comparing it to Oswald Spengler 's The Decline of the West ( 1918 ) , Arnold Toynbee 's A Study of History , Paul Kennedy 's The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers ( 1987 ) , and Robert Kagan 's The Return of History and the End of Dreams ( 2008 ) . Kagan labeled The Post - American World as " <unk> " ; however , Martin Woollacott of The Guardian labeled Zakaria an <unk> . The Commentary review added the works of Samuel P. Huntington and Francis Fukuyama to the list of comparisons and suggested there is now a subgenre of books that consider the decline or demise of American hegemony . Publication and sales The book was published by W. W. Norton & Company and the hardcover released in early May 2008 . Excerpts were published in Newsweek , the National Post , and The New York Times . The book entered The New York Times ' non - fiction best - seller list at # 11 on May 18 , 2008 . It spent 13 weeks within the top thirteen spots , peaking at # 2 on June 1 . It spent 8 weeks on the USA Today Top 150 Best - Selling Books list , peaking at # 47 . An 8 . 5 hour audiobook , narrated by Zakaria , was released at the same time . A review in Publishers Weekly said that Zakaria 's narration , with his light Indian accent and deliberate pacing , creates a sense of ease and allows for listeners to appreciate and understand the content . The paperback was released a year later late - April 2009 . It spent several weeks on The New York Times non - fiction paperback best - seller list peaking at # 11 on May 22 , 2009 . The book was short - listed for the 2009 Lionel Gelber Prize for best non - fiction book that seeks to deepen public debate on global issues . The book was published in United Kingdom by Penguin Press imprint Allen Lane and in Germany by Bertelsmann publisher Siedler . Reception Various reviewers called the writing intelligent and sharp . The review in the Pittsburgh Post - Gazette called it a " succinct , short and comprehensible volume ... full of sharp , almost aphoristic , amusing observations " . John Ikenberry of Foreign Affairs saw Zakaria 's characteristic elegance and insight reflected in the book . The reviewers in Policy and Economic Affairs identified Zakaria 's strengths as being the breadth of evidence used to support the points and his use of personal accounts to summarize the research . The reviewer for USA Today Magazine wrote that " Zakaria analyzes problems brilliantly " . The ability to communicate complex situations clearly in plain language made the book accessible to a wide range of readers . Several media outlets picked up the story of Barack Obama reading this book while campaigning for the 2008 presidential election . Critics commented on Zakaria 's teleological point - of - view . In a review published in The Progressive , Johann Hari called Zakaria 's assertions <unk> referring to the belief that there is no alternative to globalization and free market capitalism . Hari cited examples where policies such as what Zakaria advocated led to disasters , like the 1999 collapse of Argentinian economy , and financial deregulation resulting in the financial crisis of 2007 – 2010 , which had begun just after the book was published . In the book , Zakaria maintains that economic dysfunctions are caused by , and can be solved through , specific government policies . When asked , in February 2009 , about the financial crisis , Zakaria asserted that the financial practices that created the collapse were American practices , and that it contributed to the post - American mentality that the US does not have all of the answers . Hari also disagreed with Zakaria 's view of the economic histories of Britain and America , which in Zakaria portrayal ignores extended periods of protectionism during which their industries were developed to the point where they were capable of competing with other countries . Likewise , academic and author Brendan Simms found that Zakaria too closely co - related national wealth with national power in his argument that dispersal of global prosperity will necessarily affect global balance of power . The Economist review found a disconnection between the book 's arguments and its sources in that the book addresses international and national ( especially analysis of China and India ) , but nearly all the people behind the sources cited are based , or spent most of their careers , in the New York - Washington corridor . Richard Florida in The Globe and Mail and Michael Vlahos in The American Interest commented that Zakaria state - centric framework distorts the real base of power , which , for commentator Florida , is in cities like Shanghai and Hong Kong rather than all of China . Vlahos likened Zakaria to a courtier mirroring back the ruling narrative to meet the global elite 's emotional needs . Regarding the book 's focus , one reviewer criticized it by writing " The Post - American World is missing precisely what its title promises : a discussion of what a world might look like that is not dominated by the United States " . Errors concerning characterization of Buddhism as Indian religion and Buddha 's birthplace as India rather than Lumbini resulted in Nepali politicians demanding an apology from Zakaria or a printed correction .
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A Thousand Splendid Suns A Thousand Splendid Suns is a 2007 novel by Afghan - American author Khaled Hosseini . It is his second , following his bestselling 2003 debut , The Kite Runner . Mariam is an illegitimate child , and suffers from both the stigma surrounding her birth along with the abuse she faces throughout her marriage . Laila , born a generation later , is comparatively privileged during her youth until their lives intersect and she is also forced to accept a marriage proposal from Rasheed , Mariam 's husband . Hosseini has remarked that he regards the novel as a " mother - daughter story " in contrast to The Kite Runner , which he considers a " father - son story " . It continues some of the themes used in his previous work , such as the familial aspects , but focuses primarily on female characters and their roles in Afghan society . A Thousand Splendid Suns was released on May 22 , 2007 , and received favorable <unk> reviews from Kirkus , Publishers Weekly , Library Journal , and Booklist , becoming a number one New York Times bestseller for fifteen weeks following its release . During its first week on the market , it sold over one million copies . Columbia Pictures purchased film rights in 2007 and confirmed intentions to create a movie adaption of the book . Creation Title The title of the book comes from a line in the Josephine Davis translation of the poem " Kabul " , by the 17th - century Iranian poet Saib <unk> : " Every street of Kabul is enthralling to the eye Through the bazaars , caravans of Egypt pass One could not count the moons that shimmer on her roofs And the thousand splendid suns that hide behind her walls " In an interview , Khaled Hosseini explains , " I was searching for English translations of poems about Kabul , for use in a scene where a character bemoans leaving his beloved city , when I found this particular verse . I realized that I had found not only the right line for the scene , but also an evocative title in the phrase ' a thousand splendid suns , ' which appears in the next - to - last stanza . " Inspiration When asked what led him to write a novel centered on two Afghan women , Hosseini responded : " I had been entertaining the idea of writing a story of Afghan women for some time after I 'd finished writing The Kite Runner . That first novel was a male - dominated story . All the major characters , except perhaps for Amir 's wife Soraya , were men . There was a whole facet of Afghan society which I hadn 't touched on in The Kite Runner , an entire landscape that I felt was fertile with story ideas ... In the spring of 2003 , I went to Kabul , and I recall seeing these burqa - clad women sitting at street corners , with four , five , six children , begging for change . I remember watching them walking in pairs up the street , trailed by their children in ragged clothes , and wondering how life had brought them to that point ... I spoke to many of those women in Kabul . Their life stories were truly heartbreaking ... When I began writing A Thousand Splendid Suns , I found myself thinking about those resilient women over and over . Though no one woman that I met in Kabul inspired either Laila or Mariam , their voices , faces , and their incredible stories of survival were always with me , and a good part of my inspiration for this novel came from their collective spirit . " Writing Hosseini disclosed that in some ways , A Thousand Splendid Suns was more difficult to write than his first novel , The Kite Runner . This is partly because when he penned The Kite Runner , " no one was waiting for it . " He also found his second novel to be more " ambitious " than the first due to its larger number of characters , its dual focus on Mariam and Laila , and its covering of a multi - generational - period of nearly forty - five - years . However , he stated , " As I began to write , as the story picked up pace and I found myself immersed in the world of Mariam and Laila , these apprehensions vanished on their own . The developing story captured me and enabled me to tune out the background noise and get on with the business of inhabiting the world I was creating . " The characters " took on a life of their own " at this point and " became very real for [ him ] " . Similar to The Kite Runner , the manuscript had to be extensively revised ; Hosseini divulged that he ultimately wrote the book five times before it was complete . The novel 's anticipated release was first announced in October 2006 , when it was described as a story about " family , friendship , faith and the salvation to be found in love " . Summary The novel centers around two women , Mariam and Laila , how their lives become intertwined after a series of drastic events , and their subsequent friendship and support for each other in the backdrop of Kabul in the 20th and 21st century . It is split into four parts that focus on individual stories : Part one is about Mariam , part two is on Laila , part three is on the relationship between the two women , and Laila 's life with Tariq is in part four . The last section also happens to be the only part written in the present tense . Mariam lives in a <unk> on the outskirts of Herat with her embittered mother . Jalil , her father , is a wealthy businessman who owns a cinema and lives in the town with three wives and nine children . Mariam is his illegitimate daughter , and she is prohibited to live with them , but Jalil visits her every Thursday . On her fifteenth birthday , Mariam wants her father to take her to see Pinocchio at his movie theater , against the pleas of her mother . When he does not show up , she hikes into town and goes to his house . He refuses to see her , and she ends up sleeping on the street . In the morning , Mariam returns home to find that her mother has committed suicide out of fear that her daughter had deserted her . Mariam is then taken to live in her father 's house . Jalil arranges for her to be married to Rasheed , a shoemaker from Kabul who is thirty - years her senior . In Kabul , Mariam becomes pregnant seven successive times , but is never able to carry a child to term . This is a sad , disquieting reality for both Rasheed and Mariam . Ultimately Rasheed grows more and more despondent over his wife 's inability to have a child and particularly a son . As their marriage wears on Rasheed gradually becomes more and more abusive . Part Two introduces Laila . She is a girl growing up in Kabul who is close friends with Tariq , a boy living in her neighborhood . They eventually develop a romantic relationship despite being aware of the social boundaries between men and women in Afghan society . War comes to Afghanistan , and Kabul is bombarded by rocket attacks . Tariq 's family decides to leave the city , and the emotional farewell between Laila and Tariq culminates with them making love . Laila 's family also decides to leave Kabul , but as they are packing a rocket destroys the house , killing her parents and severely injuring Laila . Laila is subsequently taken in by Rasheed and Mariam . After recovering from her injuries , Laila discovers that she is pregnant with Tariq 's child . After being informed by Abdul Sharif that Tariq has died , she agrees to marry Rasheed , a man eager to have a young and attractive second wife in hopes of having a son with her . When Laila gives birth to a daughter , Aziza , Rasheed is displeased and suspicious . This results in him becoming abusive towards Laila . Mariam and Laila eventually become confidants and best friends . They plan to run away from Rasheed and leave Kabul but are caught at the bus station . Rasheed beats them and deprives them of water for several days , almost killing Aziza . A few years later , Laila gives birth to Zalmai , Rasheed 's son . The Taliban has risen to power and imposed harsh rules on the Afghan population , prohibiting women from appearing in public without a male relative . There is a drought , and living conditions in Kabul become poor . Rasheed 's workshop burns down , and he is forced to take jobs for which he is ill - suited . He sends Aziza to an orphanage . Laila endures a number of beatings from the Taliban when caught alone on the streets in attempts to visit her daughter . Then one day Tariq appears outside the house , and he and Laila are reunited . Laila realizes that Rasheed had hired Abdul Sharif to inform her about Tariq 's fake death , so that he could marry her . When Rasheed returns home from work , Zalmai tells his father about the visitor . Rasheed starts to savagely beat Laila . He nearly strangles her , but Mariam intervenes and kills Rasheed with a shovel . Afterwards , Mariam confesses to killing Rasheed in order to draw attention away from Laila and Tariq . Mariam is publicly executed , allowing Laila and Tariq to leave for Pakistan with Aziza and Zalmai . They spend their days working at a guest house in Murree , a summer retreat . After the fall of the Taliban , Laila and Tariq return to Afghanistan . They stop in the village where Mariam was raised , and discover a package that Mariam 's father left behind for her : a videotape of Pinocchio , a small sack of money , and a letter . Laila reads the letter and discovers that Jalil had regretted sending Mariam away . Laila and Tariq return to Kabul and use the money to fix up the orphanage , where Laila starts working as a teacher . Laila is pregnant with her third child , and if it is a girl , Laila has already named her Mariam . Characters Mariam is an ethnic Tajik born in Herat , 1959 . She is the illegitimate child of Jalil and Nana . She suffers shame throughout her childhood because of the circumstances of her birth . Khaled Hosseini described her portrayal : " The key word with Mariam is that she is isolated in every sense of the word . She is a woman who is detached from the day - to - day norms of human existence . Really , she just wants connection with another human being . " Despite initially resenting Laila , she becomes a " friend and a doting alternative mother " to her through the " common hardship " of being married to the " abusive , psychologically imposing " Rasheed . Laila is an ethnic Tajik . Born in 1978 , to Hakim and Fariba , she is a beautiful and intelligent girl coming from a family in which the father is university - educated and a teacher . Hosseini states that compared to Mariam , Laila " had a much more fulfilling relationship with her father , her girlfriends and her childhood friend , Tariq . She expected to finish school and is looking for personal fulfillment . These are two very different representations of women . " Her life becomes tied to Mariam 's when she becomes the second wife of Rasheed , Mariam 's husband . This originally draws resentment from Mariam , who " [ feels ] her territory infringed upon " . Despite this , " Laila becomes her daughter for all practical purposes " due to Mariam 's childlessness , struggles , and abuse they both face during the marriage . Towards the end of the novel she becomes a schoolteacher at the orphanage where Aziza had stayed . Rasheed is an ethnic Pashtun , a shoemaker , and the antagonist of the novel . He marries Mariam through an arrangement with Jalil , and later marries Laila as well . After suffering years of domestic abuse at his hands , Mariam bludgeons Rasheed to death with a shovel during a violent struggle . Hosseini stated that he hoped to create a multi - layered character in Rasheed , saying , " Rasheed 's the embodiment of the patriarchal , tribal character . In writing him , I didn 't want to write him as an irredeemable villain . He is a reprehensible person , but there are moments of humanity , such as his love for his son . " He identified an encounter with an Afghan man four years earlier as the foundation for this character ; the man " had a very sweet , subservient wife " and had not yet informed her that he was planning to marry again . Tariq , an ethnic Pashtun born in 1976 , is a boy who grew up in Kabul with Laila . He lost a leg to a land mine at the age of five . They eventually evolve from best friends to lovers ; after a decade of separation they are married and expecting a child by the end of the novel . Nana is Mariam 's mother and a former servant of Jalil . Mariam 's birth is the result of an affair between Nana and Jalil . Jalil 's favoritism towards his wives and legitimate children leaves Nana bitter towards Jalil . She hangs herself when Mariam is fifteen after Mariam journeys to Jalil 's house on her birthday . Nana perceives this to be betrayal and regards as an act of desertion . Mullah <unk> , a Sufi , is Mariam 's elderly Koran teacher and friend . He dies of natural causes in 1989 . Jalil is Mariam 's father , a wealthy man who had three wives before he fathered Mariam . He marries Mariam to Rasheed after Nana 's death , but later regrets sending her away . He dies in 1987 . Hakim is Laila 's father . He is a well - educated and a progressive schoolteacher . He is killed in a rocket explosion along with Fariba . Fariba is Laila 's mother . In Part One , during her brief meeting with Mariam , she is depicted as cheerful , but her happy nature is disrupted when her two sons , Ahmad and Noor , leave home to go to war and are later killed . She spends nearly all of her time in bed mourning her sons until the Mujahideen are victorious , and is later killed in a rocket explosion along with Hakim . Aziza , born in the spring of 1993 , is the daughter of Laila and Tariq , conceived when Laila was fourteen . When the news of Tariq 's alleged death arrives , in order to hide the child 's illegitimacy and provide for herself , Laila decides to marry Rasheed . Aziza 's birth marks the beginning of Laila 's fall from favor with Rasheed and the friendship between Mariam and Laila . Zalmai , born in September 1997 , to Laila and Rasheed . He serves as a redeeming facet of Rasheed , idolizing him despite the abuse to his mother and Mariam . Zalmai remains unaware of the fact that Mariam killed Rasheed and continuously asks Laila about him , who lies by saying that he simply left for some time . After initially blaming Tariq for his father 's mysterious disappearance , he comes to accept Tariq as a father - figure . Themes Family When asked about common themes in The Kite Runner and A Thousand Splendid Suns , Khaled Hosseini replied : " Both novels are multigenerational , and so the relationship between parent and child , with all of its manifest complexities and contradictions , is a prominent theme . I did not intend this , but I am keenly interested , it appears , in the way parents and children love , disappoint , and in the end honor each other . In one way , the two novels are corollaries : The Kite Runner was a father - son story , and A Thousand Splendid Suns can be seen as a mother - daughter story . " He ultimately considers both novels to be " love stories " in that it is love that " draws characters out of their isolation , that gives them the strength to transcend their own limitations , to expose their vulnerabilities , and to perform devastating acts of self - sacrifice " . Women in Afghanistan Hosseini visited Afghanistan in 2003 , and " heard so many stories about what happened to women , the tragedies that they had endured , the difficulties , the gender - based violence that they had suffered , the discrimination , the being barred from active life during the Taliban , having their movement restricted , being banned essentially from practicing their legal , social rights , political rights " . This motivated him to write a novel centered on two Afghan women . Washington Post writer Jonathan Yardley suggests that " the central theme of A Thousand Splendid Suns is the place of women in Afghan society " , pointing to a passage in which Mariam 's mother states , " Learn this now and learn it well , my daughter : Like a compass needle that points north , a man 's accusing finger always finds a woman . Always . You remember that , Mariam . " In the book , both Mariam and Laila are forced into accepting a marriage to Rasheed , who requires them to wear a burqa before it is implemented by law under the Taliban . He later becomes increasingly abusive . A Riverhead Trades Weekly review states that the novel consistently shows the " patriarchal despotism where women are agonizingly dependent on fathers , husbands and especially sons , the bearing of male children being their sole path to social status . " Critical reception In the first week following its release , A Thousand Splendid Suns sold over one million copies , becoming a number - one New York Times bestseller for fifteen weeks . Time magazine 's Lev Grossman placed it at number three in the Top 10 Fiction Books of 2007 , and praised it as a " dense , rich , pressure - packed guide to enduring the unendurable . " Jonathan Yardley said in the Washington Post " Book World " , " Just in case you 're wondering whether Khaled Hosseini 's A Thousand Splendid Suns is as good as The Kite Runner , here 's the answer : No . It 's better . " A Thousand Splendid Suns received significant praise from reviewers , with Publishers Weekly calling it " a powerful , harrowing depiction of Afghanistan " and USA Today describing the prose as " achingly beautiful " . Lisa See of The New York Times attributed the book 's success to Hosseini " [ understanding ] the power of emotion as few other popular writers do " . Natasha Walter from The Guardian wrote , " Hosseini is skilled at telling a certain kind of story , in which events that may seem unbearable - violence , misery and abuse - are made readable . He doesn 't gloss over the horrors his characters live through , but something about his direct , explanatory style and the sense that you are moving towards a redemptive ending makes the whole narrative , for all its tragedies , slip down rather easily . " Cathleen Medwick gave the novel a highly positive review in O , the Oprah Magazine : " Love may not be the first thing that comes to mind when you consider the war - ravaged landscape of Afghanistan . But that is the emotion — subterranean , powerful , beautiful , illicit , and infinitely patient — that suffuses the pages of Khaled Hosseini 's A Thousand Splendid Suns . As in his best - selling first novel , The Kite Runner , Hosseini movingly examines the connections between unlikely friends , the fissures that open up between parents and children , the intransigence of quiet hearts . " The New York Times writer Michiko Kakutani wrote a more critical review , describing the opening as " heavy - handed " and early events in the novel as " soap - opera - ish " . Despite these objections , she concluded , " Gradually , however , Mr. Hosseini 's instinctive storytelling skills take over , mowing down the reader 's objections through sheer momentum and will . He succeeds in making the emotional reality of Mariam and Laila 's lives tangible to us , and by conjuring their day - to - day routines , he is able to give us a sense of what daily life was like in Kabul — both before and during the harsh reign of the Taliban . " Similarly , Yvonne Zipp of The Christian Science Monitor concluded that A Thousand Splendid Suns was ultimately " a little shaky as a work of literature " . The depictions of the lead female characters , Mariam and Laila , were praised by several commentators . John Freeman from The Houston Chronicle found them " enormously winning " while Carol Memmott from USA Today further described them as " stunningly heroic characters whose spirits somehow grasp the dimmest rays of hope " . Medwick summed up the portrayals : " Mariam , branded as a <unk> , or bastard , and forced into an abusive marriage at the age of fifteen , and Laila , a beauty groomed for success but shrouded almost beyond recognition by repressive sharia law and the husband she and Mariam share . The story , epic in scope and spanning three decades , follows these two indomitable women whose fortunes mirror those of their beloved and battered country — ' nothing pretty to look at , but still standing ' — and who find in each other the strength they need to survive . " Jennifer Reese from Entertainment Weekly dubbed Rasheed " one of the most repulsive males in recent literature " . Lisa See said that , with the exception of Tariq , " the male characters seem either unrelentingly evil or pathetically weak " and opinionated , " If a woman wrote these things about her male characters , she would probably be labeled a man - hater . " Film Columbia Pictures owns the movie rights to the novel . Steven Zaillian finished writing the first draft of the screenplay in 2009 and is also slated to direct ; Scott Rudin has signed on as a producer . In May 2013 , studios confirmed a tentative release date of 2015 .
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Training Day ( Archer ) " Training Day " is the second episode of the animated comedy Archer . It was written by Archer creator and co - executive producer , Adam Reed , and directed by Mack Williams . In the episode , Archer 's mother Malory assigns her son the task of training Cyril to be an agent . Meanwhile , secretary Cheryl and human resources representative Pam take advantage of Malory being temporarily blinded by an allergic reaction . " Training Day " was produced at Floyd County Productions and animated at Radical Axis studio in Atlanta , over the course of approximately one month . FX had initially planned on airing the series alongside the fifth season of It 's Always Sunny in Philadelphia in 2009 , but production constraints led to it being pushed back to January 2010 . The episode features cultural references to the films Rain Man and James Bond , and stand - up comedian and actor Dane Cook . In its original broadcast , the episode was met with 1 . 8 million viewers and positive reviews . Plot After Archer recklessly foils an Irish terrorist 's attempt to assassinate a British nobleman , Malory begins to suspect that Lana 's feelings for her son are resurfacing . Hoping to readjust Lana 's desires so they are steered towards her current boyfriend , Cyril , she promotes Cyril to a field agent and assigns Archer the job of training him . Archer briefs Cyril of his multiple training tactics , including learning Krav Maga and using <unk> weapons which have a tendency to malfunction " for , like , no reason . " One of his sessions involves trying to kill an assassin ( portrayed by Archer 's butler , Woodhouse ) and using a dance partner ( played by a prostitute Archer has befriended ) as a human shield . During the session , however , Cyril accidentally poisons the prostitute and both he and Archer pronounce her deceased . The pair put the prostitute in Archer 's trunk and drive off , hoping to dispose of the body in an undisclosed location . On the way , however , Archer reveals he is aware of Malory 's plan and has been attempting to discourage Cyril from becoming a field agent , presumably due to his own feelings for Lana , and had orchestrated the whole fiasco to this end ( revealing the prostitute was merely tranquilized ) . At this point , the car is rammed by a pursuing vehicle . Cyril believes this is part of Archer 's hoax , until their pursuer opens fire on them . In a true show of his character , Archer threatens to eject from the car and leave the hysterical Cyril behind . Their mystery attacker then ceases fire and reveals herself to be Lana , who has discovered Archer 's assignment and decided to put a stop to it . Despite Cyril 's concern about being caught with a dead hooker , Lana reveals she is only upset he felt the need to keep secrets from her , so she punishes Cyril by forcing him to buy interracial pornography from " the sweet old Korean lady " at the video store . Archer releases the prostitute in the trunk after Cyril and Lana depart , who reveals she was not in on the plan . Archer is forced to not only pay her obscene amounts of money as collateral , but also give her his car , leaving him stranded . Meanwhile , Malory becomes temporally blinded after having an allergic reaction to zucchini . Seeing this as an opportunity to help themselves , secretary Cheryl and human resources representative Pam hack into the ISIS computer mainframe from Malory 's office and alter their files , allowing them better health care and other perks they can not afford themselves . The whole time , Malory rants about how disgruntled she is about her own and others ' life choices . Production " Training Day " was written by Archer creator and co - executive producer Adam Reed , while the series ' animation director Mack Williams directed it . In 2009 , FX network had officially greenlit production of the series , ordering six episodes and an additional four scripts . Over the course of approximately one month , " Training Day " was produced at Reed 's Floyd County Productions studio in Atlanta , Georgia , and animated at the Radical Axis Studio , also located in Atlanta . FX originally planned on pairing Archer with the fifth season of the network 's situation comedy It 's Always Sunny in Philadelphia on Thursday nights in the Fall . However , the network learned of the month - long production period needed to create the necessary six episodes , and realized that there was not enough time to have all of the episodes ready before Philadelphia began its new season . FX instead decided to release a sneak airing of the pilot episode " Mole Hunt " on September 17 , 2009 , without any promotion or announcement , and began broadcast of the first season with " Training Day " on January 14 , 2010 . Cultural references The episode featured multiple cultural references . While discussing his training , Cyril asks Archer if he will teach him the art of karate . In response , Archer negatively compares karate to the stand - up comedian and actor Dane Cook . Archer explains that Cyril shall be trained by a former member of Mossad in order to perform Krav Maga , an eclectic hand - to - hand combat system developed in Israel . While Archer and Cyril are being shot at by an unknown vehicle behind them , Archer refers to Cyril as " Rain Man , " a 1988 drama film starring Tom Cruise and Dustin Hoffman . Cyril believes that Archer is calling himself a better spy than James Bond from the James Bond film series , to which Archer pronounces " I don ’ t like to invite that comparison but ... yeah , basically . " Several critics have noted satirical comparisons between Archer and the Bond films . Reed , himself , based the Archer character on Bond , perceiving Bond as misogynistic and racist . Reception In its original broadcast on FX , " Training Day " was watched by 1 . 8 million viewers , according to Nielsen ratings . 1 . 2 million of these viewers were aged between the ages of 18 and 49 , the core demographic for Archer . A re - airing of the pilot episode " Mole Hunt " preceded it and attracted a slightly smaller amount of viewers , with 1 . 4 million viewers , only 950 , 000 being between 18 and 49 . " Training Day " received generally positive reviews from television critics . Annie Wu applauded the episode in her review for TV Squad . Wu dispensed that the best part was the writing , and acted as " a prime example of how ridiculously rapid - fire the conversations can get . " She singled out the scene where Archer gives an " oddly specific " situation as to when he would utilize a gun hidden in his underwear . Wu opined that she " loved " Jessica Walter 's performance as Malory , declaring that she " wins this episode " with lines such as " Immigrants ! That 's how they do , y 'know . Just drive around , listening to raps and shooting all the jobs . " Brian Zoromski of IGN rewarded the episode a 9 . 0 out of 10 , signifying it as " Outstanding . " Zoromski called the voice cast " absolutely excellent , " writing that H. Jon Benjamin 's delivery as Archer was " brilliantly over - the - top , from his drunken outburst and almost - accidental stopping of a terrorist , to his education of all things spy - related , " and noted that both the series satirical themes and character development were " alternately obvious and subtle " and " Archer 's biggest strength . " Salon.com 's Heather Havrilesky called the exchange between Archer and Cyril concerning the latter 's martial arts training a " [ zinger that flies ] by pretty quickly . "
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Weekend at Burnsie 's " Weekend at Burnsie 's " is the sixteenth episode of The Simpsons ' thirteenth season . It first aired in the United States on the Fox network on April 7 , 2002 . In the episode , Homer Simpson is prescribed medicinal marijuana after getting pecked in the eyes by a murder of crows . While his family and friends worry about the drug altering his personality , Homer becomes Mr. Burns 's vice president after cracking up at Burns 's antiquated jokes . The episode was directed by Michael Marcantel . The plot idea for the episode was pitched by George Meyer , who wanted to make an episode about Homer getting addicted to medicinal marijuana . Executive producer and current showrunner Al Jean found the idea " very funny " and gave former staff writer Jon Vitti the duty to write the episode 's first draft . Fox was initially very uneasy to pass the episode for broadcast , since they were concerned that it might encourage younger viewers to smoke marijuana . Even though The Simpsons ' staff slightly altered the episode by not actually showing Homer smoke his medicinal marijuana , the network was still worried that it might cause a controversy . The use of medicinal marijuana is prominently featured throughout " Weekend at Burnsie 's " . Because the legislation of medicinal marijuana is a controversial issue , The Simpsons ' staff has stated that they wanted to explore both sides of the argument , showing both the negative and positive effects of marijuana use . The episode does not come to an absolute conclusion about the issue . The episode also criticizes the use of genetically modified foods , and references Citizen Kane , Dragnet , The Birds , and Judy Garland , among other things . It also features the American rock band Phish as themselves . Despite the network 's initial concerns , " Weekend at Burnsie 's " did not attract any controversy . In its original broadcast , the episode was seen by approximately 7 . 2 million viewers , finishing in 46th place in the ratings the week it aired . Following the thirteenth season 's release on DVD and Blu - ray on August 24 , 2010 , the episode received mostly positive reviews from critics . Plot After a bad experience with genetically modified food , including baby corn the size of ordinary corn and a potato that eats Lisa 's carrots , Marge decides to plant her own garden . Crows arrive on the new garden , so Marge makes a scarecrow , which scares Homer . Homer destroys the scarecrow , and the crows eventually see Homer as their leader , following him everywhere and doing his bidding . But when the crows try to carry Maggie , Homer turns on them and they attack his eyes . He then goes to the hospital , where Dr. Hibbert prescribes him medicinal marijuana . Having had a bad experience with marijuana when he was younger , Homer objects to Hibbert 's suggestion at first , but eventually decides to try it . Homer begins to enjoy smoking marijuana , even asking Flanders to read him the whole Holy Bible , much to Flanders ' excitement . When Flanders offers a petition to have a vote on the ban of medical marijuana in Springfield , Homer unwittingly adds his signature . Homer 's stoned state also sees him promoted to Executive Vice - President at the power plant , because Mr. Burns appreciates how Homer laughs at all of his lame jokes , and so he goes to a rally for the legalization of medical marijuana ( but the rally is actually held a day after the ban was approved by voters ) . Homer 's eyes have healed and agrees to stop smoking pot after Marge tells him he needs to set a good example for his kids . Mr. Burns asks Homer to help him with a speech for a crisis shareholders meeting , where the <unk> must raise millions of dollars or be forced into closure . Homer gives Smithers his last joint , and while Smithers is smoking and dressing in the coat Judy Garland once wore , Burns apparently drowns in his bathtub . Smithers tells Homer they have to cover up his death , telling him " Michael Eisner 's been dead for five years ! Ted Turner is just a hologram ! " . So , for the meeting , Smithers and Homer make Mr. Burns into a marionette , à la Weekend at Bernie 's , and the movement of the marionette inadvertently gets Mr. Burns ' heart working again . The shareholders are mollified and pledge renewed funding , and another financial crisis at the power plant is avoided . Production " Weekend at Burnsie 's " was written by Jon Vitti and directed by Michael Marcantel . It was first broadcast on the Fox network in the United States on April 7 , 2002 . The idea for the episode was pitched by former staff writer George Meyer , who wanted to make an episode in which Homer becomes addicted to medicinal marijuana . Executive producer and current showrunner Al Jean thought that the premise sounded " very funny " and assigned Vitti to write the episode 's first draft . Vitti wrote the script at his home and did not participate in any rewriting sessions with the other staff writers . " [ ... ] it 's a funny bunch of people " , he said in the episode 's DVD commentary . " You definitely lose touch with what the movies you 're supposed to see , what 's good on TV ... " " Weekend at Burnsie 's " is the second episode Vitti wrote in which a character forgets to vote at an election , and the second episode he wrote in which Homer takes a chemical that causes him to be promoted by Burns and run into conflict with Smithers . " You can 't do anything for the first time at this point " , Vitti quipped . Producer and former showrunner Mike Reiss has stated that he thoroughly enjoyed working on " Weekend at Burnsie 's " . " I gotta say , this was the most fun I ever had working on an episode " , he said in the episode 's DVD commentary . " Everyone but me had stories to tell [ about various things ] . There would be about four hours of recollection before any rewriting happened . " Because the use of medicinal marijuana is prominently featured in the episode , Fox had " incredible fears " about it and were very hesitant to have it broadcast . They especially disapproved of a scene in which Homer smokes marijuana for the first time , since they did not want to instruct children how to smoke . The staff discussed the scene for a long time with the network until they came up with a compromise . Just before the joint touches Homer 's lips , the scene cuts to a psychedelic sequence that transpires from the joint 's tip . Despite their concerns , Jean opined that the network gave the staff a " pretty good amount " of creative freedom with the episode . " [ ... ] obviously , the network didn 't want us glorifying casual marijuana use " , he said in an interview with the music magazine Relix . " [ ... ] like we usually do , we look at everything from two sides and it 's supposed to be a thoughtful look at a serious thing " . Despite the modification of the scene , the network and the series ' staff members were still worried about how the episode would be received . " Weeks before it aired , we were going ' This is really going to kill everything ... ' " , Jean said in the episode 's DVD commentary . After being attacked by the crows , Homer is seen being treated by Dr. Hibbert at the Springfield General Hospital . While there are no visible scars on him , the character instead has a slightly curled hair . During a color screening of the scene , Homer 's body looked " a little too bloody " and damaged , prompting the staff to change it . " One thing I learned a long time ago is , you gotta be careful how you change [ the characters ' ] basic model pack [ s ] " , Jean said in the episode 's DVD commentary . He also said that he was happy that many viewers identify with the characters and don 't want to see them get hurt or injured in any way . " They don 't mind if [ Homer ] falls down a cliff but [ ... ] he should recover . " While working on the episode , the series ' staff debated what size to make Homer 's pupils when he is under the influence of marijuana . Because a common effect of smoking marijuana is to get dilated pupils , the animators initially suggested to widen them , but settled on only dilating Homer 's pupils slightly . " Weekend at Burnsie 's " features the American rock band Phish as themselves . The idea to include the band in the episode was pitched during the episode 's production . " Phish plays at the rally . We thought they 'd be the perfect group to use for the plot . " , Jean said . Meyer , who pitched the episode 's premise , was a fan of the band , but Jean did not know much of them before they appeared in the episode ; " I 've never seen one of their concerts , so I 'm not the most familiar " , he said . He first became aware of the band after reading an article about them in Entertainment Weekly . As they worked on the episode however , Jean became more acquainted with the band members . " They were nice " , he said . " Jon Fishman said to me that the band had talked from time to time about if they were to ever be on The Simpsons , what it would be like . I said , ' Well , how close was it ? ' He said , ' Pretty close to what we expected . ' ( laughs ) That was gratifying . " According to Peter Shapiro of Relix , some fans of Phish debated whether or not there had been any references to the band before " Weekend at Burnsie 's " . While the band was mentioned by name in the season 12 episode " Lisa the Tree Hugger " , there had not been any conscious attempts to reference the band before " Weekend at Burnsie 's " . This includes a scene in the season 11 episode " Saddlesore Galactica " , which shows Duncan the diving horse hanging from a hoist ; some Phish fans argued that the scene was a " blatant " reference to the cover of the band 's seventh studio album , Hoist . " That was a total coincidence " , Jean said . " It reminds me of the whole Wizard of Oz / Pink Floyd ( Dark Side of the Moon ) hook - up . I haven 't done it and I 'm sure it works , but I just keep thinking that it must be a coincidence . Before there was the invention of video , I don 't know how Pink Floyd would have done a whole album to a movie . " Themes and cultural references On May 17 , 2002 , Robert S. Stephens and Roger A. Roffman of The Seattle Times wrote an analysis of " Weekend at Burnsie 's " in a guest column for the newspaper . The two argued that drugs are almost always shown as having only negative effects , even though 10 million people in the United States use marijuana for recreational purposes . " We believe there are good reasons for a more honest dialogue about the positive and negative effects of marijuana use . A recent episode of the popular TV show The Simpsons highlighted the pros and cons of marijuana use , and Homer Simpson 's experiences with marijuana provide an example of what we mean " , they wrote . For example , when under the influence of marijuana , Homer is relieved from the pain in his eye , and he also finds himself having a variety of sensory experiences and an enhanced appreciation of music and food . " These are real effects reported by many marijuana users , and we would be hard pressed to call them anything other than benefits " , Stephens and Roffman wrote . However , Homer is also depicted spending more time with other drug users than with his family , and his friends find that his personality has changed . Eventually , Homer is shown having problems with memory and attention , losing track of the date on which a pro - marijuana rally takes place . Stephens and Roffman wrote that the side effects shown in the episode are " Perhaps a bit exaggerated , but clearly there are costs of marijuana use similar to these that are experienced by real - life users . " Jean has stated that he " does not know enough " to say whether he approves of the legislation of medicinal marijuana , but none of The Simpsons ' writers use the drug . " It 's one of the most sober writing staffs I 've ever encountered " , staff writer Max Pross said in the episode 's DVD commentary . When asked about what stance the episode holds regarding the legislation of medicinal marijuana , Jean said that series ' staff wanted to explore both sides of the issue , rather than making an absolute statement . He added that the episode is rather a critique of legislations that are immediately criminalized after they are legitimized . " The stance is that it seems ridiculous to legalize something and then criminalize it , which I have seen happen in various states " , Jean said . He continued , " It 's just weird to take away a right or to grant people a liberty and then abandon it . I would say that 's the strongest statement [ the episode ] makes . " The episode also criticizes the use of genetically modified foods . At the beginning of the episode , Marge announces that the family 's dinner includes genetically modified vegetables , to which Lisa replies " American corporations should stop playing god with nature . " She then notices that her potato starts eating her carrot . Even though the episode portrays genetic modifications in a negative light , none of The Simpsons ' writers were actually against the technique . After the scene was written , Reiss asked all the writers if they were against genetic modifications of food , and none of them were . " Very often we take these stands on the show that we do not believe in at all " , Reiss explained in the DVD commentary for the episode . The scene was originally three times longer , and was conceived during a rewrite session with the staff writers . The name of the episode is a reference to the 1989 comedy film Weekend at Bernie 's , in which two young insurance executives try to convince people that their deceased boss is alive . The last part of the episode , in which Homer and Smithers believe that they have killed Burns , is based on the film 's plot . While under the influence of marijuana , Homer shaves his beard , causing blood to pour out from his face . To Homer , the blood looks like psychedelic rainbows , and the song that plays during the scene is " Wear Your Love Like Heaven " by Scottish singer - songwriter Donovan . When speaking at the Phish concert , Homer stands in front of a large picture of himself . The scene is a reference to the 1941 drama film Citizen Kane , in which the main character Charles Foster Kane makes a political speech in front of a large picture of himself . In another scene , Homer and Smithers smoke marijuana in order to find Mr. Burns ' jokes funny . While high , Smithers wears a suit similar to one worn by American actress and singer Judy Garland . While talking to Homer , Smithers forgets to take Mr. Burns out of his bathtub . Horrified , Smithers thinks that the unconscious Mr. Burns has drowned . The scene is a reference to " The Big High " , an episode of the television crime drama Dragnet in which a married couple accidentally drown their baby while they are smoking marijuana . Release In its original American broadcast on April 7 , 2002 , " Weekend at Burnsie 's " received a 6 . 8 rating , according to Nielsen Media Research , translating to approximately 7 . 2 million viewers . The episode finished in 34th place in the ratings for the week of April 1 - 7 , 2002 , tying with a new episode of the comedy television series Malcolm in the Middle . On August 24 , 2010 , " Weekend at Burnsie 's " was released as part of The Simpsons : The Complete Thirteenth Season DVD and Blu - ray set . Matt Groening , Al Jean , Matt Selman , Don Payne , Jon Vitti , Tom Gammill , Max Pross , Mike Reiss and David Silverman participated in the audio commentary of the episode . Following its home video release , " Weekend at Burnsie 's " received mostly positive reviews from critics . Jennifer Malkowski of DVD Verdict praised the episode 's premise , writing that it " brim [ s ] with potential " even though it is " fairly simple " . She also praised the episode 's setpiece , which she described as " particularly good " , even though she found it to be " super - random " . She gave the episode an A- rating and added that it has " lots of great gags " . Writing for WhatCulture ! , Adam Rayner described " Weekend at Burnsie 's " as " utterly hilarious " and " superbly executed " . He wrote , " Apart from being very funny , the episode also manages to make statements about Marijuana , but never becomes preachy . " He continued that it can be compared to the series ' best episodes , writing that it " resemble [ s ] The Simpsons in its glory years " . Casey Broadwater of Blu - ray.com considers it to be one of the season 's best episodes , and so did High - Def Digest 's Aaron Peck , who described it as one of his personal favorites . James Plath , a reviewer for DVD Town , wrote that the episode is a " classic " . On the other hand , giving the episode a mixed review , Colin Jacobson of DVD Movie Guide wrote that " Weekend at Burnsie 's " " falls into the abyss as a distinctly ordinary episode . " He continued , " Like many other S13 shows , this one feels recycled , as it lacks much to make it stand out as creative or memorable . " He summarized the episode as being " decidedly mediocre " . Since its broadcast , " Weekend at Burnsie 's " garnered little to no scrutiny from viewers . Vitti has never gotten any questions about the episode , except from his sister - in - law who wanted him to explain the episode for his nephews . " [ ... ] My sister - in - law called me up saying that I needed to talk to my nephews about how this was wrong that Homer did " , Vitti said . " They watched it and had lots of questions for her . And she referred them all to me . So there are some people who are still bothered by it . " The little amount of scrutiny that the episode attracted took The Simpsons ' staff by surprise , as they anticipated that the episode would generate a lot of controversy . Instead , " Blame It on Lisa " , an episode which aired the previous week , caused an uproar in Brazil because of its depiction of the country . It became one of the biggest controversies the series has ever faced . " It just goes to show that you never know what 's going to be a problem " , Jean said in the DVD commentary for " Weekend at Burnsie 's " .
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Charlie Chaplin Sir Charles Spencer " Charlie " Chaplin , KBE ( 16 April 1889 – 25 December 1977 ) was an English comic actor , filmmaker , and composer who rose to fame in the silent era . Chaplin became a worldwide icon through his screen persona " the Tramp " and is considered one of the most important figures in the history of the film industry . His career spanned more than 75 years , from childhood in the Victorian era until a year before his death in 1977 , and encompassed both adulation and controversy . Chaplin 's childhood in London was one of poverty and hardship . As his father was absent and his mother struggled financially , he was sent to a workhouse twice before the age of nine . When he was 14 , his mother was committed to a mental asylum . Chaplin began performing at an early age , touring music halls and later working as a stage actor and comedian . At 19 he was signed to the prestigious Fred Karno company , which took him to America . Chaplin was scouted for the film industry , and began appearing in 1914 for Keystone Studios . He soon developed the Tramp persona and formed a large fan base . Chaplin directed his own films from an early stage , and continued to hone his craft as he moved to the Essanay , Mutual , and First National corporations . By 1918 , he was one of the best known figures in the world . In 1919 , Chaplin co - founded the distribution company United Artists , which gave him complete control over his films . His first feature - length was The Kid ( 1921 ) , followed by A Woman of Paris ( 1923 ) , The Gold Rush ( 1925 ) , and The Circus ( 1928 ) . He refused to move to sound films in the 1930s , instead producing City Lights ( 1931 ) and Modern Times ( 1936 ) without dialogue . Chaplin became increasingly political , and his next film , The Great Dictator ( 1940 ) , satirised Adolf Hitler . The 1940s were a decade marked with controversy for Chaplin , and his popularity declined rapidly . He was accused of communist sympathies , while his involvement in a paternity suit and marriages to much younger women caused scandal . An FBI investigation was opened , and Chaplin was forced to leave the United States and settle in Switzerland . He abandoned the Tramp in his later films , which include Monsieur Verdoux ( 1947 ) , Limelight ( 1952 ) , A King in New York ( 1957 ) , and A Countess from Hong Kong ( 1967 ) . Chaplin wrote , directed , produced , edited , starred in , and composed the music for most of his films . He was a perfectionist , and his financial independence enabled him to spend years on the development and production of a picture . His films are characterised by slapstick combined with pathos , typified in the Tramp 's struggles against adversity . Many contain social and political themes , as well as autobiographical elements . In 1972 , as part of a renewed appreciation for his work , Chaplin received an Honorary Academy Award for " the incalculable effect he has had in making motion pictures the art form of this century " . He continues to be held in high regard , with The Gold Rush , City Lights , Modern Times , and The Great Dictator often ranked on industry lists of the greatest films of all time . Biography Early years ( 1889 – 1913 ) Background and childhood hardship Charles Spencer Chaplin was born on 16 April 1889 to Hannah Chaplin ( born Hannah Harriet <unk> Hill ) and Charles Chaplin Sr. There is no official record of his birth , although Chaplin believed he was born at East Street , Walworth , in South London . His mother and father had married four years previously , at which time Charles Sr. became the legal carer of Hannah 's illegitimate son , Sydney John Hill . At the time of his birth , Chaplin 's parents were both music hall entertainers . Hannah , the daughter of a shoemaker , had a brief and unsuccessful career under the stage name Lily Harley , while Charles Sr. , a butcher 's son , was a popular singer . Although they never divorced , Chaplin 's parents were estranged by around 1891 . The following year , Hannah gave birth to a third son – George Wheeler Dryden – fathered by the music hall entertainer Leo Dryden . The child was taken by Dryden at six months old , and did not re - enter Chaplin 's life for 30 years . Chaplin 's childhood was fraught with poverty and hardship , making his eventual trajectory " the most dramatic of all the rags to riches stories ever told " according to his authorised biographer David Robinson . Chaplin 's early years were spent with his mother and brother Sydney in the London district of Kennington ; Hannah had no means of income , other than occasional nursing and dressmaking , and Chaplin Sr. provided no financial support . As the situation deteriorated , Chaplin was sent to a workhouse when he was seven years old . The council housed him at the Central London District School for paupers , which Chaplin remembered as " a forlorn existence " . He was briefly reunited with his mother 18 months later , before Hannah was forced to readmit her family to the workhouse in July 1898 . The boys were promptly sent to Norwood Schools , another institution for destitute children . In September 1898 , Hannah was committed to Cane Hill mental asylum – she had developed a psychosis seemingly brought on by an infection of syphilis and malnutrition . For the two months she was there , Chaplin and his brother Sydney were sent to live with their father , whom the young boys scarcely knew . Charles Sr. was by then a severe alcoholic , and life there was bad enough to provoke a visit from the National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children . Chaplin 's father died two years later , at 38 years old , from cirrhosis of the liver . Hannah entered a period of remission , but in May 1903 became ill again . Chaplin , then 14 , had the task of taking his mother to the infirmary , from where she was sent back to Cane Hill . He lived alone for several days , searching for food and occasionally sleeping rough , until Sydney – who had enrolled in the Navy two years earlier – returned . Hannah was released from the asylum eight months later , but in March 1905 her illness returned , this time permanently . " There was nothing we could do but accept poor mother 's fate " , Chaplin later wrote , and she remained in care until her death in 1928 . Young performer Between his time in the poor schools and his mother succumbing to mental illness , Chaplin began to perform on stage . He later recalled making his first amateur appearance at the age of five years , when he took over from Hannah one night in Aldershot . This was an isolated occurrence , but by the time he was nine Chaplin had , with his mother 's encouragement , grown interested in performing . He later wrote : " [ she ] imbued me with the feeling that I had some sort of talent " . Through his father 's connections , Chaplin became a member of the Eight Lancashire Lads clog - dancing troupe , with whom he toured English music halls throughout 1899 and 1900 . Chaplin worked hard , and the act was popular with audiences , but he was not satisfied with dancing and wished to form a comedy act . In the years Chaplin was touring with the Eight Lancashire Lads , his mother ensured that he still attended school , but by age 13 he had abandoned education . He supported himself with a range of jobs , while nursing his ambition to become an actor . At 14 , shortly after his mother 's relapse , he registered with a theatrical agency in London 's West End . The manager sensed potential in Chaplin , who was promptly given his first role as a newsboy in H. A. Saintsbury 's Jim , a Romance of Cockayne . It opened in July 1903 , but the show was unsuccessful and closed after two weeks . Chaplin 's comic performance , however , was singled out for praise in many of the reviews . Saintsbury secured a role for Chaplin in Charles Frohman 's production of Sherlock Holmes , where he played Billy the pageboy in three nationwide tours . His performance was so well received that he was called to London to play the role alongside William Gillette , the original Holmes . " It was like tidings from heaven " , Chaplin recalled . At 16 years old , Chaplin starred in the play 's West End production at the Duke of York 's Theatre from October to December 1905 . He completed one final tour of Sherlock Holmes in early 1906 , before leaving the play after more than two - and - a - half years . Stage comedy and vaudeville Chaplin soon found work with a new company , and went on tour with his brother – who was also pursuing an acting career – in a comedy sketch called Repairs . In May 1906 , Chaplin joined the juvenile act Casey 's Circus , where he developed popular burlesque pieces and was soon the star of the show . By the time the act finished touring in July 1907 , the 18 - year - old had become an accomplished comedic performer . He struggled to find more work , however , and a brief attempt at a solo act was a failure . Meanwhile , Sydney Chaplin had joined Fred Karno 's prestigious comedy company in 1906 , and by 1908 he was one of their key performers . In February , he managed to secure a two - week trial for his younger brother . Karno was initially wary , and considered Chaplin a " pale , puny , sullen - looking youngster " who " looked much too shy to do any good in the theatre . " But the teenager made an impact on his first night at the London Coliseum and he was quickly signed to a contract . Chaplin began by playing a series of minor parts , eventually progressing to starring roles in 1909 . In April 1910 , he was given the lead in a new sketch , Jimmy the Fearless . It was a big success , and Chaplin received considerable press attention . Karno selected his new star to join the section of the company that toured North America 's vaudeville circuit . The young comedian headed the show and impressed reviewers , being described as " one of the best pantomime artists ever seen here " . His most successful role was a drunk called the " Inebriate Swell " , which drew him significant recognition . The tour lasted 21 months , and the troupe returned to England in June 1912 . Chaplin recalled that he " had a disquieting feeling of sinking back into a depressing <unk> " , and was therefore delighted when a new tour began in October . Entering films ( 1914 – 1917 ) Keystone Six months into the second American tour , Chaplin was invited to join the New York Motion Picture Company . A representative who had seen his performances thought he could replace Fred Mace , a star of their Keystone Studios who intended to leave . Chaplin thought the Keystone comedies " a crude mélange of rough and rumble " , but liked the idea of working in films and rationalised : " Besides , it would mean a new life . " He met with the company , and signed a $ 150 - per - week ( $ 3 , 591 in 2016 dollars ) contract in September 1913 . Chaplin arrived in Los Angeles , home of the Keystone studio , in early December 1913 . His boss was Mack Sennett , who initially expressed concern that the 24 - year - old looked too young . He was not used in a picture until late January , during which time Chaplin attempted to learn the processes of filmmaking . The one - reeler Making a Living marked his film acting debut , and was released on 2 February 1914 . Chaplin strongly disliked the picture , but one review picked him out as " a comedian of the first water " . For his second appearance in front of the camera , Chaplin selected the costume with which he became identified . He described the process in his autobiography : " I wanted everything to be a contradiction : the pants baggy , the coat tight , the hat small and the shoes large ... I added a small moustache , which , I reasoned , would add age without hiding my expression . I had no idea of the character . But the moment I was dressed , the clothes and the makeup made me feel the person he was . I began to know him , and by the time I walked on stage he was fully born . " The film was Mabel 's Strange Predicament , but " the Tramp " character , as it became known , debuted to audiences in Kid Auto Races at Venice – shot later than Mabel 's Strange Predicament but released two days earlier . Chaplin adopted the character as his screen persona , and attempted to make suggestions for the films he appeared in . These ideas were dismissed by his directors . During the filming of his eleventh picture , Mabel at the Wheel , he clashed with director Mabel Normand and was almost released from his contract . Sennett kept him on , however , when he received orders from exhibitors for more Chaplin films . Sennett also allowed Chaplin to direct his next film himself , after Chaplin promised to pay $ 1 , 500 ( $ 35 , 914 in 2016 dollars ) if the film was unsuccessful . Caught in the Rain , issued 4 May 1914 , was Chaplin 's directorial debut and was highly successful . Thereafter he directed almost every short film in which he appeared for Keystone , at the rate of approximately one per week , a period which he later remembered as the most exciting time of his career . Chaplin 's films introduced a slower form of comedy than the typical Keystone farce , and he developed a large fan base . In November 1914 , he had a supporting role in the first feature length comedy film , Tillie 's <unk> Romance , directed by Sennett and starring Marie Dressler , which was a commercial success and increased his popularity . When Chaplin 's contract came up for renewal at the end of the year , he asked for $ 1 , 000 a week ( $ 23 , 943 in 2016 dollars ) – an amount Sennett refused as too large . Essanay The Essanay Film Manufacturing Company of Chicago sent Chaplin an offer of $ 1 , 250 a week with a signing bonus of $ 10 , 000 . He joined the studio in late December 1914 , where he began forming a stock company of regular players , including Leo White , Bud Jamison , Paddy McGuire and Billy Armstrong . He soon recruited a leading lady – Edna Purviance , whom Chaplin met in a cafe and hired on account of her beauty . She went on to appear in 35 films with Chaplin over eight years ; the pair also formed a romantic relationship that lasted into 1917 . Chaplin asserted a high level of control over his pictures , and started to put more time and care into each film . There was a month - long interval between the release of his second production , A Night Out , and his third , The Champion . The final seven of Chaplin 's 14 Essanay films were all produced at this slower pace . Chaplin also began to alter his screen persona , which had attracted some criticism at Keystone for its " mean , crude , and brutish " nature . The character became more gentle and romantic ; The Tramp ( April 1915 ) was considered a particular turning point in his development . The use of pathos was developed further with The Bank , in which Chaplin created a sad ending . Robinson notes that this was an innovation in comedy films , and marked the time when serious critics began to appreciate Chaplin 's work . At Essanay , writes film scholar Simon Louvish , Chaplin " found the themes and the settings that would define the Tramp 's world . " During 1915 , Chaplin became a cultural phenomenon . Shops were stocked with Chaplin merchandise , he was featured in cartoons and comic strips , and several songs were written about him . In July , a journalist for Motion Picture Magazine wrote that " <unk> " had spread across America . As his fame grew worldwide , he became the film industry 's first international star . When the Essanay contract ended in December 1915 , Chaplin – fully aware of his popularity – requested a $ 150 , 000 signing bonus from his next studio . He received several offers , including Universal , Fox , and Vitagraph , the best of which came from the Mutual Film Corporation at $ 10 , 000 a week . Mutual A contract was negotiated with Mutual that amounted to $ 670 , 000 a year , which Robinson says made Chaplin – at 26 years old – one of the highest paid people in the world . The high salary shocked the public and was widely reported in the press . John R. Freuler , the studio president , explained : " We can afford to pay Mr. Chaplin this large sum annually because the public wants Chaplin and will pay for him . " Mutual gave Chaplin his own Los Angeles studio to work in , which opened in March 1916 . He added two key members to his stock company , Albert Austin and Eric Campbell , and produced a series of elaborate two - reelers : The <unk> , The Fireman , The Vagabond , One A.M. and The Count . For The Pawnshop he recruited the actor Henry Bergman , who was to work with Chaplin for 30 years . Behind the Screen and The Rink completed Chaplin 's releases for 1916 . The Mutual contract stipulated that he release a two - reel film every four weeks , which he had managed to achieve . With the new year , however , Chaplin began to demand more time . He made only four more films for Mutual over the first ten months of 1917 : Easy Street , The Cure , The Immigrant and The Adventurer . With their careful construction , these films are considered by Chaplin scholars to be among his finest work . Later in life , Chaplin referred to his Mutual years as the happiest period of his career . Chaplin was attacked in the British media for not fighting in the First World War . He defended himself , revealing that he would fight for Britain if called and had registered for the American draft , but he was not summoned by either country . Despite this criticism Chaplin was a favourite with the troops , and his popularity continued to grow worldwide . Harper 's Weekly reported that the name of Charlie Chaplin was " a part of the common language of almost every country " , and that the Tramp image was " universally familiar " . In 1917 , professional Chaplin imitators were so widespread that he took legal action , and it was reported that nine out of ten men who attended costume parties dressed as the Tramp . The same year , a study by the Boston Society for Psychical Research concluded that Chaplin was " an American obsession " . The actress Minnie <unk> Fiske wrote that " a constantly increasing body of cultured , artistic people are beginning to regard the young English buffoon , Charles Chaplin , as an extraordinary artist , as well as a comic genius " . First National ( 1918 – 1922 ) Mutual were patient with Chaplin 's decreased rate of output , and the contract ended amicably . His primary concern in finding a new distributor was independence ; Sydney Chaplin , then his business manager , told the press , " Charlie [ must ] be allowed all the time he needs and all the money for producing [ films ] the way he wants ... It is quality , not quantity , we are after . " In June 1917 , Chaplin signed to complete eight films for First National Exhibitors ' Circuit in return for $ 1 million . He chose to build his own studio , situated on five acres of land off Sunset Boulevard , with production facilities of the highest order . It was completed in January 1918 , and Chaplin was given freedom over the making of his pictures . A Dog 's Life , released April 1918 , was the first film under the new contract . In it , Chaplin demonstrated his increasing concern with story construction , and his treatment of the Tramp as " a sort of Pierrot " . The film was described by Louis Delluc as " cinema 's first total work of art " . Chaplin then embarked on the Third Liberty Bond campaign , touring the United States for one month to raise money for the Allies of the First World War . He also produced a short propaganda film , donated to the government for fund - raising , called The Bond . Chaplin 's next release was war - based , placing the Tramp in the trenches for Shoulder Arms . Associates warned him against making a comedy about the war but , as he later recalled : " Dangerous or not , the idea excited me . " He spent four months filming the 45 - minute - long picture , which was released in October 1918 with great success . United Artists , Mildred Harris , and The Kid After the release of Shoulder Arms , Chaplin requested more money from First National , which was refused . Frustrated with their lack of concern for quality , and worried about rumours of a possible merger between the company and Famous Players - Lasky , Chaplin joined forces with Douglas Fairbanks , Mary Pickford , and D. W. Griffith to form a new distribution company – United Artists , established in January 1919 . The arrangement was revolutionary in the film industry , as it enabled the four partners – all creative artists – to personally fund their pictures and have complete control . Chaplin was eager to start with the new company , and offered to buy out his contract with First National . They declined this , and insisted that he complete the final six films he owed them . Before the creation of United Artists , Chaplin married for the first time . The 17 - year - old actress Mildred Harris had revealed that she was pregnant with his child , and in September 1918 he married her quietly in Los Angeles to avoid controversy . Soon after , the pregnancy was found to be a false alarm . Chaplin was unhappy with the union and , feeling that marriage stunted his creativity , struggled over the production of his film Sunnyside . Harris was by then legitimately pregnant , and on 7 July 1919 , gave birth to a son . Norman Spencer Chaplin was born malformed , and died three days later . The marriage eventually ended in April 1920 , with Chaplin explaining in his autobiography that they were " <unk> <unk> " . Losing a child is thought to have influenced Chaplin 's work , as he planned a film which turned the Tramp into the caretaker of a young boy . For this new venture , Chaplin also wished to do more than comedy and , according to Louvish , " make his mark on a changed world . " Filming on The Kid began in August 1919 , with four - year - old Jackie Coogan his co - star . It occurred to Chaplin that it was turning into a large project , so to placate First National , he halted production and quickly filmed A Day 's Pleasure . The Kid was in production for nine months , until May 1920 , and at 68 minutes it was Chaplin 's longest picture to date . Dealing with issues of poverty and parent – child separation , The Kid is thought to have been influenced by Chaplin 's own childhood and was one of the earliest films to combine comedy and drama . It was released in January 1921 with instant success , and by 1924 had been screened in over 50 countries . Chaplin spent five months on his next film , the two - reeler The Idle Class . Following its September 1921 release , he chose to return to England for the first time in almost a decade . He then worked to fulfil his First National contract , releasing Pay Day in February 1922 . The Pilgrim – his final short film – was delayed by distribution disagreements with the studio , and released a year later . Silent features ( 1923 – 1938 ) A Woman of Paris and The Gold Rush Having fulfilled his First National contract , Chaplin was free to make his first picture as an independent producer . In November 1922 he began filming A Woman of Paris , a romantic drama about ill - fated lovers . Chaplin intended it to be a star - making vehicle for Edna Purviance , and did not appear in the picture himself other than in a brief , uncredited cameo . He wished for the film to have a realistic feel , and directed his cast to give restrained performances . In real life , he explained , " men and women try to hide their emotions rather than seek to express them " . A Woman of Paris premiered in September 1923 and was acclaimed for its subtle approach , then an innovation . The public , however , seemed to have little interest in a Chaplin film without his presence , and it was a box - office disappointment . The filmmaker was hurt by this failure – he had long wanted to produce a dramatic film and was proud of the result – and withdrew A Woman of Paris from circulation as soon as he could . Chaplin returned to comedy for his next project . Setting his standards high , he told himself : " This next film must be an epic ! The Greatest ! " Inspired by a photograph of the 1898 Klondike Gold Rush , and later the story of the Donner Party of 1846 – 47 , he made what Geoffrey Macnab calls " an epic comedy out of grim subject matter . " In The Gold Rush , the Tramp is a lonely prospector fighting adversity and looking for love . With Georgia Hale as his new leading lady , Chaplin began filming the picture in February 1924 . Its elaborate production , costing almost $ 1 million , included location shooting in the Truckee mountains with 600 extras , extravagant sets , and special effects . The last scene was not shot until May 1925 , after 15 months of filming . Chaplin felt The Gold Rush was the best film he had made to that point . It opened in August 1925 and became one of the highest - grossing films of the silent era with a profit of $ 5 million . The comedy contains some of Chaplin 's most famous sequences , such as the Tramp eating his shoe and the " Dance of the Rolls " . Macnab has called it " the quintessential Chaplin film " . Chaplin stated , " This is the picture that I want to be remembered by " at the time of the film 's release . Lita Grey and The Circus While making The Gold Rush , Chaplin married for the second time . Mirroring the circumstances of his first union , Lita Grey was a teenage actress , originally set to star in the film , whose surprise announcement of pregnancy forced Chaplin into marriage . She was 16 and he was 35 , meaning Chaplin could have been charged with statutory rape under California law . He therefore arranged a discreet marriage in Mexico on 25 November 1924 . Their first son , Charles Spencer Chaplin , Jr . , was born on 5 May 1925 , followed by Sydney Earl Chaplin on 30 March 1926 . It was an unhappy marriage , and Chaplin spent long hours at the studio to avoid seeing his wife . In November 1926 , Grey took the children and left the family home . A bitter divorce followed , in which Grey 's application – accusing Chaplin of infidelity , abuse , and of harbouring " perverted sexual desires " – was leaked to the press . Chaplin was reported to be in a state of nervous breakdown , as the story became headline news and groups formed across America calling for his films to be banned . Eager to end the case without further scandal , Chaplin 's lawyers agreed to a cash settlement of $ 600 , 000 – the largest awarded by American courts at that time . His fan base was strong enough to survive the incident , and it was soon forgotten , but Chaplin was deeply affected by it . Before the divorce suit was filed , Chaplin had begun work on a new film , The Circus . He built a story around the idea of walking a tightrope while besieged by monkeys , and turned the Tramp into the accidental star of a circus . Filming was suspended for 10 months while he dealt with the divorce scandal , and it was generally a trouble - ridden production . Finally completed in October 1927 , The Circus was released in January 1928 to a positive reception . At the 1st Academy Awards , Chaplin was given a special trophy " For versatility and genius in acting , writing , directing and producing The Circus . Despite its success , he permanently associated the film with the stress of its production ; Chaplin omitted The Circus from his autobiography , and struggled to work on it when he recorded the score in his later years . City Lights By the time The Circus was released , Hollywood had witnessed the introduction of sound films . Chaplin was cynical about this new medium and the technical shortcomings it presented , believing that " talkies " lacked the artistry of silent films . He was also hesitant to change the formula that had brought him such success , and feared that giving the Tramp a voice would limit his international appeal . He therefore rejected the new Hollywood craze and began work on a new silent film . Chaplin was nonetheless anxious about this decision , and remained so throughout the film 's production . When filming began at the end of 1928 , Chaplin had been working on the story for almost a year . City Lights followed the Tramp 's love for a blind flower girl ( played by Virginia Cherrill ) and his efforts to raise money for her sight - saving operation . It was a challenging production that lasted 21 months , with Chaplin later confessing that he " had worked himself into a neurotic state of wanting perfection " . One advantage Chaplin found in sound technology was the opportunity to record a musical score for the film , which he composed himself . Chaplin finished editing City Lights in December 1930 , by which time silent films were an anachronism . A preview before an unsuspecting public audience was not a success , but a showing for the press produced positive reviews . One journalist wrote , " Nobody in the world but Charlie Chaplin could have done it . He is the only person that has that peculiar something called ' audience appeal ' in sufficient quality to defy the popular penchant for movies that talk . " Given its general release in January 1931 , City Lights proved to be a popular and financial success – eventually grossing over $ 3 million . The British Film Institute cites it as Chaplin 's finest accomplishment , and the critic James Agee hails the closing scene as " the greatest piece of acting and the highest moment in movies " . City Lights became Chaplin 's personal favourite of his films and remained so throughout his life . Travels , Paulette Goddard , and Modern Times City Lights had been a success , but Chaplin was unsure if he could make another picture without dialogue . He remained convinced that sound would not work in his films , but was also " obsessed by a depressing fear of being old - fashioned . " In this state of uncertainty , early in 1931 the comedian decided to take a holiday and ended up travelling for 16 months . In his autobiography , Chaplin recalled that on his return to Los Angeles , " I was confused and without plan , restless and conscious of an extreme loneliness " . He briefly considered the option of retiring and moving to China . Chaplin 's loneliness was relieved when he met 21 - year - old actress Paulette Goddard in July 1932 , and the pair began a successful relationship . He was not ready to commit to a film , however , and focussed on writing a serial about his travels ( published in Woman 's Home Companion ) . The trip had been a stimulating experience for Chaplin , including meetings with several prominent thinkers , and he became increasingly interested in world affairs . The state of labour in America troubled him , and he feared that capitalism and machinery in the workplace would increase unemployment levels . It was these concerns that stimulated Chaplin to develop his new film . Modern Times was announced by Chaplin as " a satire on certain phases of our industrial life . " Featuring the Tramp and Goddard as they endure the Great Depression , it took ten and a half months to film . Chaplin intended to use spoken dialogue , but changed his mind during rehearsals . Like its predecessor , Modern Times employed sound effects , but almost no speaking . Chaplin 's performance of a gibberish song did , however , give the Tramp a voice for the only time on film . After recording the music , Chaplin released Modern Times in February 1936 . It was his first feature in 15 years to adopt political references and social realism , a factor that attracted considerable press coverage despite Chaplin 's attempts to downplay the issue . The film earned less at the box - office than his previous features and received mixed reviews , as some viewers disliked the politicising . Today , Modern Times is seen by the British Film Institute as one of Chaplin 's " great features , " while David Robinson says it shows the filmmaker at " his unrivalled peak as a creator of visual comedy . " Following the release of Modern Times , Chaplin left with Goddard for a trip to the Far East . The couple had refused to comment on the nature of their relationship , and it was not known whether they were married or not . Some time later , Chaplin revealed that they married in Canton during this trip . By 1938 the couple had drifted apart , as both focused heavily on their work , although Goddard was again his leading lady in his next feature film , The Great Dictator . She eventually divorced Chaplin in Mexico in 1942 , citing incompatibility and separation for more than a year . Controversies and fading popularity ( 1939 – 1952 ) The Great Dictator The 1940s saw Chaplin face a series of controversies , both in his work and in his personal life , which changed his fortunes and severely affected his popularity in the United States . The first of these was a new boldness in expressing his political beliefs . Deeply disturbed by the surge of militaristic nationalism in 1930s world politics , Chaplin found that he could not keep these issues out of his work . Parallels between himself and Adolf Hitler had been widely noted : the pair were born four days apart , both had risen from poverty to world prominence , and Hitler wore the same toothbrush moustache as Chaplin . It was this physical resemblance that supplied the plot for Chaplin 's next film , The Great Dictator , which directly satirised Hitler and attacked fascism . Chaplin spent two years developing the script , and began filming in September 1939 – six days after Britain declared war on Germany . He had submitted to using spoken dialogue , partly out of acceptance that he had no other choice , but also because he recognised it as a better method for delivering a political message . Making a comedy about Hitler was seen as highly controversial , but Chaplin 's financial independence allowed him to take the risk . " I was determined to go ahead , " he later wrote , " for Hitler must be laughed at . " Chaplin replaced the Tramp ( while wearing similar attire ) with " A Jewish Barber " , a reference to the Nazi party 's belief that he was Jewish . In a dual performance he also played the dictator " <unk> <unk> " , who parodied Hitler . The Great Dictator spent a year in production , and was released in October 1940 . The film generated a vast amount of publicity , with a critic for The New York Times calling it " the most eagerly awaited picture of the year " , and it was one of the biggest money - makers of the era . The ending was unpopular , however , and generated controversy . Chaplin concluded the film with a five - minute speech in which he abandoned his barber character , looked directly into the camera , and pleaded against war and fascism . Charles J. Maland has identified this overt preaching as triggering a decline in Chaplin 's popularity , and writes , " Henceforth , no movie fan would ever be able to separate the dimension of politics from [ his ] star image " . The Great Dictator received five Academy Award nominations , including Best Picture , Best Original Screenplay and Best Actor . Legal troubles and Oona O 'Neill In the mid - 1940s , Chaplin was involved in a series of trials that occupied most of his time and significantly affected his public image . The troubles stemmed from his affair with an aspirant actress named Joan Barry , with whom he was involved intermittently between June 1941 and the autumn of 1942 . Barry , who displayed obsessive behaviour and was twice arrested after they separated , reappeared the following year and announced that she was pregnant with Chaplin 's child . As Chaplin denied the claim , Barry filed a paternity suit against him . The director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation ( FBI ) , J. Edgar Hoover , who had long been suspicious of Chaplin 's political leanings , used the opportunity to generate negative publicity about him . As part of a smear campaign to damage Chaplin 's image , the FBI named him in four indictments related to the Barry case . Most serious of these was an alleged violation of the Mann Act , which prohibits the transportation of women across state boundaries for sexual purposes . The historian Otto Friedrich has called this an " absurd prosecution " of an " ancient statute " , yet if Chaplin was found guilty , he faced 23 years in jail . Three charges lacked sufficient evidence to proceed to court , but the Mann Act trial began in March 1944 . Chaplin was acquitted two weeks later . The case was frequently headline news , with Newsweek calling it the " biggest public relations scandal since the Fatty Arbuckle murder trial in 1921 . " Barry 's child , Carole Ann , was born in October 1944 , and the paternity suit went to court in February 1945 . After two arduous trials , in which the prosecuting lawyer accused him of " moral turpitude " , Chaplin was declared to be the father . Evidence from blood tests which indicated otherwise were not admissible , and the judge ordered Chaplin to pay child support until Carole Ann turned 21 . Media coverage of the paternity suit was influenced by the FBI , as information was fed to the prominent gossip columnist Hedda Hopper , and Chaplin was portrayed in an overwhelmingly critical light . The controversy surrounding Chaplin increased when , two weeks after the paternity suit was filed , it was announced that he had married his newest protégée , 18 - year - old Oona O 'Neill – daughter of the American playwright Eugene O 'Neill . Chaplin , then 54 , had been introduced to her by a film agent seven months earlier . In his autobiography , Chaplin described meeting O 'Neill as " the happiest event of my life " , and claimed to have found " perfect love " . Chaplin 's son , Charles Jr . , reported that Oona " worshipped " his father . The couple remained married until Chaplin 's death , and had eight children over 18 years : Geraldine Leigh ( b . July 1944 ) , Michael John ( b . March 1946 ) , Josephine Hannah ( b . March 1949 ) , Victoria ( b . May 1951 ) , Eugene Anthony ( b . August 1953 ) , Jane Cecil ( b . May 1957 ) , Annette Emily ( b . December 1959 ) , and Christopher James ( b . July 1962 ) . Monsieur Verdoux and communist accusations Chaplin claimed that the Barry trials had " crippled [ his ] creativeness " , and it was some time before he began working again . In April 1946 , he finally began filming a project that had been in development since 1942 . Monsieur Verdoux was a black comedy , the story of a French bank clerk , Verdoux ( Chaplin ) , who loses his job and begins marrying and murdering wealthy widows to support his family . Chaplin 's inspiration for the project came from Orson Welles , who wanted him to star in a film about the French serial killer Henri Désiré <unk> . Chaplin decided that the concept would " make a wonderful comedy " , and paid Welles $ 5 , 000 for the idea . Chaplin again vocalised his political views in Monsieur Verdoux , criticising capitalism and arguing that the world encourages mass killing through wars and weapons of mass destruction . Because of this , the film met with controversy when it was released in April 1947 ; Chaplin was booed at the premiere , and there were calls for a boycott . Monsieur Verdoux was the first Chaplin release that failed both critically and commercially in the United States . It was more successful abroad , and Chaplin 's screenplay was nominated at the Academy Awards . He was proud of the film , writing in his autobiography , " Monsieur Verdoux is the cleverest and most brilliant film I have yet made . " The negative reaction to Monsieur Verdoux was largely the result of changes in Chaplin 's public image . Along with damage of the Joan Barry scandal , he was publicly accused of being a communist . His political activity had heightened during World War II , when he campaigned for the opening of a Second Front to help the Soviet Union and supported various Soviet – American friendship groups . He was also friendly with several suspected communists , and attended functions given by Soviet diplomats in Los Angeles . In the political climate of 1940s America , such activities meant Chaplin was considered , as Larcher writes , " dangerously progressive and amoral . " The FBI wanted him out of the country , and early in 1947 they launched an official investigation . Chaplin denied being a communist , instead calling himself a " <unk> " , but felt the government 's effort to suppress the ideology was an unacceptable infringement of civil liberties . Unwilling to be quiet about the issue , he openly protested the trials of Communist Party members and the activities of the House Un - American Activities Committee . Chaplin received a subpoena to appear before HUAC , but was not called to testify . As his activities were widely reported in the press , and Cold War fears grew , questions were raised over his failure to take American citizenship . Calls were made for him to be deported ; in one extreme and widely published example , Representative John E. Rankin , who helped establish HUAC , told Congress in June 1947 : " [ Chaplin 's ] very life in Hollywood is detrimental to the moral fabric of America . [ If he is deported ] ... his loathsome pictures can be kept from before the eyes of the American youth . He should be deported and gotten rid of at once . " Limelight and banning from the United States Although Chaplin remained politically active in the years following the failure of Monsieur Verdoux , his next film , about a forgotten vaudeville comedian and a young ballerina in Edwardian London , was devoid of political themes . Limelight was heavily autobiographical , alluding not only to Chaplin 's childhood and the lives of his parents , but also to his loss of popularity in the United States . The cast included various members of his family , including his five oldest children and his half - brother , Wheeler Dryden . Filming began in November 1951 , by which time Chaplin had spent three years working on the story . He aimed for a more serious tone than any of his previous films , regularly using the word " melancholy " when explaining his plans to his co - star Claire Bloom . Limelight featured a cameo appearance from Buster Keaton , whom Chaplin cast as his stage partner in a pantomime scene . This marked the only time the comedians worked together . Chaplin decided to hold the world premiere of Limelight in London , since it was the setting of the film . As he left Los Angeles , he expressed a premonition that he would not be returning . At New York , he boarded the RMS Queen Elizabeth with his family on 18 September 1952 . The next day , attorney general James P. McGranery revoked Chaplin 's re - entry permit and stated that he would have to submit to an interview concerning his political views and moral behaviour in order to re - enter the US . Although McGranery told the press that he had " a pretty good case against Chaplin " , Maland has concluded , on the basis of the FBI files that were released in the 1980s , that the US government had no real evidence to prevent Chaplin 's re - entry . It is likely that he would have gained entry if he had applied for it . However , when Chaplin received a cablegram informing him of the news , he privately decided to cut his ties with the United States : Whether I re - entered that unhappy country or not was of little consequence to me . I would like to have told them that the sooner I was rid of that hate - beleaguered atmosphere the better , that I was fed up of America 's insults and moral pomposity ... Because all of his property remained in America , Chaplin refrained from saying anything negative about the incident to the press . The scandal attracted vast attention , but Chaplin and his film were warmly received in Europe . In America the hostility towards him continued , and , although it received some positive reviews , Limelight was subjected to a wide - scale boycott . Reflecting on this , Maland writes that Chaplin 's fall , from an " unprecedented " level of popularity , " may be the most dramatic in the history of stardom in America " . European years ( 1953 – 1977 ) Move to Switzerland and A King in New York Chaplin did not attempt to return to the United States after his re - entry permit was revoked , and instead sent his wife to settle his affairs . The couple decided to settle in Switzerland , and in January 1953 the family moved into their permanent home : Manoir de Ban , a 14 - hectare ( 35 - acre ) estate overlooking Lake Geneva in Corsier - sur - Vevey . Chaplin put his Beverly Hills house and studio up for sale in March , and surrendered his re - entry permit in April . The next year , his wife renounced her US citizenship and became a British citizen . Chaplin severed the last of his professional ties with the United States in 1955 , when he sold the remainder of his stock in United Artists , which had been in financial difficulty since the early 1940s . Chaplin remained a controversial figure throughout the 1950s , especially after he was awarded the International Peace Prize by the communist - led World Peace Council , and after his meetings with Zhou Enlai and Nikita Khrushchev . He began developing his first European film , A King in New York , in 1954 . Casting himself as an exiled king who seeks asylum in the United States , Chaplin included several of his recent experiences in the screenplay . His son , Michael , was cast as a boy whose parents are targeted by the FBI , while Chaplin 's character faces accusations of communism . The political satire parodied HUAC and attacked elements of 1950s culture – including consumerism , plastic surgery , and wide - screen cinema . In a review , the playwright John Osborne called it Chaplin 's " most bitter " and " most openly personal " film . Chaplin founded a new production company , Attica , and used Shepperton Studios for the shooting . Filming in England proved a difficult experience , as he was used to his own Hollywood studio and familiar crew , and no longer had limitless production time . According to Robinson , this had an effect on the quality of the film . A King in New York was released in September 1957 , and received mixed reviews . Chaplin banned American journalists from its Paris première , and decided not to release the film in the United States . This severely limited its revenue , although it achieved moderate commercial success in Europe . A King in New York was not shown in America until 1973 . Final works and renewed appreciation In the last two decades of his career , Chaplin concentrated on re - editing and scoring his old films for re - release , along with securing their ownership and distribution rights . In an interview he granted in 1959 , the year of his 70th birthday , Chaplin stated that there was still " room for the Little Man in the atomic age " . The first of these re - releases was The Chaplin Revue ( 1959 ) , which included new versions of A Dog 's Life , Shoulder Arms , and The Pilgrim . In America , the political atmosphere began to change and attention was once again directed to Chaplin 's films instead of his views . In July 1962 , The New York Times published an editorial stating that " we do not believe the Republic would be in danger if yesterday 's unforgotten little tramp were allowed to amble down the gangplank of a steamer or plane in an American port " . The same month , Chaplin was invested with the honorary degree of Doctor of Letters by the universities of Oxford and Durham . In November 1963 , the Plaza Theater in New York started a year - long series of Chaplin 's films , including Monsieur Verdoux and Limelight , which gained excellent reviews from American critics . September 1964 saw the release of Chaplin 's memoirs , My Autobiography , which he had been working on since 1957 . The 500 - page book , which focused on his early years and personal life , became a worldwide best - seller , despite criticism over the lack of information on his film career . Shortly after the publication of his memoirs , Chaplin began work on A Countess from Hong Kong ( 1967 ) , a romantic comedy based on a script he had written for Paulette Goddard in the 1930s . Set on an ocean liner , it starred Marlon Brando as an American ambassador and Sophia Loren as a stowaway found in his cabin . The film differed from Chaplin 's earlier productions in several aspects . It was his first to use Technicolor and the widescreen format , while he concentrated on directing and appeared on - screen only in a cameo role as a seasick steward . He also signed a deal with Universal Pictures and appointed his assistant , Jerome Epstein , as the producer . Chaplin was paid $ 600 , 000 director 's fee as well as a percentage of the gross receipts . A Countess from Hong Kong premiered in January 1967 , to unfavourable reviews , and was a box - office failure . Chaplin was deeply hurt by the negative reaction to the film , which turned out to be his last . Chaplin suffered a series of minor strokes in the late 1960s , which marked the beginning of a slow decline in his health . Despite the setbacks , he was soon writing a new film script , The Freak , a story of a winged girl found in South America , which he intended as a starring vehicle for his daughter Victoria . His fragile health prevented the project from being realised . In the early 1970s , Chaplin concentrated on re - releasing his old films , including The Kid and The Circus . In 1971 , he was made a Commander of the National Order of the Legion of Honour at the Cannes Film Festival . The following year , he was honoured with a special award by the Venice Film Festival . In 1972 , the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences offered Chaplin an Honorary Award , which Robinson sees as a sign that America " wanted to make amends " . Chaplin was initially hesitant about accepting , but decided to return to the US for the first time in 20 years . The visit attracted a large amount of press coverage , and at the Academy Awards gala he was given a twelve - minute standing ovation , the longest in the Academy 's history . Visibly emotional , Chaplin accepted his award for " the incalculable effect he has had in making motion pictures the art form of this century " . Although Chaplin still had plans for future film projects , by the mid - 1970s he was very frail . He experienced several further strokes , which made it difficult for him to communicate , and he had to use a wheelchair . His final projects were compiling a pictorial autobiography , My Life in Pictures ( 1974 ) and scoring A Woman of Paris for re - release in 1976 . He also appeared in a documentary about his life , The Gentleman Tramp ( 1975 ) , directed by Richard Patterson . In the 1975 New Year Honours , Chaplin was awarded a knighthood by Queen Elizabeth II , though he was too weak to kneel and received the honour in his wheelchair . Death By October 1977 , Chaplin 's health had declined to the point that he needed constant care . In the early morning of 25 December 1977 , Chaplin died at home after suffering a stroke in his sleep . He was 88 years old . The funeral , on 27 December , was a small and private Anglican ceremony , according to his wishes . Chaplin was interred in the Corsier - sur - Vevey cemetery . Among the film industry 's tributes , director René Clair wrote , " He was a monument of the cinema , of all countries and all times ... the most beautiful gift the cinema made to us . " Actor Bob Hope declared , " We were lucky to have lived in his time . " On 1 March 1978 , Chaplin 's coffin was dug up and stolen from its grave by two unemployed immigrants , Roman <unk> , from Poland , and <unk> <unk> , from Bulgaria . The body was held for ransom in an attempt to extort money from Oona Chaplin . The pair were caught in a large police operation in May , and Chaplin 's coffin was found buried in a field in the nearby village of <unk> . It was re - interred in the Corsier cemetery surrounded by reinforced concrete . Filmmaking Influences Chaplin believed his first influence to be his mother , who entertained him as a child by sitting at the window and mimicking passers - by : " it was through watching her that I learned not only how to express emotions with my hands and face , but also how to observe and study people . " Chaplin 's early years in music hall allowed him to see stage comedians at work ; he also attended the Christmas pantomimes at Drury Lane , where he studied the art of clowning through performers like Dan Leno . Chaplin 's years with the Fred Karno company had a formative effect on him as an actor and filmmaker . Simon Louvish writes that the company was his " training ground " , and it was here that Chaplin learnt to vary the pace of his comedy . The concept of mixing pathos with slapstick was learnt from Karno , who also used elements of absurdity that became familiar in Chaplin 's gags . From the film industry , Chaplin drew upon the work of the French comedian Max Linder , whose films he greatly admired . In developing the Tramp costume and persona , he was likely inspired by the American vaudeville scene , where tramp characters were common . Method Chaplin never spoke more than cursorily about his filmmaking methods , claiming such a thing would be tantamount to a magician spoiling his own illusion . Little was known about his working process throughout his lifetime , but research from film historians – particularly the findings of Kevin Brownlow and David Gill that were presented in the three - part documentary Unknown Chaplin ( 1983 ) – has since revealed his unique working method . Until he began making spoken dialogue films with The Great Dictator , Chaplin never shot from a completed script . Many of his early films began with only a vague premise – for example " Charlie enters a health spa " or " Charlie works in a pawn shop . " He then had sets constructed and worked with his stock company to improvise gags and " business " using them , almost always working the ideas out on film . As ideas were accepted and discarded , a narrative structure would emerge , frequently requiring Chaplin to reshoot an already - completed scene that might have otherwise contradicted the story . From A Woman of Paris onward Chaplin began the filming process with a prepared plot , but Robinson writes that every film up to Modern Times " went through many metamorphoses and permutations before the story took its final form . " Producing films in this manner meant Chaplin took longer to complete his pictures than almost any other filmmaker at the time . If he was out of ideas he often took a break from the shoot , which could last for days , while keeping the studio ready for when inspiration returned . Delaying the process further was Chaplin 's rigorous perfectionism . According to his friend Ivor Montagu , " nothing but perfection would be right " for the filmmaker . Because he personally funded his films , Chaplin was at liberty to strive for this goal and shoot as many takes as he wished . The number was often excessive , for instance 53 takes for every finished take in The Kid . For The Immigrant , a 20 minute - short , Chaplin shot 40 , 000 feet of film – enough for a feature - length . Describing his working method as " sheer perseverance to the point of madness " , Chaplin would be completely consumed by the production of a picture . Robinson writes that even in Chaplin 's later years , his work continued " to take precedence over everything and everyone else . " The combination of story improvisation and relentless perfectionism – which resulted in days of effort and thousands of feet of film being wasted , all at enormous expense – often proved taxing for Chaplin who , in frustration , would lash out at his actors and crew . Chaplin exercised complete control over his pictures , to the extent that he would act out the other roles for his cast , expecting them to imitate him exactly . He personally edited all of his films , trawling through the large amounts of footage to create the exact picture he wanted . As a result of his complete independence , he was identified by the film historian Andrew Sarris as one of the first auteur filmmakers . Chaplin did receive help , notably from his long - time cinematographer Roland <unk> , brother Sydney Chaplin , and various assistant directors such as Harry Crocker and Charles Reisner . Style and themes While Chaplin 's comedic style is broadly defined as slapstick , it is considered restrained and intelligent , with the film historian Philip Kemp describing his work as a mix of " deft , balletic physical comedy and thoughtful , situation - based gags " . Chaplin diverged from conventional slapstick by slowing the pace and exhausting each scene of its comic potential , with more focus on developing the viewer 's relationship to the characters . Unlike conventional slapstick comedies , Robinson states that the comic moments in Chaplin 's films centre on the Tramp 's attitude to the things happening to him : the humour does not come from the Tramp bumping into a tree , but from his lifting his hat to the tree in apology . Dan Kamin writes that Chaplin 's " quirky mannerisms " and " serious demeanour in the midst of slapstick action " are other key aspects of his comedy , while the surreal transformation of objects and the employment of in - camera trickery are also common features . Chaplin 's silent films typically follow the Tramp 's efforts to survive in a hostile world . The character lives in poverty and is frequently treated badly , but remains kind and upbeat ; defying his social position , he strives to be seen as a gentleman . As Chaplin said in 1925 , " The whole point of the Little Fellow is that no matter how down on his ass he is , no matter how well the jackals succeed in tearing him apart , he 's still a man of dignity . " The Tramp defies authority figures and " gives as good as he gets " , leading Robinson and Louvish to see him as a representative for the underprivileged – an " everyman turned heroic saviour " . <unk> notes that several of Chaplin 's films end with " the homeless and lonely Tramp [ walking ] optimistically ... into the sunset ... to continue his journey " . The infusion of pathos is a well - known aspect of Chaplin 's work , and Larcher notes his reputation for " [ inducing ] laughter and tears " . Sentimentality in his films come from a variety of sources , with Louvish pinpointing " personal failure , society 's strictures , economic disaster , and the elements . " Chaplin sometimes drew on tragic events when creating his films , as in the case of The Gold Rush ( 1925 ) , which was inspired by the fate of the Donner Party . Constance B. Kuriyama has identified serious underlying themes in the early comedies , such as greed ( The Gold Rush ) and loss ( The Kid ) . Chaplin also touched on controversial issues : immigration ( The Immigrant , 1917 ) ; illegitimacy ( The Kid , 1921 ) ; and drug use ( Easy Street , 1917 ) . He often explored these topics ironically , making comedy out of suffering . Social commentary was a feature of Chaplin 's films from early in his career , as he portrayed the underdog in a sympathetic light and highlighted the difficulties of the poor . Later , as he developed a keen interest in economics and felt obliged to publicise his views , Chaplin began incorporating overtly political messages into his films . Modern Times ( 1936 ) depicted factory workers in dismal conditions , The Great Dictator ( 1940 ) parodied Adolf Hitler and Benito Mussolini and ended in a speech against nationalism , Monsieur Verdoux ( 1947 ) criticised war and capitalism , and A King in New York ( 1957 ) attacked McCarthyism . Several of Chaplin 's films incorporate autobiographical elements , and the psychologist Sigmund Freud believed that Chaplin " always plays only himself as he was in his dismal youth " . The Kid is thought to reflect Chaplin 's childhood trauma of being sent into an orphanage , the main characters in Limelight ( 1952 ) contain elements from the lives of his parents , and A King in New York references Chaplin 's experiences of being shunned by the United States . Many of his sets , especially in street scenes , bear a strong similarity to Kennington , where he grew up . Stephen M. Weissman has argued that Chaplin 's problematic relationship with his mentally ill mother was often reflected in his female characters and the Tramp 's desire to save them . Regarding the structure of Chaplin 's films , the scholar Gerald Mast sees them as consisting of sketches tied together by the same theme and setting , rather than having a tightly unified storyline . Visually , his films are simple and economic , with scenes portrayed as if set on a stage . His approach to filming was described by the art director Eugène <unk> : " Chaplin did not think in ' artistic ' images when he was shooting . He believed that action is the main thing . The camera is there to photograph the actors " . In his autobiography , Chaplin wrote , " Simplicity is best ... pompous effects slow up action , are boring and unpleasant ... The camera should not intrude . " This approach has prompted criticism , since the 1940s , for being " old fashioned " , while the film scholar Donald McCaffrey sees it as an indication that Chaplin never completely understood film as a medium . Kamin , however , comments that Chaplin 's comedic talent would not be enough to remain funny on screen if he did not have an " ability to conceive and direct scenes specifically for the film medium " . Composing Chaplin developed a passion for music as a child , and taught himself to play the piano , violin , and cello . He considered the musical accompaniment of a film to be important , and from A Woman of Paris onwards he took an increasing interest in this area . With the advent of sound technology , Chaplin began using a synchronised orchestral soundtrack – composed by himself – for City Lights ( 1931 ) . He thereafter composed the scores for all of his films , and from the late 1950s to his death , he scored all of his silent features and some of his short films . As Chaplin was not a trained musician , he could not read sheet music and needed the help of professional composers , such as David <unk> , Raymond Rasch and Eric James , when creating his scores . Although some critics have claimed that credit for his film music should be given to the composers who worked with him , <unk> – who worked with Chaplin on Modern Times – stressed Chaplin 's creative position and active participation in the composing process . This process , which could take months , would start with Chaplin describing to the composer ( s ) exactly what he wanted and singing or playing tunes he had improvised on the piano . These tunes were then developed further in a close collaboration among the composer ( s ) and Chaplin . According to film historian Jeffrey Vance , " although he relied upon associates to arrange varied and complex instrumentation , the musical imperative is his , and not a note in a Chaplin musical score was placed there without his assent . " Chaplin 's compositions produced three popular songs . " Smile " , composed originally for Modern Times ( 1936 ) and later set to lyrics by John Turner and Geoffrey Parsons , was a hit for Nat King Cole in 1954 . For Limelight , Chaplin composed " Terry 's Theme " , which was popularised by Jimmy Young as " Eternally " ( 1952 ) . Finally , " This Is My Song " , performed by Petula Clark for A Countess from Hong Kong ( 1967 ) , reached number one on the UK and other European charts . Chaplin also received his only competitive Oscar for his composition work , as the Limelight theme won an Academy Award for Best Original Score in 1973 following the film 's re - release . Legacy In 1998 , the film critic Andrew Sarris called Chaplin " arguably the single most important artist produced by the cinema , certainly its most extraordinary performer and probably still its most universal icon " . He is described by the British Film Institute as " a towering figure in world culture " , and was included in Time magazine 's list of the " 100 Most Important People of the 20th Century " for the " laughter [ he brought ] to millions " and because he " more or less invented global recognizability and helped turn an industry into an art " . The image of the Tramp has become a part of cultural history ; according to Simon Louvish , the character is recognisable to people who have never seen a Chaplin film , and in places where his films are never shown . The critic Leonard Maltin has written of the " unique " and " indelible " nature of the Tramp , and argued that no other comedian matched his " worldwide impact " . Praising the character , Richard Schickel suggests that Chaplin 's films with the Tramp contain the most " eloquent , richly comedic expressions of the human spirit " in movie history . Memorabilia connected to the character still fetches large sums in auctions : in 2006 a bowler hat and a bamboo cane that were part of the Tramp 's costume were bought for $ 140 , 000 in a Los Angeles auction . As a filmmaker , Chaplin is considered a pioneer and one of the most influential figures of the early twentieth century . He is often credited as one of the medium 's first artists . Film historian Mark Cousins has written that Chaplin " changed not only the imagery of cinema , but also its sociology and grammar " and claims that Chaplin was as important to the development of comedy as a genre as D.W. Griffith was to drama . He was the first to popularise feature - length comedy and to slow down the pace of action , adding pathos and subtlety to it . Although his work is mostly classified as slapstick , Chaplin 's drama A Woman of Paris ( 1923 ) was a major influence on Ernst Lubitsch 's film The Marriage Circle ( 1924 ) and thus played a part in the development of " sophisticated comedy " . According to David Robinson , Chaplin 's innovations were " rapidly assimilated to become part of the common practice of film craft . " Filmmakers who cited Chaplin as an influence include Federico Fellini ( who called Chaplin " a sort of Adam , from whom we are all descended " ) , Jacques Tati ( " Without him I would never have made a film " ) , René Clair ( " He inspired practically every filmmaker " ) , Michael Powell , Billy Wilder , Vittorio De Sica , and Richard Attenborough . Russian filmmaker Andrei Tarkovsky praised Chaplin as " the only person to have gone down into cinematic history without any shadow of a doubt . The films he left behind can never grow old . " Chaplin also strongly influenced the work of later comedians . Marcel Marceau said he was inspired to become a mime artist after watching Chaplin , while the actor Raj Kapoor based his screen persona on the Tramp . Mark Cousins has also detected Chaplin 's comedic style in the French character Monsieur Hulot and the Italian character Totò . In other fields , Chaplin helped inspire the cartoon characters Felix the Cat and Mickey Mouse , and was an influence on the Dada art movement . As one of the founding members of United Artists , Chaplin also had a role in the development of the film industry . Gerald Mast has written that although UA never became a major company like MGM or Paramount Pictures , the idea that directors could produce their own films was " years ahead of its time " . In the 21st century , several of Chaplin 's films are still regarded as classics and among the greatest ever made . The 2012 Sight & Sound poll , which compiles " top ten " ballots from film critics and directors to determine each group 's most acclaimed films , saw City Lights rank among the critics ' top 50 , Modern Times inside the top 100 , and The Great Dictator and The Gold Rush placed in the top 250 . The top 100 films as voted on by directors included Modern Times at number 22 , City Lights at number 30 , and The Gold Rush at number 91 . Every one of Chaplin 's features received a vote . In 2007 , the American Film Institute named City Lights the 11th greatest American film of all time , while The Gold Rush and Modern Times again ranked in the top 100 . Books about Chaplin continue to be published regularly , and he is a popular subject for media scholars and film archivists . Many of Chaplin 's film have had a DVD and Blu - Ray release . Commemoration and tributes Several memorials have been dedicated to Chaplin . In his home city , London , a statue of Chaplin as the Tramp , sculpted by John Doubleday and unveiled in 1981 , is located in Leicester Square . The city also includes a road named after him in central London , " Charlie Chaplin Walk " , which is the location of the BFI IMAX . The former Museum of the Moving Image held a permanent display on Chaplin , and hosted a dedicated exhibition to his life and career in 1988 . The London Film Museum hosted an exhibition called Charlie Chaplin – The Great Londoner , from 2010 until 2013 . Chaplin 's final home , Manoir de Ban in Corsier - sur - Vevey , Switzerland , was converted into a museum and opened on 17 April 2016 , exploring his life and career . The nearby town of Vevey named a park in his honour in 1980 and erected a statue there in 1982 . In 2011 , two large murals depicting Chaplin on two 14 - storey buildings were also unveiled in Vevey . Chaplin has also been honoured by the Irish town of Waterville , where he spent several summers with his family in the 1960s . A statue was erected in 1998 , and since 2011 the town has been host to the annual Charlie Chaplin Comedy Film Festival , which was founded to celebrate Chaplin 's legacy and to showcase new comic talent . In other tributes , a minor planet , <unk> Chaplin – discovered by Soviet astronomer Lyudmila <unk> in 1981 – is named after Chaplin . Throughout the 1980s , the Tramp image was used by IBM to advertise their personal computers . Chaplin 's 100th birthday anniversary in 1989 was marked with several events around the world , and on 15 April 2011 , a day before his 122nd birthday , Google celebrated him with a special Google Doodle video on its global and other country - wide homepages . Many countries , spanning six continents , have honoured Chaplin with a postal stamp . Chaplin 's legacy is managed on behalf of his children by the Chaplin office , located in Paris . The office represents Association Chaplin , founded by some of his children " to protect the name , image and moral rights " to his body of work , Roy Export SAS , which owns the copyright to most of his films made after 1918 , and Bubbles Incorporated S.A. , which owns the copyrights to his image and name . Their central archive is held at the archives of Montreux , Switzerland and scanned versions of its contents , including 83 , 630 images , 118 scripts , 976 manuscripts , 7 , 756 letters , and thousands of other documents , are available for research purposes at the Chaplin Research Centre at the <unk> di Bologna . The photographic archive , which includes approximately 10 , 000 photographs from Chaplin 's life and career , is kept at the Musée de l <unk> in Lausanne , Switzerland . The British Film Institute has also established the Charles Chaplin Research Foundation , and the first international Charles Chaplin Conference was held in London in July 2005 . <unk> Chaplin is the subject of a biographical film , Chaplin ( 1992 ) directed by Richard Attenborough , and starring Robert Downey , Jr. in the title role . He is also a character in the period drama film The Cat 's Meow ( 2001 ) , played by Eddie Izzard , and in the made - for - television movie The Scarlett O 'Hara War ( 1980 ) , played by Clive Revill . A television series about Chaplin 's childhood , Young Charlie Chaplin , ran on PBS in 1989 , and was nominated for an Emmy Award for Outstanding Children 's Program . Chaplin 's life has also been the subject of several stage productions . Two musicals , Little Tramp and Chaplin , were produced in the early 1990s . In 2006 , Thomas Meehan and Christopher Curtis created another musical , Limelight : The Story of Charlie Chaplin , which was first performed at the La Jolla Playhouse in San Diego in 2010 . It was adapted for Broadway two years later , re - titled Chaplin – A Musical . Chaplin was portrayed by Robert McClure in both productions . In 2013 , two plays about Chaplin premiered in Finland : Chaplin at the Svenska <unk> , and <unk> ( The Tramp ) at the Tampere Workers ' Theatre . Chaplin has also been characterised in literary fiction , as the central character in Glen David Gold 's Sunnyside ( 2009 ) , a novel set in the First World War period . Awards and recognition Chaplin received many awards and honours , especially later in life . In the 1975 New Year Honours , he was appointed a Knight Commander of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire . He was also awarded honorary Doctor of Letters degrees by the University of Oxford and the University of Durham in 1962 . In 1965 he and Ingmar Bergman were joint winners of the Erasmus Prize and in 1971 he was appointed a Commander of the National Order of the Legion of Honour by the French government . From the film industry , Chaplin received a special Golden Lion at the Venice Film Festival in 1972 , and a Lifetime Achievement Award from the Lincoln Center Film Society the same year . The latter has since been presented annually to filmmakers as The Chaplin Award . Chaplin was given a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame in 1972 , having been previously excluded because of his political beliefs . Chaplin received three Academy Awards : an Honorary Award for " versatility and genius in acting , writing , directing , and producing The Circus " in 1929 , a second Honorary Award for " the incalculable effect he has had in making motion pictures the art form of this century " in 1972 , and a Best Score award in 1973 for Limelight ( shared with Ray Rasch and Larry Russell ) . He was further nominated in the Best Actor , Best Original Screenplay , and Best Picture ( as producer ) categories for The Great Dictator , and received another Best Original Screenplay nomination for Monsieur Verdoux . Six of Chaplin 's films have been selected for preservation in the National Film Registry by the United States Library of Congress : The Immigrant ( 1917 ) , The Kid ( 1921 ) , The Gold Rush ( 1925 ) , City Lights ( 1931 ) , Modern Times ( 1936 ) , and The Great Dictator ( 1940 ) . Filmography Directed features : The Kid ( 1921 ) A Woman of Paris ( 1923 ) The Gold Rush ( 1925 ) The Circus ( 1928 ) City Lights ( 1931 ) Modern Times ( 1936 ) The Great Dictator ( 1940 ) Monsieur Verdoux ( 1947 ) Limelight ( 1952 ) A King in New York ( 1957 ) A Countess from Hong Kong ( 1967 )
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Henry Wrigley Air Vice Marshal Henry Neilson Wrigley , CBE , DFC , AFC ( 21 April 1892 – 14 September 1987 ) was a senior commander in the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) . A pioneering flyer and aviation scholar , he piloted the first trans - Australia flight from Melbourne to Darwin in 1919 , and afterwards laid the groundwork for the RAAF 's air power doctrine . During World War I , Wrigley joined the Australian Flying Corps and saw combat with No. 3 Squadron on the Western Front , earning the Distinguished Flying Cross ; he later commanded the unit and published a history of its wartime exploits . He was awarded the Air Force Cross for his 1919 cross - country flight . Wrigley was a founding member of the RAAF in 1921 and held a variety of staff posts in the ensuing years . In 1936 , he was promoted to group captain and took command of RAAF Station Laverton . Raised to air commodore soon after the outbreak of World War II , he became Air Member for Personnel in November 1940 . One of his tasks was organising the newly established Women 's Auxiliary Australian Air Force and selecting its director , Clare Stevenson , in 1941 . He was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire the same year . Wrigley served as Air Officer Commanding RAAF Overseas Headquarters , London , from September 1942 until his retirement from the military in June 1946 . He died in 1987 at the age of ninety - five . His writings on air power were collected and published posthumously as The Decisive Factor in 1990 . Early life and World War I Wrigley was born on 21 April 1892 in Collingwood , a suburb of Melbourne , to Henry and Beatrice Wrigley . He was educated at Richmond Central School and at Melbourne High School , where he joined the cadets . Studying at the University of Melbourne , he became a state school teacher and a member of the militia prior to the outbreak of World War I. He joined the Australian Flying Corps ( AFC ) on 5 October 1916 . Wrigley trained as a pilot under the tutelage of Lieutenant Eric Harrison at Central Flying School in Point Cook , Victoria , before departing Melbourne on 25 October aboard a troopship bound for Europe . After further training in England , Wrigley was posted to France and flew on the Western Front with No. 3 Squadron AFC ( also known until 1918 as No. 69 Squadron , Royal Flying Corps ) . Operating Royal Aircraft Factory R.E.8s , the unit was engaged in reconnaissance , artillery - spotting and ground support duties . Having been promoted to captain , Wrigley was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross for his " exceptional devotion to duty " , in particular his persistence in pressing home an attack against enemy infantry on 29 October 1918 in the face of " intense machine gun and rifle fire " ; the honour was promulgated in the London Gazette on 3 June 1919 . Wrigley later observed that most wartime aircraft were " impossible to fight in " , and that senior officers were " too occupied with coaxing aeroplanes into the air and teaching pilots to bring them down again without breaking their necks " to consider the wider implications of air power . Between the wars Wrigley became No. 3 Squadron 's commanding officer in January 1919 , and returned to Australia on 6 May . Later that year he took part in the first transcontinental flight across Australia , from Melbourne to Darwin , to coincide with the first England to Australia flight . Accompanied by his mechanic and former schoolmate , Sergeant Arthur " Spud " Murphy , Wrigley departed Point Cook on 16 November and arrived in Port Darwin on 12 December , having travelled some 4 , 500 kilometres ( 2 , 800 mi ) in forty - seven flying hours . The men flew in a single - engined Royal Aircraft Factory B.E.2 , with no radio , over unmapped and often hazardous terrain , and surveyed seventeen potential landing fields along the way . Wrigley considered the choice of Murphy as his cohort " a particularly happy one " but called the aircraft they were assigned " an obsolete type , even for training purposes " , while conceding that " it was structurally sound and airworthy . " In recognition of their achievement the men were each awarded the Air Force Cross , gazetted on 12 July 1920 . Such was the perceived danger of the expedition that while making preparations for the flight back they received a telegram from the Defence Department ordering them to dismantle the B.E.2 and return with it by ship . On 1 January 1920 , Wrigley transferred to the Australian Air Corps ( AAC ) , a temporary organisation formed by the Army following disbandment of the wartime AFC . He was appointed adjutant at Central Flying School the following month . In 1921 , Wrigley joined the newly established Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) as a flight lieutenant . Popularly known as " <unk> " , he was one of the original twenty - one officers on the Air Force 's strength at its formation that March . For the next seven years he held staff posts at RAAF Headquarters , Melbourne , beginning with the position of staff officer to the Director of Personnel and Training . On 5 July 1922 , Wrigley married Marjorie Rees ; the couple had a son and a daughter . The same month , he replaced Flight Lieutenant Frank McNamara as Staff Officer ( Operations and Intelligence ) . He served as RAAF Training Officer from March 1923 to April 1925 — during which time he was promoted to squadron leader — before being appointed Director of Organisation and Staff Duties . In November 1927 , he took part in an attempt to make the first night flight from Sydney to Melbourne . Taking off from RAAF Station Richmond in an Airco DH.9 , Wrigley and his co - pilot were in the air for six hours and covered 345 miles ( 555 km ) when a broken fuel line forced them to land for repairs ; they completed the journey the following day . Wrigley travelled to England in 1928 to attend RAF Staff College , Andover , becoming one of the first RAAF officers to complete the course . Remaining in England , he was appointed Australian Air Liaison Officer to the Air Ministry in 1929 . That October , he initiated correspondence with the British Air Council to discuss a proposal for the RAAF to adopt as its own the Royal Air Force 's motto Per <unk> Ad Astra ; informal approval was granted by letter to Wrigley in March 1930 . Returning to Australia , he became Director of Operations and Intelligence at RAAF Headquarters in October 1930 , and Director of Organisation and Staff Duties in December 1931 . He was promoted to wing commander in December 1932 . In 1935 he published his history of No. 3 Squadron , The Battle Below , which was considered an authoritative treatment on the subject of army co - operation . He was promoted group captain in July 1936 , and that October took over as commanding officer of RAAF Station Laverton , Victoria , from Group Captain McNamara . Wrigley handed over the station 's command to Group Captain Adrian Cole in February 1939 . In May 1939 , Wrigley served as the senior expert assessor on the panel of an inquiry into three recent accidents involving Avro Ansons ; the full report handed down in October found that training on the type followed the syllabus , but that pilots needed more practical experience in dealing with in - flight incidents , as human error was the likely explanation for at least one crash . World War II As part of the RAAF 's reorganisation following the outbreak of World War II , No. 1 Group was formed under Wrigley 's command in Melbourne on 20 November 1939 , to oversee the operations of air bases and units in Victoria , South Australia and Tasmania . Promoted air commodore , in 1940 Wrigley served as Air Officer Commanding ( AOC ) Southern Area , the successor organisation to No. 1 Group , before taking up the position of Air Member for Personnel ( AMP ) in November that year . He was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire in the 1941 New Year Honours . As AMP , Wrigley 's responsibilities included organising the Women 's Auxiliary Australian Air Force ( WAAAF ) , established on 25 March 1941 as the first uniformed women 's branch of an armed service in the country . He believed that recruiting servicewomen was essential to augment the many ground staff required to support the war effort , and considered that while such an organisation should be constitutionally separate from the RAAF , its members should be closely integrated within the current force structure . The Chief of the Air Staff ( CAS ) was at this time an RAF officer , Air Chief Marshal Sir Charles Burnett , who hoped to see his daughter Sybil - Jean , a veteran of Britain 's Women 's Auxiliary Air Force , take charge of the WAAAF . Wrigley successfully argued against this , telling Burnett that there had already been " enough public outcry " over a non - Australian being named CAS , and there would be " a further public outcry " if anyone other than an Australian was appointed WAAAF Director . On 21 May , he selected Berlei executive Clare Stevenson as WAAAF Director , passing over temporary appointee Mary Bell , wife of a serving RAAF group captain . Wrigley chose Stevenson on the basis of her management background and because she was not a " socialite " . Bell , who was offered the position of Deputy Director , chose to resign from the WAAAF on learning of Stevenson 's appointment , but Wrigley later convinced her to rejoin . Meanwhile , Wrigley played a leading part in the development of the Air Training Corps , formed in April 1941 to facilitate basic training for youths aged sixteen to eighteen who hoped to become RAAF aircrew . Wrigley 's promotion to acting air vice marshal was announced in May 1941 , making him only the third member of the RAAF — after Richard Williams and Stanley Goble — to attain this rank . In September 1942 , he was posted to London to take over from Frank McNamara as AOC RAAF Overseas Headquarters . For a time , he was involved in a tug - of - war with Air Marshal Williams over just who was in charge . Williams , who commanded Overseas Headquarters at its inception in December 1941 , with McNamara as his deputy , had subsequently been appointed as the RAAF 's representative to Washington , DC , leaving McNamara in charge of the London office until Wrigley arrived . The Minister for Air , Arthur Drakeford , was in favour of Williams commanding the RAAF offices in both the US and UK while Wrigley acted for him in London , despite Wrigley having been appointed AOC . Wrigley 's diary recorded that when Williams returned to London in October 1942 to attend a conference , he began " throwing his weight around " and " intriguing to have himself made AOC , and possibly AOC in C [ Air Officer Commanding - in - Chief ] of all RAAF units and personnel outside Australia and the SW Pacific " . Although Williams departed England in January 1943 , the matter was only fully laid to rest in mid - 1943 , when the CAS , Air Vice Marshal George Jones , advised Williams that it was impractical for him to command offices in both Washington and London . As AOC RAAF Overseas Headquarters , Wrigley was responsible for looking after the interests of RAAF aircrew stationed in the European and the Middle Eastern theatres , liaising between the British Air Ministry and the Australian government regarding technical developments and information on the war in the Pacific , and negotiating revisions to the terms of the Empire Air Training Scheme ( EATS ) . The role had little influence on the deployment of Australian personnel for the air offensive in Europe , who were subject to RAF policy and strategy even when they belonged to RAAF squadrons . According to the official history of Australia in the war , Wrigley and his predecessors could hardly do more than " retard the centrifugal forces affecting Australian disposition , and repair the worst administrative difficulties arising from wide dispersion " . Nevertheless , Wrigley became a familiar and popular figure for the thousands of Australian airmen who passed through London during the war , and was known to take off his jacket and tend bar at <unk> , the headquarters ' watering hole . An EATS graduate later remarked that " under Air Vice - Marshal Wrigley we got tremendous service ... I was in North Africa , Italy , Sardinia , Corsica and then back in the United Kingdom . We got our mail , we got our comforts ... Not only that , when some cow went and pinched 100 quid from me when I was on leave in London , the next day , with a shaking hand , I was able to sign for another 100 quid and have a good time . " In March 1943 , following negotiations that had begun the previous year , Wrigley signed a revision of EATS that finally recognised Australia 's " national aspirations " regarding concentration of her airmen in RAAF squadrons as opposed to them being scattered throughout RAF units , reasonable prospects of promotion and rotation for staff , and pay and other conditions of service confirmed as being per RAAF stipulations . The official history contended that " for the most part Australia was still left chasing a dream rather than a reality " , as many clauses in the agreement were " subject to operational exigencies " and to be adhered to only " as far as possible " . Wrigley toured the Mediterranean in September , visiting No. 459 Squadron in the Middle East , and travelling to Sicily to interview ground staff of No. 450 Squadron over their grievances concerning lack of promotion and leave ; his presence was considered to have defused this situation . Wrigley 's son Ronald enlisted in the Royal Australian Navy in September 1944 , and served until his demobilisation in 1946 . The end of hostilities in Europe on 7 May 1945 raised a major logistical challenge for Wrigley as the senior officer responsible for some 13 , 500 RAAF personnel spread across Britain , the Mediterranean , and the continent , only a minority of whom were in nominally Australian squadrons , the bulk serving with RAF establishments . " The task was energetically met " , according to the official history ; fewer than 1 , 000 RAAF personnel remained in RAF units by 1 September , although repatriation continued through into the new year . Retirement and legacy Wrigley was summarily retired from the RAAF in 1946 , along with other senior commanders and veterans of World War I , ostensibly to make way for the advancement of younger and equally capable officers . Keenly disappointed with the decision , Wrigley was officially discharged on 6 June . He found it difficult to secure civilian employment because , " by the time I got back , all the worthwhile jobs round Australia had been snapped up by people , not only air force people but other people on the spot " . After an unsuccessful attempt to run his own retail business , he " eventually earned a living by taking on some administrative jobs which carried on for a few years " . Wrigley was made an honorary air vice marshal in July 1956 . In 1966 he became executive officer of the Victorian Overseas Foundation , and later a trustee . He published Aircraft and Economic Development : The RAAF Contribution through the Royal Aeronautical Society in 1969 . In March 1971 , he was among a select group of surviving founding members of the RAAF who attended a celebratory dinner at the Hotel Canberra to mark the service 's Golden Jubilee ; his fellow guests included Air Marshal Sir Richard Williams , Air Vice Marshal Bill Anderson , Air Commodore Hippolyte De La Rue , and Wing Commander Sir Lawrence Wackett . After the death of his first wife , Marjorie , Wrigley married Zenda Edwards on 5 January 1972 . In December 1979 , he was the guest of honour at celebrations marking sixty years of flying at Darwin ; the RAAF flew him from Point Cook to Darwin to commemorate his historic 1919 flight with Arthur Murphy . Wrigley wrote a history of the Victorian branch of the United Services Institution in 1980 . Aged ninety - five , he died in Melbourne on 14 September 1987 . Throughout his life , Wrigley was an " inveterate note - taker " who compiled extensive documentation concerning the theory and practice of air power , on which he lectured among colleagues in the RAAF during the 1920s . The concepts that he propagated included air superiority , the need for an air force to be separate from the other branches of the armed services , control of the air as a means of carrying out offensive strikes , and the substitution of aerial forces for ground troops . While arguing for the independence of the air arm , Wrigley was quick to dispel any notion that it would simply " arrive from God knows where , drop [ its ] bombs God knows where , and go off again God knows where " ; rather it should act in concert with the army and navy in furtherance of government policy . He is thus credited with laying the foundations for the RAAF 's modern air power doctrine , which would eventually be codified as the Air Power Manual in 1990 . Wrigley 's widow bequeathed twenty volumes of his writings , maps and photographs to the RAAF Museum at Point Cook after his death ; they were edited and published by Air Commodore Brendan O <unk> and Wing Commander Alan Stephens in 1990 as The Decisive Factor : Air Power Doctrine by Air Vice - Marshal H.N. Wrigley . In 1996 , Wrigley 's former residence as commanding officer of RAAF Station Laverton prior to World War II was christened Wrigley House in his honour . His name is also borne by Henry Wrigley Drive , approaching Darwin International Airport . In March 2010 the Chief of Air Force , Air Marshal Mark <unk> , established the AVM H.N. Wrigley Prize for air power analysis , as part of the annual Chief of Air Force Essay Competition .
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Peter of Bruys Peter of Bruys ( also known as Pierre De Bruys or Peter de <unk> ; fl . 1117 – <unk> ) was a popular French religious teacher , who is called a <unk> ( leader of a heretical movement ) by the Roman Catholic Church because he criticized infant baptism , opposed the erecting of churches and the veneration of crosses , opposed the doctrine of transubstantiation , and denied the efficacy of prayers for the dead . An angry mob killed him in or around the year 1131 . Information concerning Peter of Bruys is derived from two extant sources , the treatise of Peter the Venerable against his followers and from a passage written by Peter Abelard . Life and teachings Sources suggest that Peter was born at <unk> in southeastern France . The history of his early life is unknown , but it is certain that he was a Roman Catholic priest who had been deprived of his office by the Church hierarchy for teaching unorthodox doctrine . He began his preaching in Dauphiné and Provence probably between 1117 and 1120 . The local bishops , who oversaw the dioceses of Embrun , Die , and Gap , suppressed his teachings within their jurisdictions . In spite of the official repression , Peter 's teachings gained adherents at Narbonne , Toulouse , and in Gascony . Peter of Bruys admitted the doctrinal authority of the Gospels in their literal interpretation ; the other New Testament writings he seems to have considered valueless , as he doubted their apostolic origin . He questioned the Old Testament and rejected the authority of the Church Fathers and that of the Roman Catholic Church itself . Petrobrusians also opposed clerical celibacy , infant baptism , prayers for the dead , and organ music . Treatise of Peter the Venerable In the preface to his treatise that attacked Peter of Bruys , Peter the Venerable summed up the five teachings he saw as the errors of the Petrobrusians . Peter the Venerable , also known as Peter of <unk> , was an abbot and an important religious writer who became a popular figure in the church , an internationally known scholar , and an associate of many national and religious leaders of his day . The first " error " was their denial " that children , before the age of understanding , can be saved by the baptism ... According to the Petrobrusians not another ’ s , but one ’ s own faith , together with baptism , saves , as the Lord says , ' He who will believe and be baptised will be saved , but he who will not believe will be condemned . ' " This idea ran counter to the medieval Church 's teaching , particularly in the Latin West where , following the theology of Augustine , the baptism of infants and children played an essential role in their salvation from the ancestral guilt of original sin . The second error charged ( with some exaggeration ) was that the Petrobrusians said , “ <unk> for temples and churches should not be erected ... The Petrobrusians are quoted as saying , ' It is unnecessary to build temples , since the church of God does not consist in a multitude of stones joined together , but in the unity of the believers assembled . ' ” On the other hand , the medieval Church taught that cathedrals and churches were created to glorify God , and believed it appropriate that those buildings should be as grand and beautiful as wealth and skill could make them . The third error enumerated by Peter the Venerable was that the Petrobrusians “ command the sacred crosses to be broken in pieces and burned , because that form or instrument by which Christ was so dreadfully tortured , so cruelly slain , is not worthy of any adoration , or veneration or supplication , but for the avenging of his torments and death it should be treated with unseemly dishonor , cut in pieces with swords , burnt in fire . ” This was seen as an iconoclastic heresy and as acts of sacrilege by the medieval Church , as well as by Catholics to this day . The fourth error , according to Peter the Venerable , was that the Petrobrusians denied sacramental grace , rejecting the rite of Communion entirely , let alone the doctrine of the real presence or the nascent Scholastic account of transubstantiation . “ They deny , not only the truth of the body and blood of the Lord , daily and constantly offered in the church through the sacrament , but declare that it is nothing at all , and ought not to be offered to God . They say , ' Oh , people , do not believe the bishops , priests , or clergy who seduce you ; who , as in many things , so in the office of the altar , deceive you when they falsely profess to make the body of Christ , and give it to you for the salvation of your souls . ' " The term " transubstantiation " , used to describe the transformation of the consecrated bread and wine into the body and blood of Christ , was first used by Hildebert de <unk> in about 1079 . This theory had long been widely accepted as orthodox doctrine at the time of the attacks by Peter of Bruys . In less than two centuries , in 1215 , the Fourth Lateran Council officially declared transubstantiation the necessary , orthodox Catholic explanation of the Eucharist . The fifth error was that “ they deride sacrifices , prayers , alms , and other good works by the faithful living for the faithful dead , and say that these things cannot aid any of the dead even in the least ... The good deeds of the living cannot profit the dead , because transferred from this life their merits cannot be increased or diminished , because beyond this life there is no longer place for merits , only for retribution . Nor can a dead man hope to gain from anybody that which he did not obtain while alive in the world . Therefore those things are pointless that are done by the living for the dead , because they are mortal and have passed by death beyond the way for all flesh , into the state of the future world , and took with them all their merit , to which nothing can be added . ” Death and legacy As Peter the Venerable recorded , crosses were singled out for special iconoclasm . Peter of Bruys felt that crosses should not deserve veneration . Crosses became for the Petrobrusians objects of desecration and were destroyed in bonfires . In or around the year 1126 , Peter was publicly burning crosses in St Gilles near Nîmes . The local Roman Catholic populace , angered by Peter 's destruction of the crosses , cast him into the flames of his own bonfire . Henry of Lausanne , a former Cluniac monk , adopted the Petrobrusians ' teachings about 1135 and spread them in a modified form after Peter 's death . The teachings of Peter of Bruys continued to be frequently condemned by the Roman Catholic Church , meriting mention at the Second Lateran Council in 1139 . Henry of Lausanne 's followers became known as <unk> . Both the Henrician and the <unk> sects began to die out in 1145 , the year St Bernard of Clairvaux began preaching for a return to Roman orthodoxy in southern France . In a letter to the people of Toulouse , undoubtedly written at the end of 1146 , Bernard calls upon them to extirpate the last remnants of the heresy . As late as 1151 , however , some <unk> still remained active in Languedoc . In that year , the Benedictine monk and English chronicler Matthew Paris related that a young girl who claimed to be miraculously inspired by the Virgin Mary was reputed to have converted a great number of the disciples of Henry of Lausanne . The sects both disappear from the historical record after this reference . There is no evidence that Peter Waldo or any other later religious figures were directly influenced by Peter of Bruys . His low view of the Old Testament and the New Testament epistles was not shared by later Protestant figures such as Martin Luther or John Smyth . In spite of this , Peter of Bruys is considered a prophet of the Reformation by some evangelical Protestants and Anabaptists .
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The Sword of Shannara The Sword of Shannara is a 1977 epic fantasy novel by Terry Brooks . It is the first book of the Original Shannara Trilogy , followed by The Elfstones of Shannara and The <unk> of Shannara . Brooks was heavily influenced by J.R.R. Tolkien 's The Lord of the Rings and began writing The Sword of Shannara in 1967 . It took him seven years to complete , as he was writing the novel while attending law school . Ballantine Books used it to launch the company 's new subsidiary Del Rey Books . Its success boosted the commercial expansion of the fantasy genre . The novel interweaves two major plots into a fictional world called the Four Lands . One follows the protagonist Shea Ohmsford on his quest to obtain the Sword of Shannara and confront the Warlock Lord ( the antagonist ) with it . The other plot shadows Prince Balinor Buckhannah 's attempt to oust his insane brother Palance from the throne of Callahorn while the country and its capital ( Tyrsis ) come under attack from overwhelming armies of the Warlock Lord . Throughout the novel , underlying themes appear of mundane heroism and nuclear holocaust . Critics have derided the novel for being derivative of J.R.R. Tolkien 's The Lord of the Rings . Some have accused Brooks of lifting the entire plot and many of his characters directly from Lord of the Rings ; others have regarded the book more favorably and say that new writers often start by copying the style of established writers . Plot summary History The Sword of Shannara 's events take place 2000 years after a Great War : nuclear holocaust has wiped out most of the planet . During this time , Mankind mutates into several distinct races : Men , Dwarves , Gnomes , and Trolls , all named after creatures from " age - old " myths . Also , the Elves begin to emerge after having been in seclusion and hiding for centuries . The warring that caused the holocaust is referred to as the " Great Wars " throughout the novel . These wars rearranged the planet 's geographical attributes and wiped out most human life on Earth . Most advanced technology has been lost , but magic has been rediscovered . A thousand years before The Sword of Shannara , an Elf named <unk> gathers all of the people who still had some knowledge of the old world to Paranor to try to bring peace and order to all of the races . They name themselves the First Druid Council . Brona , a rogue Druid , and his followers leave , taking the <unk> with them ; this magical tome controls their minds . 250 years later , Brona begins the First War of the Races when he convinces all Men to attack the other races . He almost succeeds in seizing rule of the Four Lands , but the tide turns , and the war ends with his defeat and disappearance . The Druids divide the Four Lands among the races and become reclusive , withdrawing to Paranor because of their shame at the betrayal by one of their own members . Two and a half centuries after the First War of the Races , Brona returns as the Warlock Lord , now with Skull Bearers as his servants . <unk> in the prequel novel First King of Shannara , the Second War of the Races begins with the destruction of the Druid Order . A lone Druid , Bremen , forges a magical talisman to destroy the Warlock Lord ; it is given to the Elven King , Jerle Shannara . As it takes the form of a blade , the talisman is named the Sword of Shannara . It succeeds in banishing the Warlock Lord . He is not killed , but his army is defeated by the combined armies of the Elves and Dwarves . Peace comes at a high price , interracial tension is renewed and the Druids have vanished . Present From Shady Vale to Paranor Five centuries later , the Ohmsford family of Shady Vale in the Southland takes in the half - Elven child Shea . He takes the name Ohmsford and is raised as a brother to the family 's son Flick . Becoming inseparable , the brothers run the family inn . Some time later , the last Druid Allanon arrives in Shady Vale . Allanon warns the Ohmsford brothers that the Warlock Lord has returned to the Skull Kingdom in the Northland and is coming for Shea . As the last descendant of Jerle Shannara , Shea is the only one capable of wielding the Sword of Shannara against the Warlock Lord . Allanon departs , leaving Shea three Blue Elfstones for protection . He tells Shea to flee at the sign of the Skull . A few weeks later , a creature bearing a symbol of a skull shows up : a Skull Bearer , one of the Warlock Lord 's " winged black destroyers " , has arrived to search for Shea . The brothers are forced to flee with the Skull Bearer on their heels . They take refuge in the nearby city of Leah where they find Shea 's friend Menion , the son of the city 's lord . Menion decides to accompany the two , and he travels with them to Culhaven , to meet with Allanon . While at Culhaven , they are joined by a prince of Callahorn , Balinor Buckhannah , two elven brothers , Durin and Dayel Elessedil , and the dwarf Hendel . The party sets out for Paranor . But along the way , Shea falls over a waterfall and becomes separated from the group . Allanon spurs the group to continue to Paranor . Once there , the party gets into a battle with minions of the Warlock Lord and find that the Sword of Shannara has already been removed . The party then learns of the Warlock Lord 's invasion of the Southland , and decide to split up to do what they can to stop it . In the Southland Disguised by Allanon , Flick infiltrates the enemy camp and rescues the captive Elven King , Eventine Elessedil ; at the same time , in Kern , Menion saves a woman named Shirl <unk> and falls in love with her . They organize an evacuation of Kern before the Northland army reaches the city . Balinor returns to Tyrsis to activate the Border Legion only to find that it has been disbanded . Balinor is then imprisoned by his insane brother Palance Buckhannah , who has taken control of Callahorn 's rule . His advisor , Stenmin , has driven Palance insane with drugs , making him his pawn . With help from Menion , Balinor escapes and confronts both Palance and Stenmin . Practically cornered , Stenmin stabs Palance as a distraction and flees . Now commanded by Balinor , Callahorn 's reformed Border Legion marches out of Tyrsis and engages the Northland army at the <unk> River , killing many <unk> before being forced to pull back ; the Border Legion retreats to Tyrsis and make preparations for defense . During the siege of Tyrsis , Hendel and Menion come upon Stenmin and some of his supporters . Hendel is killed , but Menion kills Stenmin . After three days , the Border Legion is beaten back from the Outer Wall of Tyrsis as a result of treachery — the wall falls when the traitors destroy the locks on the main gate , jamming it open . At the defenders ' last stand on the Bridge of <unk> , the <unk> abruptly break and run . In the Northland After being captured by Gnomes , Shea is rescued by the one - handed thief Panamon Creel and his mute Troll companion Keltset <unk> . Journeying to the Northland , they reach the Skull Kingdom , where the insane Gnome deserter Orl Fane has carried the Sword of Shannara . Infiltrating the Warlock Lord 's fortress in the Skull Mountain , Shea reaches the sword and unsheathes it . He learns about its true power , the ability to confront those with the truth about their lives . The Warlock Lord materializes and tries to destroy Shea , but the youth stands his ground and confronts his enemy with the sword . Although immune to physical weapons , the Warlock Lord vanishes after being forced to confront the truth about himself : he had deluded himself into believing that he is immortal , but this is impossible . The Sword forces him to confront this paradox , and it kills him . Keltset sacrifices himself to save his companions during the Skull Kingdom 's destruction . In the south , the Northland army retreats after the Warlock Lord 's downfall . Allanon saves Shea 's life and reveals himself as Bremen 's centuries - old son , before disappearing to sleep . Peace returns to the Four Lands . Balinor takes up his country 's rule , while Dayel and Durin return to the Westland , and Menion returns to Leah with Shirl . Shea and Flick reunite and return to Shady Vale . Characters Shea Ohmsford , the protagonist , Flick 's adopted brother and the only remaining descendant of Jerle Shannara . Shea must find an ancient magical sword , the Sword of Shannara , and use it to destroy the antagonist , the Warlock Lord . A major theme of this novel revolves around Shea — part of his quest includes finding a belief in himself . This is a search that every subsequent Brooks protagonist must undergo . Flick Ohmsford , Shea 's brother . He helps Shea escape Shady Vale and ' tags along ' with the group that goes to recover the Sword . He rescues Eventine " solo " after Allanon disguises him as a Gnome . Menion Leah , a friend of Shea and the Prince of the small country of Leah . He guides Shea and Flick to Culhaven after their escape of Shady Vale and the Skull Bearer . He is the first of many from the House of Leah to befriend a member of the Ohmsford family . Allanon , a Druid who has been alive for around 400 years through the use of Druid Sleep . He guides and mentors the group on their quest to find the Sword . Allanon has been described as a parallel to Merlin from Arthurian legend . Balinor Buckhannah , the Crown Prince of the country of Callahorn and the " charismatic commander of [ the ] Border Legion " . He left the capital , Tyrsis , after a fight with his insane brother , Palance ; upon returning , he was thrown into a dungeon by him . Hendel , a " taciturn " Dwarf warrior . He first appears in the novel when he saves Menion Leah from a Siren , and was part of the company that went to find the Sword . Durin Elessedil , the older brother of Dayel and cousin to King Eventine . He was part of the company that went to find the Sword . Dayel Elessedil , the younger brother of Durin and cousin to King Eventine . He was part of the company that went to find the Sword . Stenmin , a traitor to Callahorn now working for the Warlock Lord . He poisoned both Palance and Ruhl Buckhannah , the King of Callahorn , eventually killing Ruhl and driving Palance insane . Palance Buckhannah , the brother of Balinor Buckhannah and a prince of Callahorn . He was driven insane as a result of drugs fed to him by Stenmin , and at his urging , took control of Callahorn when his father ' took ill ' . Panamon Creel , a one - handed " con man " wanderer whose left hand is now a pike . He saved Shea from a patrol of Gnomes . The inspiration from his character came directly from Rupert of <unk> from The Prisoner of Zenda , by Anthony Hope . Keltset <unk> , Panamon 's mute companion . He is mute as a result of the Warlock Lord . He was able to save Panamon and Shea after they were captured by Trolls because he had been awarded the Black <unk> , the highest honor any Troll can receive , and therefore is considered incapable of treachery . The Trolls then helped them get to Skull Mountain so that Shea could confront the Warlock Lord . Brona ( the Warlock Lord ) , the former Druid and antagonist of the novel . In days long ago , Brona was a Druid before he was subverted by dark magic . He believes that he is immortal , and so he still lives . When he was confronted with the power of the Sword , " truth " , he was forced to see that he was really dead , and immediately disappeared . Skull Bearers , " winged black destroyers " who " sacrificed their humanity " to become the Warlock Lord 's most trusted servants . They fly around at different points of the novel , demoralizing troops . They are usually seen only at night , though one does fly during the day over the city of Tyrsis on the last day of the battle . Shirl <unk> , the daughter of an elder on the governing council of Kern , and a descendant of royal blood . She was kidnapped by Stenmin , but is accidentally rescued by Menion Leah . Menion and Shirl soon fall in love with each other . She is one of only two women to appear directly in the book , with the other being the Siren . Orl Fane , a " Gollum - like " Gnome who " covets the Sword as Gollum does the ring . " He stole the Sword and forced Panamon , Keltset and Shea to track him down . He was driven insane and killed by the Warlock Lord after he took control of his mind and forced him to try to take the Sword . Background Brooks began writing The Sword of Shannara in 1967 when he was twenty - three years old . He started writing the novel to challenge himself and as a way of staying " sane " while he attended law school at Washington and Lee University . Brooks had been a writer since high school , but he had never found ' his ' genre : " I tried my hand at science fiction , westerns , war stories , you name it . All those efforts ... weren 't very good . " When he was starting college , he was given a copy of Tolkien 's The Lord of the Rings to read for the first time . From then on , Brooks knew that he had found a genre he could write in . Writing Sword took seven years , as Brooks worked on it only sporadically while also completing his law school courses and rewrote it many times . Brooks initially submitted his manuscript to DAW Books , whose editor Donald A. Wollheim rejected it and recommended submission to Judy - Lynn del Rey at Ballantine Books instead . Ballantine Books accepted The Sword of Shannara in November 1974 . Brooks ' editor was Lester del Rey , who used the book to launch Ballantine 's new Del Rey Books imprint / subsidiary . Del Rey chose it because he felt that it was " the first long epic fantasy adventure which had any chance of meeting the demands of Tolkien readers for similar pleasures . " In 1977 , The Sword of Shannara was simultaneously released as a trade paperback by Ballantine Books and hardback by Random House . The Brothers Hildebrandt , who had previously done illustration work for the work of Tolkien , was asked to make the cover . Greg Hildebrandt remembers the Del <unk> as being " obsessed with the project . It was their baby . " The novel was a commercial success , becoming the first fantasy fiction novel to appear on The New York Times trade paperback bestseller list . The original inspiration for The Sword of Shannara was Brooks ' desire to put " Tolkien 's magic and fairy creatures [ into ] the worlds of Walter Scott and [ Alexander ] Dumas " . Later , other inspirations jumped onto Brooks ' bandwagon . Brooks was inspired by J.R.R. Tolkien The Lord of the Rings and adventure fiction such as Alexandre Dumas ' The Three Musketeers , Robert Louis Stevenson 's Treasure Island , Arthur Conan Doyle 's The White Company and Walter Scott 's Ivanhoe . Brooks decided not to use historical settings like these works . He instead followed Tolkien 's use of a fantasy setting instead : I would set my adventure story in an imaginary world , a vast , sprawling , mythical world like that of Tolkien , filled with magic that had replaced science and races that had evolved from Man . But I was not Tolkien and did not share his background in academia or his interest in cultural study . So I would eliminate the poetry and songs , the digressions on the ways and habits of types of characters , and the appendices of language and backstory that characterized and informed Tolkien 's work . I would write the sort of straightforward adventure story that barreled ahead , picking up speed as it went , compelling a turning of pages until there were no more pages to be turned . He admits that he was very influenced by The Lord of the Rings when writing it , being his first novel , but that he has evolved his own style since : Tolkien approached it as an academic , and he was writing it as an academic effort , not as popular fiction . I ’ m a popular fiction writer , that 's the way I approached it . And I think that you 're right , too , about the fact that I was heavily under the influence of Tolkien when I wrote Sword of Shannara and it shows in that particular book . But I 've really gotten a long way away from Tolkien these days and not very many people come up to me any more and say , “ Well , gee , you 're writing an awful lot like Tolkien . ” They don ’ t say that any more . Brooks also made decisions about his novel 's characterization and use of magic , saying that the magic " couldn 't be dependable or simply good or bad " . Also , he wanted to blur the distinctions between good and evil , " because life simply [ doesn 't ] work that way . " He wanted to ensure that readers would identify with his protagonist , Shea , which he accomplished by casting Shea as " a person simply trying to muddle through " . Major themes " Ordinary men placed in extraordinary circumstances " is a prevalent theme in The Sword of Shannara . Brooks credits Tolkien with introducing this theme of mundane heroism into fantasy literature and influencing his own fiction . " [ M ] y protagonists are cut from the same bolt of cloth as Bilbo and Frodo Baggins . It was Tolkien 's genius to reinvent the traditional epic fantasy by making the central character neither God nor hero , but a simple man in search of a way to do the right thing . ... I was impressed enough by how it had changed the face of epic fantasy that I never gave a second thought to not using it as the cornerstone of my own writing . " The Sword of Shannara is set in a post - apocalyptic Earth , where chemical and nuclear holocaust devastated the land in the distant past . Due to the numerous references in Sword to this catastrophe , Brooks was asked a question about whether he thought that his ' prediction ' might come true . He answered : I don 't see myself as a negative person , so I don 't think I 've ever thought we would destroy ourselves . But it does worry me that not only are we capable of [ nuclear war ] , but [ we also ] flirt with the idea periodically . One mistake , after all . . . Anyway , I used the background in [ The ] Sword of Shannara more in a cautionary vein than as a prophecy . Also , it was necessary to destroy civilization in order to take a look at what it would mean to have to build it back up again using magic . A civilization once destroyed by misuse of power is a bit wary the second time out about what new power can do . Environment plays a role in all of the Shannara novels : " Environment is a character in my story and almost always plays a major role in affecting the story 's outcome . I have always believed that fantasy , in particular , because it takes place in an imaginary world with at least some imaginary characters , needs to make the reader feel at home in the setting . That means bringing the setting alive for the reader , which is what creating environment as a character is really all about . " However , Brooks believes that Sword was more about behavioral issues and personal sacrifice . Literary significance and reception The Sword of Shannara received mixed reviews following its publication , most of which remarked on its similarity to J. R. R. Tolkien 's The Lord of the Rings . Choice stated that the novel was an " exceptionally well - written , very readable ... entrance into the genre ... [ that ] will be accepted by most teenagers . " Marshall Tymn also thought that it contained quality prose . Tymn believed that Sword followed Lord of the Rings too closely , but he also cited some of the differences , such as the use of a post - holocaust setting with the races that sprang from that , and the " entertaining <unk> , Panamon Creel , ... and ... an unexpected ending springing from the nature of the sword . " <unk> Dunn MacRae assessed all of Brooks ' works in her 1998 book Presenting Young Adult Fantasy Fiction . On The Sword of Shannara , she thought this : In this <unk> world of our future , Brooks parallels the mystic arts ... with science , two powers that are not good or evil but become either by the way we use them . Evil is a corruption of truth , erupting from the selfish use of power for one 's own ends . Good arises from the insistence on truth , allowing us to realize our indelible bonds with others of all races , and our connection with nature and earth . Anything unnatural is evil , such as the Warlock Lord 's immortality , which recalls similar abuse of nature by Le Guin 's Cob and by Barbara Hambly 's wizard <unk> . One of Brooks ' strengths is his plot 's momentum , maintained through cliffhangers , unexpected twists of fortune , and the dance of many characters ' constant movements . This brisk pace alters when characters pause to ruminate , which draws out suspense and reveals motivation . However , first novelist Brooks as puppet master is not always in control of the strings . With no single point of view centered in one character , his focus is diffused , and the anxieties and realizations of each character beg [ an ] to sound the same , blurring their identities with repetition . Sword and The Lord of the Rings The Sword of Shannara has drawn extensive criticism from critics who believe that Brooks derived too much of his novel from Tolkien 's The Lord of the Rings . In 1978 , influential fantasy editor Lin Carter denounced The Sword of Shannara as " the single most cold - blooded , complete rip - off of another book that I have ever read " . Elaborating on his disapproval of the book , Carter wrote that " Terry Brooks wasn 't trying to imitate Tolkien 's prose , just steal his story line and complete cast of characters , and [ Brooks ] did it with such clumsiness and so heavy - handedly , that he virtually rubbed your nose in it . " Roger C. <unk> was kinder in his assessment , though he still thought that The Sword of Shannara was a disappointment because of its similarities to The Lord of the Rings . Brian Attebery accused The Sword of Shannara of being " undigested Tolkien " which was " especially blatant in its point - for - point correspondence " with The Lord of the Rings . In an educational article on writing , author Orson Scott Card cited The Sword of Shannara as a cautionary example of overly derivative writing , finding the work " artistically displeasing " for this reason . Assessing The Sword of Shannara three decades after its publication , Tolkien scholar Tom Shippey agreed with Attebery , as Shippey found that the novel was distinctive for " the dogged way in which it follow [ ed ] Tolkien point for point " . Within Brooks ' novel , Shippey located " analogues " for Tolkien characters such as Sauron ( Brona ) , Gandalf ( Allanon ) , the Hobbits ( Shea and Flick ) , Aragorn ( Menion ) , Boromir ( Balinor ) , Gimli ( Hendel ) , Legolas ( Durin and Dayel ) , Gollum ( Orl Fane ) , the Barrow - wight ( Mist Wraith ) , and the Nazgûl ( Skull Bearers ) , among others . He also found plot similarities to events in The Lord of the Rings such as the Fellowship of the Ring 's formation and adventures , the journeys to Rivendell ( Culhaven ) and Lothlórien ( <unk> ) , Gandalf 's ( Allanon ) fall in Moria ( Paranor ) and subsequent reappearance , and the Rohirrim 's arrival at the Battle of the Pelennor Fields ( Battle of <unk> ) , among others . Avoiding direct commentary on the book 's quality , Shippey attributed the book 's success to the post - <unk> advent of the fantasy genre : " What The Sword of Shannara seems to show is that many readers had developed the taste ... for heroic fantasy so strongly that if they could not get the real thing they would take any substitute , no matter how diluted . " Terry Brooks has said that Tolkien 's works were a major influence in his writing , though he has also said that Tolkien was not his only influence . Other influences included his editor Lester del Rey , as well as the many different books which he had read over his life . Also , mythology and ancient civilizations that he had learned about in school gave him a wealth of knowledge from which he drew . Many of these influences are reflected in Brooks ' works . In a 2001 Interzone essay , author Gene Wolfe defended Brooks ' derivation of material from Tolkien : " Terry Brooks has often been disparaged for imitating Tolkien , particularly by those reviewers who find his books inferior to Tolkien 's own . I can say only that I wish there were more imitators -- we need them -- and that all imitations of so great an original must necessarily be inferior . " In a commentary for The New York Times Book Review , Frank Herbert , author of the science fiction novel Dune , also defended Brooks , saying : Don 't fault Brooks for entering the world of letters through the Tolkien door . Every writer owes a similar debt to those who have come before . Some will admit it . Tolkien 's debt was equally obvious . The classical myth structure is deeply embedded in Western society . That 's why you should not be surprised at finding these elements in The Sword of Shannara . Yes , you will find here the young prince in search of his grail ; the secret ( and not always benign ) powers of nature ; the magician ; the wise old man ; the witch mother ; the malignant threat from a sorcerer ; the holy talisman ; the virgin queen ; the fool ( in the ancient tarot sense of the one who asks the disturbing questions ) and all of the other Arthurian trappings . What Brooks has done is to present a marvelous exposition of why the idea is not the story . Because of the popular assumption ( which assumes mythic proportions of its own ) that ideas form 99 percent of a story , writers are plagued by that foolish question , " Where do you get your ideas ? " Brooks demonstrates that it doesn 't matter where you get the idea ; what matters is that you tell a rousing story . Herbert said that " Brooks revert [ ed ] to his own style ... somewhere around Chapter 20 " and remarked upon what Brooks did not take from Tolkien : In the last chapters , you get the <unk> innovations — the Rock Troll [ Keltset ] , who is deep and mute and whose actions , thus , are far more important than any words could be ; the Grim Druid , who really changes character in the second half of the book , becoming far more complex and devious ( the name Allanon should give you a clue ) ; Balinor , the Prince of Callahorn , whose role breaks with myth tradition ; the Warlock Lord , who pretty much fills the traditional role of evil — but that 's what you expect of evil and it doesn 't blight a good story . Herbert also praised the characters of evil in the book : " Ah , the monsters in this book . Brooks creates distillations of horror that hark back to childhood 's shadows , when the most important thing about a fearful creature was that you didn 't know its exact shape and intent . You only knew that it wanted you . The black - winged skull bearer , for instance , is more than a euphemism for death . In a 2001 article for Seattle Weekly , David <unk> also commented upon Brooks ' main characters , calling them " idiosyncratic adventurers . " Other contemporary newspapers took separate sides on the Sword and Lord of the Rings issue . John Batchelor , writing for The Village Voice , thought that it was the weakest of the 1977 surge in fantasy , ranking it below Stephen R. Donaldson 's The Chronicles of Thomas Covenant , the Unbeliever , Seamus Cullen 's Astra and <unk> , and The Silmarillion , edited by Christopher Tolkien , while commenting that it " unabashedly cop [ ied ] " Lord of the Rings . However , he also believed that it was serviceable , simply because there is something exciting about sending off a group to face evil alone . Taking the opposite stance , L.V. <unk> in the Sydney Morning Herald believed that the book was similar enough to Tolkien that it would draw the many fans of that book to Sword , but it was only similar on a most basic level , and a valid comparison could not be made between the two . The Pittsburgh Press took a similar stance , saying that Sword embodied the Tolkien spirit and tradition but was quite able to stand apart from Lord of the Rings . Book impact The Sword of Shannara sold about 125 , 000 copies in its first month in print . This success provided a major boost to the fantasy genre . Louise J. Winters writes that " until Shannara , no fantasy writer except J. R. R. Tolkien had made such an impression on the general public . " Critic David Pringle credits Brooks for " demonstrat [ ing ] in 1977 that the commercial success of Tolkien 's The Lord of the Rings had not been a fluke , and that fantasy really did have the potential to become a mass - market genre " . With Stephen R. Donaldson 's The Chronicles of Thomas Covenant , the Unbeliever , The Sword of Shannara ushered in " the era of the big commercial fantasy " and helped make epic fantasy the leading fantasy subgenre . The Sword of Shannara and its sequels helped inspire later versions of Dungeons and Dragons . Television adaptation The Shannara books were to be adapted by Mike Newell , the director of Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire , but he left the project . The books eventually were adapted for television by Farah Films and executive produced by Brooks , Dan Farah , and Stewart Till . This begins with Elfstones , leaving Sword for later . The Shannara Chronicles premiered on American television network MTV on January 5 , 2016 .
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Eat You Up " Eat You Up " is a song recorded by South Korean recording artist BoA for her twelfth studio and debut English eponymous studio album ( 2009 ) . It was released on October 16 , 2008 in Japan as the lead single from the album . The song was written by <unk> and Thomas Troelsen , while production was handled by Henrik Jonback . The song was BoA 's first attempt into the Western market , particularly North America . Musically , the track was described as an electronic dance song with elements of R & B. Upon its release , " Eat You Up " garnered positive reviews from music critics . Many critics commended the song 's electronic and dance - infused composition , and praised the song 's commercial appeals ; they also felt it was a choice to release through Western markets , and felt BoA 's English skills had improved . It was successful on the US Billboard Dance Club Songs chart , peaking at number eight and staying in the chart for 12 consecutive weeks . Two music videos were created for the single ; the first had BoA dancing in ballet recital with back - up dancers , whilst the second has her dancing in a utopian - inspired planet . BoA performed the single during several of her concerts , including her <unk> and Who 's Back ? concert tours . Since its release , the song has received several recognitions and has been listed on several best lists by Eastern and Western publications . " Eat You Up " is one of the first songs by a Korean artist to be produced and written by Western producers , and is recognized as a key factor to the Korean Wave movement . Background and composition In January 2008 , publications in South Korea reported that BoA was planning on her North American debut . However , the head of BoA 's label SM Entertainment , Lee Soo Man , denied the claims , saying that BoA was continuing work in Asian markets . South Korean publications started to surface once again about her North American debut , after SM Entertainment announced their US subsidiary label . On September 2 , 2008 , SM Entertainment officially announced BoA 's North American debut under their subsidiary label . Ten days later , a press conference was held at the Seoul Imperial Palace Hotel to further clarify her plans . During her press conference , SM Entertainment announced that a song entitled " Eat You Up " was chosen as her debut English single . " Eat You Up " was first released on Japanese radio stations Tokyo - FM and <unk> 38 Station on October 16 . It was originally set for release on October 14 , 2008 in the US , but was then pushed back to October 21 , 2008 . " Eat You Up " was written by <unk> and Thomas Troelsen , while production was handled by Henrik Jonback . It was programmed and contained background vocals by Troelsen , while mixing was handled by Anders Hvenare . Musically , the track was described as an electronic dance song with elements of R & B and pop music . Victoria Goldenberg from Purple Sky Magazine noted the songs " combination of grimy rhythms and staccato singing with the most melodic development of any track on the album . " Majority of the songs composition , including the use of synthesizers and keyboards , have been processed through a reverse filter . The use of drum machines was overlapped after the reverse filter was used on the demo version , and was mixed after its completion . Critical reception " Eat You Up " received positive reviews from most music critics . Patrick Sullivan from AllMusic was positive in his review , labelling it a " catchily electro " song ; Sullivan highlighted the song as an album stand out track , while David Hickey from the same publication selected the song as one of BoA 's best career moments . Staff members from Idolator listed the songs parent album on their " 13 Great Pop Albums That Were Overlooked and Underrated In Their Time " list . Reviewing the album , Bradley Stern highlighted the song as one of the best tracks and stated that the material " deserves so , so much more than the dust it was dealt . " Victoria Goldenberg from Purple Sky Magazine selected the song as the album 's best track . A staff member from CD Journal was positive in their review ; They commended the commercial appeal for its North American release , and praised the mixture of R & B and electronic music musical elements . A reviewer from Selective Hearing was positive in his review . They praised the production and BoA 's English pronunciation , stating " The production as a whole has a bit of en edge to it which is a slight departure from the typical BoA song but it works ... Her pronunciation is miles above the English in her older songs . Her vocals are as strong as ever and even when the vocal effects are laid on thick her voice doesn ’ t get drowned in them . You can still hear her clearly . " Overall , the reviewer felt it was a great debut track for the North American audience . Asian Junkie member Random J reviewed the song on his personal blog site , and his response was mixed . He felt the song was " boring " and " bog standard " upon its release . However , he stated , " But in comparison to the rest of the album , the song is actually rather decent and a highlight . A definite grower . " Accolades " Eat You Up " was ranked at number six on Spin 's " 21 Greatest K - Pop Songs of All Time " list ; they said , " Though “ Eat You Up ” didn ’ t take upon arrival , it ’ s hard to hear why a pop offering this muscular ( it ’ s got a chorus like a Clydesdale ) couldn ’ t put a dent on American charts right this second . " The song was recognized by Michael Fuhr , who wrote the book Globalization and Popular Music in South Korea : Sounding Out K - Pop , as one of the first songs by a South Korean artist to be handled by Western and European artists . It was ranked at number 12 on <unk> 's Introduction to K - Pop list . It was ranked at number six on Buzzfeed 's 21 Greatest Korean Pop Songs Ever list . It was ranked at number two on Allkpop 's seven greatest North American debuts . Commercial response Because of its digital release , it was ineligible to chart on Japan 's Oricon Singles Chart , making it BoA 's first single to not chart there since her 2005 single " Girls on Top " . Despite its online success throughout several digital retailers in North America , it has failed to chart on the US Billboard Hot 100 or the Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart , or the Canadian Hot 100 . The single charted on US Dance Club Songs chart ; it debuted at number 42 and peaked at number 27 for the week ending December 27 , 2008 . It was present for seven weeks , before it reached its peak position of eight on the week end of February 7 . It fell to number 15 the following week end of February 14 . It slipped outside the top 20 on the week end of February 21 , and spent its final week at number 22 on the week end of February 28 . The song was present for 12 weeks on the chart . It remains her only top ten single on the Dance Club Songs chart , her only top ten in any US Billboard chart , and her longest charting single . As of May 2009 , Nielsen Soundscan confirmed that " Eat You Up " has sold over 28 , 000 units in the United States . Music videos Two music videos were filmed for the single ; a North American version directed by American director Diane Martel , and an Asian video by Korean director Eun Taek Cha . Due to heavily speculation of its premiere , SM Entertainment revealed that they planned on using both music videos to promote the single under the titles Version A ( North American video ) and Version B ( Asian video ) . They said they never intended to use the Version A for Asia and Version B for North America , as they only labelled the videos as Version A and B. The North American video premiered in Japan on Mega Hits on October 17 , 2008 . Both videos were choreographed by Misha Gabriel and <unk> <unk> respectively . The background dancers for both music videos are Nick Bass , Kenny Wormald and Trent Dickens . The North American video starts with BoA standing in front of a window in a high - rise building , showing close - ups of her . The verse starts with her and backup dancers dancing on a deserted planet , with inter cut scenes of her singing in the high - rise building . The second verse shows her singing to the male lead interest , with inter cut scenes of her singing the second verse in a snow globe setting . She sings the bridge while dancing on the planet with her dancers with closeup scenes of her as well as a clip of the sun rising . The final chorus shows BoA dancing by herself with a wall of graffiti behind her as well as the deserted planet during the daytime as it is becoming more violent with winds blowing about . The video ends with her name BoA being displayed as well as the title of the song " Eat You Up " . The Asian video starts with BoA turning on a radio which starts the song . BoA starts to sing the song whilst dancing in the hallway of a large house . At the start of the second verse , a girl is doing ballet dancing in front a group of judges . When the chorus starts again BoA and her dancers breaks down the door and proceeds to dance in front of the judges . Due to the intensity of their dancing , they make cracks in the floor and cause a picture to fall from where it once stood . During the bridge , BoA is dancing alone and then switches back and she is dancing by herself in the faces of the judges . During the second chorus , things starts to explode such as a clock that was hanging from the wall , the male judge 's glasses and books start to fall from a bookcase . As the chorus ends most of the remaining windows break , the chandelier falls and a fire starts , which turn on the sprinklers . The video ends with BoA and her dancers leaving , and the room is left in destruction . Both music videos received positive reviews from critics . Jun Eun - Young , writing in his book The Korean Wave , commended BoA 's sexual image and felt its American appeal made it quite " infamous " . A staff member from Rap Up was positive , commending BoA 's " impressive moves " . Lorna Fitzsimmons and John A. Lent , writing in their book Asian Popular Culture in Transition , commended BoA 's dance moves and found that the directors " collaboration with various US - <unk> artists clearly shows SM Entertainment 's attempt to recreate an Americanized - localized BoA in the hope of accommodating her US pop customers tastes more easily . " It was ranked at number seven on Eat Your Kim Chi 's Seven Best SM Entertainment music videos . Promotion and legacy A remix of the single featured American rapper Flo Rida , which was slated for a November 2008 release . However , after the single was leaked online , the release was scrapped . BoA performed the song at YouTube 's Tokyo Live concert , and performed in New York City on December 3 , 2008 , as well as the Jingle Ball at the Anaheim Honda Center on December 6 , 2008 . She headlined as a performer for the San Francisco Pride Festival on June 28 , 2009 alongside Solange Knowles and The <unk> . She also performed the song , alongside " Energetic " and " I Did It for Love " . from the self - titled studio album . BoA performed the song on her Best & USA concert tour . It was later included on the live DVD for her studio album Identity ( 2010 ) . The song was performed on BoA 's Identity tour in Asia , where it was included during the first segment . It included on the live album , released on August 18 , 2010 . The song was performed on Here I Am tour in South Korea , where it was included during the first segment . It was included on the live DVD , released on July 2 , 2015 . The song was performed on BoA 's Who 's Back concert tour in Japan , where it was included during the first segment . It included on the live album , released on February 25 , 2015 . The song was performed on BoA 's <unk> concert tour in Japan , where it was included during the first segment . " Eat You Up " was included on BoA 's double album Best & USA ( 2009 ) . " Eat You Up " , and BoA herself , have both been recognized by publications as a factor towards Korean Wave ; a neologism that justifies an immigration of the culture of South Korea into Western market and society . But despite BoA 's attempts to break into the Western market , particularly North America , such attempts did not succeed . Esther Oh , a freelance journalist writing for CNN , stated that BoA and another South Korean recording artist Se7en moved back to South Korea after their U.S. music careers struggled to gain traction . Oh labelled their attempts as " complete flops " . Track listing Credits and personnel Credits adapted from the liner notes of the promotional CD . Charts and sales
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Bank Markazi v. Peterson Bank Markazi v. Peterson , 578 U.S. _ _ _ ( 2016 ) , was a United States Supreme Court case that found that a law which only applied to a specific case , identified by docket number , and eliminated all of the defenses one party had raised does not violate the separation of powers in the United States Constitution between the legislative ( Congress ) and judicial branches of government . The plaintiffs in the trial court , respondents in the Supreme Court , were several parties who had obtained judgments against Iran for its role in supporting state - sponsored terrorism , particularly the 1983 Beirut barracks bombings and 1996 Khobar Towers bombing , and sought execution against a bank account in New York held , through European intermediaries , on behalf of Bank Markazi , the state - owned Central Bank of Iran . The initial plaintiffs obtained court orders preventing the transfer of funds from the account in 2008 and initiated their lawsuit in 2010 . Bank Markazi raised several defenses against the execution against the account , including that the account was not an asset of the bank , but rather an asset of its European intermediary , under both New York state property law and § 201 ( a ) of the Terrorism Risk Insurance Act . In response to concerns that existing laws were insufficient for the account to be used to settle the judgments , Congress included a section within a 2012 bill , codified after enactment as 22 U.S.C. § 8772 , that identified the pending lawsuit by docket number , applied only to the assets in the identified case , and essentially abrogated every legal basis available to Bank Markazi to prevent the plaintiffs from executing their claims against the account . Bank Markazi then argued that § 8772 was an unconstitutional breach of the separation of power between the legislative and judicial branches of government , because it effectively directed a particular result in a single case without changing the generally applicable law . The United States District Court for the Southern District of New York and , on appeal , the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit both upheld the constitutionality of § 8772 and cleared the way for the plaintiffs to execute their judgments against the account , which held about $ 1 . 75 billion in cash . The United States Supreme Court granted certiorari and heard oral arguments in the case in January 2016 , releasing their opinion in April 2016 . A 6 – 2 majority found that § 8772 was not unconstitutional , because it " changed the law by establishing new substantive standards " — essentially , that if Iran owns the assets , they would be available for execution against judgments against Iran — for the district court to apply to the case . Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg , writing for the majority , explained that the federal judiciary has long upheld laws that affect one or a very small number of subjects as a valid exercise of Congress ' legislative power and that the Supreme Court had previously upheld a statute that applied to cases identified by docket number in Robertson v. Seattle Audubon Society ( 1992 ) . The majority also upheld § 8772 as a valid exercise of Congress ' authority over foreign affairs . Prior to the enactment of the Foreign Sovereign Immunities Act ( FSIA ) in 1976 , Congress and the Executive branch had authority to determine the immunity of foreign states from lawsuits . Despite transferring the authority to determine immunity to the courts through the FSIA , the majority contended that " it remains Congress ' prerogative to alter a foreign state 's immunity . " Chief Justice John Roberts , joined by Justice Sonia Sotomayor , dissented and harshly criticized the majority 's holding . After providing historical context for the separation of powers between the legislature and judiciary found in Article III of the United States Constitution , the Chief Justice explained that § 8772 is a type of unconstitutional breach of the separation of powers between Congress and the judiciary " whereby Congress assumes the role of judge and decides a particular case in the first instance . " In his view , § 8772 is no different than a hypothetical law applying to a case Smith v. Jones in which the legislature says simply " Smith wins " . In the Chief Justice 's view , § 8772 was not a valid exercise of Congress ' foreign affairs authority ; he contended that Congress and the Executive branch have sufficient authority that they do not need to " seize " the judiciary 's power to " make a political decision look like a judicial one . " Quoting James Madison in Federalist No. 48 , the Chief Justice lamented that this case " will indeed become a blueprint for extensive expansion of the legislative power at the judiciary 's expense , feeding Congress 's tendency to ' extend [ ] the sphere of its activity and draw [ ] all power into its impetuous vortex . ' " The decision came as Iran was seeking access to the world financial market just three months after many sanctions were lifted as a result of Iran 's compliance with an agreement for curtailing development of its nuclear enrichment program . Various Iranian officials denounced the decision as " theft , " " a ridicule of law and justice , " and " open hostility by the United States against the Iranian people . " Iran announced that they would file suit against the United States in the International Court of Justice ( ICJ ) for reparations if the U.S. courts begin to " plunder " assets from the Citibank account to give to the winning plaintiffs , although it is not clear if the ICJ would have jurisdiction to entertain the case . Background State immunity Foreign states generally enjoy immunity from lawsuits in the United States under the Foreign Sovereign Immunities Act ( FSIA ) . The FSIA is the exclusive basis for U.S. courts to exercise jurisdiction over a foreign government . Prior to enactment of the FSIA in 1976 , the executive branch was responsible for determining the immunity of foreign states on a case - by - case basis . By enacting the FSIA , Congress codified the guidelines for the immunity of foreign states and transferred responsibility for determining a foreign state 's immunity from the executive branch to the judiciary . The FSIA contains an exception to the immunity of foreign states for victims of state - sponsored terrorism . Prior to 2002 , if a judgment was awarded against a foreign government , only assets of the foreign government that were located in the U.S. and " used for commercial activity " could have been seized to satisfy the judgment . To make judgments easier to enforce , Congress enacted the Terrorism Risk Insurance Act of 2002 ( TRIA ) which allows judgments to be executed against " the blocked assets of [ a ] terrorist party . " Blocked assets include assets that may be seized by the President pursuant to his authority granted by Congress . Litigation before § 8772 was enacted The suit involved more than 1300 individuals who had won several separate judgments against Iran for its supportive role in the 1983 Beirut barracks bombings , the 1996 Khobar Towers bombing , several other bombings , an assassination , and a kidnapping . After winning judgments by default , based on a clear evidentiary basis for Iran 's liability , they sought writs of execution against a Citibank account in New York connected with Iran 's central bank . The suits for execution against the Citibank account were consolidated into one case through various procedural mechanisms . The named plaintiff in the case , Deborah Peterson , is the sister of a victim of the Beirut barracks bombings ; joined by victims and other relatives of victims , she had won a default judgment in 2003 against Iran for its role in the bombings . Because of the large number of plaintiffs in the case — almost 1 , 000 — the judge appointed special masters to determine each plaintiff 's right to collect damages and appropriate amount of damages ; in 2007 , the judge entered a default judgment against Iran for $ 2 , 656 , 944 , 877 in damages . In 2008 , the plaintiffs first learned of the interests of the Central Bank of Iran ( Bank Markazi ) in a Citibank bank account in New York and obtained orders restraining the transfer of funds from the account . The account consisted of bonds and belonged to a Luxembourg - based bank , Clearstream Banking , S.A. , which held the account on behalf of Bank Markazi and deposited interest from the bonds into Bank Markazi 's Clearstream account . At some point in 2008 , an account for Bank Markazi was opened with Italian bank Banca <unk> to place the interest payments from the Clearstream account , placing a second intermediary between Bank Markazi and the Citibank account . By the time of the Supreme Court hearing , the Citibank account held about $ 1 . 75 billion in cash , as the last of the bonds had matured in April 2012 . In 2010 , the plaintiffs initiated their lawsuit against Bank Markazi , Clearstream , Banca <unk> , and Citibank , jointly , seeking to execute against the Citibank account their judgments for damages against Iran , based on § 201 ( a ) of the TRIA , which provides that when " a person has obtained a judgment against a terrorist party ... the blocked assets of that terrorist party ( including the blocked assets of any agency or instrumentality of that terrorist party ) shall be subject to execution or attachment . " In February 2012 , President Obama froze all assets of the Iranian government in the U.S. , which included the Citibank account alleged to be controlled by Bank Markazi . However , there were concerns that existing laws were insufficient for the account to be used to settle the judgments . Bank Markazi claimed that the account was not an asset of Bank Markazi , but its intermediary , Clearstream , in relation to both TRIA and New York state property law . Section 8772 Due to the issues raised in the case , Congress included a section within the Iran Threat Reduction and Syria Human Rights Act , codified as 22 U.S.C. § 8772 , that preempted any state law and provided that : a financial asset that is — ( A ) held in the United States for a foreign securities intermediary doing business in the United States ; ( B ) a blocked asset ( whether or not subsequently unblocked ) that is property described in subsection ( b ) ; and ( C ) equal in value to a financial asset of Iran , including an asset of the central bank or monetary authority of the Government of Iran or any agency or instrumentality of that Government , that such foreign securities intermediary or a related intermediary holds abroad shall be subject to execution or attachment in aid of execution in order to satisfy any judgment to the extent of any compensatory damages awarded against Iran for damages for personal injury or death caused by an act of torture , extrajudicial killing , aircraft sabotage , or hostage - taking , or the provision of material support or resources for such an act . In response to concerns the banking industry had to early drafts of the legislation , § 8772 specified the assets that the section pertains to as : The financial assets described in this section are the financial assets that are identified in and the subject of proceedings in the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York in Peterson et al. v. Islamic Republic of Iran et al . , Case No. 10 Civ . <unk> ( <unk> ) ( GWG ) , that were restrained by restraining notices and levies secured by the plaintiffs in those proceedings , as modified by court order dated June 27 , 2008 , and extended by court orders dated June 23 , 2009 , May 10 , 2010 , and June 11 , 2010 , so long as such assets remain restrained by court order . Section 8772 also specified that the courts needed to identify " whether Iran holds equitable title to , or the beneficial interest in , the assets ... and that no other person possesses a constitutionally protected interest in the assets ... under the Fifth Amendment to the Constitution of the United States . " If another person held a constitutionally protected interest in the assets , their interest in the assets would not be infringed by the law . After § 8772 was enacted Section 8772 eliminated all of Bank Markazi 's defenses to the seizure of the account 's assets , valued at approximately $ 1 . 75 billion . Bank Markazi conceded that they held " equitable title to , or beneficial interest in , the assets " , per § 8772 ( a ) ( 2 ) ( A ) , but then claimed that § 8772 violated the separation of powers in the United States Constitution between the legislative ( Congress ) and judicial branches of government . The United States District Court for the Southern District of New York and , on appeal , the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit both upheld the constitutionality of § 8772 and awarded the assets to the plaintiffs . Appeal to the Supreme Court of the United States On December 29 , 2014 , Bank Markazi filed a petition for certiorari with the Supreme Court of the United States , requesting the Court to consider the question : Does § 8772 violate the separation of powers by purporting to change the law for , and directing a particular result in , a single pending case ? The certiorari petition was circulated to the Justices for their conference on April 3 , 2015 , after a brief by the respondents ( Peterson ) opposing certiorari and a reply brief from the petitioner ( Bank Markazi ) were filed in March . Following the April 3rd conference , the Court called for the Solicitor General to file a brief expressing the views of the federal government , which was filed on August 19 . In May and June , the Supreme Court meets only to issue orders and opinions and does not hear oral arguments until the next term begins . The Court granted certiorari following its conference on September 28 . Oral arguments were held on January 13 , 2016 with appearances by Jeffrey <unk> for the petitioner , Theodore Olson for the respondents , and Deputy Solicitor General Edwin Kneedler for the United States as amicus curiae . Justice Antonin Scalia was present during oral arguments . He passed away in February , voiding his vote in the initial vote on the case 's outcome and precluding any draft opinion he may have written from being published by the Court . The Court 's 6 - 2 opinion was delivered on April 20 , 2016 . Opinion of the Court Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg wrote the majority opinion , which held that § 8772 does not infringe on the separation of powers between the legislative and judicial branches of government , considering also that the law is an exercise of congressional authority regarding foreign affairs . Justice Anthony Kennedy , Justice Clarence Thomas , Justice Stephen Breyer , Justice Samuel Alito , and Justice Elena Kagan joined the majority opinion ( however , Justice Thomas did not join as to Part II - C of the opinion ) . The majority began by explaining that judiciary 's authority under Article III of the United States Constitution is to " ' say what the law is ' " , quoting Marbury v. Madison ( 1803 ) . " Congress , no doubt , may not usurp a court 's power to interpret and apply the law to the circumstances before it " by , for example , saying in a hypothetical case Smith v. Jones that Smith wins or compelling the courts to reexamine a case after final judgment has been issued . Bank Markazi relied on United States v. Klein ( 1871 ) for much of its argument . In Klein , the Court questioned whether " ' the legislature may prescribe rules of decision to the Judicial Department ... in cases pending before it . ' " The majority found that " [ o ] ne cannot take this language from Klein at face value " because the power of Congress to make retroactive laws applicable to pending cases has long been recognized . The majority explained that the contemporary significance of Klein is that " Congress may not exercise its authority , including its power to regulate federal jurisdiction , in a way that requires [ federal courts ] ... to become active participants in violating the Constitution . " The unfairness of any retroactive legislation is " ' not a sufficient reason for a court to fail to give that law its intended scope . ' " The Constitution contains only limited constraints on the enactment of retroactive legislation : The Ex Post Facto Clause flatly prohibits retroactive application of penal legislation . Article I , § 10 , cl . 1 , prohibits States from passing ... laws ' impairing the Obligation of Contracts . ' The Fifth Amendment 's Takings Clause prevents the Legislature ( and other government actors ) from depriving private persons of vested property rights except for a ' public use ' and upon payment of ' just compensation . ' The prohibitions of ' Bills of Attainder ' in Art . I , § § 9 – 10 , prohibit legislatures from singling out summary punishment for past conduct . The Due Process Clause also protects the interests in fair notice and repose that may be compromised by retroactive legislation ; a justification sufficient to validate a statute 's prospective application under the Clause ' may not suffice ' to warrant its retroactive application . The majority affirmed that " Congress may indeed direct courts to apply newly enacted , outcome - altering legislation in pending civil cases , " citing its previous decisions in Plaut v. Spendthrift Farm , Inc . ( 1995 ) , Robertson v. Seattle Audubon Society ( 1992 ) , and Landgraf v. USI Film Products ( 1994 ) . Accordingly , the majority found that § 8772 " changed the law by establishing new substantive standards " — essentially , that if Iran owns the assets , they would be available for execution against judgments against Iran — for the district court to apply to the case . Section 8772 left several issues for the District Court to adjudicate : it did not define its key terms " beneficial interest " and " equitable title " ; whether any other party had a constitutionally protected interest in the account ; and whether the assets were " held in the United States " ( Clearstream argued the assets were located in Luxembourg , not New York ) . The fact that the law only applied to one case does not change its validity , although the majority conceded that a narrowly crafted law affecting just one person or a limited number of people may violate the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment " if arbitrary or inadequately justified . " The federal judiciary has long upheld laws that affect one or a very small number of subjects as a valid exercise of Congress ' legislative power , and the Supreme Court upheld a statute that applied to cases identified by docket number in Robertson v. Seattle Audubon Society ( 1992 ) . The final portion of the majority 's opinion , in which Justice Thomas did not join , upheld § 8772 as a valid exercise of Congress ' authority to regulate foreign affairs . Citing Dames & Moore v. Regan ( 1981 ) , a case which also involved the availability of Iranian assets for execution of judgments against Iran , the majority points out that regulating foreign - state assets — e.g. by blocking them or regulating their availability for execution against judgments — has never been found to violate the judiciary 's authority . Prior to the enactment of the Foreign Sovereign Immunities Act ( FSIA ) , the Executive branch routinely made case - specific determinations of the scope of immunity for foreign states . Those decisions were not rejected as infringements on the judiciary 's authority . Although the enactment of the FSIA in 1976 transferred authority to the courts to determine foreign - state immunity , the majority held that " it remains Congress ' prerogative to alter a foreign state 's immunity . " When Congress enacted § 8772 , it " acted comfortably within the political branches ' authority over foreign sovereign immunity and foreign - state assets . " Chief Justice Roberts ' dissenting opinion Chief Justice John Roberts , joined by Justice Sonia Sotomayor , dissented from the majority 's ruling . It was the first time that Roberts and Sotomayor were the only two dissenters in a case ; they had been on the court together since 2009 . Roberts began his argument with an analogy : Imagine your neighbor sues you , claiming that your fence is on his property . His evidence is a letter from the previous owner of your home , accepting your neighbor 's version of the facts . Your defense is an official county map , which under state law establishes the boundaries of your land . The map shows the fence on your side of the property line . You also argue that your neighbor 's claim is six months outside the statute of limitations . Now imagine that while the lawsuit is pending , your neighbor persuades the legislature to enact a new statute . The new statute provides that for your case , and your case alone , a letter from one neighbor to another is conclusive of property boundaries , and the statute of limitations is one year longer . Your neighbor wins . Who would you say decided your case : the legislature , which targeted your specific case and eliminated your specific defenses so as to ensure your neighbor 's victory , or the court , which presided over the fait accompli ? That question lies at the root of the case the Court confronts today . In the Chief Justice 's view , § 8772 violates the separation of powers in Article III " [ n ] o less than if [ Congress ] had passed a law saying ' respondents win . ' " The majority responded that a more appropriate analogy to the case is if a legislature enacts a law specifying that a 2000 map supersedes a 1990 map in an ongoing property dispute in which the parties are contesting whether an ambiguous statute makes a 1990 or 2000 county map the authoritative source for establishing property boundaries . The Chief Justice proceeded to detail the origin , purpose , and case law history of the separation of powers . Article Three of the United States Constitution establishes an independent judiciary with " distinct and inviolable authority . " Such separation of powers " safeguards individual freedom . " As Alexander Hamilton wrote in Federalist No. 78 , quoting Montesquieu , " ' there is no liberty if the power of judging be not separated from the legislative and executive powers . ' " The separation of powers between the judiciary and legislative branches was examined in detail in Plaut v. Spendthrift Farm , Inc . ( 1995 ) , in which the Supreme Court found unconstitutional a statute that reopened a case after a final judgment . At the time of the framing of the Constitution , judicial and legislative powers were often intermingled . The colonial legislatures often performed many of the functions of the judiciary , such as functioning as the court of last resort , granting new trials , and providing original review , appellate review , stays of judgments , and providing other types of relief " in an effort to do what is agreeable to Right and Justice . " The colonial charters of Massachusetts , Connecticut , and Rhode Island gave the legislatures the authority of court of last resort . In New Hampshire , judicial appeals were directed to the governor and his council , but routinely referred to the legislature for discussion . And for over half a century , the colonial assembly of Virginia could review court judgments . The involvement of legislatures in judicial matters " intensified during the American Revolution , " which " soon prompted a sense of a sharp necessity to separate the legislative from the judicial power . " The interference of the legislatures in judicial matters " <unk> [ ed ] prominently in the Framers ' decision to devise a system for securing liberty through the division of power . " This resulted in Article Three of the United States Constitution , which forms the " central pillar of judicial independence " and places " ' [ t ] he judicial Power of the United States ' ... in ' one supreme Court ' , and in such ' inferior Courts ' " as Congress may establish . This judicial power extends " to all Cases , in Law and Equity , arising under this Constitution , the Laws of the United States , and Treaties made , or which shall be made , under their Authority . " The Chief Justice explained that there are three types of unconstitutional restrictions on the power of the judiciary . " ' Congress cannot vest review of the decisions of Article III courts in officials of the Executive Branch ' " , or " ' retroactively command the federal courts to reopen final judgments . ' " In the Chief Justice 's view , this case is a third type of unconstitutional interference with the judiciary 's authority , " whereby Congress assumes the role of judge and decides a particular case in the first instance , " which he believes is precisely what § 8772 does . Section 8772 foreclosed Bank Markazi 's defenses that it was immune from prosecution under the FSIA , a separate juridical entity under both U.S. federal common law and international law and thus not liable for Iran 's debts , and that New York state law did not permit execution of the plaintiff 's judgments against its assets . " And lest there be any doubt that Congress ' sole concern was deciding this particular case ... § 8772 provided that nothing in the statute ' shall be construed ... to affect the availability , or lack thereof , of a right to satisfy a judgment in any other action against a terrorist party in any proceedings other than ' [ this case ] . " In the hypothetical case of Smith v. Jones in which Congress enacted a statute that says " Smith wins " , the majority would find it unconstitutional because it " would create no new substantive law . " In the Chief Justice 's view , it would : before the passage of the hypothetical statute , the law did not provide that Smith wins ; after passage of the hypothetical statute , it does . For the Chief Justice , " the question is whether its action constitutes an exercise of judicial power . " Both the hypothetical " Smith wins " statute and § 8772 both have the same effect , which is essentially the legislature 's " ' policy judgment ' " that one side in the case wins . He compared the majority 's opinion , which found that § 8772 left plenty of issues for the District Court to adjudicate , to " a constitutional Maginot Line , easily circumvented by the simplest maneuver of taking away every defense against Smith 's victory , without saying ' Smith wins . ' " Section 8772 only required the courts to make two decisions — that Bank Markazi had an equitable interest in the assets and no one else did — that were both already clear before § 8772 was enacted . By the majority 's view of " plenty " , the Chief Justice contended that , in the hypothetical case Smith v. Jones , the majority would uphold a judgment for Smith if the court finds that Jones was served notice of the lawsuit and the case was within the statute of limitations . Strongly criticizing the majority , the Chief Justice , quoting Federalist No. 48 , concluded that the majority 's " failure to enforce [ the boundary between the judicial and legislative branches ] in a case as clear as this reduces Article III to a mere ' parchment barrier against the encroaching spirit ' of legislative power . " Finally , the Chief Justice distinguished this case from Dames & Moore . The actions of the president that Dames & Moore upheld did not dictate the outcome of the case , but merely specified that the claims be handled by a different tribunal . The court 's decision in Dames & Moore was based on the " longstanding practice of settling the claims of U.S. nationals against foreign countries by treaty or executive agreement . " In contrast with the majority 's interpretation of Dames & Moore , " those dispositions , crucially , were not exercises of judicial power . " The Chief Justice critiqued the majority 's position on Dames & Moore by contending that the political branches of the government — Congress and the executive branch — have sufficient power of their own to address the issues in this case and do not need to " commandeer [ ] the courts to make a political decision look like a judicial one . " The Chief Justice concluded with a strong criticism of the majority 's decision : At issue here is a basic principle , not a technical rule . Section 8772 decides this case no less certainly than if Congress had directed entry of judgment for respondents . As a result , the potential of the decision today ' to effect important change in the equilibrium of power ' is ' immediately evident . ' Morrison v. Olson , 487 U.S. 654 , 699 ( 1988 ) ( Scalia , J. , dissenting ) Hereafter , with this Court 's seal of approval , Congress can unabashedly pick the winners and losers in particular pending cases . Today 's decision will indeed become a ' blueprint for extensive expansion of the legislative power ' at the Judiciary 's expense , Metropolitan Washington Airports Authority v. Citizens for Abatement of Aircraft Noise , Inc . , 501 U.S. 252 , 277 ( 1991 ) , feeding Congress 's tendency to ' extend [ ] the sphere of its activity and draw [ ] all power into its impetuous vortex , ' The Federalist No. 48 ... ( J. Madison ) Subsequent developments Payout to plaintiff - respondents The ruling clears the way for the plaintiff - respondents to collect from the roughly $ 1 . 75 billion bank account , which will be enough to satisfy about 70 % of their collective $ 2 . 5 billion in judgments . They will not be eligible to collect from a $ 1 billion fund — the Victims of State Sponsored Terrorism Fund — established by Congress in 2015 to pay victims of state - sponsored terrorism . That fund pays 30 % of judgments until all applicants have received that amount ; remaining funds will not be distributed until all claimants have received 30 % of their judgment . Legal community reactions Attorney and law professor Alan Morrison , writing for the The George Washington Law Review , remarked that : To a non - lawyer trying to decide who should win just on the equity , the Bank ’ s chances did not look very good , and on April 20 , 2016 , the Supreme Court ... upheld the constitutionality of § 8772 , thereby removing a major barrier to the victims collecting at least some of their judgments . Those were the atmospherics , but on the legal issues , there was substantial agreement between the two opinions , although in their conclusions they were very far apart . All of the Justices agreed that Congress could pass laws changing the existing law and make those changes generally applicable to pending cases , provided it did so clearly . They also agreed that Congress could not pass a law in a pending case that said something along the lines of , “ The Court is directed to enter judgment for the plaintiff , ” or that “ The plaintiff wins and defendant loses . ” To do so would usurp the judicial role and improperly expand that of Congress . Nor could Congress change the law in a way that re - opened a case in which there was a final judgment not subject to further appeal . There was also agreement that Congress could write laws that applied to a limited category of cases , at least in those cases in which only the Government was adversely affected by the change in the law . The issue here was where § 8772 fell on that spectrum . Morrison expressed " concern ... that what happened here will repeat itself in other circumstances in which the equities [ are ] quite different " . Although Morrison suggested that an individual aggrieved by such a law could bring a claim for relief under <unk> Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment , he argued that such a claim is unlikely to be successful because the law will likely be upheld when reviewed under the rational basis test . The rational basis test asks " there is some rational relationship between disparity of treatment and some legitimate governmental purpose . " According to Stuart <unk> , an attorney who represents terror victims , the ruling could hinder foreign governments from using the judiciary to override determinations by Congress and the President regarding the availability of their assets to satisfy judgments against them . <unk> praised the ruling as " a message for any country that if Congress and the president take steps to freeze assets , make assets available to victims , that the courts are going to defer . " U.S. reactions The decision was praised in the U.S. by the litigants , their counsel , and politicians . Theodore Olson , counsel for the respondents , praised the ruling , saying it " will bring long - overdue relief to ... victims of Iranian terrorism and their families , many of whom have waited decades for redress . " Praising the court 's decision , lead plaintiff Deborah Peterson found solace that " in the eyes of the law , we know who is responsible , and those who are responsible have been brought to the justice that we are capable of bringing them to here on earth . " Law professor Jimmy <unk> said the decision " sends a powerful message to rogue states and state sponsors of terrorism that if you , directly or indirectly , provide material support for terrorism , you will be held accountable " — sentiment echoed by Mark <unk> , director of the Foundation for Defense of Democracies — and that " hopefully , it 's also going to have a deterrent effect , or least cause Iran to think twice about supporting terrorist activity going forward . " The decision was also praised by Senator Bob Menendez , who authored § 8772 , and Speaker of the House Paul Ryan . Iranian reactions A spokesman for Iran 's Ministry of Foreign Affairs condemned the ruling as " theft " , " incompatible with international law " , " a ridicule of justice and law " and stated that Iran " totally reject [ s ] " the ruling . The Iranian Foreign Ministry summoned the Swiss ambassador to Iran , who represents U.S. interests in Iran , to receive diplomatic notes , to be forwarded to the US , protesting the ruling . A week after the decision was announced , Iranian Foreign Minister Mohammad Javad Zarif wrote a letter to Secretary - General of the United Nations Ban Ki - moon urging him to use his good offices to intervene in securing the release of frozen funds and to stop interfering with Iran 's international financial transactions . A U.S. State Department spokesman rejected Iran 's claims , stating that the State Department " believe [ s ] the U.S. laws and the application of those laws by the courts of the United States comport with international law . " Iran announced that they would file suit against the United States in the International Court of Justice ( ICJ ) for reparations if the U.S. courts begin to " plunder " assets from the Citibank account to give to the winning plaintiffs . However , the ICJ may not be able to hear the case . The U.S. withdrew its general recognition of the ICJ 's jurisdiction in response to the ICJ 's ruling in Nicaragua v. United States , but a 1955 friendship treaty between Iran and the U.S. gives the ICJ jurisdiction to rule on disputes arising from provisions of the treaty . A working group has been established in the Iranian Cabinet to investigate the ruling and determine ways of reestablishing Iran 's rights to the account . Less than a month after the Supreme Court decision , Iran 's parliament overwhelmingly approved — 181 votes for , 6 votes against , 8 abstentions — an " emergency bill " requiring the government to seek compensation from the U.S. for actions the U.S. has taken against Iran , including the 1953 Iranian coup d 'état , which the U.S. helped restore the monarch ; the <unk> coup plot in 1980 ; United States support for Iraq during the Iran – Iraq war , including compensation for over 800 , 000 Iranians who died or were injured during the conflict ; U.S. espionage in Iran ; U.S. support of Israel ; the alleged death of 17 , 000 Iranians at the hands of U.S.-supported terrorist groups ; and the confiscation of Iranian assets . The bill requires the government to take " appropriate legal action " for the violation of Iranian state immunity , including the pursuit of U.S. assets in third countries , and to provide regular updates to parliament on its actions against the US . Some Iranian officials , including the chief of the Central Bank of Iran ( CBI ) , have placed some blame for the Citibank account 's seizure on the previous administration of Mahmoud Ahmadinejad , who was president of Iran from 2005 to 2013 . The Foreign Ministry 's director for political and security affairs , Hamid <unk> , said it was " reckless " for the previous administration to have invested in U.S. securities . In a post on the CBI 's website , its chief pointed out that : " Although CBI experts and senior officials had warned against investing in dollar denominated securities , the government of president Mahmoud Ahmadinejad went ahead and purchased it , thus paving the way for the damage done to our assets . " Hamid <unk> , a senior Foreign Ministry official , criticized the former head of the CBI for investing in a " hostile country " . Impact on US - Iran relations The decision came at a delicate time for relations between Iran and Western nations , which were removing sanctions on Iran after its compliance with an agreement for curtailing development of its nuclear enrichment program . The agreement stipulated that once Iranian compliance with the terms of the agreement was verified , most sanctions against Iran would be lifted , including all sanctions imposed by the United Nations Security Council as well as nuclear - related European Union and U.S. sanctions ; U.S. sanctions against Iran for terrorism , human rights abuses , and ballistic missiles would not be affected . In mid - January 2016 , most sanctions were lifted . In March , the District Court for the Southern District of New York found , by default , that Iran had provided support to certain terrorist groups and individuals responsible for the September 11 attacks and awarded $ 10 . 5 billion in damages to the plaintiffs , which consisted of $ 3 billion to reimburse insurance companies for paid claims and $ 7 . 5 billion for victims and their families ( $ 2 million for pain and suffering and $ 6 . 88 million in punitive damages per victim ) . The same judge ruled just six months earlier that there was insufficient evidence linking Saudi Arabia — which has sour relations with Iran — to the 9 / 11 attacks to overcome , under the terrorism exemption , Saudi Arabia 's immunity under the FSIA . The Supreme Court 's decision was announced while Iran 's Foreign Minister , Mohammad Javad Zarif , was visiting the United States . The week before the decision was announced , the head of the Central Bank of Iran had visited Washington , during the spring meetings of the World Bank and International Monetary Fund , to discuss with U.S. and foreign officials problems that remained with Iranian access to international banking , despite the lifting of sanctions . Javad Zarif criticized the Bank Markazi decision and the " even more absurd " 9 / 11 decision by the New York as " the height of absurdity " . Iranian President Hassan Rouhani called the decisions " open hostility by the United States against the Iranian people . " Under the nuclear agreement , an important policy objective was to ensure that the Iranian economy benefits from suspending its nuclear weapons program . In the view of commentators Ali <unk> , a professor of international relations at the University of Isfahan , and Saam <unk> , an attorney and commentator on US - Iran relations and sanctions law , the Bank Markazi decision and the 9 / 11 case threaten to undermine the nuclear deal and American credibility in negotiations with Iran . The head of the Nuclear Committee in Iran 's parliament , Ibrahim <unk> , decried the rulings as " cooperation between the American Congress , the government and courts to steal Iranian property . "
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Croatian War of Independence The Croatian War of Independence was fought from 1991 to 1995 between Croat forces loyal to the government of Croatia — which had declared independence from the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia ( <unk> ) — and the Serb - controlled Yugoslav People 's Army ( JNA ) and local Serb forces , with the JNA ending its combat operations in Croatia by 1992 . In Croatia , the war is primarily referred to as the " Homeland War " ( <unk> rat ) and also as the " Greater - Serbian Aggression " ( <unk> <unk> ) . In Serbian sources , " War in Croatia " ( <unk> у <unk> / Rat u <unk> ) is the most commonly in use and also the " War in Krajina " ( " <unk> у <unk> / Rat u <unk> " ) . A majority of Croats wanted Croatia to leave Yugoslavia and become a sovereign country , while many ethnic Serbs living in Croatia , supported by Serbia , opposed the secession and wanted Serb - claimed lands to be in a common state with Serbia . Most Serbs effectively sought a new Serb state within a Yugoslav federation , including areas of Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina with ethnic Serb majorities or significant minorities , and attempted to conquer as much of Croatia as possible . Croatia declared independence on 25 June 1991 , but agreed to postpone it with the Brioni Agreement and cut all remaining ties with Yugoslavia on 8 October 1991 . The JNA initially tried to keep Croatia within Yugoslavia by occupying all of Croatia . After this failed , Serb forces established the self - proclaimed Republic of Serbian Krajina ( RSK ) within Croatia . After the ceasefire of January 1992 and international recognition of the Republic of Croatia as a sovereign state , the front lines were entrenched , the United Nations Protection Force ( UNPROFOR ) was deployed , and combat became largely intermittent in the following three years . During that time , the RSK encompassed 13 , 913 square kilometers ( 5 , 372 sq mi ) , more than a quarter of Croatia . In 1995 , Croatia launched two major offensives known as Operation Flash and Operation Storm , which would effectively end the war in its favor . The remaining United Nations Transitional Authority for Eastern Slavonia , Baranja and Western Sirmium ( UNTAES ) zone was peacefully reintegrated into Croatia by 1998 . The war ended with Croatian victory , as it achieved the goals it had declared at the beginning of the war : independence and preservation of its borders . 21 – 25 % of Croatia 's economy was ruined , with an estimated US $ 37 billion in damaged infrastructure , lost output , and refugee - related costs . A total of 20 , 000 people were killed in the war , and refugees were displaced on both sides . The Serb and Croatian governments began to progressively cooperate with each other but tension remains , in part due to verdicts by the ICTY and lawsuits filed by each country against the other . In 2007 , the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia ( ICTY ) returned a guilty verdict against Milan Martić , one of the Serb leaders in Croatia , for having colluded with Slobodan Milošević and others to create a " unified Serbian state " . Between 2008 and 2012 , the ICTY had prosecuted Croatian generals Ante Gotovina , Mladen Markač and Ivan Čermak for alleged involvement in the crimes related to Operation Storm . Čermak was acquitted outright , and the convictions of Gotovina and Markač were later overturned by an ICTY Appeals Panel . The International Court of Justice dismissed Croatia and Serbia genocide claims in 2015 . The Court reaffirmed that serious crimes against civilians had taken place , but ruled that specific genocidal intent was not present . Background Political changes in Yugoslavia Since the 1970s , Yugoslavia 's Communist regime became severely splintered into a liberal - <unk> nationalist faction led by Croatia and Slovenia that supported a decentralized federation to give greater autonomy to Croatia and Slovenia , versus a conservative - centralist nationalist faction led by Serbia that supported a centralized federation to secure Serbia 's and Serbs ' interests across Yugoslavia – as they were the largest ethnic group in the country as a whole . From 1967 to 1972 in Croatia and 1968 and 1981 protests in Kosovo , nationalist doctrines and actions caused ethnic tensions that destabilized Yugoslavia . The suppression by the state of nationalists is believed to have had the effect of identifying nationalism as the primary alternative to communism itself and made it a strong underground movement . A crisis emerged in Yugoslavia with the weakening of the Communist states in Eastern Europe towards the end of the Cold War , as symbolized by the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989 . In Yugoslavia , the national communist party , officially called the League of Communists of Yugoslavia , had lost its ideological potency . SR Slovenia and SR Croatia wanted to move towards decentralization . SR Serbia , headed by Slobodan Milošević , adhered to centralism and single - party rule , and in turn effectively ended the autonomy of the autonomous provinces of Kosovo and Vojvodina by March 1989 , taking command of their votes in the Yugoslav federal presidency . The nationalist ideas started to grow within the ranks of the still - ruling League of Communists , while Milošević 's speeches , notably the 1989 <unk> speech in which he talked of " battles of quarrels " , favored continuation of a unified Yugoslav state — one in which all power would continue to be centralized in Belgrade . In the fall of 1989 , the Serbian government pressured the Croatian government to allow a series of Serb nationalist rallies in the country , and the Serbian media and various Serbian intellectuals had already begun to refer to the Croatian leadership as " Ustaše " , and began to make reference to crimes committed by the Ustaše between 1941 - 45 . The rhetoric was approved by the Serbian political leadership , and accused the Croatian leadership of being " blindly nationalistic " when it objected . Having completed the anti - bureaucratic revolution in Vojvodina , Kosovo , and Montenegro , Serbia secured four out of eight federal presidency votes in 1991 , which rendered the governing body ineffective as other republics objected and called for reform of the Federation . In 1989 , political parties were allowed and a number of them had been founded , including the Croatian Democratic Union ( Croatian : Hrvatska demokratska zajednica ) ( HDZ ) , led by Franjo Tuđman , who later became the first president of Croatia . In January 1990 , the League of Communists broke up on ethnic lines , with the Croatian and Slovene factions demanding a looser federation at the 14th Extraordinary Congress . At the congress , Serbian delegates accused the Croatian and Slovene delegates of " supporting separatism , terrorism and genocide in Kosovo " . The Croatian and Slovene delegations , including most of their ethnic Serb members , eventually left in protest , after Serbian delegates rejected every proposed amendment . January 1990 also marked the beginning of court cases being brought to Yugoslavia 's Constitutional Court on the matter of secession . The first was the Slovenian Constitutional Amendments case after Slovenia claimed the right to unilateral secession pursuant to the right of self - determination . The Constitutional Court ruled that secession from the federation was only permitted if there was the unanimous agreement of Yugoslavia 's republics and autonomous provinces . The Constitutional Court noted that 1974 Constitution 's Section I of the Basic Principles of the Constitution identified that self - determination including secession " belonged to the peoples of Yugoslavia and their socialist republics " . The matter of Kosovo secession was addressed in May 1991 with the court claiming that " only the peoples of Yugoslavia " had the right to secession , Albanians were considered a minority and not a people of Yugoslavia . In February 1990 , Jovan <unk> founded the Serb Democratic Party ( SDS ) in Knin , whose program aimed to change the regional division of Croatia to be aligned with ethnic Serb interests , Prominent members of the SDS including Milan Babić and Milan Martić , later testified that Belgrade directed a propaganda campaign that portrayed the Serbs in Croatia as being threatened with genocide by the Croat majority . On 4 March 1990 , 50 , 000 Serbs rallied at Petrova Gora , and shouted negative remarks aimed at Tuđman , chanted " This is Serbia " , and expressed support for Milošević . The first free elections in Croatia and Slovenia were scheduled for a few months later . The first round of elections in Croatia were held on 22 April , and the second round on 6 May . The HDZ based its campaign on greater sovereignty ( eventually outright independence ) for Croatia , fueling a sentiment among Croats that " only the HDZ could protect Croatia from the aspirations of Milošević towards a Greater Serbia " . It topped the poll in the elections ( followed by Ivica Račan 's reformed communists , Social Democratic Party of Croatia ) and was set to form a new Croatian Government . A tense atmosphere prevailed in 1990 : on 13 May 1990 , a football game was held in Zagreb between Zagreb 's Dinamo team and Belgrade 's Red Star . The game erupted into violence between fans and police . On 30 May 1990 , the new Croatian Parliament held its first session . President Tuđman announced his manifesto for a new Constitution ( ratified at the end of the year ) and a multitude of political , economic , and social changes , notably to what extent minority rights ( mainly for Serbs ) would be guaranteed . Local Serb politicians opposed the new constitution . In 1991 , Croats represented 78 . 1 % and Serbs 12 . 2 % of the total population of Croatia , but the latter held a disproportionate number of official posts : 17 . 7 % of appointed officials in Croatia , including police , were Serbs . An even greater proportion of those posts had been held by Serbs in Croatia earlier , which created a perception that the Serbs were guardians of the communist regime . This caused discontent among the Croats despite the fact it never actually undermined their own dominance in SR Croatia . After the HDZ came to power , many Serbs employed in the public sector , especially the police , were fired and replaced by Croats . This , combined with Tuđman 's remarks , i.e. " they declare that my wife is Jewish or Serbian . Luckily for me , she never was either " , were distorted by Milošević 's media to spark fear that any form of an independent Croatia would be a new " <unk> state " . In one instance , TV Belgrade showed Tuđman shaking hands with German Chancellor Helmut Kohl ( who would be the first government leader in the world to recognise independent Croatia and Slovenia ) accusing the two of plotting " a Fourth Reich " . Civil unrest and demands for autonomy Immediately after the Slovenian parliamentary election , 1990 and the Croatian parliamentary election , 1990 in April and May 1990 , the JNA announced that the Josip Broz Tito - era doctrine of " general people 's defense " , in which each republic maintained a Territorial defense force ( Croatian : Teritorijalna obrana ) ( TO ) , would henceforth be replaced by a centrally directed system of defense . The republics would lose their role in defense matters and their TOs would be disarmed and subordinated to JNA headquarters in Belgrade , but the new Slovenian government acted quickly to retain control over the TO . On 14 May 1990 , the weapons of the TO of Croatia , in regions with Croatian majorities , were taken away by the Army , preventing the possibility of Croatia having its own weapons as was done in Slovenia . . Borisav Jović , Serbia 's representative on the Federal Presidency and a close ally of Slobodan Milošević , claimed that this action came at the behest of Serbia . According to Jović , on 27 June 1990 he and Veljko Kadijević , the Yugoslav Defence Minister , met and agreed that they should , regarding Croatia and Slovenia , " expel them forcibly from Yugoslavia , by simply drawing borders and declaring that they have brought this upon themselves through their decisions " . According to Jović , the next day he obtained the agreement of Milošević . However Kadijević who was of mixed Serb - Croat heritage had been a Yugoslav Partisan in World War II was loyal to Yugoslavia and not a Greater Serbia ; Kadijević believed that if Slovenia left Yugoslavia that the country would collapse and thus he discussed with Jović about possibly using the JNA to impose martial law in Slovenia to prevent a collapse of Yugoslavia and was willing to wage war with the secessionist republics to prevent their secession . Kadijević considered the political crisis in Yugoslavia of ethnic conflict to have been caused by the actions of foreign governments , particularly Germany that he accused of seeking to breakup Yugoslavia to allow Germany to exercise a sphere of influence in the Balkans . Kadijević regarded the Croatian government of Tuđman to be a fascist - inspired and that Serbs had the right to be protected from Croatian " armed formations " . The Serbs within Croatia did not initially seek independence before 1990 . In the 1990 elections , Serb majority municipalities in Croatia largely voted for the Communist Party of Croatia , because the Communist Party was more likely to defeat the nationalist Croatian Democratic Union , than the Serb Democratic Party was . After the election of Tuđman and the Croatian Democratic Union , a Serbian Assembly was established in Srb , north of Knin , on 25 July 1990 as the political representation of the Serbian people in Croatia . The Serbian Assembly declared " sovereignty and autonomy of the Serb people in Croatia " . In August 1990 , an unrecognized mono - ethnic referendum was held in regions with a substantial Serb population which would later become known as the RSK ( bordering western Bosnia and Herzegovina ) on the question of Serb " sovereignty and autonomy " in Croatia . This was an attempt to counter changes made to the constitution . The Croatian government sent police forces to police stations in Serb - populated areas to seize their weapons . Among other incidents , local Serbs from the southern hinterlands of Croatia , mostly around the city of Knin , blocked roads to tourist destinations in Dalmatia . This incident is known as the " Log revolution " . Years later , during Martić 's trial , Babić claimed he was tricked by Martić into agreeing to the Log Revolution , and that it and the entire war in Croatia was Martić 's responsibility , and had been orchestrated by Belgrade . The statement was corroborated by Martić in an interview published in 1991 . Babić confirmed that by July 1991 Milošević had taken over control of the Yugoslav People 's Army ( JNA ) . The Croatian government responded to the blockade of roads by sending special police teams in helicopters to the scene , but were intercepted by SFR Yugoslav Air Force fighter jets and forced to turn back to Zagreb . The Serbs felled pine trees or used bulldozers to block roads to seal off towns like Knin and Benkovac near the Adriatic coast . On 18 August 1990 , the Serbian newspaper Večernje novosti claimed almost " two million Serbs were ready to go to Croatia to fight " . On 21 December 1990 , the SAO Krajina was proclaimed by the municipalities of the regions of Northern Dalmatia and Lika , in south - western Croatia . Article 1 of the Statute of the SAO Krajina defined the SAO Krajina as " a form of territorial autonomy within the Republic of Croatia " in which the Constitution of the Republic of Croatia , state laws , and the Statute of the SAO Krajina were applied . On 22 December 1990 , the Parliament of Croatia ratified the new constitution , which was seen by Serbs as taking away rights that had been granted by the Socialist constitution . The constitution did define Croatia as " the national state of the Croatian nation and a state of members of other nations and minorities who are its citizens : Serbs ... who are guaranteed equality with citizens of Croatian nationality ... " Following Tuđman 's election and the perceived threat from the new constitution , Serb nationalists in the <unk> Krajina region began taking armed action against Croatian government officials , many of whom were forcibly expelled or excluded from the SAO Krajina . Croatian government property throughout the region was increasingly controlled by local Serb municipalities or the newly established " Serbian National Council " . This would later become the government of the breakaway Republic of Serbian Krajina ( RSK ) . After it was discovered that Martin Špegelj had pursued a campaign to acquire arms through the black market in January 1991 an ultimatum was issued requesting disarming and disbanding of Croatian military forces considered illegal by the Yugoslav authorities . Croatian authorities refused to comply , and the Yugoslav army withdrew the ultimatum six days after it was issued . On 12 March 1991 , the leadership of the Army met with the Presidency of the <unk> in an attempt to convince them to declare a state of emergency which would allow for the army to take control of the country . Yugoslav army chief Veljko Kadijević declared that there was a conspiracy to destroy the country , saying : " An insidious plan has been drawn up to destroy Yugoslavia . Stage one is civil war . Stage two is foreign intervention . Then puppet regimes will be set up throughout Yugoslavia . " Veljko Kadijević , 12 March 1991 . <unk> claims that Kadijević and the Army in March 1991 supported a coup d 'etat as a way out of the crisis but then changed their minds four days later . Kadijević 's response to this was that " Jović is lying " . Kadijević claims that a March 1991 meeting two days after the huge protests organized by Vuk Drašković on the streets of Belgrade in Jović 's office to which Kadijević had been invited by Milošević where , according to Kadijević , Milošević requested that the army take control of the country through a military coup . Kadijević 's apparent response was informing Milošević that he could not make such a decision by himself , and that he 'd discuss the request with army leaders and later inform Jović 's office about their decision . Kadijević then said that their decision was against the putsch and that he informed Jović 's office in written form about it . Jović for his part , claims that such document doesn 't exist . Ante Marković has described that after the Presidency meeting failed to achieve the results the Army wanted that Kadijević met with him with the proposed coup d 'etat against the secessionist republics . During the meeting Marković responded to Kadijević by saying that the plan failed to arrest Milošević . Kadijević replied " He is only one fighting for Yugoslavia . Without him , we could not be proposing this . " Marković rejected the plan and afterwards communication between Kadijević and Marković broke down . Military forces Serb and Yugoslav People 's Army forces The JNA was initially formed during World War II to carry out guerrilla warfare against occupying Axis forces . The success of the Partisan movement led to the JNA basing much of its operational strategy on guerrilla warfare , as its plans normally entailed defending against NATO or Warsaw Pact attacks , where other types of warfare would put the JNA in a comparatively poor position . That approach led to maintenance of a Territorial Defense system . On paper , the JNA seemed a powerful force , with 2 , 000 tanks and 300 jet aircraft ( all either Soviet or locally produced ) . However , by 1991 , the majority of this equipment was 30 years old , as the force consisted primarily of T - 54 / 55 tanks and MiG - 21 aircraft . Still , the JNA operated around 300 M - 84 tanks ( a Yugoslav version of the Soviet T - 72 ) and a sizable fleet of ground - attack aircraft , such as the Soko G - 4 Super Galeb and the Soko J - 22 Orao , whose armament included AGM - 65 Maverick guided missiles . By contrast , more modern cheap anti - tank missiles ( like the AT - 5 ) and anti - aircraft missiles ( like the SA - 14 ) were abundant and were designed to destroy much more advanced weaponry . Before the war the JNA had 169 , 000 regular troops , including 70 , 000 professional officers . The fighting in Slovenia brought about a great number of desertions , and the army responded by mobilizing Serbian reserve troops . Approximately 100 , 000 evaded the draft , and the new conscripts proved an ineffective fighting force . The JNA resorted to reliance on irregular militias . Paramilitary units like the White Eagles , Serbian Guard , Dušan Silni , and Serb Volunteer Guard , which committed a number of massacres against Croat and other non - Serbs civilians , were increasingly used by the Yugoslav and Serb forces . There were also foreign fighters supporting the RSK , mostly from Russia . With the retreat of the JNA forces in 1992 , JNA units were reorganized as the Army of Serb Krajina , which was a direct heir to the JNA organization , with little improvement . By 1991 , the JNA officer corps was dominated by Serbs and Montenegrins ; they were overrepresented in Yugoslav federal institutions , especially the army . 57 . 1 % of JNA officers were Serbs , while Serbs formed 36 . 3 % of the population of Yugoslavia . A similar structure was observed as early as 1981 . Even though the two people combined comprised 38 . 8 % of the population of Yugoslavia , 70 % of all JNA officers and non - commissioned officers were either Serbs or Montenegrins . In 1991 , the JNA was instructed to " completely eliminate Croats and Slovenes from the army . " Croatian forces The Croatian military was in a much worse state than that of the Serbs . In the early stages of the war , lack of military units meant that the Croatian Police force would take the brunt of the fighting . The Croatian National Guard ( Croatian : Zbor narodne garde ) , the new Croatian military , was formed on 11 April 1991 , and gradually developed into the Croatian Army ( Croatian : Hrvatska vojska ) by 1993 . Weaponry was in short supply , and many units were either unarmed or were equipped with obsolete World War II - era rifles . The Croatian Army had only a handful of tanks , including World War II - surplus vehicles such as the T - 34 , and its air force was in an even worse state , consisting of only a few Antonov An - 2 biplane crop - dusters that had been converted to drop makeshift bombs . In August 1991 , the Croatian Army had fewer than 20 brigades . After general mobilization was instituted in October , the size of the army grew to 60 brigades and 37 independent battalions by the end of the year . In 1991 and 1992 , Croatia was also supported by 456 foreign fighters , including British ( 139 ) , French ( 69 ) , and German ( 55 ) . The seizure of the JNA 's barracks between September and December helped to alleviate the Croatians ' equipment shortage . By 1995 , the balance of power had shifted significantly . Serb forces in Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina were capable of fielding an estimated 130 , 000 troops ; the Croatian Army , Croatian Defence Council ( Croatian : Hrvatsko vijeće obrane ) ( HVO ) , and the Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina could field a combined force of 250 , 000 soldiers and 570 tanks . Course of the war 1991 : Open hostilities begin First armed incidents Ethnic hatred grew as various incidents fueled the propaganda machines on both sides . During his testimony before the ICTY , one of the top - Krajina leaders , Milan Martić , stated that the Serb side started using force first . The conflict escalated into armed incidents in the majority - Serb populated areas . The Serbs attacked Croatian police units in Pakrac in early March , while one Josip Jović is widely reported as the first police officer killed by Serb forces as part of the war , during the Plitvice Lakes incident in late March 1991 . In March and April 1991 , Serbs in Croatia began to make moves to secede from that territory . It is a matter of debate to what extent this move was locally motivated and to what degree the Milošević - led Serbian government was involved . In any event , the SAO Krajina was declared , which consisted of any Croatian territory with a substantial Serb population . The Croatian government viewed this move as a rebellion . More than 20 people were killed by the end of April . From the beginning of the Log Revolution and the end of April 1991 , nearly 200 incidents involving the use of explosive devices and 89 attacks on the Croatian police were recorded . The Croatian Ministry of the Interior started arming an increasing number of special police forces , and this led to the building of a real army . On 9 April 1991 , Croatian President Tuđman ordered the special police forces to be renamed Zbor Narodne Garde ( " National Guard " ) ; this marks the creation of a separate military of Croatia . Significant clashes from this period included the siege of Kijevo , where over a thousand people were besieged in the inner Dalmatian village of Kijevo , and the Borovo Selo killings , where Croatian policemen engaged Serb paramilitaries in the eastern Slavonian village of Borovo and suffered twelve casualties . Violence gripped eastern Slavonian villages : in Tovarnik , a Croat policeman was killed by Serb paramilitaries on 2 May , while in <unk> , a Serb civilian was killed on 5 May when he was caught in a crossfire between Serb and Croat paramilitaries . On 6 May , the 1991 protest in Split against the siege of Kijevo at the Navy Command in Split resulted in the death of a Yugoslav People 's Army soldier . On 15 May , Stjepan Mesić , a Croat , was scheduled to be the chairman of the rotating presidency of Yugoslavia . Serbia , aided by Kosovo , Montenegro , and Vojvodina , whose presidency votes were at that time under Serbian control , blocked the appointment , which was otherwise seen as largely ceremonial . This maneuver technically left Yugoslavia without a head of state and without a commander - in - chief . Two days later , a repeated attempt to vote on the issue failed . Ante Marković , prime minister of Yugoslavia at the time , proposed appointing a panel which would wield presidential powers . It was not immediately clear who the panel members would be , apart from defense minister Veljko Kadijević , nor who would fill position of JNA commander - in - chief . The move was quickly rejected by Croatia as unconstitutional . The crisis was resolved after a six - week stalemate , and Mesić was elected president — the first non - communist to become Yugoslav head of state in decades . Throughout this period , the federal army , the JNA , and the local Territorial Defense Forces continued to be led by Federal authorities controlled by Milošević . Helsinki Watch reported that Serb Krajina authorities executed Serbs who were willing to reach an accommodation with Croat officials . Declaration of independence On 19 May 1991 , the Croatian authorities held a referendum on independence with the option of remaining in Yugoslavia as a looser union . Serb local authorities issued calls for a boycott , which were largely followed by Croatian Serbs . The referendum passed with 94 % in favor . The newly constituted Croatian military units held a military parade and review at Stadion Kranjčevićeva in Zagreb on 28 May 1991 . The parliament of Croatia declared Croatia 's independence and dissolved its association with Yugoslavia on 25 June 1991 . The Croatian parliament 's decision was partially boycotted by left - wing parliament deputies . The European Community and the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe urged Croatian authorities to place a three - month moratorium on the decision . The government of Yugoslavia responded to the declarations of independence of Croatia and Slovenia with Yugoslav Prime Minister Ante Marković declaring the secessions to be illegal and contrary to the Constitution of Yugoslavia , and supported the JNA taking action to secure the integral unity of Yugoslavia . In June and July 1991 , the short armed conflict in Slovenia came to a speedy end , partly because of the ethnic homogeneity of the population of Slovenia . It was later revealed that a military strike against Slovenia , followed by a planned withdrawal , was conceived by Slobodan Milošević and Borisav Jović , then president of the SFR Yugoslavia presidency . Jović published his diary containing the information and repeated it in his testimony at the Milošević trial at the ICTY . Croatia agreed to the Brioni Agreement that involved freezing its independence declaration for three months , which eased tensions a little . Escalation of the conflict In July , in an attempt to salvage what remained of Yugoslavia , the JNA forces were involved in operations against predominantly Croat areas . In July the Serb - led Territorial Defence Forces started their advance on Dalmatian coastal areas in Operation Coast - 91 . By early August , large areas of Banovina were overrun by Serb forces . With the start of military operations in Croatia , Croats and a number of Serbian conscripts started to desert the JNA en masse , similar to what had happened in Slovenia . Albanians and Macedonians started to search for a way to legally leave the JNA or serve their conscription term in Macedonia ; these moves further homogenized the ethnic composition of JNA troops in or near Croatia . One month after Croatia declared its independence , the Yugoslav army and other Serb forces held something less than one - third of the Croatian territory , mostly in areas with a predominantly ethnic Serb population . The JNA military strategy partly consisted of extensive shelling , at times irrespective of the presence of civilians . As the war progressed , the cities of Dubrovnik , Gospić , Šibenik , Zadar , Karlovac , Sisak , Slavonski Brod , Osijek , Vinkovci , and Vukovar all came under attack by Yugoslav forces . The United Nations ( UN ) imposed a weapons embargo ; this did not affect JNA - backed Serb forces significantly , as they had the JNA arsenal at their disposal , but it caused serious trouble for the newly formed Croatian army . The Croatian government started smuggling weapons over its borders . In August 1991 , the Battle of Vukovar began . Eastern Slavonia was gravely impacted throughout this period , starting with the Dalj massacre of August 1991 ; fronts developed around Osijek and Vinkovci in parallel to the encirclement of Vukovar . In September , Serbian troops completely surrounded the city of Vukovar . Croatian troops , including the 204th Vukovar Brigade , entrenched themselves within the city and held their ground against elite armored and mechanized brigades of the JNA , as well as Serb paramilitary units . Vukovar was almost completely devastated ; 15 , 000 houses were destroyed . Some ethnic Croatian civilians had taken shelter inside the city . Other members of the civilian population fled the area en masse . Death toll estimates for Vukovar as a result of the siege range from 1 , 798 to 5 , 000 . A further 22 , 000 were exiled from Vukovar immediately after the town was captured . Some estimates include 220 , 000 Croats and 300 , 000 Serbs internally displaced for the duration of the war in Croatia . In many areas , large numbers of civilians were forced out by the military . It was at this time that the term ethnic cleansing — the meaning of which ranged from eviction to murder — first entered the English lexicon . On October 3 , the Yugoslav Navy renewed its blockade of the main ports of Croatia . This move followed months of standoff for JNA positions in Dalmatia and elsewhere now known as the Battle of the barracks . It also coincided with the end of Operation Coast - 91 , in which the JNA failed to occupy the coastline in an attempt to cut off Dalmatia 's access to the rest of Croatia . On October 5 , President Tuđman made a speech in which he called upon the whole population to mobilize and defend against " Greater Serbian imperialism " pursued by the Serb - led JNA , Serbian paramilitary formations , and rebel Serb forces . On 7 October , the Yugoslav air force attacked the main government building in Zagreb , an incident referred to as the bombing of Banski dvori . The next day , as a previously agreed three - month moratorium on implementation of the declaration of independence expired , the Croatian Parliament severed all remaining ties with Yugoslavia . 8 October is now celebrated as Independence Day in Croatia . The bombing of the government offices and the Siege of Dubrovnik that started in October were contributing factors that led to European Union ( EU ) sanctions against Serbia . After the capture of Cavtat by the JNA , on 15 October local Serbs led by Aco <unk> proclaimed the Dubrovnik Republic . The international media focused on the damage to Dubrovnik 's cultural heritage ; concerns about civilian casualties and pivotal battles such as the one in Vukovar were pushed out of public view . Nonetheless , artillery attacks on Dubrovnik damaged 56 % of its buildings to some degree , as the historic walled city , a UNESCO World Heritage Site , sustained 650 hits by artillery rounds . Peak of the war In response to the 5th JNA Corps advance across the Sava River towards Pakrac and further north into western Slavonia , the Croatian army began a successful counterattack in early November 1991 , its first major offensive operation of the war . Operation Otkos 10 ( 31 October to 4 November ) resulted in Croatia recapturing an area between the Bilogora and Papuk mountains . The Croatian Army recaptured approximately 270 square kilometers ( 100 sq mi ) of territory in this operation . The Vukovar massacre took place in November ; the survivors were transported to prison camps such as Ovčara and Velepromet , with the majority ending up in Sremska Mitrovica prison camp . The sustained siege of Vukovar attracted heavy international media attention . Many international journalists were in or near Vukovar , as was UN peace mediator Cyrus Vance , who had been Secretary of State to former US President Carter . Also in eastern Slavonia , the Lovas massacre occurred in October and the Erdut massacre in November 1991 , before and after the fall of Vukovar . At the same time , the Škabrnja massacre occurred in the northern Dalmatian hinterland ; it was largely overshadowed by the events at Vukovar . On 14 November , the Navy blockade of Dalmatian ports was challenged by civilian ships . The confrontation culminated in the Battle of the Dalmatian channels , when Croatian coastal and island based artillery damaged , sank , or captured a number of Yugoslav navy vessels , including Mukos PČ 176 , later rechristened PB 62 Šolta . After the battle , the Yugoslav naval operations were effectively limited to the southern Adriatic . Croatian forces made further advances in the second half of December , including Operation Orkan 91 . In the course of Orkan ' 91 , the Croatian army recaptured approximately 1 , 440 square kilometers ( 560 sq mi ) of territory . The end of the operation marked the end of a six - month - long phase of intense fighting ; 10 , 000 people had died , hundreds of thousands had fled , and tens of thousands of homes had been destroyed . On December 19 , as the intensity of the fighting increased , Croatia won its first diplomatic recognition by a western nation — Iceland — while the Serbian Autonomous Oblasts in Krajina and western Slavonia officially declared themselves the Republic of Serbian Krajina . Four days later , Germany recognized Croatian independence . On December 26 , 1991 , the Serb - dominated federal presidency announced plans for a smaller Yugoslavia that could include the territory captured from Croatia during the war . However , on December 21 , 1991 for the first time in the war Istria was under attack . The Serbian Forces attacked the airport near the city of Vrsar , situated in the south - western of the peninsula between the city of Poreč and Rovinj , with two MiG - 21 and two Galeb G - 2 . Afterwards , Yugoslav airplanes carpet bombed Vrsar 's " <unk> " airport , resulting in two deaths . <unk> by foreign diplomats , ceasefires were frequently signed and frequently broken . Croatia lost much territory , but expanded the Croatian Army from the seven brigades it had at the time of the first ceasefire to 60 brigades and 37 independent battalions by December 31 , 1991 . The Arbitration Commission of the Peace Conference on Yugoslavia , also referred to as Badinter Arbitration Committee , was set up by the Council of Ministers of the European Economic Community ( EEC ) on August 27 , 1991 , to provide the Conference on Yugoslavia with legal advice . The five - member Commission consisted of presidents of Constitutional Courts in the EEC . Starting in late November 1991 , the committee rendered ten opinions . The Commission stated , among other things , that SFR Yugoslavia was in the process of dissolution and that the internal boundaries of Yugoslav republics may not be altered unless freely agreed upon . Factors in Croatia 's preservation of its pre - war borders were the Yugoslav Federal Constitution Amendments of 1971 , and the Yugoslav Federal Constitution of 1974 . The 1971 amendments introduced a concept that sovereign rights were exercised by the federal units , and that the federation had only the authority specifically transferred to it by the constitution . The 1974 Constitution confirmed and strengthened the principles introduced in 1971 . The borders had been defined by demarcation commissions in 1947 , pursuant to decisions of AVNOJ in 1943 and 1945 regarding the federal organization of Yugoslavia . 1992 : Ceasefire A new UN - sponsored ceasefire , the fifteenth one in just six months , was agreed on January 2 , 1992 , and came into force the next day . This so - called Sarajevo Agreement became a lasting ceasefire . Croatia was officially recognized by the European Community on January 15 , 1992 . Even though the JNA began to withdraw from Croatia , including Krajina , the RSK clearly retained the upper hand in the occupied territories due to support from Serbia . By that time , the RSK encompassed 13 , 913 square kilometers ( 5 , 372 sq mi ) of territory . The area size did not encompass another 680 square kilometers ( 260 sq mi ) of occupied territory near Dubrovnik , as that area was not considered part of the RSK . Ending the series of unsuccessful ceasefires , the UN deployed a protection force in Serbian - held Croatia — the United Nations Protection Force ( UNPROFOR ) — to supervise and maintain the agreement . The UNPROFOR was officially created by UN Security Council Resolution 743 on February 21 , 1992 . The warring parties mostly moved to entrenched positions , and the JNA soon retreated from Croatia into Bosnia and Herzegovina , where a new conflict was anticipated . Croatia became a member of the UN on May 22 , 1992 , which was conditional upon Croatia amending its constitution to protect the human rights of minority groups and dissidents . <unk> of the non - Serb civilian population remaining in the occupied territories continued despite the presence of the UNPROFOR peacekeeping troops , and in some cases , with UN troops being virtually enlisted as accomplices . The Yugoslav People 's Army took thousands of prisoners during the war in Croatia , and interned them in camps in Serbia , Bosnia and Herzegovina , and Montenegro . The Croatian forces also captured some Serbian prisoners , and the two sides agreed to several prisoner exchanges ; most prisoners were freed by the end of 1992 . Some infamous prisons included the Sremska Mitrovica camp , the Stajićevo camp , and the Begejci camp in Serbia , and the Morinj camp in Montenegro . The Croatian Army also established detention camps , such as the Lora prison camp in Split . Armed conflict in Croatia continued intermittently on a smaller scale . There were several smaller operations undertaken by Croatian forces to relieve the siege of Dubrovnik , and other Croatian cities ( Šibenik , Zadar and Gospić ) from Krajina forces . Battles included the Miljevci plateau incident ( between Krka and Drniš ) , on June 21 – 22 , 1992 , Operation Jaguar at Križ Hill near <unk> and Zadar , on May 22 , 1992 , and a series of military actions in the Dubrovnik hinterland : Operation Tigar , on 1 – 13 July 1992 , in Konavle , on 20 – 24 September 1992 , and at Vlaštica on September 22 – 25 , 1992 . Combat near Dubrovnik was followed by the withdrawal of JNA from Konavle , between September 30 and October 20 , 1992 . The Prevlaka peninsula guarding entrance to the Bay of Kotor was demilitarized and turned over to the UNPROFOR , while the remainder of Konavle was restored to the Croatian authorities . 1993 : Croatian military advances Fighting was renewed at the beginning of 1993 , as the Croatian army launched Operation Maslenica , an offensive operation in the Zadar area on January 22 . The objective of the attack was to improve the strategic situation in that area , as it targeted the city airport and the Maslenica Bridge , the last entirely overland link between Zagreb and the city of Zadar until the bridge area was captured in September 1991 . The attack proved successful as it met its declared objectives , but at a high cost , as 114 Croat and 490 Serb soldiers were killed in a relatively limited theater of operations . While Operation Maslenica was in progress , Croatian forces attacked Serb positions 130 kilometers ( 81 mi ) to the east . They advanced towards the <unk> Hydroelectric Dam and captured it by January 28 , 1993 , shortly after Serb militiamen chased away the UN peacekeepers protecting the dam . UN forces had been present at the site since the summer of 1992 . They discovered that the Serbs had planted 35 to 37 tons of explosives spread over seven different sites on the dam in a way that prevented the explosives ' removal ; the charges were left in place . Retreating Serb forces detonated three of explosive charges totaling 5 tons within the 65 - meter ( 213 ft ) high dam in an attempt to cause it to fail and flood the area downstream . The disaster was prevented by Mark Nicholas Gray , a colonel in the British Royal Marines , a lieutenant at the time , who was a UN military observer at the site . He risked being disciplined for acting beyond his authority by lowering the reservoir level , which held 0 . 54 cubic kilometers ( 0 . 13 cu mi ) of water , before the dam was blown up . His action saved the lives of 20 , 000 people who would otherwise have drowned or become homeless . Operation Medak Pocket took place in a salient south of Gospić , from September 9 – 17 . The offensive was undertaken by the Croatian army to stop Serbian artillery in the area from shelling nearby Gospić . The operation met its stated objective of removing the artillery threat , as Croatian troops overran the salient , but it was marred by war crimes . The ICTY later indicted Croatian officers for war crimes . The operation was halted amid international pressure , and an agreement was reached that the Croatian troops were to withdraw to positions held prior to September 9 , while UN troops were to occupy the salient alone . The events that followed remain controversial , as Canadian authorities reported that the Croatian army intermittently fought against the advancing Canadian Princess Patricia 's Canadian Light Infantry before finally retreating after sustaining 27 fatalities . The Croatian ministry of defense and UN officer 's testimonies given during the Ademi - Norac trial deny that the battle occurred . On February 18 , 1993 , Croatian authorities signed the Daruvar Agreement with local Serb leaders in Western Slavonia . The aim of the secret agreement was normalizing life for local populations near the frontline . However , authorities in Knin learned of this and arrested the Serb leaders responsible . In June 1993 , Serbs began voting in a referendum on merging Krajina territory with Republika Srpska . Milan Martić , acting as the RSK interior minister , advocated a merger of the " two Serbian states as the first stage in the establishment of a state of all Serbs " in his April 3 letter to the Assembly of the Republika Srpska . On January 21 , 1994 , Martić stated that he would " speed up the process of unification and pass on the baton to all Serbian leader Slobodan Milošević " if elected president of the RSK . " These intentions were countered by the United Nations Security Council ( UNSC ) Resolution 871 in October 1993 , when the UNSC affirmed for the first time that the United Nations Protected Areas , i.e. the RSK held areas , were an integral part of the Republic of Croatia . During 1992 and 1993 , an estimated 225 , 000 Croats , as well as refugees from Bosnia and Herzegovina and Serbia , settled in Croatia . Croatian volunteers and some conscripted soldiers participated in the war in Bosnia and Herzegovina . In September 1992 , Croatia had accepted 335 , 985 refugees from Bosnia and Herzegovina , most of whom were Bosniak civilians ( excluding men of drafting age ) . The large number of refugees significantly strained the Croatian economy and infrastructure . The American Ambassador to Croatia , Peter Galbraith , tried to put the number of Muslim refugees in Croatia into a proper perspective in an interview on 8 November 1993 . He said the situation would be the equivalent of the United States taking in 30 , 000 , 000 refugees . 1994 : Erosion of support for Krajina In 1992 , the Croat - Bosniak conflict erupted in Bosnia and Herzegovina , just as each was fighting with the Bosnian Serbs . The war was originally fought between the Croatian Defence Council and Croatian volunteer troops on one side and the Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina ( ARBiH ) on the other , but by 1994 , the Croatian Army had an estimated 3 , 000 to 5 , 000 troops involved in the fighting . Under pressure from the United States , the belligerents agreed on a truce in late February , followed by a meeting of Croatian , Bosnian , and Bosnian Croat representatives with US Secretary of State Warren Christopher in Washington , D.C. on February 26 , 1994 . On March 4 , Franjo Tuđman endorsed the agreement providing for the creation of Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and an alliance between Bosnian and Croatian armies against the Serb forces . This led to the dismantling of Herzeg - Bosnia and reduced the number of warring factions in Bosnia and Herzegovina from three to two . In late 1994 , the Croatian Army intervened several times in Bosnia : from November 1 – 3 , in Operation Cincar near Kupres , and on November 29 – December 24 in the Winter ' 94 operation near Dinara and Livno . These operations were undertaken to detract from the siege of the Bihać region and to approach the RSK capital of Knin from the north , isolating it on three sides . During this time , unsuccessful negotiations mediated by the UN were under way between the Croatian and RSK governments . The matters under discussion included opening the Serb - occupied part of the Zagreb – Slavonski Brod motorway near Okučani to transit traffic , as well as the putative status of Serbian - majority areas within Croatia . The motorway initially reopened at the end of 1994 , but it was soon closed again due to security issues . Repeated failures to resolve the two disputes would serve as triggers for major Croatian offensives in 1995 . At the same time , the Krajina army continued the Siege of Bihać , together with the Army of Republika Srpska from Bosnia . Michael Williams , an official of the UN peacekeeping force , said that when the village of <unk> Polje west of Bihać had fallen to a RSK unit in late November 1994 , the siege entered the final stage . He added that heavy tank and artillery fire against the town of Velika Kladuša in the north of the Bihać enclave was coming from the RSK . Western military analysts said that among the array of Serbian surface - to - air missile systems that surround the Bihać pocket on Croatian territory , there was a modern SAM - 2 system probably brought there from Belgrade . In response to the situation , the Security Council passed Resolution 958 , which allowed NATO aircraft deployed as a part of the Operation Deny Flight to operate in Croatia . On November 21 , NATO attacked the Udbina airfield controlled by the RSK , temporarily disabling runways . Following the Udbina strike , NATO continued to launch strikes in the area , and on November 23 , after a NATO reconnaissance plane was illuminated by the radar of a surface - to - air missile ( SAM ) system , NATO planes attacked a SAM site near Dvor with AGM - 88 HARM anti - radiation missiles . In later campaigns , the Croatian army would pursue a variant of blitzkrieg tactics , with the Guard brigades punching through the enemy lines while the other units simply held the lines at other points and completed an encirclement of the enemy units . In a further attempt to bolster its armed forces , Croatia hired Military Professional Resources Inc . ( MPRI ) in September 1994 to train some of its officers and NCOs . Begun in January 1995 , MPRI 's assignment involved fifteen advisors who taught basic officer leadership skills and training management . MPRI activities were reviewed in advance by the US State Department to ensure they did not involve tactical training or violate the UN arms embargo still in place . 1995 : End of the war Tensions were renewed at the beginning of 1995 as Croatia sought to put increasing pressure on the RSK . In a five - page letter on 12 January Franjo Tuđman formally told the UN Secretary General Boutros Boutros - Ghali that Croatia was ending the agreement permitting the stationing of UNPROFOR in Croatia , effective 31 March . The move was purportedly motivated by actions by Serbia and the Serb - dominated Federal Republic of Yugoslavia to provide assistance to the Serb occupation of Croatia and allegedly integrate the occupied areas into Yugoslav territory . The situation was noted and addressed by the UN General Assembly . " ... regarding the situation in Croatia , and to respect strictly its territorial integrity , and in this regard concludes that their activities aimed at achieving the integration of the occupied territories of Croatia into the administrative , military , educational , transportation and communication systems of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia ( Serbia and Montenegro ) are illegal , null and void , and must cease immediately . " International peacemaking efforts continued , and a new peace plan called the Z - 4 plan was presented to Croatian and Krajina authorities . There was no initial Croatian response , and the Serbs flatly refused the proposal . As the deadline for UNPROFOR to pull out neared , a new UN peacekeeping mission was proposed with an increased mandate to patrol Croatia 's internationally recognized borders . Initially the Serbs opposed the move , and tanks were moved from Serbia into eastern Croatia . A settlement was finally reached , and the new UN peacekeeping mission was approved by United Nations Security Council Resolution 981 on March 31 . The name of the mission was the subject of a last - minute dispute , as Croatian Foreign Minister Mate Granić insisted that the word Croatia be added to the force 's name . The name United Nations Confidence Restoration Operation in Croatia ( UNCRO ) was approved . Violence erupted again in early May 1995 . The RSK lost support from the Serbian government in Belgrade , partly as a result of international pressure . At the same time , the Croatian Operation Flash reclaimed all of the previously occupied territory in Western Slavonia . In retaliation , Serb forces attacked Zagreb with rockets , killing 7 and wounding over 200 civilians . The Yugoslav army responded to the offensive with a show of force , moving tanks towards the Croatian border , in an apparent effort to stave off a possible attack on the occupied area in Eastern Slavonia . During the following months , international efforts mainly concerned the largely unsuccessful United Nations Safe Areas set up in Bosnia and Herzegovina and trying to set up a more lasting ceasefire in Croatia . The two issues virtually merged by July 1995 when a number of the safe areas in eastern Bosnia and Herzegovina were overrun and one in Bihać was threatened . In 1994 , Croatia had already signaled that it would not allow Bihać to be captured , and a new confidence in the Croatian military 's ability to recapture occupied areas brought about a demand from Croatian authorities that no further ceasefires were to be negotiated ; the occupied territories would be re - integrated into Croatia . These developments and the Washington Agreement , a ceasefire signed in the Bosnian theater , led to another meeting of presidents of Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina on 22 July , when the Split Agreement was adopted . In it , Bosnia and Herzegovina invited Croatia to provide military and other assistance , particularly in the Bihać area . Croatia accepted , committing itself to an armed intervention . From 25 – 30 July , the Croatian Army and Croatian Defence Council ( HVO ) troops attacked Serb - held territory north of Mount Dinara , capturing Bosansko Grahovo and Glamoč during Operation Summer ' 95 . That offensive paved the way for the military recapture of occupied territory around Knin , as it severed the last efficient resupply route between Banja Luka and Knin . On 4 August , Croatia started Operation Storm , with the aim of recapturing almost all of the occupied territory in Croatia , except for a comparatively small strip of land , located along the Danube , at a considerable distance from the bulk of the contested land . The offensive , involving 100 , 000 Croatian soldiers , was the largest single land battle fought in Europe since World War II . Operation Storm achieved its goals and was declared completed on 8 August . Many of the civilian population of the occupied areas fled during the offensive or immediately after its completion , in what was later described in various terms ranging from expulsion to planned evacuation . Krajina Serb sources ( Documents of HQ of Civilian Protection of RSK , Supreme Council of Defense published by Kovačević , <unk> , and <unk> ) confirm that the evacuation of Serbs was organized and planned beforehand . According to Amnesty International , the operation led to the ethnic cleansing of up to 200 , 000 Croatian Serbs , the murder and torture of Serbs — both soldiers and civilians — as well as the plunder of Serb civilian property . The ICTY , on the other hand , concluded that only about 20 , 000 people were deported . The BBC noted 200 , 000 Serb refugees at one point . Croatian refugees exiled in 1991 were finally allowed to return to their homes . In 1996 alone , about 85 , 000 displaced Croats returned to the former Krajina and western Slavonia , according to the estimates of the U.S. Committee for Refugees and Immigrants . In the months that followed , there were still some intermittent , mainly artillery , attacks from Serb - held areas in Bosnia and Herzegovina on the Dubrovnik area and elsewhere . The remaining Serb - held area in Croatia , in Eastern Slavonia , was faced with the possibility of military confrontation with Croatia . Such a possibility was repeatedly stated by Tuđman after Storm . The threat was underlined by the movement of troops to the region in mid - October , as well as a repeat of an earlier threat to intervene militarily — specifically saying that the Croatian Army could intervene if no peace agreement was reached by the end of the month . Reintegration of Eastern Slavonia Further combat was averted on 12 November when the Erdut Agreement was signed by the RSK acting defense minister Milan Milanović , on instructions received from Slobodan Milošević and Federal Republic of Yugoslavia officials . The agreement stated that the remaining occupied area was to be returned to Croatia , with a two - year transitional period . The new UN mission was established as the United Nations Transitional Authority for Eastern Slavonia , Baranja and Western Sirmium ( UNTAES ) by United Nations Security Council Resolution 1037 of 15 January 1996 . The agreement guarantees also right of establishment of Joint Council of Municipalities for local Serbian community . The transitional period was subsequently extended by a year . On 15 January 1998 , the UNTAES mandate ended and Croatia regained full control of the area . As the UNTAES replaced the UNCRO mission , Prevlaka peninsula , previously under UNCRO control , was put under control of United Nations Mission of Observers in Prevlaka ( UNMOP ) . The UNMOP was established by United Nations Security Council Resolution 1038 of 15 January 1996 , and terminated on 15 December 2002 . Impact and aftermath Assessment of type and name of the war Though the standard term applied to the war as directly translated from the Croatian language is Homeland war ( Croatian : <unk> rat ) , the Croatian War of Independence gradually became the standard term for the war . Early English language sources also called it the War in Croatia , the Serbo - Croatian War , and the Conflict in Yugoslavia . Different translations of the Croatian name for the war are also sometimes used , such as Patriotic War , although such use by native speakers of English is rare . The official term used in the Croatian language is the most widespread name used in Croatia but other terms are also used . Another is Greater - Serbian Aggression ( Croatian : <unk> <unk> ) . The term was widely used by the media during the war , and is still sometimes used by the Croatian media , politicians and others . Two conflicting views exist as to whether the war was a civil or an international war . The prevailing view in Serbia is that there were two civil wars in the area : one between Croats and Serbs living in Croatia , and another between SFR Yugoslavia and Croatia , a part of the federation . The prevailing view in Croatia and of most international law experts , including both international courts ICTY and ICJ , is that the war was an international conflict , a war of aggression waged by the rump Yugoslavia and Serbia against Croatia , supported by Serbs in Croatia . Neither Croatia nor Yugoslavia ever formally declared war on each other . Unlike the Serbian position that the conflict need not be declared as it was a civil war , the Croatian motivation for not declaring war was that Tuđman believed that Croatia could not confront the JNA directly and did everything to avoid an all - out war . All acts and omissions charged as Grave Breaches of the Geneva Conventions of 1949 occurred during the international armed conflict and partial occupation of Croatia . ... Displaced persons were not allowed to return to their homes and those few Croats and other non - Serbs who had remained in the Serb - occupied areas were expelled in the following months . The territory of the RSK remained under Serb occupation until large portions of it were retaken by Croatian forces in two operations in 1995 . The remaining area of Serb control in Eastern Slavonia was peacefully re - integrated into Croatia in 1998 . Casualties and refugees Most sources place the total number of deaths from the war at around 20 , 000 . According to the head of the Croatian Commission for Missing Persons , Colonel Ivan Grujić , Croatia suffered 12 , 000 killed or missing , including 6 , 788 soldiers and 4 , 508 civilians . Official figures from 1996 also list 35 , 000 wounded . Goldstein mentions 13 , 583 killed or missing , while Anglo - Croatian historian Marko Attila Hoare reports the number to be 15 , 970 . Close to 2 , 400 persons were reported missing during the war . As of 2010 , the Croatian government was seeking information on 1 , 997 persons missing since the war . As of 2009 , there were more than 52 , 000 persons in Croatia registered as disabled due to their participation in the war . This figure includes not only those disabled physically due to wounds or injuries sustained but also persons whose health deteriorated due to their involvement in the war , including diagnoses of chronic diseases such as diabetes and cardiovascular disease , as well as posttraumatic stress disorder ( PTSD ) . In 2010 , the number of war - related PTSD - diagnosed persons was 32 , 000 . In total , the war caused 500 , 000 refugees and displaced persons . Around 196 , 000 to 247 , 000 ( in 1993 ) Croats and other non - Serbs were displaced during the war from or around the RSK . The Organization for Security and Co - operation in Europe ( OSCE ) said that 221 , 000 were displaced in 2006 , of which 218 , 000 had returned . The majority were displaced during the initial fighting and during the JNA offensives of 1991 and 1992 . Some 150 , 000 Croats from Republika Srpska and Serbia have obtained Croatian citizenship since 1991 , many due to incidents like the expulsions in <unk> . The Belgrade - based non - government organization Veritas lists 6 , 827 killed and missing from the Republic of Serbian Krajina , including 4 , 177 combatants and 2 , 650 civilians , and 307 JNA members who were from Croatia . Most of them were killed or went missing in 1991 ( 2 , 729 ) and 1995 ( 2 , 348 ) . The most deaths occurred in Northern Dalmatia ( 1 , 605 ) . The JNA has officially acknowledged 1 , 279 killed in action . The actual number was probably considerably greater , since casualties were consistently underreported . In one example , official reports spoke of two slightly wounded soldiers after an engagement , however , according to the unit 's intelligence officer , the actual number was 50 killed and 150 wounded . According to Serbian sources , some 120 , 000 Serbs were displaced from 1991 – 93 , and 250 , 000 were displaced after Operation Storm . The number of displaced Serbs was 254 , 000 in 1993 , dropping to 97 , 000 in the early 1995 and then increasing again to 200 , 000 by the end of the year . Most international sources place the total number of Serbs displaced at around 300 , 000 . According to Amnesty International 300 , 000 were displaced from 1991 to 1995 , of which 117 , 000 were officially registered as having returned as of 2005 . According to the OSCE , 300 , 000 were displaced during the war , of which 120 , 000 were officially registered as having returned as of 2006 . However , it is believed the number does not accurately reflect the number of returnees , because many returned to Serbia , Montenegro , or Bosnia and Herzegovina after officially registering in Croatia . According to the UNHCR in 2008 , 125 , 000 were registered as having returned to Croatia , of whom 55 , 000 remained permanently . The Croatian Association of Prisoners in Serbian Concentration Camps and Croatian Disabled Homeland War Veterans Association were founded to help victims of prison abuse . Wartime damage and minefields Official figures on wartime damage published in Croatia in 1996 specify 180 , 000 destroyed housing units , 25 % of the Croatian economy destroyed , and US $ 27 billion of material damage . Europe Review 2003 / 04 estimated the war damage at US $ 37 billion in damaged infrastructure , lost economic output , and refugee - related costs , while GDP dropped 21 % in the period . 15 percent of housing units and 2 , 423 cultural heritage structures , including 495 sacral structures , were destroyed or damaged . The war imposed an additional economic burden of very high military expenditures . By 1994 , as Croatia rapidly developed into a de facto war economy , the military consumed as much as 60 percent of total government spending . Yugoslav and Serbian expenditures during the war were even more disproportionate . The federal budget proposal for 1992 earmarked 81 percent of funds to be diverted into the Serbian war effort . Since a substantial part of the federal budgets prior to 1992 was provided by Slovenia and Croatia , the most developed republics of Yugoslavia , a lack of federal income quickly led to desperate printing of money to finance government operations . That in turn produced the worst episode of hyperinflation in history : Between October 1993 and January 1995 , Yugoslavia , which then consisted of Serbia and Montenegro , suffered through a hyperinflation of five quadrillion percent . Many Croatian cities were attacked by artillery , missiles , and aircraft bombs by RSK or JNA forces from RSK or Serb - controlled areas in Bosnia and Herzegovina , as well as Montenegro and Serbia . The most shelled cities were Vukovar , Slavonski Brod ( from the mountain of Vučjak ) , and Županja ( for more than 1 , 000 days ) , Vinkovci , Osijek , Nova Gradiška , Novska , Daruvar , Pakrac , Šibenik , Sisak , Dubrovnik , Zadar , Gospić , Karlovac , Biograd na <unk> , Slavonski Šamac , Ogulin , Duga Resa , Otočac , Ilok , Beli Manastir , Lučko , Zagreb , and others Slavonski Brod was never directly attacked by tanks or infantry , but the city and its surrounding villages were hit by more than 11 , 600 artillery shells and 130 aircraft bombs in 1991 and 1992 . Approximately 2 million mines were laid in various areas of Croatia during the war . Most of the minefields were laid with no pattern or any type of record being made of the position of the mines . A decade after the war , in 2005 , there were still about 250 , 000 mines buried along the former front lines , along some segments of the international borders , especially near Bihać , and around some former JNA facilities . As of 2007 , the area still containing or suspected of containing mines encompassed approximately 1 , 000 square kilometers ( 390 sq mi ) . More than 1 , 900 people were killed or injured by land mines in Croatia since the beginning of the war , including more than 500 killed or injured by mines after the end of the war . Between 1998 and 2005 , Croatia spent € 214 million on various mine action programs . As of 2009 , all remaining minefields are clearly marked . During the 2015 European migrant crisis , there existed concerns over areas where mines could affect the flow of refugees coming from Serbia to Croatia . War crimes and the ICTY The International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia ( ICTY ) was established by UN Security Council Resolution 827 , which was passed on 25 May 1993 . The court has power to prosecute persons responsible for serious violations of international humanitarian law , breaches of the Geneva Conventions , violating the laws or customs of war , committing genocide , and crimes against humanity committed in the territory of the former SFR Yugoslavia since 1 January 1991 . The indictees by ICTY ranged from common soldiers to Prime Ministers and Presidents . Some high - level indictees included Slobodan Milošević ( President of Serbia ) , Milan Babić ( president of the RSK ) , and Ante Gotovina ( general of the Croatian Army ) . Franjo Tuđman ( President of Croatia ) died in 1999 of cancer while the ICTY 's prosecutors were still investigating him . According to Marko Attila Hoare , a former employee at the ICTY , an investigative team worked on indictments of senior members of the " joint criminal enterprise " , including not only Milošević , but Veljko Kadijević , Blagoje Adžić , Borisav Jović , Branko Kostić , Momir <unk> and others . These drafts were rejected , reportedly upon the intervention of Carla del Ponte and the indictment limited to Milošević . Between 1991 and 1995 , Martić held positions of minister of interior , minister of defense and president of the self - proclaimed " Serbian Autonomous Region of Krajina " ( SAO Krajina ) , which was later renamed " Republic of Serbian Krajina " ( RSK ) . He was found to have participated during this period in a joint criminal enterprise which included Slobodan Milošević , whose aim was to create a unified Serbian state through commission of a widespread and systematic campaign of crimes against non - Serbs inhabiting areas in Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina envisaged to become parts of such a state . As of 2013 , the ICTY has convicted six officials from the Serb / Montenegrin side and two from the Croatian side . Milan Martić received the largest sentence : 35 years in prison . Babić received 13 years . He expressed remorse for his role in the war , asking his " Croat brothers to forgive him " . In 2007 , two former Yugoslav army officers were sentenced for the Vukovar massacre at the ICTY in The Hague . Veselin Šljivančanin was sentenced to 10 years and Mile Mrkšić to 20 years in prison . Prosecutors stated that following the capture of Vukovar , the JNA handed over several hundred Croats to Serbian forces . Of these , at least 264 ( mostly injured soldiers , but also two women and a 16 - year - old child ) were murdered and buried in mass graves in the neighborhood of Ovčara , on the outskirts of Vukovar . The city 's mayor , Slavko Dokmanović , was brought to trial at the ICTY , but committed suicide in 1998 in captivity before proceedings began . Generals Pavle Strugar and Miodrag Jokić were sentenced by the ICTY to 8 and 7 years , respectively , for shelling Dubrovnik . A third <unk> , Vladimir Kovačević , was declared mentally unfit to stand trial . The Yugoslav Army 's Chief of the General Staff , Momčilo Perišić , was charged with aiding and abetting war crimes but eventually acquitted on all charges . The trials of Jovica Stanišić , Franko Simatović , Vojislav Šešelj and Goran Hadžić are still pending . A number of Croat civilians in hospitals and shelters marked with a red cross were targeted by Serb forces . There were numerous well - documented war crimes against civilians and prisoners of war perpetrated by Serb and Yugoslav forces in Croatia : the Dalj killings , the Lovas massacre , the Široka Kula massacre , the Baćin massacre , the Saborsko massacre , the Škabrnja massacre , the Voćin massacre , and the Zagreb rocket attacks . There were a number of prison camps where Croatian POWs and civilians were detained , including the Sremska Mitrovica camp , the Stajićevo camp , and the Begejci camp in Serbia , and the Morinj camp in Montenegro . The Croatian Association of Prisoners in Serbian Concentration Camps was later founded in order to help the victims of prison abuse . The Croatian Army established detention camps , like Lora prison camp in Split . Croatian war crimes included the Gospić massacre , the killings in Sisak in 1991 and 1992 , and others , which were likewise prosecuted by Croatian courts or the ICTY . Another infamous instance of war crimes , in what would later become known as the " <unk> <unk> " case , committed by a reserve police unit commanded by Tomislav Merčep , involved the killing of prisoners , mostly ethnic Serbs , near Pakrac in late 1991 and early 1992 . The events were initially investigated by the ICTY , but the case was eventually transferred to the Croatian judiciary . More than a decade later , five members of this unit , although not its commander , were indicted on criminal charges related to these events , and convicted . Merčep was arrested for these crimes in December 2010 . In 2009 , Branimir Glavaš , a Croatian incumbent MP at the time , was convicted of war crimes committed in Osijek in 1991 and sentenced to jail by a Croatian court . The ICTY indicted Croatian officers Janko Bobetko , Rahim Ademi and Mirko Norac , for crimes committed during Operation Medak Pocket , but that case was also transferred to Croatian courts . Norac was found guilty and jailed for 7 years ; Ademi was acquitted . Bobetko was declared unfit to stand trial due to poor health . The ICTY 's indictment against General Ante Gotovina cited at least 150 Serb civilians killed in the aftermath of Operation Storm . The Croatian Helsinki Committee registered 677 Serb civilians killed in the operation . Louise Arbour , a prosecutor of the ICTY , stated that the legality and legitimacy of the Operation itself was not the issue , but that the ICTY was required to investigate whether crimes were committed during the campaign . The Trial Chamber reiterated that the legality of Operation Storm is " irrelevant " for the case at hand , since the ICTY 's remit is processing war crimes . In 2011 , Gotovina was sentenced to 24 and Markač to 18 years in prison . In 2012 , their convictions were overturned and both were immediately released . Čermak was acquitted of all charges . In the first - degree verdict , the trial chamber found that " certain members of the Croatian political and military leadership shared the common objective of the permanent removal of the Serb civilian population from the Krajina by force or threat of force " , implicating Franjo Tuđman , Gojko Šušak , who was the Minister of Defence and a close associate of Tuđman 's , and Zvonimir Červenko , the Chief of the Croatian army Main Staff . Nevertheless , in the second - degree verdict , the appeals chamber dismissed the notion of such a joint criminal enterprise . The verdict meant the ICTY convicted no Croats for their role in the Croatian War of Independence . Serbia 's role During the war While Serbia and Croatia never declared war on each other , Serbia was directly and indirectly involved in the war through a number of activities . Its foremost involvement entailed material support of the JNA . Following the independence of various republics from SFR Yugoslavia , Serbia provided the bulk of manpower and funding that was channeled to the war effort through Serbian control of the Yugoslav presidency and the federal defense ministry . Serbia actively supported various paramilitary volunteer units from Serbia that were fighting in Croatia . Even though no actual fighting occurred on Serbian or Montenegrin soil , involvement of the two was evident through the maintenance of prison camps in Serbia and Montenegro , which became places where a number of war crimes were committed . Milošević 's trial at the ICTY revealed numerous declassified documents of Belgrade 's involvement in the wars in Croatia and Bosnia . Evidence introduced at trial showed exactly how Serbia and the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia financed the war , that they provided weapons and material support to Bosnian and Croatian Serbs , and demonstrated the administrative and personnel structures set up to support the Bosnian Serb and Croatian Serb armies . It was established that Belgrade , through the federal government , financed more than 90 percent of the Krajina budget in 1993 ; that the Supreme Defense Council decided to hide aid to Republika Srpska and Krajina from the public ; that the National Bank of Krajina operated as a branch office of the National Bank of Yugoslavia ; and that by March 1994 FR Yugoslavia , Krajina , and Republika Srpska used a single currency . Numerous documents demonstrated that branches of the Krajina Public Accountancy Service were incorporated into Serbia 's accountancy system in May 1991 , and that the financing of Krajina and Republika Srpska caused hyperinflation in FR Yugoslavia . The trial revealed that the JNA , the Serbian Ministry of Interior , and other entities ( including Serb civilian groups and police ) armed Serb civilians and local territorial defense groups in the RSK before the conflict escalated . In 1993 , the US State Department reported that right after the Maslenica and Medak pocket operations , authorities in Serbia dispatched substantial numbers of " volunteers " to Serb - held territories in Croatia to fight . A former secretary of Serbian criminal Željko Ražnatović Arkan testified at the Hague , confirming that the paramilitary leader took his orders , and his money , directly from the secret police run by Milošević . This degree of control was reflected in negotiations held at various times between Croatian authorities and the RSK , as the Serbian leadership under Milošević was regularly consulted and frequently made decisions on behalf of the RSK . The Erdut Agreement that ended the war was signed by a RSK minister on instructions from Milošević . The degree of control Serbia held over SFR Yugoslavia and later the RSK was evidenced through testimonies during the Milošević trial at the ICTY . Serbia 's state - run media were reportedly used to incite the conflict and further inflame the <unk> and dismissing independent media reports of fires burning in Dubrovnik due to JNA artillery bombardment as being a purported ruse created by Croats burning tires in the city . After the war After the successful implementation of the Erdut Agreement which ended armed conflict in 1995 , the relations between Croatia and Serbia gradually improved and the two countries established diplomatic relations in 1996 . In a case before the International Court of Justice , Croatia filed a suit against the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia on 2 July 1999 , citing Article IX of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide . With the transformation of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia into Serbia and Montenegro and the dissolution of that country in 2006 , Serbia is considered its legal successor . The application was filed for Croatia by a U.S. lawyer , David B. Rivkin . Serbia reciprocated with the genocide lawsuit against the Republic of Croatia on 4 January 2010 . The Serbian application covers missing people , killed people , refugees , expelled people , and all military actions and concentration camps with a historical account of World War II persecution of Serbs committed by the Independent State of Croatia during World War II . By 2010 , Croatia and Serbia further improved their relations through an agreement to resolve remaining refugee issues , and visits of Croatian President Ivo Josipović to Belgrade , and of the Serbian President Boris Tadić to Zagreb and Vukovar . During their meeting in Vukovar , President Tadić gave a statement expressing his " apology and regret " , while President Josipović said " that no crimes committed at the time would go unpunished . " The statements were made during a joint visit to the Ovčara memorial center , site of the Vukovar massacre . Role of the international community The war developed at a time when the attention of the United States and the world was on Iraq , and the Gulf War in 1991 , along with a sharp rise in oil prices and a slowdown in the growth of the world economy . Between 19 – 23 December , several other European countries , beginning with Germany and the Vatican City , followed by Sweden and Italy , announced their recognition of Croatia 's ( and Slovenia 's ) independence . The European Union as a whole recognized the independence of the two republics on 15 January 1992 . Each of the major foreign governments acted somewhat differently : United Kingdom – John Major 's government favoured neutrality . United States – The United States , under George H. W. Bush , tended to favour non - intervention at first , just like the United Kingdom . In contrast , from 1993 , the administration led by Bill Clinton tended to engage itself in order to end the conflicts in the former Yugoslavia . Cyrus Vance supported the ' integrity of Yugoslavia ' . Germany – up until 1991 , Germany supported a ' status quo ' . According to diplomat Gerhard Almer , the Yugoslav disintegration was feared as " a bad example for the dissolution of the Soviet Union " . During the war , this policy changed , when Helmut Kohl announced that Germany recognized Slovenia and Croatia as independent countries . Russia – Russia tended to oppose recognition of Croatia ( Russia recognized Croatia on February 17 , 1992 , United States on April 7th 1992 ) Annotations
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Battle of Flint River The Battle of Flint River was a failed attack by Spanish and Apalachee Indian forces against Creek Indians in October 1702 in what is now the state of Georgia . The battle was a major element in ongoing frontier hostilities between English traders from the Province of Carolina and Spanish Florida , and it was a prelude to more organized military actions of Queen Anne 's War . The Creeks , assisted by a small number of Englishmen led by trader Anthony Dodsworth , ambushed the invaders on the banks of the Flint River . More than half of the Spanish - Indian force was killed or captured . Both English and Spanish authorities reacted to the battle by accelerating preparations that culminated in the Siege of St. Augustine in November 1702 . Background English and Spanish colonization efforts in southeastern North America began coming into conflict as early as the middle of the 17th century . The English founding of the Province of Carolina in 1663 and Charles Town ( present - day Charleston , South Carolina ) in 1670 significantly raised tensions with the Spanish who had long been established in Florida . Traders and slavers from the new province penetrated into Spanish Florida , leading to raiding and reprisal expeditions on both sides . In 1700 , Carolina 's governor , Joseph Blake , threatened the Spanish that English claims to Pensacola , established by the Spanish in 1698 , would be enforced . Carolina traders such as Anthony Dodsworth and Thomas Nairne had established alliances with Creek Indians in the upper watersheds of rivers draining into the Gulf of Mexico , who they supplied with arms and from whom they purchased slaves and animal pelts . The Spanish population of Florida at the time was fairly small . Since its founding in the 16th century , the Spanish had set up a network of missions whose primary purpose was to pacify the local Indian population and convert them to Roman Catholicism . In the Apalachee region ( roughly present - day western Florida and southwestern Georgia ) there were 14 mission communities with a total population in 1680 of about 8 , 000 . Many , but not all , of these communities were populated by the Apalachee ; others were from different tribes that had migrated southward to the area . The Spanish had a policy of not arming these Indians with muskets , and the Apalachee missions suffered from English and Creek raids in 1701 . In January 1702 Pierre Le Moyne d 'Iberville , the French founder of Mobile , warned the Spanish commander at Pensacola that he should properly arm the Apalachees and engage in a vigorous defense against English incursions into Spanish territory . D 'Iberville even offered equipment and supplies for the purpose . Following the destruction by raiders of the Timucuan mission of Santa Fé de <unk> in May 1702 , Spanish Florida 's Governor Joseph de Zúñiga y <unk> authorized an expedition into the Creek territories . Battle Zúñiga ordered Don Francisco Romo de Uriza , a Spanish captain , to San Luis de Apalachee , where he raised a force of about 800 Apalachee and Spanish from the surrounding mission communities . Uriza 's report has not been found , so a breakdown of his force is not presently known . Word of this reached the Apalachicola community of <unk> , where Carolina trader Anthony Dodsworth ( referred to in Spanish documents as " Don Antonio " ) was meeting with the local tribes . According to a report an Indian woman made to Manuel Solano , the deputy governor at San Luis , about 400 warriors , principally Apalachicolas and <unk> , went with Dodsworth , two other white men , and two blacks , to meet the Uriza 's force . They left <unk> on roughly October 7 , the same day Uriza left Apalachee . The exact date of the battle is unknown ; the woman reporting to Solana saw the battlefield on October 18 , the day Uriza and the remnants of his force returned to the Apalachee town of <unk> . Dodsworth assembled his force , which numbered about 500 , with the blessing of the Apalachicola chief Emperor <unk> . The two forces met near the Flint River when the Apalachee made a predawn attack on the Apalachicola camp . Anticipating the possibility of this sort of attack , Dodsworth and the Apalachicolas had arranged their blankets to appear occupied and concealed themselves near the camp . When the Apalachee attacked the false camp , the Apalachicolas fell upon them . With the superiority of their weapons , the British - supported Indians routed the Spanish force . Uriza was reported to have only 300 men when he returned to Apalachee . Aftermath The defeat immediately put Zúñiga on the defensive . He ordered the fort at San Luis to be completed and adequate supplies for a siege laid in . The battle further stirred up passions in Charles Town , where Governor James Moore had already secured approval for an expedition against St. Augustine after learning that war had formally been declared in Europe between England and Spain . His expedition departed Charles Town in November and failed in its objective , although Spanish - Indian mission communities in Guale Province were destroyed in the process . Moore , in 1704 , led an expedition against the Apalachee missions that virtually wiped them out . By the end of Queen Anne 's War in 1713 , the English had practically depopulated present - day Georgia of Spaniards and their allied Indian tribes , leaving the Spanish in control of little more than St. Augustine and Pensacola . Two widely separated highway markers have been erected in Georgia to commemorate the battle . The Georgia Historical Commission erected a highway marker in central Georgia at 31 . <unk> ° N 83 . <unk> ° W / 31 . <unk> ; <unk> in Crisp County near Georgia Veterans State Park in 1965 , and the Historic Chattahoochee Commission , in 1985 , placed a marker at 30 . <unk> ° N 84 . <unk> ° W / 30 . <unk> ; <unk> in the southern Georgia town of Bainbridge .
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Vanuatu at the 2008 Summer Olympics Vanuatu competed at the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing , China . A total of three Vanuatuan athletes competed in two sports . Moses Kamut and Elis Lapenmal competed in , respectively , the men 's and women 's 100m sprints , and Priscilla Tommy competed in women 's singles table tennis after being selected by the IOC 's Tripartite Commission . Tommy 's appearance in particular was Vanuatu 's debut into table tennis . Tommy was also the country 's flagbearer during the opening ceremony . The Vanuatuan delegation to Beijing included the country 's head of state and prime minister , but only included Elis Lapenmal ; the other two athletes did not accompany the delegation and arrived in China at different times . None of the three Vanuatuan Olympians progressed past the first round in their events , and thus did not earn any medals . Background Vanuatu has participated in the Olympics since the 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul , South Korea ; its Olympic committee ( VASANOC ) was founded a year earlier . Vanuatu 's appearance at the 2008 Olympics in Beijing , thus , marked its sixth appearance in the summer Olympics . Although Vanuatu 's earlier Olympic appearances were primarily characterized by people participating in athletics ( with the exception of the 2000 Summer Olympics , which included an archer ) , the 2008 Vanuatu team involved the country 's debut in Olympic table tennis . Other <unk> attempted Olympic qualification competitions in girl 's beach volleyball , men 's football , and taekwondo , but did not succeed . Vanuatu 's delegation left for Beijing on August 4 ; the delegation encompassed one of the three Olympians , as well as coaches Denison <unk> , Sun <unk> , and <unk> Lulu ; VASANOC president Joe Carlo ; and VASANOC secretary general Seru <unk> . Vanuatuan dignitaries , including the head of state , prime minister , and the minister of sports , also accompanied the team to attend the opening ceremony on August 8 . Table tennis player Priscila Tommy and athlete Moses Kamut , the other two Vanuatuan qualifiers , did not accompany the Vanuatuan delegation to Beijing . Tommy arrived in China early for training , while Kamut spent time in Belgium . Of the participating Olympians , table tennis player Priscila Tommy was the youngest , at age 17 . Moses Kamut , at age 26 , was the oldest . Kamut and Elis Lapenmal participated in athletics , and Tommy participated as the team 's only table tennis player . There were no medalists from Vanuatu during these Olympic Games . Priscila Tommy was Vanuatu 's flag bearer in the opening ceremony . Athletics Moses Kamut and Elis Lapenmal participated on behalf of Vanuatu in track and field , or athletics , events at the 2008 Beijing Olympics . Kamut participated in the men 's 100m sprint , and participated in the first round of the event on August 14 . Kamut was placed in the first heat , and ran the event in 10 . 81 seconds . Within the first heat , Kamut placed 7th out of 8 , beating Francis Manioru of the Solomon Islands by 0 . 28 seconds , but falling behind Jamaica 's Usain Bolt by 0 . 61 seconds . Bolt ranked first in Kamut ' heat . Overall , Moses Kamut ranked 61st out of 80 out of all the heats run on that day , and did not advance to the next round . Kamut received financial assistance through the Beijing Scholarship , which terminated after the Beijing Olympics ended . Elis Lapenmal was Vanuatu 's sole participant in the women 's 100m dash . She took part in the first round of the event on August 15 , in which she was placed in heat three versus athletes that included the United States ' Muna Lee ; Saint Kitts and Nevis ' Virgil Hodge ; and Mauritania 's Bounkou Camara . Lapenmal ran the 100m in 13 . 31 seconds , placing eighth in a heat of nine people , just ahead of Camara , who scored 13 . 69 seconds . Muna Lee scored first in Lapenmal 's heat with a time of 11 . 33 seconds . Overall , Lapenmal tied Guam 's Cora <unk> for 76th place out of 85 , and did not advance to the second round on August 16 . Key Note – Ranks given for track events are within the athlete 's heat only Q Qualified for the next round q Qualified for the next round as a fastest loser or , in field events , by position without achieving the qualifying target NR National record N / A Round not applicable for the event Bye Athlete not required to compete in round Men Women Table tennis Priscilla Tommy won the Samsung Scholarship , which allowed her the financial backing she needed to participate in the Beijing games . Tommy was also selected by the Tripartite Commission on May 11 , 2008 , alongside Marcelo Aguirre of Paraguay . She was the only Vanuatuan participant in Olympian table tennis during the 2008 Summer Olympics . During the preliminary rounds on August 17 , Priscilla Tommy was paired with Eva <unk> of Slovakia , who she faced on the thirteenth of fourteen matches that took place that day . Tommy lost to <unk> with a 4 – 0 record , and did not advance to the August 20 matches .
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Numerical weather prediction Numerical weather prediction uses mathematical models of the atmosphere and oceans to predict the weather based on current weather conditions . Though first attempted in the 1920s , it was not until the advent of computer simulation in the 1950s that numerical weather predictions produced realistic results . A number of global and regional forecast models are run in different countries worldwide , using current weather observations relayed from radiosondes , weather satellites and other observing systems as inputs . Mathematical models based on the same physical principles can be used to generate either short - term weather forecasts or longer - term climate predictions ; the latter are widely applied for understanding and projecting climate change . The improvements made to regional models have allowed for significant improvements in tropical cyclone track and air quality forecasts ; however , atmospheric models perform poorly at handling processes that occur in a relatively constricted area , such as wildfires . <unk> the vast datasets and performing the complex calculations necessary to modern numerical weather prediction requires some of the most powerful supercomputers in the world . Even with the increasing power of supercomputers , the forecast skill of numerical weather models extends to about only six days . Factors affecting the accuracy of numerical predictions include the density and quality of observations used as input to the forecasts , along with deficiencies in the numerical models themselves . Post - processing techniques such as model output statistics ( MOS ) have been developed to improve the handling of errors in numerical predictions . A more fundamental problem lies in the chaotic nature of the partial differential equations that govern the atmosphere . It is impossible to solve these equations exactly , and small errors grow with time ( doubling about every five days ) . Present understanding is that this chaotic behavior limits accurate forecasts to about 14 days even with perfectly accurate input data and a flawless model . In addition , the partial differential equations used in the model need to be supplemented with <unk> for solar radiation , moist processes ( clouds and precipitation ) , heat exchange , soil , vegetation , surface water , and the effects of terrain . In an effort to quantify the large amount of inherent uncertainty remaining in numerical predictions , ensemble forecasts have been used since the 1990s to help gauge the confidence in the forecast , and to obtain useful results farther into the future than otherwise possible . This approach analyzes multiple forecasts created with an individual forecast model or multiple models . History The history of numerical weather prediction began in the 1920s through the efforts of Lewis Fry Richardson , who used procedures originally developed by Vilhelm Bjerknes to produce by hand a six - hour forecast for the state of the atmosphere over two points in central Europe , taking at least six weeks to do so . It was not until the advent of the computer and computer simulations that computation time was reduced to less than the forecast period itself . The ENIAC was used to create the first weather forecasts via computer in 1950 , based on a highly simplified approximation to the atmospheric governing equations . In 1954 , Carl - Gustav Rossby 's group at the Swedish Meteorological and Hydrological Institute used the same model to produce the first operational forecast ( i.e. , a routine prediction for practical use ) . Operational numerical weather prediction in the United States began in 1955 under the Joint Numerical Weather Prediction Unit ( JNWPU ) , a joint project by the U.S. Air Force , Navy and Weather Bureau . In 1956 , Norman Phillips developed a mathematical model which could realistically depict monthly and seasonal patterns in the troposphere ; this became the first successful climate model . Following Phillips ' work , several groups began working to create general circulation models . The first general circulation climate model that combined both oceanic and atmospheric processes was developed in the late 1960s at the NOAA Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory . As computers have become more powerful , the size of the initial data sets has increased and newer atmospheric models have been developed to take advantage of the added available computing power . These newer models include more physical processes in the simplifications of the equations of motion in numerical simulations of the atmosphere . In 1966 , West Germany and the United States began producing operational forecasts based on primitive - equation models , followed by the United Kingdom in 1972 and Australia in 1977 . The development of limited area ( regional ) models facilitated advances in forecasting the tracks of tropical cyclones as well as air quality in the 1970s and 1980s . By the early 1980s models began to include the interactions of soil and vegetation with the atmosphere , which led to more realistic forecasts . The output of forecast models based on atmospheric dynamics is unable to resolve some details of the weather near the Earth 's surface . As such , a statistical relationship between the output of a numerical weather model and the ensuing conditions at the ground was developed in the 1970s and 1980s , known as model output statistics ( MOS ) . Starting in the 1990s , model ensemble forecasts have been used to help define the forecast uncertainty and to extend the window in which numerical weather forecasting is viable farther into the future than otherwise possible . <unk> The atmosphere is a fluid . As such , the idea of numerical weather prediction is to sample the state of the fluid at a given time and use the equations of fluid dynamics and thermodynamics to estimate the state of the fluid at some time in the future . The process of entering observation data into the model to generate initial conditions is called initialization . On land , terrain maps available at resolutions down to 1 kilometer ( 0 . 6 mi ) globally are used to help model atmospheric circulations within regions of rugged topography , in order to better depict features such as downslope winds , mountain waves and related cloudiness that affects incoming solar radiation . The main inputs from country - based weather services are observations from devices ( called radiosondes ) in weather balloons that measure various atmospheric parameters and transmits them to a fixed receiver , as well as from weather satellites . The World Meteorological Organization acts to standardize the instrumentation , observing practices and timing of these observations worldwide . Stations either report hourly in METAR reports , or every six hours in SYNOP reports . These observations are irregularly spaced , so they are processed by data assimilation and objective analysis methods , which perform quality control and obtain values at locations usable by the model 's mathematical algorithms . The data are then used in the model as the starting point for a forecast . A variety of methods are used to gather observational data for use in numerical models . Sites launch radiosondes in weather balloons which rise through the troposphere and well into the stratosphere . Information from weather satellites is used where traditional data sources are not available . Commerce provides pilot reports along aircraft routes and ship reports along shipping routes . Research projects use reconnaissance aircraft to fly in and around weather systems of interest , such as tropical cyclones . Reconnaissance aircraft are also flown over the open oceans during the cold season into systems which cause significant uncertainty in forecast guidance , or are expected to be of high impact from three to seven days into the future over the downstream continent . Sea ice began to be initialized in forecast models in 1971 . Efforts to involve sea surface temperature in model initialization began in 1972 due to its role in modulating weather in higher latitudes of the Pacific . Computation An atmospheric model is a computer program that produces meteorological information for future times at given locations and altitudes . Within any modern model is a set of equations , known as the primitive equations , used to predict the future state of the atmosphere . These equations — along with the ideal gas law — are used to evolve the density , pressure , and potential temperature scalar fields and the air velocity ( wind ) vector field of the atmosphere through time . Additional transport equations for pollutants and other aerosols are included in some primitive - equation high - resolution models as well . The equations used are nonlinear partial differential equations which are impossible to solve exactly through analytical methods , with the exception of a few idealized cases . Therefore , numerical methods obtain approximate solutions . Different models use different solution methods : some global models and almost all regional models use finite difference methods for all three spatial dimensions , while other global models and a few regional models use spectral methods for the horizontal dimensions and finite - difference methods in the vertical . These equations are initialized from the analysis data and rates of change are determined . These rates of change predict the state of the atmosphere a short time into the future ; the time increment for this prediction is called a time step . This future atmospheric state is then used as the starting point for another application of the predictive equations to find new rates of change , and these new rates of change predict the atmosphere at a yet further time step into the future . This time stepping is repeated until the solution reaches the desired forecast time . The length of the time step chosen within the model is related to the distance between the points on the computational grid , and is chosen to maintain numerical stability . Time steps for global models are on the order of tens of minutes , while time steps for regional models are between one and four minutes . The global models are run at varying times into the future . The UKMET Unified Model is run six days into the future , while the European Centre for Medium - Range Weather Forecasts ' Integrated Forecast System and Environment Canada 's Global Environmental Multiscale Model both run out to ten days into the future , and the Global Forecast System model run by the Environmental Modeling Center is run sixteen days into the future . The visual output produced by a model solution is known as a prognostic chart , or prog . <unk> Some meteorological processes are too small - scale or too complex to be explicitly included in numerical weather prediction models . <unk> is a procedure for representing these processes by relating them to variables on the scales that the model resolves . For example , the <unk> in weather and climate models have sides that are between 5 kilometers ( 3 mi ) and 300 kilometers ( 200 mi ) in length . A typical cumulus cloud has a scale of less than 1 kilometer ( 0 . 6 mi ) , and would require a grid even finer than this to be represented physically by the equations of fluid motion . Therefore , the processes that such clouds represent are parameterized , by processes of various sophistication . In the earliest models , if a column of air within a model <unk> was conditionally unstable ( essentially , the bottom was warmer and moister than the top ) and the water vapor content at any point within the column became saturated then it would be overturned ( the warm , moist air would begin rising ) , and the air in that vertical column mixed . More sophisticated schemes recognize that only some portions of the box might <unk> and that entrainment and other processes occur . Weather models that have <unk> with sides between 5 and 25 kilometers ( 3 and 16 mi ) can explicitly represent convective clouds , although they need to parameterize cloud <unk> which occur at a smaller scale . The formation of large - scale ( stratus - type ) clouds is more physically based ; they form when the relative humidity reaches some prescribed value . Sub - grid scale processes need to be taken into account . Rather than assuming that clouds form at 100 % relative humidity , the cloud fraction can be related a critical value of relative humidity less than 100 % , reflecting the sub grid scale variation that occurs in the real world . The amount of solar radiation reaching the ground , as well as the formation of cloud droplets occur on the molecular scale , and so they must be parameterized before they can be included in the model . Atmospheric drag produced by mountains must also be parameterized , as the limitations in the resolution of elevation contours produce significant underestimates of the drag . This method of <unk> is also done for the surface flux of energy between the ocean and the atmosphere , in order to determine realistic sea surface temperatures and type of sea ice found near the ocean 's surface . Sun angle as well as the impact of multiple cloud layers is taken into account . Soil type , vegetation type , and soil moisture all determine how much radiation goes into warming and how much moisture is drawn up into the adjacent atmosphere , and thus it is important to parameterize their contribution to these processes . Within air quality models , <unk> take into account atmospheric emissions from multiple relatively tiny sources ( e.g. roads , fields , factories ) within specific grid boxes . Domains The horizontal domain of a model is either global , covering the entire Earth , or regional , covering only part of the Earth . Regional models ( also known as limited - area models , or <unk> ) allow for the use of finer grid spacing than global models because the available computational resources are focused on a specific area instead of being spread over the globe . This allows regional models to resolve explicitly smaller - scale meteorological phenomena that cannot be represented on the coarser grid of a global model . Regional models use a global model to specify conditions at the edge of their domain ( boundary conditions ) in order to allow systems from outside the regional model domain to move into its area . Uncertainty and errors within regional models are introduced by the global model used for the boundary conditions of the edge of the regional model , as well as errors attributable to the regional model itself . Coordinate systems Horizontal coordinates Horizontal position may be expressed directly in geographic coordinates ( latitude and longitude ) for global models or in a map projection planar coordinates for regional models . Vertical coordinates The vertical coordinate is handled in various ways . Lewis Fry Richardson 's 1922 model used geometric height ( <formula> ) as the vertical coordinate . Later models substituted the geometric <formula> coordinate with a pressure coordinate system , in which the geopotential heights of constant - pressure surfaces become dependent variables , greatly simplifying the primitive equations . This correlation between coordinate systems can be made since pressure decreases with height through the Earth 's atmosphere . The first model used for operational forecasts , the single - layer barotropic model , used a single pressure coordinate at the 500 - millibar ( about 5 , 500 m ( 18 , 000 ft ) ) level , and thus was essentially two - dimensional . High - resolution models — also called mesoscale models — such as the Weather Research and Forecasting model tend to use normalized pressure coordinates referred to as sigma coordinates . This coordinate system receives its name from the independent variable <formula> used to scale atmospheric pressures with respect to the pressure at the surface , and in some cases also with the pressure at the top of the domain . Model output statistics Because forecast models based upon the equations for atmospheric dynamics do not perfectly determine weather conditions , statistical methods have been developed to attempt to correct the forecasts . Statistical models were created based upon the three - dimensional fields produced by numerical weather models , surface observations and the climatological conditions for specific locations . These statistical models are collectively referred to as model output statistics ( MOS ) , and were developed by the National Weather Service for their suite of weather forecasting models in the late 1960s . Model output statistics differ from the perfect prog technique , which assumes that the output of numerical weather prediction guidance is perfect . MOS can correct for local effects that cannot be resolved by the model due to insufficient grid resolution , as well as model biases . Because MOS is run after its respective global or regional model , its production is known as post - processing . Forecast parameters within MOS include maximum and minimum temperatures , percentage chance of rain within a several hour period , precipitation amount expected , chance that the precipitation will be frozen in nature , chance for thunderstorms , cloudiness , and surface winds . Ensembles In 1963 , Edward Lorenz discovered the chaotic nature of the fluid dynamics equations involved in weather forecasting . Extremely small errors in temperature , winds , or other initial inputs given to numerical models will amplify and double every five days , making it impossible for long - range forecasts — those made more than two weeks in advance — to predict the state of the atmosphere with any degree of forecast skill . Furthermore , existing observation networks have poor coverage in some regions ( for example , over large bodies of water such as the Pacific Ocean ) , which introduces uncertainty into the true initial state of the atmosphere . While a set of equations , known as the Liouville equations , exists to determine the initial uncertainty in the model initialization , the equations are too complex to run in real - time , even with the use of supercomputers . These uncertainties limit forecast model accuracy to about five or six days into the future . Edward Epstein recognized in 1969 that the atmosphere could not be completely described with a single forecast run due to inherent uncertainty , and proposed using an ensemble of stochastic Monte Carlo simulations to produce means and variances for the state of the atmosphere . Although this early example of an ensemble showed skill , in 1974 Cecil Leith showed that they produced adequate forecasts only when the ensemble probability distribution was a representative sample of the probability distribution in the atmosphere . Since the 1990s , ensemble forecasts have been used operationally ( as routine forecasts ) to account for the stochastic nature of weather processes – that is , to resolve their inherent uncertainty . This method involves analyzing multiple forecasts created with an individual forecast model by using different physical <unk> or varying initial conditions . Starting in 1992 with ensemble forecasts prepared by the European Centre for Medium - Range Weather Forecasts ( ECMWF ) and the National Centers for Environmental Prediction , model ensemble forecasts have been used to help define the forecast uncertainty and to extend the window in which numerical weather forecasting is viable farther into the future than otherwise possible . The ECMWF model , the Ensemble Prediction System , uses singular vectors to simulate the initial probability density , while the NCEP ensemble , the Global Ensemble Forecasting System , uses a technique known as vector breeding . The UK Met Office runs global and regional ensemble forecasts where perturbations to initial conditions are produced using a Kalman filter . There are 24 ensemble members in the Met Office Global and Regional Ensemble Prediction System ( <unk> ) . In a single model - based approach , the ensemble forecast is usually evaluated in terms of an average of the individual forecasts concerning one forecast variable , as well as the degree of agreement between various forecasts within the ensemble system , as represented by their overall spread . Ensemble spread is diagnosed through tools such as spaghetti diagrams , which show the dispersion of one quantity on prognostic charts for specific time steps in the future . Another tool where ensemble spread is used is a <unk> , which shows the dispersion in the forecast of one quantity for one specific location . It is common for the ensemble spread to be too small to include the weather that actually occurs , which can lead to forecasters <unk> model uncertainty ; this problem becomes particularly severe for forecasts of the weather about ten days in advance . When ensemble spread is small and the forecast solutions are consistent within multiple model runs , forecasters perceive more confidence in the ensemble mean , and the forecast in general . Despite this perception , a spread - skill relationship is often weak or not found , as spread - error correlations are normally less than 0 . 6 , and only under special circumstances range between 0 . 6 – 0 . 7 . The relationship between ensemble spread and forecast skill varies substantially depending on such factors as the forecast model and the region for which the forecast is made . In the same way that many forecasts from a single model can be used to form an ensemble , multiple models may also be combined to produce an ensemble forecast . This approach is called multi - model ensemble forecasting , and it has been shown to improve forecasts when compared to a single model - based approach . Models within a multi - model ensemble can be adjusted for their various biases , which is a process known as superensemble forecasting . This type of forecast significantly reduces errors in model output . Applications Air quality modeling Air quality forecasting attempts to predict when the concentrations of pollutants will attain levels that are hazardous to public health . The concentration of pollutants in the atmosphere is determined by their transport , or mean velocity of movement through the atmosphere , their diffusion , chemical transformation , and ground deposition . In addition to pollutant source and terrain information , these models require data about the state of the fluid flow in the atmosphere to determine its transport and diffusion . Meteorological conditions such as thermal inversions can prevent surface air from rising , trapping pollutants near the surface , which makes accurate forecasts of such events crucial for air quality modeling . Urban air quality models require a very fine computational mesh , requiring the use of high - resolution mesoscale weather models ; in spite of this , the quality of numerical weather guidance is the main uncertainty in air quality forecasts . Climate modeling A General Circulation Model ( <unk> ) is a mathematical model that can be used in computer simulations of the global circulation of a planetary atmosphere or ocean . An atmospheric general circulation model ( <unk> ) is essentially the same as a global numerical weather prediction model , and some ( such as the one used in the UK Unified Model ) can be configured for both short - term weather forecasts and longer - term climate predictions . Along with sea ice and land - surface components , <unk> and oceanic <unk> ( <unk> ) are key components of global climate models , and are widely applied for understanding the climate and projecting climate change . For aspects of climate change , a range of man - made chemical emission scenarios can be fed into the climate models to see how an enhanced greenhouse effect would modify the Earth 's climate . Versions designed for climate applications with time scales of decades to centuries were originally created in 1969 by <unk> Manabe and Kirk Bryan at the Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory in Princeton , New Jersey . When run for multiple decades , computational limitations mean that the models must use a coarse grid that leaves smaller - scale interactions unresolved . Ocean surface modeling The transfer of energy between the wind blowing over the surface of an ocean and the ocean 's upper layer is an important element in wave dynamics . The spectral wave transport equation is used to describe the change in wave spectrum over changing topography . It simulates wave generation , wave movement ( propagation within a fluid ) , wave shoaling , refraction , energy transfer between waves , and wave dissipation . Since surface winds are the primary forcing mechanism in the spectral wave transport equation , ocean wave models use information produced by numerical weather prediction models as inputs to determine how much energy is transferred from the atmosphere into the layer at the surface of the ocean . Along with dissipation of energy through <unk> and resonance between waves , surface winds from numerical weather models allow for more accurate predictions of the state of the sea surface . Tropical cyclone forecasting Tropical cyclone forecasting also relies on data provided by numerical weather models . Three main classes of tropical cyclone guidance models exist : Statistical models are based on an analysis of storm behavior using climatology , and correlate a storm 's position and date to produce a forecast that is not based on the physics of the atmosphere at the time . Dynamical models are numerical models that solve the governing equations of fluid flow in the atmosphere ; they are based on the same principles as other limited - area numerical weather prediction models but may include special computational techniques such as refined spatial domains that move along with the cyclone . Models that use elements of both approaches are called statistical - dynamical models . In 1978 , the first hurricane - tracking model based on atmospheric dynamics — the movable fine - mesh ( MFM ) model — began operating . Within the field of tropical cyclone track forecasting , despite the ever - improving dynamical model guidance which occurred with increased computational power , it was not until the 1980s when numerical weather prediction showed skill , and until the 1990s when it consistently outperformed statistical or simple dynamical models . Predictions of the intensity of a tropical cyclone based on numerical weather prediction continue to be a challenge , since statistical methods continue to show higher skill over dynamical guidance . Wildfire modeling On a molecular scale , there are two main competing reaction processes involved in the degradation of cellulose , or wood fuels , in wildfires . When there is a low amount of moisture in a cellulose fiber , volatilization of the fuel occurs ; this process will generate intermediate gaseous products that will ultimately be the source of combustion . When moisture is present — or when enough heat is being carried away from the fiber , charring occurs . The chemical kinetics of both reactions indicate that there is a point at which the level of moisture is low enough — and / or heating rates high enough — for combustion processes become self - sufficient . Consequently , changes in wind speed , direction , moisture , temperature , or lapse rate at different levels of the atmosphere can have a significant impact on the behavior and growth of a wildfire . Since the wildfire acts as a heat source to the atmospheric flow , the wildfire can modify local advection patterns , introducing a feedback loop between the fire and the atmosphere . A simplified two - dimensional model for the spread of wildfires that used convection to represent the effects of wind and terrain , as well as radiative heat transfer as the dominant method of heat transport led to reaction - diffusion systems of partial differential equations . More complex models join numerical weather models or computational fluid dynamics models with a wildfire component which allow the feedback effects between the fire and the atmosphere to be estimated . The additional complexity in the latter class of models translates to a corresponding increase in their computer power requirements . In fact , a full three - dimensional treatment of combustion via direct numerical simulation at scales relevant for atmospheric modeling is not currently practical because of the excessive computational cost such a simulation would require . Numerical weather models have limited forecast skill at spatial resolutions under 1 kilometer ( 0 . 6 mi ) , forcing complex wildfire models to parameterize the fire in order to calculate how the winds will be modified locally by the wildfire , and to use those modified winds to determine the rate at which the fire will spread locally . Although models such as Los Alamos ' <unk> solve for the concentrations of fuel and oxygen , the computational grid cannot be fine enough to resolve the combustion reaction , so approximations must be made for the temperature distribution within each grid cell , as well as for the combustion reaction rates themselves .
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L.A.M.B. L.A.M.B. is a fashion line by American singer Gwen Stefani , the lead vocalist of the rock band No Doubt . The line manufactures apparel and fashion accessories . It was founded in 2003 and made its runway debut in 2004 . The fashion line manufactures accessories like shoes , watches , bags and a fragrance called " L. " The name is an acronym of her debut solo album Love . Angel . Music . Baby . The line is influenced by a variety of fashions cultures , including Guatemalan , Japanese , Indian and Jamaican styles . Stefani came from a family of seamstresses . This further inspired her to launch her own fashion line . The line achieved popularity among celebrities and is worn by stars such as Teri Hatcher , Nicole Kidman , Paris Hilton and Stefani herself . The fashion line made a runway debut in the spring collection of 2004 and achieved mainstream success at New York Fashion Week in 2005 . It currently makes an annual gross income of $ 90 million . The line , as well as the fashion shows , were well received by critics and appreciated the indulgence of a celebrity into the fashion world . An additional fashion line was launched by Stefani called Harajuku Lovers . In late 2014 Stefani announced she would be producing an animated series that was based on the characters Love , Angel , Music and Baby . The series , <unk> Harajuku follows the Harajuku Girls , known together as <unk> , as they fight evil and try to pursue their music career . History Stefani first came face to face with designing clothes when she and her mother would sew clothes for themselves when she was young . Stefani comes from a long line of seamstresses , as even her great - grandmother would sew clothes . Stefani made most of the things she wore onstage during concerts . When she became successful and began to tour constantly , she felt she lost her way . Then she met the stylist Andrea Lieberman . Lieberman introduced her to haute couture clothing . Later Lieberman became her creative consultant and Zaldy Goco took over as the head designer . Goco later parted ways with L.A.M.B. L.A.M.B. started out as a collaboration with LeSportsac in 2003 . The name L.A.M.B. is an acronym which stands for Love . Angel . Music . Baby . , which is also the name of Stefani 's first solo album . Products The fashion line manufactures clothes , shoes , bags and a fragrance called " L " . The brand started out as a line for women but claims the track items are unisex . The clothes were manufactured by Ska Girl LLC , which was founded in 2003 by Ken Erman , president of L.A.M.B. While for its other products , L.A.M.B has been more of a collaborative fashion line . Now the line is teaming up with another manufacturer , which explains why the official website is down . L.A.M.B joined with Royal <unk> for the shoe line . Stefani is widening her footwear line for adults to include boots and stilettos . L.A.M.B collaborated with Coty Inc. for the fragrance and with LeSportsac for handbags in 2003 . Stefani went on to design a new line of handbags with <unk> and Partners in 2006 . The bags feature LeSportsac 's signature rip - stop nylon along with a variety of <unk> metal hardware , leather trims and colorful linings . Stefani plans to design lingerie as well as make - up products for L.A.M.B. L.A.M.B. partnered with Vestal Group on a line of women 's watches . The line consists of 39 timepieces . L.A.M.B. products are relatively expensive , with apparel priced $ 55 to $ 1100 , handbags priced $ 80 to $ 825 , and watches priced $ 125 to $ 995 . Fragrance Coty Inc. announced a global licensing agreement with Stefani , to develop and market fragrances for L.A.M.B. Catherine Walsh , senior vice president , American Fragrances , Coty Prestige , said in a statement - " From the packaging to the bottle design to the distinctive scent itself , we will be working very closely with Stefani to ensure that her signature fragrance captures her rare spirit , style and warmth , " Stefani said , " Creating a fragrance is one of the most prestigious things a designer can do . " The fragrance called " L " was launched in September , 2007 at Soho House in New York . Stefani worked with perfumer Harry Fremont to develop the scent . Stefani described the fragrance as " it 's another thing you can wear and another thing I can be part of creatively . I created it for myself -- it 's like me shrunk into a box . " The perfume is a blend of the aromas of hyacinth , white freesia , fresh pear , violet , jasmine , rose , lily , sweet pea , orange blossom , peach , frangipani , heliotrope and musk . The perfume is available in 50 ml and 100 ml bottles . Promotion and fashion shows Stefani frequently refers to her clothing line in her music , as one of the brand 's promotional strategies . Stefani refers to her clothing line in her songs " Wind It Up , " " Harajuku Girls , " and " Crash " ( which even incorporates the brand 's slogan , " I want you all over me like L.A.M.B. " ) . Stefani is often seen wearing her own designs , especially when making public appearances . A thirty - second commercial directed by Sophie Muller was also released to promote the brand 's fragrance . L.A.M.B. has participated in the Spring / Summer 2006 , 2007 , and 2008 New York Fashion Weeks . Stefani described her first line , which debuted on September 16 , 2005 , as " a little Sound of Music , some Orange County chola girl , some Rasta , and a bit of The Great Gatsby . " The highlights of the show were purple cars bouncing using hydraulics while Stefani 's song " Wind It Up " made its debut as the models walked the runway . For Spring / Summer 2007 , Stefani opted for a presentation rather than a catwalk show . The models , all donning identical blond wigs , wore designs Stefani said were inspired by Michelle Pfeiffer 's role as Elvira Hancock in the 1983 Scarface . The show included some of Stefani 's trademark tracksuits and extensively referenced prints from Guatemala , India , and Japan . On September 5 , 2007 , L.A.M.B opened New York 's Spring / Summer 2008 Mercedes - Benz Fashion Week . The collection " looked like the sixties as seen by someone who grew up in the eighties " and incorporated influences from Stefani 's ska roots . Fashion week organizer Fern Mallis said that celebrity designers provided synergy and energy to the fashion industry , which made Stefani 's collection a desirable opener . Critical reception The line was mostly well received by critics and Stefani was appreciated for taking fashion seriously even though she is a celebrity . Fern Mallis of IMG praised the line and Stefani as well and said , " the L.A.M.B. line is clearly at the top of these lines and is as unique and individual as Gwen herself . " The shoes were well received by the critics , though considered to be pricey . Desiree <unk> of About.com said , " ... these shoes aren 't for everyone , but will most definitely appeal to fans of Ms. Stefani 's music and fashion - sense . " Tim Stack of Entertainment Weekly said , " L.A.M.B. ' s embellished tracksuits , Rasta - inspired knits , and gaucho - heel combos deliver the edge " Nicole Phelps of Style.com said , " The collection , which looked like the sixties as seen by someone who grew up in the eighties , was altogether more wearable and on trend . " Fashion journalist Cathy Horyn of The New York Times differed and said , " If ever there was a reason for a pop star to concentrate on her vocal skills , it was Gwen Stefani 's fashion meltdown . " Commercial success The brand is sold in 275 stores worldwide and is worn by celebrities including Teri Hatcher , Nicole Kidman , Kelly Ripa , Paris Hilton , and Stefani herself . L.A.M.B sales have expanded from $ 40 million in 2005 to a predicted $ 90 million in 2007 . According to a Nordstrom spokesperson , the debut of L.A.M.B. ' s watch line , which sold out in two days , was the store 's most successful watch launch ever . The brand 's designs have appeared in W , Marie Claire , Elle , Lucky and InStyle .
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2016 Volta a Catalunya The 2016 Volta a Catalunya was a road cycling stage race that took place in Catalonia , Spain , from 21 to 27 March . It was the fifth race of the 2016 UCI World Tour and the 96th edition of the Volta a Catalunya . The race included seven stages . Two of these included summit finishes , so the favourites for the race were all climbers . Favourites for overall victory included Chris Froome ( Team Sky ) , Alberto Contador ( Tinkoff ) , Nairo Quintana ( Movistar Team ) and the defending champion Richie Porte ( BMC Racing Team ) : the race was the first meeting of several of the riders expected to feature in the Grand Tours later in the season . The first two stages were Nacer Bouhanni ( Cofidis ) . He then withdrew through illness on the third stage , which included the first summit finish . This was won by Dan Martin ( Etixx – Quick - Step ) , who took over the overall lead . Martin lost the lead , however , on the next stage , the second summit finish of the race , where Quintana won the stage and took over the overall lead . Quintana defended his lead over the following stage to take the overall victory , seven seconds ahead of Contador , with Martin ten seconds further back in third . Thomas De Gendt ( Lotto – Soudal ) won both the mountains and intermediate sprints classifications , with Hugh Carthy ( Caja Rural – Seguros RGA ) winning the young rider classification . BMC won the team classification . Route The 2016 Volta a Catalunya included seven stages , all of which were road stages with no time trials . The first two stages were moderately hilly and were possibly suitable for sprinters . The third and fourth stage both included summit finishes . The third stage finished on the climb of La Molina , with the fourth finishing at Port Ainé . The fifth stage included a climb shortly before the finish , giving an opportunity for an attack , before another flat stage on the sixth day . The final stage finished on a hilly circuit in Barcelona . Following the cancellation of mountain stages in both Paris – Nice and Tirreno – Adriatico in the previous weeks , there was some concern before the start of the race that the Volta might also be affected by heavy snow ; the finish at Port Ainé still had 75 centimetres ( 2 . 5 ft ) of snow on the nearby ski slopes . Participating teams The race organisers invited 25 teams to enter the Volta a Catalunya . These included the eighteen UCI WorldTeams , which were automatically invited and obliged to enter a team . Seven Professional Continental teams received wild card invitations Each team could include eight riders . Astana only included seven riders in their team , so 199 riders started the first stage . Pre - race favourites The race was expected to be decided on its two mountainous days and so was particularly suited for climbers . Cyclingnews.com described the list of favourites for victory at the Volta as " formidable " and as including " almost all the main contenders for both the Giro d ’ Italia and the Tour de France " . Foremost among these was Chris Froome ( Team Sky ) , the reigning champion of the Tour de France . Froome 's only previous race in the 2016 season was the Herald Sun Tour , which he won . Froome had a strong team that included two other possible contenders for overall victory : Geraint Thomas ( who had won Paris – Nice ) and Wout Poels ( who had won the Volta a la <unk> <unk> ) . Froome 's form was , however , described by his directeur sportif as " an incognito " , given the long period since his last race . The prominent riders competing with Froome for overall victory included Alberto Contador ( Tinkoff ) , the reigning champion of the Giro d 'Italia ; Nairo Quintana ( Movistar Team ) , who was second in the 2016 Tour de France ; Fabio Aru ( Astana ) , the reigning champion of the Vuelta a España ; and Richie Porte ( BMC Racing Team ) , the defending champion of the Volta itself . Other riders with a chance of high placings included Joaquim Rodríguez ( Team Katusha ) , who had won the race on two previous occasions , and Dan Martin ( Etixx – Quick - Step ) , the 2013 Volta winner , as well as many other climbers . On account of the mountainous terrain , there were few pure sprinters starting the race . The strongest sprinter who was present was Nacer Bouhanni ( Cofidis ) , who had been strong in Paris – Nice and had been close to victory in Milan – San Remo until his chain slipped . Stages Stage 1 21 March 2016 , Calella to Calella , 175 . 8 km ( 109 . 2 mi ) The first stage of the Volta covered a 175 . 8 - kilometre ( 109 . 2 mi ) course that started and ended on the coast in Calella ; the course looped through an inland region and crossed several climbs . After first travelling along the coast , the riders turned north as far as <unk> , then turned west to cross the day 's first climb , the second - category Alt de les <unk> , followed immediately by the third - category Alt de <unk> . As the roads turned back to the south , there was then a flat section before the biggest climb of the day , the first - category Coli Formic . After the descent came the second - category Alt de Montseny and the final climb of the day , the third - category Alt de <unk> . The summit of the final climb came with 18 . 2 kilometres ( 11 . 3 mi ) to the finish line , on a long straight road in Calella . An early breakaway was formed by Lluís Mas ( Caja Rural – Seguros RGA ) , Boris Dron ( Wanty – Groupe Gobert ) and Cameron Meyer ( Team Dimension Data ) ; they built a lead of over six minutes . From the climb of the Coll Formic , however , they were chased by Movistar and Cofidis ; Meyer was the first over the summit to take the lead of the mountains classification , but they were caught soon afterwards . On the Alt de Montseny , Louis Vervaeke ( Lotto – Soudal ) broke away , with a six - man group chasing ; meanwhile the main group split in two until Vasil Kiryienka ( Sky ) pulled the groups back together . With 15 kilometres ( 9 . 3 mi ) remaining , Sky and Cofidis came to the front of the peloton to control the race for their sprinters . Björn Thurau attacked and was quickly brought back ; Nicolas Roche ( Sky ) then attacked on a slight uphill section of road with approximately 5 kilometres ( 3 . 1 mi ) remaining and built a twelve - second lead . He was caught , however , by Tinkoff and Orica – GreenEDGE within the final 2 kilometres ( 1 . 2 mi ) . After Katusha led the peloton under the flamme rouge , Orica – GreenEDGE opened up the sprint with Simon Gerrans . Ben Swift ( Sky ) and Nacer Bouhanni ( Cofidis ) followed Gerrans and Bouhanni came past to win the stage . Swift was second , with Gerrans third . Stage 2 22 March , Mataró to Olot , 178 . 7 km ( 111 . 0 mi ) The second stage was raced over a 178 . 7 - kilometre ( 111 . 0 mi ) course from Mataró to Olot . The stage was generally flat , with two categorised climbs . The first of these was the third - category Alt de Can <unk> after 30 kilometres ( 18 . 6 mi ) . The second was the first - category Alt de Els Angels ; at the summit of the climb there were 70 kilometres ( 43 mi ) remaining . In the final 15 kilometres ( 9 . 3 mi ) , the roads rose again , although there was not a categorised climb and the final kilometres were flat . There was a 270 ° turn with just over 1 kilometre ( 0 . 62 mi ) remaining ; after this the road was straight all the way to the finish . Before the stage started , there was a minute 's silence to acknowledge the bombings in Brussels that morning , with many riders – especially the Belgians – wearing black armbands . There was a four - man early breakaway that included two Belgians – Boris Dron ( Wanty – Groupe Gobert ) and Thomas De Gendt ( Lotto – Soudal ) – alongside Kamil <unk> ( <unk> <unk> ) and Maxime Bouet ( Etixx – <unk> ) . Dron was first across both categorised climbs , with De Gendt winning both intermediate sprints and the associated bonus seconds . Dron fell away from the break with 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) remaining ; shortly afterwards De Gendt attacked alone . About 7 kilometres ( 4 . 3 mi ) later , however , he gave up on his effort , as Cofidis were chasing too hard in the main peloton . In the final 10 kilometres ( 6 . 2 mi ) , there were several teams attempting to control the peloton – including Team Sky with Chris Froome sitting in second place in an attempt to keep him out of danger . Movistar moved to the front with 3 kilometres ( 1 . 9 mi ) remaining , with FDJ and Orica – GreenEDGE also at the front . In the final 1 kilometre ( 0 . 62 mi ) , however , Cofidis moved back to the front , with Geoffrey <unk> leading out Bouhanni . Bouhanni easily won the sprint , with Gianni Meersman ( Etixx – Quick - Step ) second and Philippe Gilbert ( BMC ) third . Bouhanni therefore extended his lead to 14 seconds ahead of Swift – who finished outside the top 10 – and De Gendt , who moved up to third thanks to the bonus seconds he won . Bouhanni revealed after the stage that he had been suffering from a sore stomach and had visited the race doctor . Stage 3 23 March , Girona to La Molina , 172 . 1 km ( 106 . 9 mi ) The third stage included the first summit finish of the race . It covered a 172 . 1 - kilometre ( 106 . 9 mi ) route from Girona to the La Molina ski resort . The route generally took the riders north - west , with four first - category climbs along the way . After passing through Olot , where Stage 2 had finished , the riders crossed the Alt de <unk> after 63 kilometres ( 39 . 15 mi ) . There was then a long climb to the Alt de <unk> , the highest climb of the day , which came with 56 kilometres ( 34 . 80 mi ) to the finish line . After the descent , the riders passed through Alp , then began the first climb to La Molina , a 12 . 6 - kilometre ( 7 . 8 mi ) climb at an average gradient of 4 . 2 % , including a descent towards the top . The riders then descended back into Alp and repeated the climb ; the finish of the stage came at the ski station itself . The day 's early breakaway was formed by seven riders : Julian Alaphilippe ( Etixx – Quick - Step ) , Koen <unk> ( LottoNL – Jumbo ) , Kévin Reza ( FDJ ) , Johann Van Zyl ( Dimension Data ) , Jan Hirt ( CCC – Sprandi – Polkowice ) , Huub Duyn ( Roompot – Oranje Peloton ) and Alex Howes ( Cannondale ) . On the day 's first climb , Bouhanni lost several minutes due to his stomach illness ; after 90 kilometres ( 56 mi ) he was over seven minutes behind the peloton and was forced to retire from the race . Howes and Duyn attacked the breakaway and had a 31 - second lead going into the first of the two ascents of La Molina . During the climb , Pieter Weening ( Roompot ) attacked from the peloton and caught the two breakaway riders ; almost immediately he attacked alone and built a gap . Meanwhile , Team Sky led the peloton with all eight riders , with Movistar close behind ; they quickly caught Howes and Duyn . Weening had about a minute 's advantage at the top of the climb . During the descent , the peloton chased hard and reduced Weening 's advantage to 30 seconds , with Sky still leading the peloton . Louis Meintjes ( Lampre – Merida ) crashed shortly before the final climb began . On the climb , Louis Vervaeke attacked with 10 kilometres ( 6 mi ) remaining and passed Weening . Within the final 5 kilometres ( 3 . 1 mi ) , the peloton caught him and the peloton stayed together , led by Sky , as the road descended briefly before the final ascent to the finishing line . Wout Poels ( Sky ) attacked as the road began to rise , but was followed by Contador . Quintana attacked next and was chased by Ilnur Zakarin ( Katusha ) and Contador . Richie Porte attempted to escape the group , but he was chased down by Froome . Quintana then attacked again and was followed by Dan Martin , who then passed Quintana and moved into the lead . Tejay van Garderen ( BMC ) chased , with Contador following , but Martin was able to stay away to the finish line . Contador finished two seconds back , with Romain Bardet ( AG2R La Mondiale ) third and van Garderen fourth , all on the same time . With the bonus seconds , Martin moved into the overall lead , six seconds ahead of Contador . Stage 4 24 March , <unk> to Port Ainé , 172 . 2 km ( 107 . 0 mi ) The fourth stage included the second and final summit finish of the race . It covered a 172 . 2 - kilometre ( 107 . 0 mi ) route from <unk> to Port Ainé , with four categorised climbs on the route . The first climb came at the very beginning of the day 's racing ; it was a third - category climb whose summit came 5 . 6 kilometres ( 3 . 5 mi ) into the stage . There was then a long flat section – which passed through Alp again – before the special - category Port de Cantó . After a steep descent , there was a first - category climb , followed by a descent . The final climb to Port Ainé was 18 . 5 kilometres ( 11 . 5 mi ) at 6 . 8 % . The early breakaway was formed by Philippe Gilbert ( BMC ) , Imanol Erviti ( Movistar ) , Rubén Plaza ( Orica – GreenEDGE ) , Thomas De Gendt ( Lotto – Soudal ) , Laurens ten Dam ( Giant – Alpecin ) , Kristijan Đurasek ( Lampre – Merida ) , Pieter Weening ( Roompot ) , Boris Dron ( Wanty – Groupe Gobert ) , Alexey Tsatevich ( Katusha ) and Ben Swift ( Team Sky ) . Dron won the special - category climb , with the lead over the peloton at around ten minutes . The breakaway then broke up , with De Gendt and Erviti continuing together at the front of the race ; on the penultimate climb , they had a seven - minute advantage on the peloton . Weening made contact with them again just before the summit of the climb and they collaborated on the descent . Coming towards the base of the final climb , Wout Poels ( Sky ) attacked from the peloton and linked up with Swift ; despite their work , they were unable to build a significant advantage as Contador chased them . On the final climb , Erviti attacked , but he was soon passed by Weening , who built up a minute 's lead . Poels was eventually caught with 5 kilometres ( 3 . 1 mi ) remaining , while De Gendt had caught up with Weening again . There were several attacks in the peloton , from Mikel Nieve ( Sky ) , Robert Gesink ( LottoNL – Jumbo ) and Miguel Ángel López ( Astana ) , but the first strong attack came from van Garderen . Contador eventually chased him , with Porte , Quintana and Martin following , but Martin was soon dropped . Van Garderen was caught by Contador 's group and Contador and Quintana then dropped the BMC riders . Meanwhile , De Gendt passed Weening and continued solo to take the stage win . Quintana attacked in the final 1 kilometre ( 0 . 62 mi ) and finished second , 15 seconds ahead of Porte and Contador . Quintana therefore took over the race lead , with Contador eight seconds behind in second . After the stage , Contador blamed his time loss to Quintana on the effort he had put into chasing down attacks in the final kilometres , in particular that of van Garderen . Porte also praised van Garderen 's efforts and was pleased with their collaboration . Froome , meanwhile , lost 37 seconds to Quintana and his directeur sportif , Nicolas Portal , said that he " didn 't have the legs " to follow the leaders ' attacks . Stage 5 25 March , <unk> to Valls , 187 . 2 km ( 116 . 3 mi ) After two consecutive summit finishes , the fifth stage was simpler , with a 187 . 2 - kilometre ( 116 . 3 mi ) stage with just two categorised climbs . The route took the riders south from <unk> to Valls . The first 65 kilometres ( 40 mi ) of the stage was fairly flat , before the second - category Port d <unk> climb . The roads continued to be flat until the final 40 kilometres ( 25 mi ) of the stage . First there was an uncategorised climb with a summit around 35 kilometres ( 22 mi ) before the finish . Then , in the final 15 kilometres ( 9 . 3 mi ) , there was the Alt de Lilla , a 4 . 1 - kilometre ( 2 . 5 mi ) , second - category climb with an average gradient of 4 . 8 % . After the final descent , the road slightly to the finish . No breakaway was formed in the first two - and - a - half hours of racing . Dan Martin won the day 's first intermediate sprint , earning him three bonus seconds , with Contador taking one second for third place at the sprint . Eventually , after more than 100 kilometres ( 62 mi ) of racing , a seven - rider breakaway was formed . The riders in the breakaway were Carlos Verona ( Etixx – Quick - Step ) , Dario Cataldo ( Astana ) , Jan Polanc ( Lampre – Merida ) , Kanstantsin Sivtsov ( Dimension Data ) , Tosh Van der Sande ( Lotto – Soudal ) , and Gaëtan Bille and Frederik Veuchelen ( both Wanty – Groupe Gobert ) . With 15 kilometres ( 9 . 3 mi ) remaining , the breakaway had two minutes ' lead . On the Alt de Lilla , Poels attacked alone . At the summit , Poels had a lead of 20 seconds over the other breakaway riders . Cataldo and Verona attempted to chase him down , but their failure to collaborate in the chase meant that Sivtsov and Bille were able to catch them ; Poels 's lead extended to 30 seconds . In the final kilometres , the chase group got closer to him , but he was able to take the stage win , eleven seconds ahead of the chasing group . In the main peloton , Quintana followed Contador on the climb . Daniel Navarro ( Cofidis ) , Rigoberto Urán ( Cannondale ) and Romain Bardet ( AG2R La Mondiale ) all attempted attacks but were unable to escape . The peloton of 66 riders finished 33 seconds behind Poels , with no change to the overall standings . Stage 6 26 March , Sant Joan <unk> to Vilanova i la Geltrú , 197 . 2 km ( 122 . 5 mi ) The sixth stage took the riders 197 . 2 kilometres ( 122 . 5 mi ) from Sant Joan <unk> to Vilanova i la Geltrú . The riders initially travelled along the coast , crossing the third - category Alt de la Maradona , then turned inland for a long loop . The day 's most significant climb , the second - category Alt de la <unk> , came after 110 kilometres ( 68 mi ) , but the roads were otherwise mainly flat . The route turned back towards the coast to the finish . One of the principal sprinters left in the race , Sky 's Ben Swift , pulled out of the stage before the start due to illness . There was again a fast start to the stage . Riders attempted to form a breakaway , but the teams with overall favourites sought to give their riders a chance at contesting the intermediate sprint that came after 12 kilometres ( 7 . 5 mi ) . The sprint was won by Dan Martin , putting him just one second off the overall podium . After another 50 kilometres ( 31 mi ) of racing , the day 's breakaway was finally formed by eleven riders : Petr Vakoč ( Etixx – Quick - Step ) , Esteban Chaves ( Orica – GreenEDGE ) , Laurens Ten Dam ( Giant – Alpecin ) , Ryder Hesjedal ( Trek – Segafredo ) , Bert - Jan Lindeman ( LottoNL – Jumbo ) , Alex Howes ( Cannondale ) , Cameron Meyer ( Dimension Data ) , Axel Domont ( AG2R La Mondiale ) , Romain Hardy and Rudy Molard ( both Cofidis ) , and Marco <unk> ( Wanty – Groupe Gobert ) . Around halfway through the stage , they had a lead of five minutes but , due to the flat terrain , there were several teams with sprinters who were determined to bring the break back . Lampre – Merida did most of the work at the front of the peloton ; several riders also fell away from the breakaway during the course of the stage . In the final 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) , Trek – Segafredo joined in the chase ; Tinkoff then tried to split the peloton in the crosswinds but were unsuccessful . With 15 kilometres ( 9 . 3 mi ) remaining , the breakaway had a 40 - second lead . Vakoč made a failed attempt at a solo attack ; the lead was reduced to 20 seconds with 7 kilometres ( 4 . 3 mi ) remaining . Meyer , Lindeman , Vakoč and Molard attacked again and stayed clear of the peloton into the final kilometre . The chasing group was close , however , and Meyer made another attack ; he was caught in the final 100 metres ( 330 ft ) . Davide Cimolai ( Lampre – Merida ) used the slipstream of the breakaway riders to launch his sprint and won the stage comfortably . It was Cimolai 's first ever World Tour victory , and Lampre – Merida 's first victory at any level in 2016 . Stage 7 27 March , Barcelona to Barcelona , 136 . 4 km ( 84 . 8 mi ) The final stage followed a 136 . 4 - kilometre ( 84 . 8 mi ) course that started and finished in Barcelona . The stage began by taking the riders north out of the city as far as <unk> , where there was a second - category climb . The route then turned back south , crossing a third - category climb as it returned to Barcelona after 80 kilometres ( 50 mi ) of racing . There were then eight laps of a 6 . 5 - kilometre ( 4 . 0 mi ) finishing circuit , each lap including the third - category climb of the Alt de Montjuïc . Early in the stage , Dan Martin came third in an intermediate sprint , giving him a bonus second . He was level on time with Porte , but moved ahead of him into third place thanks to his better placings through the race . There was then a 12 - man breakaway , whose lead was over three minutes at the start of the first circuit . There were attacks in the breakaway group from <unk> Mas ( Caja Rural – Seguros RGA ) and Matej Mohorič ( Lampre – Merida ) . In the peloton , there was a brief attack by Contador , then a more significant attack from Fabio Aru . Aru was joined by Barguil and Vervaeke and they gained half a minute . They were brought back by Quintana 's Movistar team ; Froome then immediately made an attack . Quintana chased the move down himself , with Contador , Rodríguez and Navarro following , and the group was caught by the peloton . Hugh Carthy ( Caja Rural – Seguros RGA ) also made an unsuccessful attack . Mohorič was passed by Alexey Tsatevich ( Katusha ) and <unk> <unk> ( LottoNL – Jumbo ) , who went on to contest a two - man sprint . Tsatevich won the sprint , despite an early celebration that nearly allowed <unk> to come past him . The peloton finished together , 14 seconds behind , with <unk> <unk> ( IAM ) winning the sprint for third place . Quintana therefore sealed his overall victory , with Contador second and Martin third . Post - race analysis Reactions Quintana described himself as " very pleased and proud " with his victory , describing it as one of the toughest races of his career , especially after his team was reduced to five riders in the final stages . He said , however , that he did not believe he was significantly ahead of Contador , Froome or his other rivals for the major races later in the season , saying that " there ’ s a long way to go for the Tour " . Contador , meanwhile , described himself as " very happy with how I 'm feeling " , though he described it as a " pity " that he had lost Paris – Nice by four seconds and the Volta a Catalunya by seven . He suggested that he could have won the race had he ridden differently on Stage 4 to Port - Ainé . Nicolas Portal , Chris Froome 's directeur sportif , described his form as " very encouraging " , saying that all he lacked was the top - end speed when the other riders accelerated at the end of the mountain stages . One other prominent performance was that of Hugh Carthy , who finished ninth overall and won the young rider classification . He described it as " by far the best [ he 'd ] ever performed " ; Cyclingnews.com described it as a " breakthrough performance " . UCI World Tour standings The top ten riders in the Volta a Catalunya general classification were awarded points in the 2016 UCI World Tour competition . Points were also awarded for finishing in the top five places on each stage . With the points from the Volta , Quintana entered the rankings in eighth place , while Contador moved from tenth to third . Despite his fourth place , Porte was unable to defend his first place in the rankings , as Peter Sagan ( Tinkoff ) had won points from both the E3 Harelbeke and the Gent – Wevelgem and moved into the lead . Tinkoff also moved into the lead of the teams ' rankings , while Australia remained top in the nations ' rankings . Classifications In the 2016 Volta a Catalunya , four different jerseys were awarded . The most important of these was the general classification , calculated by adding each rider 's finishing times on each stage . Time bonuses were awarded to the first three riders at the intermediate sprints on each stage ( 3 , 2 and 1 seconds respectively ) and at each stage finish ( 10 , 6 and 4 seconds ) . The leader wore a white and green jersey . A related competition was the youth classification : the highest - ranked rider born after 1 January 1991 was the leader of this classification and wore a " design " jersey . Additionally , there was a sprints classification , the leader of which was awarded a white jersey . In the sprints classification , riders received points for finishing in the top three at intermediate sprint points during each stage . There was also a mountains classification , the leadership of which was marked by a red jersey . Points for this classification were won by the first riders to the top of each categorised climb , with more points available for the higher - categorised climbs . There was also a classification for teams , in which the times of the best three cyclists per team on each stage were added together ; the leading team at the end of the race was the team with the lowest total time . Classification leadership table Final classifications
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Peter Holmes Peter James Holmes ( born 18 November 1980 ) is an English former professional footballer who played as a midfielder . He is a coach at National League South club Hemel Hempstead Town . Holmes started his career with Sheffield Wednesday and after failing to make any first team appearances he joined Luton Town . He was released by the club due to financial reasons in the summer of 2003 , but was eventually handed a new contract in November . After being loaned out to Chesterfield and Lincoln City during the 2006 – 07 season , Holmes left Luton , having made over 100 appearances for the club . He was signed by Rotherham United , who loaned him out to Conference Premier team York City in 2008 . He was released by Rotherham in 2009 and was signed by Harrogate Town , before joining Ebbsfleet United . Following Ebbsfleet 's relegation he signed for Hayes & Yeading United . Club career Sheffield Wednesday and Luton Town Born in Bishop Auckland , County Durham , Holmes graduated through The Football Association 's School of Excellence . He started his career with Premier League club Sheffield Wednesday as a trainee in their youth system before signing a professional contract on 2 December 1997 , and was promoted to the first team for the 1999 – 2000 season . After failing to appear for the team , Holmes was signed by Luton Town on 1 August 2000 on a three - year contract for a nominal fee . Luton manager Ricky Hill had been impressed by the player while working as a coach at Wednesday . Holmes made his debut for Luton after being introduced as an 58th - minute substitute in a 1 – 0 defeat at home to Notts County in the Second Division on 12 August 2000 . He scored his first goal for Luton with their second goal in a 3 – 2 home victory over Peterborough United on 26 December 2000 , and played his final game of 2000 – 01 at Oldham Athletic on 23 January 2001 , where he was substituted for Liam George in the 55th - minute . He was transfer listed in April 2001 by manager Joe Kinnear and completed his first season at the club with 22 appearances and one goal , after which Luton were relegated to the Third Division . Holmes suffered from soreness in his leg after collapsing in a game against Rushden & Diamonds in December 2001 . He returned to action to score from the edge of the penalty area in a 3 – 1 away victory against Swansea City on 30 March 2002 ; this goal secured Luton 's return to the Second Division . Holmes ' 2001 – 02 season was ended with 10 appearances and one goal after suffering a knee ligament injury during Luton 's 4 – 0 victory at Hull City on 6 April 2002 . He suffered a groin strain during the 2 – 1 home defeat to Cambridge United in the Football League Trophy on 10 December 2002 . He made his return to Luton 's first team in a 3 – 2 away defeat to Mansfield Town on 4 March 2003 after coming on as a 74th - minute substitute . He then scored in the following game against Huddersfield Town , being assisted by an Ian Hillier cross in the 71st - minute to help Luton to a 3 – 0 victory on 8 March 2003 . He finished 2002 – 03 with 23 appearances and two goals , but missed Luton 's final game of the season after picking up a hamstring injury during a 1 – 1 draw with Stockport County on 26 April 2003 . Holmes was released by Luton in July 2003 after the offer of a new contract was withdrawn because of financial difficulties at the club , but he continued to train with the team and eventually signed a contract in November . His first appearance of the season came after starting in Luton 's 0 – 0 draw at Holmes ' former club Sheffield Wednesday , before scoring his first goal on 10 January 2004 with a header in a 2 – 2 draw with Rushden & Diamonds . Holmes was the oldest central midfielder in the team after starting in the FA Cup match against Tranmere Rovers , due to other players being injured , during which he gave away the possession for Micky Mellon to score the winner for Tranmere in the 81st - minute . He finished 2003 – 04 with 20 appearances and scored three goals . Luton won promotion into the Championship in 2004 – 05 after winning the League One title , while Holmes made 20 appearances and scored three goals . Following this achievement , he signed a new one - year contract with the club in June 2005 . The winning goal for Luton in a 2 – 1 victory over Cardiff City in October was scored by Holmes from close range , which brought an end to the opposition ' eight match unbeaten run . He suffered from a twisted knee during a match against Derby County on 26 December 2005 , eventually returning to action from a hamstring injury in February 2006 by playing in a reserve match against Southend United . His competitive return was in a 3 – 3 draw against Cardiff , where he came on as a substitute for Dean Morgan on 82 minutes . He completed 2005 – 06 with 25 appearances and scored two goals , when Luton finished 10th in the Championship . Following the conclusion of the season , he signed a new one - year contract in June 2006 . He joined League One side Chesterfield on a one - month loan on 12 January 2007 , making his debut the following day in a 1 – 0 away victory over Rotherham United , in which he forced goalkeeper Neil Cutler into making a good save . Chesterfield were given the lead by Holmes in a match away to Huddersfield Town with a header from a Kyle Critchell cross , which eventually finished a 1 – 1 draw . The loan was extended for a second month on 8 February 2007 , and Holmes said he would consider signing for the club permanently when the loan expired . He eventually finished his spell at Chesterfield with 10 appearances and scored one goal . He joined Lincoln City of League Two on loan until the end of 2006 – 07 on 22 March 2007 . His debut came in a 3 – 2 home defeat to Swindon Town and he completed the loan spell with five appearances . Rotherham United Luton released Holmes on 8 May 2007 following their relegation to League One , after he had spent nearly seven years with the club . He eventually signed for Rotherham United of League Two on a two - year contract on 14 June 2007 . His debut for Rotherham was in a 0 – 0 draw against Hereford United on 10 August 2007 and he scored his first goal for the team against Notts County on 22 September with a 25 - yard shot into the far corner . Holmes finished 2007 – 08 with 27 appearances and two goals . After making only one appearance during 2008 – 09 , he joined York City in the Conference Premier on a one - month loan on 22 September 2008 and made his debut a day later in a 2 – 0 defeat to Kidderminster Harriers . He scored for the team in the following game with a six - yard shot from a Craig Farrell pass , which finished as a 3 – 3 draw with Stevenage Borough . He suffered from a hip injury , which resulted him in missing York 's 3 – 1 defeat against Wrexham . His final game for York was a 2 – 0 victory against Rushden & Diamonds and he finished the loan spell with five appearances and one goal , before returning to Rotherham on 18 October 2008 after being recalled by the club . Weeks after returning to Rotherham , it was suggested that Holmes might be loaned out again after failing to break back into the team . It was over a month before Holmes eventually made his first appearance for Rotherham since returning , after starting in the 2 – 0 defeat at home to Bradford City on 21 November 2008 . Harrogate Town and Ebbsfleet United He was released by Rotherham at the end of the season , after not being offered a new contract by the club , and he was signed by Conference North team Harrogate Town on 25 September 2009 . Holmes made his first and only appearance for Harrogate in a 4 – 0 away defeat to Bradford Park Avenue in the FA Cup second qualifying round on 26 September 2009 . He joined Conference Premier team Ebbsfleet United on 9 October 2009 , making his debut a day later in a 4 – 0 defeat to Cambridge United . His first goal was with the winner in a 2 – 1 victory over Mansfield Town on 28 November 2009 , scoring from close range from a Magno Vieira pass . He made 29 appearances and scored two goals for Ebbsfleet during the 2009 – 10 as they were relegated to the Conference South . Hayes & Yeading United Holmes received a contract offer from Hayes & Yeading United in July 2010 and he signed for the club on 2 August . He made his debut in the opening game of 2010 – 11 , a 2 – 1 home victory over Bath City on 14 August 2010 . His first goal for the club came a curling shot from a Jamie Hand assist in a 2 – 1 defeat at Kettering Town on 2 October 2010 . Holmes finished the season with 47 appearances and five goals . Later career Holmes signed for Dunstable Town of the Spartan South Midlands Football League Premier Division in August 2011 . He spent 2011 – 12 with Dunstable before signing for Southern League Premier Division club Hemel Hempstead Town in May 2012 . He made 28 appearances in 2012 – 13 before joining the club 's coaching staff . International career Holmes made his debut for the England national under - 16 team in a 1 – 0 home defeat to France on 28 September 1996 . His final appearance came in a 5 – 1 away defeat to Scotland on 6 March 1997 , meaning he finished his England under - 16 career with four caps . Style of play Holmes was a hard working midfielder who possessed skill and could make neat passes , although he had been criticised for lacking in physical strength and tackling . He preferred to play as a central midfielder , although was able to play on the left side of midfield and was equally comfortable playing with either foot . Career statistics Honours Luton Town Football League One : 2004 – 05
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The Revolution Will Not Be Televised ( film ) The Revolution Will Not Be Televised ( Spanish : La revolución no será <unk> ) , also known as Chávez : Inside the Coup , is a 2003 documentary focusing on events in Venezuela leading up to and during the April 2002 coup d 'état attempt , which saw President Hugo Chávez removed from office for two days . With particular emphasis on the role played by Venezuela 's private media , the film examines several key incidents : the protest march and subsequent violence that provided the impetus for Chávez 's ousting ; the opposition 's formation of an interim government headed by business leader Pedro Carmona ; and the Carmona administration 's collapse , which paved the way for Chávez 's return . The Revolution Will Not Be Televised was directed by Irish filmmakers Kim Bartley and <unk> Ó Briain . Given direct access to Chávez , the filmmakers intended to make a fly - on - the - wall biography of the president . They spent seven months filming in Venezuela , following Chávez and his staff and interviewing ordinary citizens . As the coup unfolded on 11 April , Bartley and Ó Briain filmed on the streets of the capital , Caracas , capturing footage of protesters and the erupting violence . Later , they filmed many of the political upheavals inside Miraflores , the presidential palace . Bartley and Ó Briain conceived of the film after Bartley returned from documenting the aftermath of the 1999 Vargas mudslides for an Irish charity . Following a visit to Venezuela to determine the feasibility of a film project , the pair formed a production company and applied to Ireland 's film board , Bord <unk> na hÉireann ( BSÉ ) , for a development grant . At BSÉ 's request , the filmmakers partnered with a more experienced producer and shot a short pilot to show to potential investors . Funding for the € 200 , 000 production was provided by BSÉ and several European broadcasters . Bartley and Ó Briain shot more than 200 hours of material ; editing focused on identifying footage that would make the film entertaining and drive the plot . It was at this stage that the film 's coverage narrowed to concentrate more on the coup attempt . The film was positively received by mainstream film critics and won several awards . Reviewers cited the filmmakers ' unprecedented proximity to key events and praised the film for its " riveting narrative " ; criticism focused on its lack of context and pro - Chávez bias . First shown on television in Europe and Venezuela in 2003 , The Revolution Will Not Be Televised later appeared at film festivals and secured a limited theatrical release on the art house circuit . Independent activists held unofficial screenings , and Venezuelan government officials encouraged its circulation to build support for Chávez 's administration . The film is regularly shown on Venezuelan television , and in the capital it is often broadcast during " contentious political <unk> " . The Revolution Will Not Be Televised paints Chávez in a favorable light , which has led to disputes over its neutrality and accuracy ; particular attention is paid to its framing of the violence of 11 – 13 April , the filmmakers ' editing of the timeline , and the alleged omission of incidents and personnel . The film is variously cited as an accurate portrayal or a misrepresentation of the events of April 2002 . Background Throughout much of the twentieth century , Venezuela was beset by political , civil and military unrest . After Juan Vicente Gómez 's long reign as president ended in 1935 , a series of military rulers followed , concluding with Marcos Pérez Jiménez 's overthrow by general uprising in 1958 . Although the military remained influential , Venezuela 's government has since been chosen by civilians through democratic processes . Until 1998 , the dominant political parties were Acción Democrática and <unk> , who shared seven presidencies between them . In 1989 , during the second term in office for Acción Democrática 's Carlos Andrés Pérez , Venezuela was hit by a severe economic crisis . A wave of protests known as the <unk> engulfed the country and dozens were killed in rioting . Hugo Chávez , then a Lieutenant Colonel in the army , had formed a secret revolutionary group ( MBR - 200 ) in the early 1980s and was planning a " rebellious intervention " . He later felt the <unk> was a missed opportunity for his movement . Three years later , Chávez saw another chance ; in February 1992 , he led an unsuccessful military coup d 'état and was imprisoned . A second coup attempt , without his involvement , also failed . Chávez enjoyed some popular support for his actions . Released from prison in 1994 , he recast his revolutionary group as a legitimate socialist political party , the Fifth Republic Movement . The movement adopted former Venezuelan leader Simón Bolívar as its " iconic hero " and " reference point " ; Bolívar had played a key role in Latin America 's successful struggle for independence from Spain in the 1820s . In the 1998 presidential election , Chávez won 56 . 2 % of the vote , on a promise to " end the corruption of several decades " and institute a new Bolivarian Revolution that he felt would secure Latin America 's true independence from the outside world . Chávez strengthened his support among the poor with a series of social initiatives known as the Bolivarian Missions , and created a network of grass - roots workers ' councils , the Bolivarian Circles . Nevertheless , by early 2002 , Venezuela was " embroiled ... in a severe political crisis " as Chávez sought to bring more of the country 's vast oil wealth under state control . Although the state - owned radio and television stations remained staunch advocates of Chávez 's stated policies — to redistribute the nation 's wealth to the poorest — the private media was more hostile . The crisis reached a head when Chávez attempted to remove the management of the state oil company , Petróleos de Venezuela ( PDVSA ) , provoking a showdown . " Oil managers , business leaders , and large segments of organized labor " called a general strike . The strike was backed by a large segment of the population , " particularly the country 's increasingly impoverished middle class " and army officers upset at the increasing politicization of the military . On 11 April 2002 , hundreds of thousands of people marched in protest against the government . Abandoning their planned route , the marchers advanced towards the palace , a path that took them close to government supporters who had come out in opposition to the protest . Journalist Phil Gunson wrote , " Shooting broke out on all sides . A score of civilians died and more than 150 suffered gunshot wounds . The military high command called for Chávez to resign , and at 3 : 20 the next morning they announced he had agreed to do so . The presidency was assumed by a business leader , Pedro Carmona , but his government collapsed in less than forty - eight hours and Chávez returned to power . " Synopsis The Revolution Will Not Be Televised opens in 2001 with footage of Chávez as he tours the country . Met with " popular enthusiasm " , he speaks at rallies , decrying neoliberalism and the international community 's attacks on his character . The film outlines Chávez 's rise to power , before covering his day - to - day routine and appearances on his television show , Aló Presidente , which includes a phone - in for citizens to speak with the president . Chávez outlines his aspiration to be seen as a modern - day Bolívar . Clips from Venezuelan and United States news reports demonstrate a " relentless campaign " against the president . Interviews with communities from both sides of the political divide indicate how Chávez is seen by the rich and poor . The latter support his stated aim to redistribute the country 's oil wealth ; the former fear totalitarianism and are worried Chávez will institute communism . In February 2002 , the media war intensifies after Chavez takes control of PDVSA . The film states that the company was previously run as a private interest for the benefit of a minority , despite being state - owned . Business leader Pedro Carmona and union boss Carlos Ortega are the main voices of the opposition . After the pair visit Washington , D.C. , the CIA and the State Department express concern about Chávez 's rule and stress the importance of Venezuela 's oil . A Venezuelan general appears on private television to voice similar disquiet . Carmona appeals for a public protest at the offices of PDVSA . On 11 April , opposition protesters begin their march outside PDVSA 's headquarters in Caracas ; Chávez 's supporters gather outside the presidential palace . The protest route is changed to take it to the palace ; shots ring out and civilians are killed . The private media blames Chávez 's supporters , citing footage that shows them shooting at opposition protesters from a bridge . The narration states , " What the TV stations didn 't broadcast was [ this camera angle ] , which clearly shows that the streets below were empty . The opposition march had never taken that route . " Later , the state television signal is cut ; rumors circulate that the opposition has taken over the studio . At the palace , members of the military high command demand Chávez 's resignation , threatening to bomb the building . The president refuses to resign , but submits to their custody . He is led away , and Carmona announces on television that a transitional government will be established . On 12 April , opposition leaders appear on private television , where they disclose their plan to unseat Chávez . Carmona is sworn in as president while images play of unrest on the streets . Defying media censorship , Chávez 's supporters disseminate the story that the president did not resign . On 13 April , they gather to protest outside Miraflores , while palace guards plot to retake the building . The guards take up key positions and , at a prearranged signal , take members of the new government prisoner . The state television channel is relaunched and urges the army to back Chávez . " Full military control " is returned to the Chávez administration and the president arrives at the palace amid celebratory scenes . Chávez makes an address in which he says it is fine to oppose him , but not the Constitution of Venezuela . The closing titles say Carmona fled to Miami while under house arrest , and that Ortega went into hiding , only reappearing to help lead the opposition after Chávez said there would be no repercussions . Most of the dissident generals , after being expelled from the army , fled to the US . Others remained as part of the opposition . Production Development In December 1999 , independent Irish filmmaker Kim Bartley visited Venezuela as part of Concern Worldwide 's emergency response team , to document the aftermath of the 1999 Vargas mudslides that had devastated much of Vargas State in the north of the country . Bartley become fascinated with how those affected by the tragedy perceived Chávez , and in late 2000 , she and <unk> Ó Briain — a filmmaker and former colleague who shared her interest in " Latin American politics and issues around globalization " — spent two weeks in Caracas to determine the feasibility of a film project . The pair formed a production company , Runway Films , and in January 2001 applied to Ireland 's film board , Bord <unk> na hÉireann ( BSÉ ) , for a development grant . Bartley and Ó Briain proposed a fly - on - the - wall documentary , a " personal profile and intimate portrait " of Chávez that would be " broadly supportive " of him . During their 2000 visit , the filmmakers had sensed that " something genuinely was happening " in Caracas , and felt an urgency to get the project underway ; even so , it wasn 't until April 2001 that BSÉ approved the £ 6000 ( € 9500 ) grant . The project was at this point named Aló Presidente , a working title taken from Chávez 's weekly television and radio program . BSÉ set about exploring avenues of funding ; the organization persuaded Bartley and Ó Briain to make a short pilot to show to potential investors , but refused the filmmakers ' application for a € 60 , 000 grant towards their € 131 , 000 production budget . BSÉ felt the pair needed to partner with a production company that had experience in the field , and which could help raise the remaining funds . Bartley and Ó Briain approached Power Pictures and , with the addition of David Power as a producer , reapplied for the grant . Even as filming began , the full budget — now at € 200 , 000 — had not been secured . David Power pitched the project at several documentary festivals and markets . At Dublin 's Stranger Than Fiction festival in September 2001 , the BBC , S4C and Channel 4 declined to invest . Raidió Teilifís Éireann ( RTÉ ) expressed interest in providing development funds ; no such deal was made , but RTÉ did offer € 10 , 000 ( subsequently € 20 , 000 ) for the Irish broadcast rights . In October , the Dutch broadcaster Nederlandse <unk> Stichting also committed € 10 , 000 . At a November market in Amsterdam , Power once again approached the BBC and was turned down , as the organization believed the film 's subject was " too far away to be relevant to [ its viewers ' ] lives " . However , RTÉ 's Kevin Dawson pushed the film at a European Broadcasting Union pitching session , securing the interest of German television channel ZDF , which subsequently provided funds . In late 2001 , BSÉ finally approved a production grant of € 63 , 000 . Filming In 2000 , Bartley and Ó Briain had been promised " exclusive access " to Chávez by the government 's Minister of Communications . They arrived in Venezuela in September 2001 . While filming the pilot they met the president , after which they reconsidered their approach . Bartley explained , " We had ... this notion of investigating Chávez — was he a demagogue ? Was the media persona just that ? What makes him tick ? My sense had changed as we got closer ; what we 're seeing here is a guy who is motivated , driven , not the demagogue with another side , drinking , carousing . I began to see him as more transparent — what you see is what you get . " Bartley and Ó Briain began by attempting to build a relationship with Chávez that would allow them the access they required . At first , the president 's staff treated the filmmakers with suspicion and made filming difficult . After numerous delays , Bartley and Ó Briain finally got through to Chávez . They calculated that they needed to " press the right buttons " to gain his support , so they presented him with an old edition of the memoirs of Daniel Florence O 'Leary , who had fought alongside Simón Bolívar . Inside , they had written a quote from the Irish socialist playwright Seán O 'Casey . Slowly , Bartley and Ó Briain gained their subjects ' trust , " dissolving any self - consciousness as a result of their cameras " . Although ensconced with Chávez and his entourage , Bartley and Ó Briain felt a disconnect from the events of the outside world . During a " chaotic " road - trip with Chávez , they " knew something was coming " , and divined that Chávez 's trip was intended to bolster his support and " get people used to being on the streets " . Chávez had recently " upped the ante " with the introduction of the Land Law . Increasing tensions further , in February 2002 , Chávez took control of PDVSA ; the private media stepped up its criticism of Chávez , which for Bartley and Ó Briain " marked the beginning of an exciting phase " . By April 2002 , Bartley and Ó Briain were in Caracas and spent much of their time filming at the presidential palace , following Chávez and his staff . As the 11 April crisis unfolded , Bartley and Ó Briain filmed outside the palace , first capturing footage of the demonstrations and subsequent violence , then events inside the palace during the afternoon , evening and early hours of 12 April . Through their previous contacts at the palace , Bartley and Ó Briain were able to continue filming without interference : " no one paid any attention to us — we just blended in . " Later that day , Bartley and Ó Briain stayed away from the palace through fears for their safety . Unable to leave the country — the international airport was closed — the filmmakers instead took to the streets , " to document the repression [ they ] were witnessing " . At the same time , a press office cameraman was in the palace , " reluctant to lose his job despite the change in government " . He filmed the formation of the interim government . When Bartley and Ó Briain returned to the palace on 13 April , the cameraman let them have his footage . They remained filming in Venezuela until July 2002 , interviewing residents and recording " witness " accounts from those who had been present during the coup — ministers , security guards and journalists . Editing Using two digital video ( DV ) cameras , Bartley and Ó Briain shot over 200 hours of material on 300 DV tapes . They intended that editing take ten weeks ; instead , it took six months . Rod Stoneman , BSÉ 's CEO at the time , described the amount of footage compared to the film 's final length as " exceptional " . The 200 : 1 ratio was far above the norm for most documentaries , which usually have a ratio of 10 : 1 or 15 : 1 . When the filmmakers returned to Ireland , they decided they needed an editor who spoke Spanish . Bartley remembered a documentary she had seen about baseball in Cuba , El juego de Cuba , so they hired its editor , Ángel Hernández Zoido . Zoido approached the film as if it were entertainment , feeling that the primary concern was to ensure the audience did not get bored . He tackled each scene the same way . After watching the rushes with Bartley and Ó Briain , Zoido asked them , " What do we want to tell in this scene ? " He focused on two factors : how much information would be necessary to drive the plot , and provide an emotional core . Preferring to work alone , Zoido would then send the filmmakers from the edit suite . After Zoido completed the scene , the trio discussed whether those aims had been realized . The large amount of footage , and the fact that the filmmakers were " in a sense ... looking at it for the first time " , meant that the film 's concept only became clear during editing . The events of 11 – 13 April gave it " a new dramatic centre " , although Bartley and Ó Briain were keen that the film did not concentrate entirely on the coup . They had intended to include more historical and political context ; it wasn 't until late in post - production that the focus narrowed to include more emphasis on the media 's role in Venezuelan politics . In October 2002 , a two - hour " rough cut " was shown to Stoneman and Brendan McCarthy , BSÉ 's head of Production and Development . This version included the " witness " accounts that Bartley and Ó Briain had captured after April 2002 . Stoneman felt that these sequences reinforced the film 's claims , but " diluted its originality " . He argued that they be cut , and that to compensate , Bartley and Ó Briain should record a voice - over and place themselves more in the frame as witness - protagonists , ideas that the filmmakers initially resisted . As editing progressed , budget shortfalls prevented BSÉ from finalizing contracts . The organization also restricted post - production funds to " limit [ its ] exposure " in the event the project was not completed . Stoneman contacted a former colleague at the BBC , Nick Fraser , who had declined to help finance the film in 2001 . Fraser was commissioning editor for the BBC 's Storyville documentaries series . According to Stoneman , Fraser was " still undecided " , having been told by the head of BBC Two that " we 've done Chávez " . Nevertheless , the BBC pre - purchased the film and in December 2002 received a rough cut . At the BBC 's behest , the opening of the television version was made more dramatic . Fraser was unsure about the voice - over ; he asked for a more " opinionated " narration that , according to Bartley , would " get the boot in " . Although the BBC did not ask outright , Bartley 's impression was that the organization wanted the film to be " against Chávez " . Fraser later said he had asked for the filmmakers to " include [ an interview ] with someone not a Chávez supporter " . He also suggested that a more experienced director be employed to help edit the film . The filmmakers " made a few minor concessions " , but resisted major edits . Ó Briain 's voice - over in the final cut was " polished up but not significantly changed " . The filmmakers created two versions of the film . Chávez : Inside the Coup , intended for television broadcast , lasts 52 minutes . The feature - length The Revolution Will Not Be Televised — which takes its name from the Gil Scott - Heron song of the same name — is 74 minutes long . Release Television Chávez : Inside the Coup aired on RTÉ One on 18 February 2003 , as an installment of the channel 's True Lives documentary series . The broadcast prompted a passionate public and critical response , and " lively debate " on radio and in newspapers ; RTÉ soon arranged for a repeat broadcast . In the United Kingdom , it aired on BBC Two on 16 October 2003 , as part of the channel 's Storyville documentary strand , and on BBC Four on 18 November 2003 . Chavez : Inside the Coup also aired in Canada , Japan , Germany , France , the Netherlands , Finland and Denmark . The speed of the television broadcasts left a full theatrical run unlikely — a fact the filmmakers later regretted . The film also failed to be picked up by a television company in the US , although HBO was interested at one point . In Venezuela , La revolución no será <unk> premièred on 13 April 2003 , on state television channel Venezolana de Televisión ( VTV ) . It has since been shown regularly on Venezuelan television ; the state - funded community station <unk> <unk> often broadcasts the film during " contentious political <unk> " , such as the 2004 recall referendum , the 2006 presidential election , and in 2007 to " help build support " for the government 's controversial attempt to not renew the license of private television network RCTV . Festivals and theatrical run The Revolution Will Not Be Televised screened at several film festivals in 2003 , winning numerous awards . Beginning with the South by Southwest festival on 7 March , its festival appearances included the Banff World Television Festival , the Seattle International Film Festival , the Marseille Festival of Documentary Film , the Three Continents Film Festival , the Chicago International Film Festival , the Monaco International Film Festival , the Galway Film <unk> and the Los Angeles Wine & Country Festival . In March 2003 , a VHS copy of the film screened to under 100 people as part of an American Cinematheque Irish film festival in Los Angeles . Among the viewers was the president of Vitagraph Films , David Schultz , who bought the rights for theatrical distribution and paid for the film to be converted from video . Schultz initially struggled to secure the support of exhibitors ; they were skeptical of the film 's commercial prospects , and believed " the environment was not hospitable " for a film critical of the US so close to the start of the 2003 invasion of Iraq . They only became receptive a few months later , when political perceptions shifted and the public became more aware of Venezuela because of its oil wealth . One such exhibitor was the Film Forum in New York City . Mike Maggiore , a programmer at the theater , worked to market the film and raise its profile with film critics . He created press kits and circulated information to appeal to " a particular audience " . The Revolution Will Not Be Televised premièred to the public at the Film Forum in November 2003 . The showing was accompanied by protests outside the theater from supporters and detractors of the film , both of whom " attempted to influence audience reception " . A few weeks previously , the film had been withdrawn from an Amnesty International film festival in Vancouver ; staff at the organization 's Caracas arm said they " feared for their safety if it were shown " . The film 's success at the 2003 Grierson Awards was also overshadowed by a letter to the Grierson jury from London - based Venezuelan filmmakers , who disputed its version of events . Opposition demonstrators at the Film Forum première attempted to throw doubt on the film 's " impartiality , precision , veracity , editorial integrity , and ideological independence " , while supporters " encouraged theatergoers to denounce censorship " and sign a petition . Opposition protests also greeted showings in Canada , Australia and France . The run at the Film Forum earned $ 26 , 495 ( € 22 , 600 ) — several thousand above Maggiore 's expectations . After a limited run in theaters in six cities , the film had earned over $ 200 , 000 ( € 171 , 000 ) , not quite profitable , but still considered " a significant sum for a documentary " . Informal distribution Bartley and Ó Briain showed the film to Chávez in February 2003 . They recalled his response as " quite emotional " . BSÉ waived Venezuelan licensing fees for the film ; on 13 April , it was screened simultaneously with the television broadcast at a cinema in Caracas , before which Chávez made a speech saying , " Watch this film and you will see the face of the coup . " Pro - Chávez activists also distributed the film unofficially . The Committee in Solidarity with the People of El Salvador screened the film in New York City , where Bolivarian Circle members " accepted donations " for bootleg copies . El Universal said the Venezuelan government had 10 , 000 copies made , and according to National Review , the Venezuela Information Office ( <unk> ) " encouraged art - house theaters " to screen the film . Government representatives aided the film 's distribution officially and unofficially . Venezuelan filmmaker Wolfgang Schalk said the film counted on the worldwide support of Venezuelan embassies and a public relations effort to show the film free at universities and theaters in cities such as San Francisco , Los Angeles , Chicago and New York . Peace Action New York was given permission for a screening during a fund raiser in the Lincoln Center , where 250 people paid $ 35 ( € 30 ) each to see the film and take part in a " question - and - answer session " with guests such as Leonor Granado , the Venezuelan Consul General . The consulate office made DVDs of the film available to " anyone who wanted a copy " , as Granado said the film was vital to " building support in [ the US ] for the Venezuelan government " . Journalist Michael McCaughan invited a group of people who held anti - Chávez views to a screening of the film . He said some among the audience changed their opinion of Chávez after seeing it , although many remained hostile . McCaughan said the consensus opinion was that the film was " ' excellent ' and reasonably objective " , but that " Chávez remained a dictator leading the country to a totalitarian grave " . As of 2006 , groups such as Global Exchange were arranging tours to Venezuela that included a screening of the film . Analysis Disputed accuracy In Venezuela , debate about The Revolution Will Not Be Televised is " often acrimonious " . The film has become key to framing people 's understanding of the events of April 2002 . The previously accepted international view was that Chávez 's ousting came from a " spontaneous popular response " to the repression of his regime ; the film " directly contradicts " this position , and since its release it has rapidly become " the prevailing interpretation of [ the crisis ] " . The film 's critics charge that it omits or misrepresents important events . Much of the criticism is centered on the filmmakers ' " use of stock [ documentary ] devices " , such as compositing clips from several events to present them as one incident . Parallel editing also depicts sequences as if they occurred at the same time , when some of the footage was captured on different days . Bartley and Ó Briain justify these methods as standard practice in the construction of documentary realist films . Caracas - based journalist Phil Gunson , writing in Columbia Journalism Review , says that most of the film critics who embraced the film ignored " the complex , messy reality " of the situation . He charges that the filmmakers " omit key facts , invent others , twist the sequence of events to support their case , and replace inconvenient images with others dredged from archives " . Bartley and Ó Briain argue that Gunson 's points are " issues of dispute " that " continue to divide opinion " in Venezuela . Author Brian A. Nelson says that Bartley and Ó Briain — in their initial meeting with Chávez — did more than merely invoke Daniel O 'Leary to gain the president 's support for filming ; Nelson alleges that they offered to portray the president positively in return for open access , with a " you scratch my back if I scratch yours " understanding that he says was ultimately reflected in the film 's " unabashed pro - <unk> . " BBC and Ofcom investigations Soon after the film 's October 2003 broadcast on BBC Two , Venezuelan filmmaker Wolfgang Schalk began a campaign against The Revolution Will Not Be Televised , representing El <unk> de Luz ( " The Worm of Light " ) , an organization associated with the Venezuelan opposition . In July , Schalk had complained to RTÉ about its broadcast of the film . On 21 October , El <unk> de Luz published a " detailed critique " as part of an internet petition that attracted 11 , 000 signatories , 85 % of whom self - identified as Venezuelan . Directed at the European broadcasters that financed and aired the film , the petition said in part , " The Revolution Will Not Be Televised is being presented as an author 's film , as an objective journalistic research film , while it is really a very well plotted and accomplished propaganda operation , supported logistically by the Venezuelan government , with the aim of misleading unprepared spectators of countries who do not know the totality of events . " The petition submitted 18 specific points of contention with the film . Venezuelan private television soon aired two programs " dissecting and denouncing " the film , and similar newspaper articles followed . Much of the anger about the film stemmed from its high profile internationally ; that it had been " blessed with the imprimatur of the BBC ... with its connotations of fair and authoritative reporting " only made matters worse . John Burns , writing in The Sunday Times , restated many of Gunson 's arguments , and the BBC received 4 , 000 e - mails demanding that Storyville 's commissioning editor , Nick Fraser , be sacked . Toward the end of 2003 , the weight of criticism forced the BBC to act . The corporation 's complaints unit opened an investigation , and Fraser said the BBC would not show the film again until it had concluded . He wrote to David Power expressing particular concern over an error with the end titles and the use of out - of - chronology footage , saying the latter was " a real problem — particularly ... since it has been used in a film dedicated to exposing the frauds of Venezuelan TV " . The furor came at a difficult time for the corporation , which was under the spotlight of the Hutton Inquiry , the official investigation into the circumstances surrounding the death of David Kelly ; the BBC had been criticized for reporting that intelligence dossiers had been " sexed up " by the UK government to justify the 2003 invasion of Iraq . The petition 's claims were also taken up by the UK 's independent telecommunications regulator , Ofcom . The body investigated official protests made by several Caracas residents . The concerns largely focused on footage of the residents ' attending a neighborhood meeting in June 2002 , which was positioned in the film as a prelude to the April coup attempt . The residents said that the filmmakers had used footage of them without consent and that the film had misrepresented their views . In September 2005 , Ofcom provisionally ruled that it had not upheld the complaints , citing the BBC 's internal review and rebuttal as grounds . A subsequent appeal by the residents was unsuccessful . Two weeks after Ofcom 's initial ruling , the BBC announced it had closed the complaint and that no further investigations would take place . Stoneman believed the BBC had overreacted , saying its <unk> was merely a product of being a frequent victim of press attacks on its ethos . Fraser said , " The film was very good in many respects , but also misleading . " He believed the filmmakers considered Chávez honorable , but having written a book on Peronism was more skeptical himself . Fraser concluded , " I still think it 's a good film , because of the coup sequence . It should be seen as a Venezuelan West Wing — biased , of course , but highly entertaining . " Responsibility for violence One of the film 's key contentions is that the private media aired footage selectively to make it look like the violence of 11 April was caused by Chávez 's supporters , portraying them as an " irrational and uncivilized mob " . Private television repeatedly showed Chávez 's supporters on Puente Llaguno bridge as they shot at Baralt Avenue below , an area purportedly full of opposition marchers . The film says this footage was edited to show the gunmen but not the people near them who were ducking to avoid being shot . It follows with images taken from above the bridge showing an empty Baralt Avenue , claiming that " the opposition march had never taken that route " and that Chávez 's supporters were only returning fire . Gunson charges that this edit is itself a misrepresentation , stating that the film does not mention that both sets of marchers were fired upon , and taking issue with the implication that " coup plotters " were the shooters . In response , the filmmakers say , " Nowhere in the film did we say that only [ Chávez 's supporters ] were shot ... Nobody can say with certainty who orchestrated the shootings . " Gunson also asserts that the footage of the empty street was taken earlier that day , citing an " analysis of the shadows " by Schalk , who created a counter - documentary , X - Ray of a Lie , to examine The Revolution Will Not Be Televised " scene by scene to uncover [ its ] narrative strategies and use of artifice " . Brian A. Nelson agreed with the analysis , claiming that Baralt Avenue was not as empty as the film portrays and that the filmmakers " put a black bar at the top of the frame to hide the Metropolitan Police trucks that were still there " . Bartley and Ó Briain reaffirmed their claim that the opposition did not pass below the Puente Llaguno bridge , citing eyewitness statements — including one from Le Monde <unk> 's deputy editor — and an Australian documentary , Anatomy of a Coup , that " came to conclusions similar to our own " . A Venezuelan documentary , Puente Llaguno : <unk> de una <unk> , also supported Bartley and Ó Briain 's view . Timeline and media depictions Other issues of contention include the lack of historical context ; the film does not cover some of the events leading up to Chávez 's ousting , including the long - running political crisis and the general strike . Gunson also criticizes the filmmakers for showing events out of order . In June 2002 , they filmed an opposition community group as its members considered " how to defend themselves against possible ... attacks " from Chávez 's supporters . In the film , this sequence is placed before the march . Bartley justified the action , saying that the residents ' opinions were representative of those held " long before " the events of April 2002 . Responding to the critique , the BBC added a date stamp to the sequence for the film 's repeat broadcast . Gunson also cites footage of Caracas mayor Freddy Bernal as he sings to a happy group of Chávez supporters in front of the palace . Later images of a " differently dressed Bernal " reveal that the footage was from another day . Similarly , Gunson says that until shot at , " The opposition march was entirely peaceful . " The film presents footage of its " violent finale " — including an image from another day — as if it occurred during the protest 's approach to the palace , accompanied by the narrated claim that " some in the vanguard looked ready for a fight " . Bartley and Ó Briain admit that they included a " limited " amount of archive footage , but say it was a " legitimate reconstruction " to build context " before the core narrative of the coup [ took ] off " as they " could not be everywhere filming at all times " . The Revolution Will Not Be Televised claims that state television was " the only channel to which [ Chávez ] had access " , but does not mention that during the violence he requisitioned " all radio and TV frequencies " to broadcast his two - hour address . Private television circumvented the rules allowing this action by splitting the screen , showing Chávez 's address on one side and footage of the violence on the other . Chávez subsequently took television stations RCTV and <unk> off the air . The film 's assertion that VTV was taken over by opposition " plotters " is also disputed ; according to X - Ray of a Lie and Gunson , staff left willingly . Gunson further alleges that footage of VTV 's signal being cut — mid - interview with a government legislator — was fabricated . Bartley and Ó Briain say they witnessed ministers ' being unable to broadcast and that the International Federation of Journalists corroborated their claim that opposition forces took over VTV . The film also presents footage of armored vehicles around the palace , which Gunson says were there at the request of the president , not the opposition . He also challenges the film for presenting Chávez 's supporters as " invariably poor , brown - skinned , and cheerful " and the opposition as " rich , white , racist , and violent " . He says that the opposition protests were multiracial and that armed government supporters " made the center of Caracas a no - go area " . Bartley and Ó Briain cite several commentators who uphold the claim that Chávez 's supporters " were broadly poor and dark - skinned and the opposition broadly white and middle class " , including Gunson himself in an April 2002 article in The Christian Science Monitor . Gunson does agree that the film was right to point out that the private media " behaved disgracefully " by " systematically [ excluding the pro - Chávez ] viewpoint from print , radio , and TV " during the period of the coup . Military involvement Of greater concern , Gunson says , is the " deliberate blurring of responsibility for the coup " . The film presents the idea that the military commanders dispersed , " leaving a total power vacuum " . However , the high command 's senior figure , General Lucas Rincón ( who announced Chávez 's resignation on television ) , was not part of the coup and remained in the government after April 2002 . The petition draws the conclusion , " ( 1 ) either General Rincón stated a truth that was accepted throughout the whole country ... or ( 2 ) General Rincón lied , because he was an accomplice ... that seems not to be the truth because he [ remained in Chávez 's administration ] . " Only one of the high command joined Carmona 's interim administration before contributing to its downfall by withdrawing his support . The military leaders shown withdrawing their support for Chávez were not the high command , and Vice - Admiral Hector Ramirez Perez was not the head of the navy , as the film claims . Gunson says , " With one solitary exception , these generals and admirals had not ' fled abroad ' after the Carmona government collapsed . " Although Bartley and Ó Briain accept that Rincón said Chávez " had agreed to resign " , they reiterate that " elements in the military [ threatened ] force in the effort to make Chávez resign " ; the filmmakers say it is " irrelevant " that the whole military did not join the coup , as this " is the case with most coups " . General Rincón 's announcement was omitted because they felt it was " supplementary to the main , key fact of the story " , that no documentary evidence of the resignation exists . X - Ray of a Lie Schalk investigated The Revolution Will Not Be Televised for five months . In 2004 , he and producer <unk> <unk> responded to the film with their own documentary , X - Ray of a Lie , which set out to expose its " manipulation " . Schalk said the film " presented a distorted version of events ... to fit a story that appeals to audiences " . Schalk is associated with the Venezuelan opposition ; Bartley and Ó Briain say that it is " not insignificant that Schalk has led the well - resourced campaign , linked to [ the opposition ] , to discredit and suppress [ the film ] " . Chavez : The Revolution Will Not Be Televised In 2008 , Stoneman published Chavez : The Revolution Will Not Be Televised – A Case Study of Politics and the Media . A book " of film studies rather than politics " , it nevertheless looks in detail at the petition 's arguments . Stoneman " broadly absolves " the filmmakers ; he concludes , " There were some relatively small examples of slippage in the grammar of the piece , but overall the film was made with honesty and integrity . Of the 18 objections made , 15 , if not 17 , were wrong . The filmmakers spent a long time assembling evidence to show why they 'd done what they 'd done in the film and mostly it 's true . " Stoneman conceded that the filmmakers ' cinéma vérité approach meant that for wider historical and political context , viewers should look elsewhere . Stoneman received an " Executive Producer " credit on the film , which he explains as an unasked - for gratuity that came by virtue of his position as head of BSÉ . Reception Critical response Among mainstream critics in the US and UK , the film received almost exclusively positive reviews . Rotten Tomatoes reported that 98 % of 48 sampled critics gave the film a positive review , with an average score of 7 . 9 out of 10 . At Metacritic , which assigns a weighted average out of 100 to critics ' reviews , the film received a score of 82 based on 24 reviews . Almost all local and national film critics in the United States said the film presented a " riveting narrative " , but conceded that it was a biased account of the events . Frank Scheck , writing in The Hollywood Reporter , said the film presented an enthralling story that " resembles a taut ... political thriller " , and Roger Ebert in the Chicago Sun - Times called it a " remarkable documentary " full of " astonishing shots " . Both critics said the film was made so through the filmmakers ' unique inside access to the events at the palace with Ebert calling that aspect " unique in film history " . Although Ebert was generally very praising of the film , he criticised the way in which Chávez 's opponents were portrayed , while <unk> faulted the lack of historical context ; however , he said this was balanced by the film 's " brevity and <unk> " . In Variety , Scott Foundas wrote that the film was a " superior example of fearless filmmakers in exactly the right place at the right time " , and likely the best of a string of documentaries that have shone the light on US involvement in South America . He had praise for the camera work and editing , and said the film was a " startling record " that reached " another level " when events shifted to the presidential palace . He cited these scenes — along with those of the protesters ' clashing — as ones that " spark with a vibrant tension and uncertainty " . J. Hoberman of The Village Voice said the film was a " gripping " account that did " an excellent job in deconstructing the Venezuelan TV news footage of blood , chaos , and rival crowds " , and said it was " nearly a textbook on media manipulation " . Writing for The New York Times , Stephen Holden said the film was " a riveting documentary " that delivered " the suspense of a smaller - scale Seven Days in May " , citing the way in which it examined how television can be used to " deceive and manipulate the public " . He reproached the film 's uncritical depiction of Chávez , and how it hinted at CIA involvement without presenting any proof . Ty Burr in The Boston Globe called the film " our best chance " to find out what really happened on 11 – 13 April , but cautioned that the filmmakers ' " pro - Chávez stance " meant that for wider context audiences should look elsewhere , as it left out too much of Chávez 's record . Burr also said the film 's attempt to make the US into a villain was ineffective . He said , " because [ the filmmakers ] view the chasm that divides Venezuela purely in the context of the Cold War and Latin American political instability , they downplay the class warfare that 's exploding right in front of them . " Nevertheless , Burr concluded that the film 's narrow focus remained engrossing . Desson Thomson of The Washington Post stated that the film successfully reproduced the " panic and fear " at the palace as events unfolded , saying it came across like a " raw , Costa - Gavras - style thriller " that was " worth watching down to the last thrilling minute " . He said that knowing how uncertain Venezuela 's future was made the film even more powerful . Thomson believed the handheld video was put to good use , calling its " news - breaking immediacy ... intoxicating " . He concluded , " The Revolution Will Not Be Televised is an extraordinary piece of electronic history . And a riveting movie . " In the Miami New Times , Brett Sokol agreed that the film was " never less than thrilling " , but said that as history , it was " strictly agitprop " . Similarly , Mark Jenkins wrote in the Washington City Paper that the film was " unapologetically polemical " , but " notable foremost as a gripping you - are - there account " . Accolades The film won several awards in 2003 – 04 . It was also nominated for Best Documentary and Best Irish Film at the Irish Film and Television Awards . The annual International Documentary Film Festival Amsterdam gives an acclaimed filmmaker the chance to screen his or her Top 10 films . In 2007 , Iranian filmmaker <unk> Bahari selected The Revolution will not be Televised for his top ten classics from the history of films .
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Tanks in the Australian Army The Australian Army has used tanks from after the First World War , through the interwar period , the Second World War , the Cold War and to the present day . Throughout this period the Army has primarily been a light infantry force , with its tanks mainly being used in the direct support role . The Australian Army 's tanks have seen combat during the Second World War and the Vietnam War , where they proved successful despite some of the designs employed being considered obsolete . The first Australian tanks were a small number of British light tanks which were operated mainly for training purposes during the 1920s and 1930s . The outbreak of the Second World War in 1939 led to a significant expansion of Australia 's armoured force . From 1942 large numbers of American light and medium tanks were delivered to Australia , along with British Matilda IIs . In addition , a small number of Australian - designed Sentinel tanks were delivered to the Army during 1942 and 1943 , but the type was never issued to combat units . Three armoured divisions capable of independent operations were formed during the Second World War , but none were deployed outside Australia . Many individual units later fought against the Japanese in the Pacific , although only in regimental strength . With few modern tanks at the time of the Korean War , the Australian Army had to rely on British and US tank support . During the 1950s the Army standardised on the British Centurion tank , which saw action in Vietnam and remained in service until it was replaced with the German Leopard 1 in the mid - 1970s . After an internal debate on whether the Army should continue to operate tanks as part of its force structure , the Australian Government replaced the Leopards with a small fleet of American M1A1 Abrams tanks in 2007 , which are now the Army 's only tanks . In addition to these types , the Army has operated small numbers of other tank designs for training and evaluation purposes . Overview The operational use of tanks during the latter part of the First World War established the validity of the tank concept . After the war , many nations recognised the importance of tanks , but only a few had the industrial resources to design and build them . During and after the First World War , Britain and France were the intellectual leaders in tank design , while other countries generally followed , adopting their designs . The Australian Army , which had initially had bad experiences operating with British tanks during the early stages of their employment during the war , had come to realise their utility after the battles of 1918 , and in the post - war period sought to build its own armoured force . Initially , the Australian Army procured a number of British - made Vickers tanks , and American M3 Grant and M3 Stuart tanks , but it later went on to build and design some of its own during the Second World War . Since then Australia 's armoured forces have fought in a number of battles during key conflicts , such as those in the Second World War and the Vietnam War . Primarily a light infantry force for most of its history , the Australian Army has used tanks mainly in the direct support role as opposed to engaging in sweeping manoeuvre against other tanks . Inter - war period After the First World War , many European countries attempted to <unk> their cavalry . In parallel , Australian cavalry also shifted to military armoured units . The Australian Army ( like the US , French , British and Russian armies ) tried various methods to integrate modern armour into their traditional horse cavalry formations , as part of a gradual process of mechanisation between 1920 and 1940 . Experiences during the final year of the war , such as the Battle of Hamel in July 1918 and later during the Battle of Amiens in August where the Australians had fought as part of an attack by 10 Allied divisions — including Canadian , British and French forces — supported by more than 500 British tanks , had shown the impact that tanks could have on the battlefield . As a result , the Australian Army sought to obtain tanks of its own ; however , due to post - war economic measures this was slow in occurring . Four British Vickers Medium Mark II tanks were procured in 1927 to build its force , with the formation of the Australian Tank Corps gazetted on 15 December 1927 . The 1st Tank Section was subsequently was formed as a part - time Militia unit in 1930 . The unit was based at Randwick , New South Wales , and training was initially undertaken at <unk> , which was part of the Liverpool Military Area , in Sydney . Despite these initial developments the Depression in the early 1930s largely halted the development of armour in Australia , although a limited capability was maintained by the regular tank cadre which operated mainly in an instructional role . The 1st Tank Section was disbanded in November 1937 with the men and equipment transferred to the newly created 1st Light Tank Company based at Randwick . It was not the Australian Army 's only armoured unit as the Second World War approached . The 2nd Light Tank Company was formed as a Militia unit at Caulfield , Victoria in March 1939 and was also equipped with Vickers Medium Mark II medium tanks . The light tank companies were then equipped with the Light Tank Mark <unk> , 10 of which had been acquired to replace the ageing Mark IIs . In addition , the 1st Royal New South Wales Lancers , which had been serving as a Light Horse regiment , having converted from horses to armoured vehicles to become a light cavalry ( reconnaissance ) regiment and took on the role of a motorised machine - gun regiment during the inter - war years . It subsequently saw action in the Second World War as the 1st Armoured Regiment equipped with Matilda infantry tanks . Second World War Armoured formations and campaigns The outbreak of war in 1939 led to a significant expansion of Australia 's armoured force . At the start of the war , due to the limitations of the Defence Act ( 1903 ) , which prevented the government from sending the Militia to fight outside Australian territory , it was decided to raise an all - volunteer force to serve overseas . This force was known as the Second Australian Imperial Force ( 2nd AIF ) , and many of the 1st Light Horse ( Machine Gun ) Regiment 's members volunteered and were assigned to the 2 / 2nd Machine Gun Battalion , they took part in the fighting in the Mediterranean theatre . With the Australian Army only possessing a total of fourteen tanks – 10 Mark <unk> and four Mark IIs – orders for modern types were quickly placed in Britain and the United States . Thirteen M3 light tanks arrived in September 1941 , while another 400 more were soon delivered . However , 140 British Matilda tanks would not begin to arrive until July 1942 . Meanwhile , as steps were made to form the 1st Armoured Division in 1941 the armoured vehicles of the 1st and 2nd Light Tank Companies had been withdrawn to equip the newly formed AFV School at Puckapunyal , Victoria . The 1st Light Tank Company was subsequently expanded to form the 3rd Armoured Regiment , while the 2nd Light Tank Company was disbanded . At the same time each of the four divisions in the 2nd AIF was authorised a cavalry reconnaissance regiment equipped with light tanks and scout carriers . While all four divisions were authorised a divisional cavalry regiment , only three regiments were eventually formed as it was believed that the 8th Division did not need armoured support in Malaya due to concerns about operating tanks in the jungle . The cavalry regiments of the 2nd AIF divisions operating in Mediterranean theatre against Italian and German forces were initially equipped with the Universal Carrier and unarmoured trucks before being progressively mechanised using British Army equipment , while carriers were also operated by the infantry battalions . A light armoured tracked vehicle they were armed with Bren light machine guns and Boys anti - tank rifles and were widely used by British Commonwealth forces during the World War II . Meanwhile , the Australian Tank Corps was superseded following the formation of the Australian Armoured Corps in July 1941 . In October 1941 two independent light tank squadrons had been formed for service in Malaya ; however , neither was deployed due to a lack of vehicles to equip them . In North Africa in 1941 , Australian troops were part of the force which captured Tobruk on 22 January as part of Operation Compass , yielding over 25 , 000 prisoners along with 236 field and medium guns , 23 medium tanks and more than 200 other vehicles . During the capture of the town Australians from the 6th Division Cavalry Regiment had used a number of captured Italian M11 tanks which had been pressed into service due to a lack of their own tanks , painting kangaroos on the side so they would not be attacked by their own side . The regiment 's use of tanks in this fighting was significant , representing the first time that Australian forces had operated tanks in action . The 6th Division Cavalry Regiment later saw service in Syria against the Vichy French . Meanwhile , the 7th Division Cavalry Regiment had been sent to Cyprus in May 1941 , before relieving the 6th Division Cavalry Regiment in July . The regiment subsequently fought a number of actions using a variety of armoured personnel carriers , light tanks , and 2 - pounder anti - tank guns before returning to Australia in March 1942 . The 9th Division Cavalry Regiment later also served in Syria and was the first Australian armoured unit to be equipped with modern vehicles , receiving British Crusader Mark II medium tanks and M3 Stuart light tanks . A number of captured French Renault R35 tanks were also used . The regiment returned to Australia in early 1943 . Between mid - 1942 and early 1944 the Divisional Cavalry Regiments were converted to commando units and subsequently fought in the Pacific against the Japanese as dismounted infantry . The Australian 1st Armoured Division was raised in 1941 as part of the 2nd AIF . While the division was originally to be deployed to North Africa in late 1941 , it was retained in Australia following the outbreak of the Pacific War . Universal Carriers were issued to the armoured regiments in 1941 and early 1942 for training purposes and to provide the Army with a minimal armoured capability as an emergency measure until the arrival of tanks ordered from the United States . The 1st Armoured Division 's armoured regiments subsequently began re - equipping with M3 Grant medium tanks and M3 Stuart light tanks in April and May 1942 . Following this , the division was concentrated in northern New South Wales where it completed its training with a series of large exercises around Narrabri . The 2 / 6th Armoured Regiment was the first unit of the division to see action , deploying to Port Moresby and Milne Bay in New Guinea in September . In December two of its squadrons were subsequently shipped to Buna on the north coast of Papua to help break the deadlock in the Battle of Buna – Gona and although the lightly armoured M3 Stuart tanks proved to be unsuited to jungle warfare and suffered heavy casualties , the regiment played an important role in the eventual Australian victory at Buna during fighting between December 1942 and January 1943 . Meanwhile , in January 1943 the remainder of the division was moved to the area between Perth and Geraldton , Western Australia , where it formed part of III Corps , which was tasked to counter the perceived threat of a Japanese invasion of Western Australia . The 1st Armoured Division formed a key element of Australia 's mainland defences , but after that threat passed it was disbanded in Western Australia in September 1943 . The 1st Light Horse ( Machine Gun ) Regiment ( Royal New South Wales Lancers ) was renamed the 1st Machine Gun Regiment in December 1941 . In March 1942 , the regiment was again renamed , being converted to the 1st Motor Regiment . This change was short lived however , and it was changed again in May to the 1st Tank Battalion , becoming part of the Australian 3rd Army Tank Brigade , equipped with Matilda tanks . In 1943 the unit became part of the 4th Armoured Brigade and was designated as an AIF unit , thus allowing it to be deployed to any theatre of the conflict , and it deployed to New Guinea in August 1943 and fought against the Japanese in the Battles of Sattelberg and Lakona . The unit was then withdrawn to Australia in mid - 1944 . On 1 June 1944 , the unit was renamed the 1st Armoured Regiment , and in May 1945 , it took part in the amphibious landings at Balikpapan in support of the 7th Division , being involved in one of the final Australian campaigns of the war in Borneo . The Australian 2nd Armoured Division was established on 21 February 1942 by redesignating and reorganising the 2nd Motor Division ( which was previously the 2nd Cavalry Division ) . As an armoured division , it consisted of one armoured brigade of three armoured regiments , and one motor brigade consisting of three motor regiments , supported by an armoured car regiment . It was equipped with M3 Grant medium tanks and M3 Stuart light tanks . The 2nd Armoured Division was disbanded in Queensland on 19 February 1943 . Similarly , the Australian 3rd Armoured Division was established on 15 November 1942 by redesignating the 1st Motor Division ( which was previously the 1st Cavalry Division ) . As an armoured division the 3rd Armoured was equipped with M3 Grant medium tanks and M3 Stuart light tanks . The division 's 3rd Motor Brigade was gradually disbanded between March to August 1943 and the 3rd Armoured Division was disbanded in Queensland on 19 October 1943 as a result of manpower shortages in the Australian Army . The Australian 4th Armoured Brigade was formed in January 1943 to provide armoured support for Australian Army units operating in the South West Pacific Area . The brigade was never intended to serve as a single formation , rather its role was to provide a pool of armoured units from which units and sub - units could be provided to augment infantry forces . The brigade was also responsible for developing doctrine and specialised armoured vehicles for armoured warfare in tropical terrain . In keeping with the brigade 's task of providing armoured units to other formations , its armoured regiments were organised into self - supporting regimental groups and the brigade did not possess the reconnaissance , infantry and other supporting elements which were common in World War II - era armoured brigades . Elements of the brigade saw action in the Huon Peninsula campaign of 1943 – 44 and attached to the Australian 6th Division during the Aitape – Wewak campaign from October 1944 until the end of the war . Australian tanks also played a role in the Borneo Campaign of 1945 . In a series of amphibious assaults between 1 May and 21 July , the Australian I Corps , under Lieutenant General Leslie Morshead , attacked Japanese forces occupying the island . The Matilda tanks of C Squadron , 2 / 9th Armoured Regiment were attached to the 26th Brigade Group during the campaign which opened with Oboe 1 , with a landing on the small island of Tarakan , off the north east coast on 1 May 1945 , with the fighting continuing into June with the tanks taking part in the advance along the Anzac and Bourke Highways , helping to secure the airfield and the oilfields . This was followed by Oboe 6 , in which the remainder of the 2 / 9th Armoured Regiment was attached to the 9th Division , on 10 June 1945 with simultaneous assaults on the island of Labuan and the coast of Brunei , in the north west of Borneo . B Squadron took part in the landing at Labuan supporting the 24th Brigade 's advance , assisting in the capture of the airfield , and various positions along the MacArthur Road . At the same time , A Squadron landed on the Borneo peninsula , securing the town before being used in a defensive role due to the impenetrable terrain further inland , which was only passable on foot . A week later , the Australians followed up with attacks on Japanese positions around Weston on the north - eastern part of Brunei Bay . The 1st Armoured Regiment and Armoured Squadron ( Special Equipment ) operating Matilda II tanks were attached to the Australian 7th Division and took part in the Battle of Balikpapan which was the concluding stage of the Operation Oboe . The landings took place on 1 July 1945 and had been preceded by heavy bombing and shelling by Australian and US air and naval forces . Landing with the infantry , the tanks — including Matilda tank <unk> , newly modified Matilda Frog flamethrower tanks , and a <unk> bridge - layer — mainly operated in small detachments in close support of the troops , even though the terrain offered the opportunity for more mobile tactics to be employed . Although the Australians were ultimately successful , casualties among the infantry were heavy and during this time the regiment was involved in some hard fighting , with the Japanese able to make effective use of strong natural defences in conjunction with minefields and anti - tank ditches to compensate for their lack of anti - tank guns . With the fighting coming to a conclusion however , tank operations ceased on 24 July . Overall , while the armoured units that were involved in operations overseas acquitted themselves well , despite significant investment in the development of tank forces , they ultimately played a limited role in the Australian war effort . Three armoured divisions capable of independent operations were formed during World War II , but none were deployed outside Australia . Many individual units later fought against the Japanese in the Pacific , although only in regimental strength . Despite initial delays in receiving adequate equipment a considerable force had subsequently been developed , although it was not until late 1942 that the first units saw action in support of the infantry in New Guinea . Yet the need to quickly deploy units following the rapid Japanese advance and the nature of the terrain in the South West Pacific Area in which the bulk of Australian forces would fight meant they were unable to be deployed as a formation . Meanwhile , as the threat of invasion passed the need for large armoured formations had lessened , and the divisions had been broken up between mid - 1943 and 1944 with only one operational brigade remaining by the end of the war . However , despite using tanks that were obsolete by the standards of the war in Europe the contribution of the Australian Armoured Corps to the success of later campaigns was significant , lessening casualties among the infantry and demonstrating the role of tanks in jungle operations . The Matilda proved the most successful tank used in jungle fighting by the Australian Army , achieving immediate success following its deployment to New Guinea in 1943 due to its heavy armour , manoeuvrability in close terrain , and the effectiveness of its 2 - pounder against Japanese bunkers . Australian tank program and development Following Japan 's entry into the war in late 1941 , the Australian government initially feared they might invade the Australian mainland , and with the United Kingdom unable to spare tank production for Australia , a program to produce an indigenous tank was initiated . The Australian tank program designed and developed a cruiser tank called the Sentinel tank , which was the first tank to be built with a hull cast as a single piece , and the only tank to be produced in quantity in Australia . The few Sentinels that were built never saw action as Australia 's armoured divisions had been equipped by that time with British and American tanks . Due to a lack of experience in tank design a mission was sent to the US to examine the M3 design and a British officer with many years tank design experience was provided by the United Kingdom . The design used existing parts where available from the M3 , simplified where necessary to match the machining capacity present in Australia . The hull was cast as a single piece , as was the turret ; a technique not used on the hull of any other tanks of the era . By the beginning of 1943 the Australian Armoured Corps was at its peak with 1 , 460 tanks on strength , the majority of them Matildas and light and medium M3s . Meanwhile , 65 production <unk> vehicles and one AC3 had been completed by June 1943 . That year , the 3rd Army Tank Battalion was equipped with a squadron of <unk> tanks , which were modified to resemble German tanks and used in the filming of the movie , The Rats of Tobruk . This appears to have been the only time a squadron of Sentinels was used for any purpose . Nevertheless , the completed Sentinel tanks were used for evaluation purposes only and were not issued to operational armoured units , as the Australian Cruiser tank program was terminated in July 1943 . By this time the Japanese threat had lessened , and US and British - made M3 Grant and Matilda tanks were being supplied to Australia from the Middle East , and it was felt that Australia 's manufacturing resources would be better spent on railway locomotive production . Experience during operations later led to the development of specialised armoured equipment by Australian industry for use in jungle operations in the South West Pacific Area . A range of modifications were subsequently developed for the Matilda , including the fitting of wire mesh screens or metal tracking over the engine and air louvres to protect it against magnetic mines , an armoured shield on top of the hull to protect the turret ring , a microphone and headset attached to the rear to act as a telephone for infantry co - operation , waterproofing equipment for deep wading , a tank dozer , a flamethrowing tank called the <unk> Frog , and one capable of firing a salvo of naval mortar bombs , known as the Matilda Hedgehog . Trials were also undertaken to fit air conditioning to the Matildas to improve the endurance of crews in tropical conditions . Limited modifications were also undertaken on the M3 Grant medium tanks , including the fitting of a small number of dozer variants and trials to waterproof the vehicles for wading . Post - 1945 Following the end of the Second World War the Australian Army was demobilised and the 1st Armoured Regiment was reconstituted as a reserve formation in the Citizen Military Forces ( CMF ) on 1 April 1948 , adopting the designation of the 1st Armoured Regiment ( Royal New South Wales Lancers ) , in recognition of its previous history . During this time the regiment continued to operate Matilda tanks and was based at Lancer Barracks in Parramatta , in New South Wales . However , in 1949 the regiment was renamed the 1st Royal New South Wales Lancers and its battle honours and history were perpetuated by this unit , to reallocate the former name to the tank regiment that was to be established in the new Australian Regular Army . The 1st Armoured Regiment was formed as a tank unit in the new Australian Regular Army on 7 July 1949 . Initially , the new regiment was equipped with Churchill tanks , although this was only a temporary measure until Centurion tanks could be acquired . However , due to the perceived unsuitability of the Churchill and the late arrival of the new platform , the regiment was not deployed as part of Australia 's commitment to the Korean War , although a number of officers served on exchange with British and US formations and the unit provided machine - gunners and signallers to Australian infantry battalions as reinforcements . Meanwhile , the infantry had to rely on US and British tanks for armoured support . The first Centurions finally began arriving in June 1952 , with the regiment receiving 39 tanks . By this time though British and Canadian armoured units were operating in sufficient strength in Korea and there was no scope for the deployment of Australian forces . A number of other CMF units operated M3 Grant medium tanks in the immediate post – war period , including the 8th / 13th Victorian Mounted Rifles ( 8th / 13th <unk> ) and the 4th / 19th Prince of Wales 's Light Horse ( 4th / 19th <unk> ) , before converting to Centurions . Meanwhile , the last of the Matildas were withdrawn from service with the CMF in 1955 . Later , in 1956 the 1st Royal New South Wales Lancers merged with the 15th Northern River Lancers to form the 1st / 15th Royal New South Wales Lancers ( 1st / 15th <unk> ) , which was also equipped with a small number of Centurion tanks . The CMF armoured units were rationalised in 1957 and consequently the change to the pentropic structure in the 1960s mostly resulted in a change in role only , with the 4th / 19th <unk> changing from an armoured unit to a reconnaissance regiment . However , the two CMF armoured brigade headquarters were disbanded . Following additional orders , a total of 127 Centurions had been acquired by 1961 , including 117 tanks , four bridgelayers and six Armoured Recovery Vehicles . Vietnam War In May 1965 the 1st Battalion , Royal Australian Regiment had been deployed on active service to South Vietnam , with armoured mobility support initially provided by 1 Troop , A Squadron , 4th / 19th Prince of Wales Light Horse equipped with the new <unk> Armoured Personnel Carrier . The Australian government subsequently increased its commitment to a two - battalion brigade , known as the 1st Australian Task Force ( 1 ATF ) , in March 1966 . Based at Nui Dat in Phuoc Tuy Province the force included an APC squadron but no tanks . However , in October 1967 it was announced that 1 ATF would be expanded to three infantry battalions , while additional supporting arms , including a tank squadron , would also be added to the force . As such in February 1968 , C Squadron , 1st Armoured Regiment was sent to Vietnam , with a total strength of 20 Centurion tanks . However , two of the four tank troops were initially held back until the Centurions had proved themselves capable of operating in the conditions . The tank squadron reached full strength on 5 September 1968 . Over the next four years all three of the regiment 's operational squadrons eventually served in Vietnam , providing invaluable close support to the infantry , particularly during the clearance of Viet Cong bunker systems . Although their value in Vietnam was originally questioned by some , they proved a powerful weapon in both offence and defence , and were responsible for limiting infantry casualties . The Centurions were able to move through the countryside more easily than expected and although they were vulnerable to anti - tank weapons and mines , their firepower and shock action had a decisive effect on the battlefield . The tanks played a significant role in the Battle of Coral – Balmoral in May and June 1968 . In February 1969 , C Squadron was relieved by B Squadron . On 6 – 7 June , B Squadron was involved in a fierce action during the Battle of Binh Ba , a village 5 kilometres ( 3 . 1 mi ) north of Nui Dat . One Australian was killed and 10 wounded , while Viet Cong and North Vietnamese losses included at least 107 killed , six wounded and eight captured . By late - 1970 Australia was beginning to reduce its commitment to the war and the size of 1ATF was again reduced from three infantry battalions to two . The tanks , however , continued operations and were involved in heavy fighting at Long Khanh on 6 – 7 June 1971 , as well as numerous smaller actions . The last elements of the regiment were subsequently withdrawn from Vietnam in September 1971 . A total of 58 Centurions had served in Vietnam ; 42 had suffered battle damage , of which six were beyond repair , while two crewmen had been killed in action . Post Cold War to the present There were changes for the 1st Armoured Regiment , and for the Australian Army , with the abolition of National Service after the end of Australian involvement in Vietnam depleting its strength to the point where training was severely restricted until it was reinforced during 1974 . Meanwhile , the reserve 1st / 15th <unk> and 8th / 13th <unk> had both continued to operate as small number of Centurions in the early 1970s ; however , they were both later re - roled and equipped with M113s , while the later was eventually disbanded . The last CMF armoured regiment gave up its tanks in 1971 , leaving the regular 1st Armoured Regiment as the only tank unit in the Australian Army . Meanwhile , the Centurions were mechanically worn - out , and although additional vehicles had been acquired from New Zealand and British Army stocks , by 1972 the fleet was in need of replacement . During 1973 , B Squadron , 1st Armoured Regiment — designated the Medium Tank Trials Unit ( <unk> ) — evaluated the German Leopard 1 against the American M60A1 Patton as a replacement for the obsolete Centurions . The Leopard was judged the superior tank , and 90 gun tanks , eight Leopard 1 Armoured Recovery Vehicles Medium and five Leopard 1 bridge layer tanks were ordered . The Australian tanks were designated the Leopard <unk> , and were based on the Leopard 1A3 which had been built for the German Army . The main difference between the Australian and German tanks was the inclusion of a SABCA fire control system , equipment to allow the tank to better operate in the tropics , additional storage boxes on the sides of the tank as well as improved trunnion bearings and combustion cleaners . These tanks were delivered to Australia in batches between 1976 and 1978 . During the Leopard 's service very little in the way of upgrades were undertaken , and by the 1990s they had become obsolete . After an internal debate on whether the Army should continue to operate tanks as part of its force structure , in 2004 the Australian Government decided to replace the Leopards with a small fleet of American M1A1 Abrams tanks to provide close support for infantry when operating in jungle or urban areas . After 31 years of service the Leopards were subsequently replaced by 59 M1A1 Abrams AIM , which began entering service in 2007 . Seven M88A2 Hercules Armoured Recovery Vehicles ( <unk> ) were also acquired . The Leopards never saw operational service , although during the 1999 East Timor crisis the regiment was placed on standby to deploy in the event the conflict escalated , while it was not deployed during Australia 's involvement in the 2003 invasion of Iraq . By this time the Leopards were considered unsuitable for deployment in a high threat environment . Today , the 1st Armoured Regiment is based in Darwin as part of the mechanised 1st Brigade , and is the only armoured unit in the Australian Army to be equipped with main battle tanks , operating the M1A1 Abrams AIM . A small number of <unk> are also operated by the School of Armour at Puckapunyal for training purposes . However , as part of the Plan Beersheba reorganisation the tanks currently operated by the 1st Armoured Regiment will be split across each of the three armoured cavalry regiments assigned to the Army 's multirole combat brigades located in Brisbane , Darwin and Townsville . It has been reported that this plan may require the acquisition of an additional 10 – 12 M1A1 Abrams and six M88A2 Hercules <unk> in order to allow the formation of three tank squadrons . Obstacle breaching and <unk> variants may also be acquired at a later date . List of tanks used by the Australian Army The following tanks have been used by the Australian Army : Vickers Medium Mark II Vickers Light Tank Mark VIA M3 Stuart M3 Lee – Grant and Lee variants , some used post - war to 1955 , others converted to <unk> self - propelled artillery Matilda II Australian Cruiser Tank Mk1 – Sentinel Sherman Tank – three for trials purposes only Churchill Centurion Leopard 1 Main Battle Tank M1A1 Abrams AIM Main Battle Tank Gallery
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Andean condor The Andean condor ( Vultur gryphus ) is a South American bird in the New World vulture family Cathartidae and is the only member of the genus Vultur . Found in the Andes mountains and adjacent Pacific coasts of western South America , the Andean condor is the largest flying bird in the world by combined measurement of weight and wingspan . It has a maximum wingspan of 3 . 3 m ( 10 ft 10 in ) exceeded only by the wingspans of four seabirds / water birds — the roughly 3 . 5 m ( 11 ft 6 in ) maximum of the wandering albatross , southern royal albatross , great white pelican and Dalmatian pelican . It is a large black vulture with a ruff of white feathers surrounding the base of the neck and , especially in the male , large white patches on the wings . The head and neck are nearly featherless , and are a dull red color , which may flush and therefore change color in response to the bird 's emotional state . In the male , there is a wattle on the neck and a large , dark red comb or caruncle on the crown of the head . Unlike most birds of prey , the male is larger than the female . The condor is primarily a scavenger , feeding on carrion . It prefers large carcasses , such as those of deer or cattle . It reaches sexual maturity at five or six years of age and nests at elevations of up to 5 , 000 m ( 16 , 000 ft ) , generally on inaccessible rock ledges . One or two eggs are usually laid . It is one of the world 's longest - living birds , with a lifespan of over 70 years in some cases . The Andean condor is a national symbol of Argentina , Bolivia , Chile , Colombia , Ecuador , and Peru and plays an important role in the folklore and mythology of the Andean regions . The Andean condor is considered near threatened by the IUCN . It is threatened by habitat loss and by secondary poisoning from carcasses killed by hunters . Captive breeding programs have been instituted in several countries . Taxonomy and systematics The Andean condor was described by Swedish scientist Carl Linnaeus in 1758 in the tenth edition of his Systema Naturae and retains its original binomial name of Vultur gryphus . The Andean condor is sometimes called the Argentinean condor , Bolivian condor , Chilean condor , Colombian condor , Ecuadorian condor , or Peruvian condor after one of the nations to which it is native . The generic term Vultur is directly taken from the Latin <unk> or <unk> , which means " vulture " . Its specific epithet is derived from a variant of the Greek word <unk> ( <unk> , " hook - nosed " ) . The word condor itself is derived from the Quechua <unk> . The exact taxonomic placement of the Andean condor and the remaining six species of New World vultures remains unclear . Though both are similar in appearance and have similar ecological roles , the New World and Old World vultures evolved from different ancestors in different parts of the world and are not closely related . Just how different the two families are is currently under debate , with some earlier authorities suggesting that the New World vultures are more closely related to storks . More recent authorities maintain their overall position in the order Falconiformes along with the Old World vultures or place them in their own order , Cathartiformes . The South American Classification Committee has removed the New World vultures from Ciconiiformes and instead described them as incertae sedis , but notes that a move to Falconiformes or Cathartiformes is possible . The Andean condor is the only accepted living species of its genus , Vultur . Unlike the California condor ( Gymnogyps californianus ) , which is known from extensive fossil remains and some additional ones of congeners , the fossil record of the Andean condor recovered to date is scant . Presumed Plio - Pleistocene species of South American condors were later recognized to be not different from the present species , although one known only from a few rather small bones found in a Pliocene deposit of Tarija Department , Bolivia , may have been a smaller <unk> , V. gryphus <unk> . Description Although it is on average about seven to eight cm shorter from beak to tail than the California condor , the Andean condor is larger in wingspan , which ranges from 270 to 320 cm ( 8 ft 10 in to 10 ft 6 in ) . It is also typically heavier , reaching a weight of 11 to 15 kg ( 24 to 33 lb ) for males and 8 to 11 kg ( 18 to 24 lb ) for females . Overall length can range from 100 to 130 cm ( 3 ft 3 in to 4 ft 3 in ) . Among standard measurements , the wing chord is 75 . 7 – 85 . 2 cm ( 29 . 8 – 33 . 5 in ) , the tail is 33 – 38 cm ( 13 – 15 in ) and the tarsus is 11 . 5 – 12 . 5 cm ( 4 . 5 – 4 . 9 in ) . Measurements are usually taken from specimens reared in captivity . The mean weight is 11 . 3 kg ( 25 lb ) , with the males averaging about a kilogram more at 12 . 5 kg ( 28 lb ) , the females a kilogram less at 10 . 1 kg ( 22 lb ) . According to a recently published manual of avian body masses , the species possesses the heaviest average weight for any living flying bird or animal , ahead of competitors such as trumpeter swans ( Cygnus buccinator ) and Dalmatian pelicans ( Pelecanus crispus ) . However , another resources claims a mean species body mass of 10 . 3 kg ( 23 lb ) for the Andean condor . The Andean condor is the largest living land bird capable of flight if measured in terms of average weight and wingspan , although male <unk> of the largest species ( far more sexually dimorphic in size ) can weigh more at maximum . The mean wingspan is around 283 cm ( 9 ft 3 in ) and the wings have the largest surface area ( measured in square centimeters ) of any extant bird . Among living bird species , only the great albatrosses and the two largest species of pelican exceed the Andean condor in average and maximal wingspan . The adult plumage is a uniform black , with the exception of a frill of white feathers nearly surrounding the base of the neck and , especially in the male , large patches or bands of white on the wings which do not appear until the completion of the bird 's first moulting . The head and neck are red to blackish - red and have few feathers . The head and neck are meticulously kept clean by the bird , and their baldness is an adaptation for hygiene , allowing the skin to be exposed to the sterilizing effects of dehydration and ultraviolet light at high altitudes . The crown of the head is flattened . In the male , the head is crowned with a dark red caruncle or comb , while the skin of his neck lies in folds , forming a wattle . The skin of the head and neck is capable of flushing noticeably in response to emotional state , which serves to communicate between individuals . Juveniles have a grayish - brown general coloration , blackish head and neck skin , and a brown ruff . The middle toe is greatly elongated , and the hind one is only slightly developed , while the talons of all the toes are comparatively straight and blunt . The feet are thus more adapted to walking , and are of little use as weapons or organs of prehension as in birds of prey and Old World vultures . The beak is hooked , and adapted to tear rotting meat . The irises of the male are brown , while those of the female are deep red . The eyelids lack eyelashes . Contrary to the usual rule for sexual dimorphism among birds of prey , the female is smaller than the male . Distribution and habitat The Andean condor is found in South America in the Andes , including the Santa Marta Mountains . In the north , its range begins in Venezuela and Colombia , where it is extremely rare , then continues south along the Andes in Ecuador , Peru , and Chile , through Bolivia and western Argentina to the Tierra del Fuego . In the early 19th century , the Andean condor bred from western Venezuela to Tierra del Fuego , along the entire chain of the Andes , but its range has been greatly reduced due to human activity . Its habitat is mainly composed of open grasslands and alpine areas up to 5 , 000 m ( 16 , 000 ft ) in elevation . It prefers relatively open , non - forested areas which allow it to spot carrion from the air , such as the páramo or rocky , mountainous areas in general . It occasionally ranges to lowlands in eastern Bolivia and southwestern Brazil , descends to lowland desert areas in Chile and Peru , and is found over southern - beech forests in Patagonia . Ecology and behavior The condor soars with its wings held horizontally and its primary feathers bent upwards at the tips . The lack of a large sternum to anchor its correspondingly large flight muscles physiologically identifies it as primarily being a <unk> . It flaps its wings on rising from the ground , but after attaining a moderate elevation it flaps its wings very rarely , relying on thermals to stay aloft . Charles Darwin commented on having watched them for half an hour without once observing a flap of their wings . It prefers to roost on high places from which it can launch without major wing - flapping effort . Andean condors are often seen soaring near rock cliffs , using the heat thermals to aid them in rising in the air . Like other New World vultures , the Andean condor has the unusual habit of urohidrosis : it often empties its cloaca onto its legs and feet . A cooling effect through evaporation has been proposed as a reason for this behaviour , but it makes no sense in the cold Andean habitat of the bird . Because of this habit , their legs are often streaked with a white buildup of uric acid . There is a well - developed social structure within large groups of condors , with competition to determine a ' pecking order ' by body language , competitive play behavior , and vocalizations . Generally , mature males tend to be at the top of the pecking order , with post - dispersal immature males tending to be near the bottom . Diet The Andean condor is a scavenger , feeding mainly on carrion . Wild condors inhabit large territories , often traveling more than 200 km ( 120 mi ) a day in search of carrion . In inland areas , they prefer large carcasses . Naturally , they feed on the largest carcasses available , which can include llamas ( Lama <unk> ) , <unk> ( <unk> <unk> ) , rheas ( Rhea ssp . ) , <unk> ( Lama <unk> ) , deer and armadillos . However , most inland condors now live largely off of domestic animals , which are now more widespread in South America , such as cattle ( Bos primigenius taurus ) , horses ( Equus ferus caballus ) , donkeys ( Equus africanus asinus ) , mules , sheep ( Ovis aries ) , pigs ( Sus scrofa domesticus ) , goats ( Capra aegagrus hircus ) and dogs ( Canis lupus familiaris ) . They also feed on the carcasses of introduced game species such as wild boars ( Sus scrofa ) , rabbits ( Oryctolagus cuniculus ) , foxes ( Vulpes vulpes ) and red deer ( Cervus elaphus ) . For condors who live around the coast , the diet consists mainly of beached carcasses of marine mammals , largely cetaceans . They will also raid the nests of smaller birds to feed on the eggs . Andean condors have been observed to do some hunting of small , live animals , such as rodents , birds and rabbits , which ( given their lack of powerful , grasping feet or developed hunting technique ) they usually kill by jabbing repeatedly with their bill . Coastal areas provide a constant food supply , and in particularly plentiful areas , some Andean condors limit their foraging area to several kilometers of beach - front land . They locate carrion by spotting it or by following other scavengers , such as corvids or other vultures . It may follow New World vultures of the genus Cathartes — the turkey vulture ( C. aura ) , the lesser yellow - headed vulture ( C. burrovianus ) , and the greater yellow - headed vulture ( C. <unk> ) — to carcasses . The Cathartes vultures forage by smell , detecting the scent of ethyl mercaptan , a gas produced by the beginnings of decay in dead animals . These smaller vultures cannot rip through the tougher hides of these larger animals with the efficiency of the larger condor , and their interactions are often an example of mutual dependence between species . Black vultures ( Coragyps atratus ) , king vultures ( Sarcoramphus papa ) and even mammalian scavengers may sometimes track Cathartes vultures for carcasses but the condor is invariably dominant among the scavengers in its range . Andean condors are intermittent eaters in the wild , often going for a few days without eating , then gorging themselves on several pounds at once , sometimes to the point of being unable to lift off the ground . Because its feet and talons are not adapted to grasping , it must feed while on the ground . Like other carrion - feeders , it plays an important role in its ecosystem by disposing of carrion which would otherwise be a breeding ground for disease . Reproduction Sexual maturity and breeding behavior do not appear in the Andean condor until the bird is five or six years of age . It may live to be 50 plus , and it mates for life . During courtship displays , the skin of the male 's neck flushes , changing from dull red to bright yellow , and inflates . He approaches the female with neck outstretched , revealing the inflated neck and the chest patch , while hissing , then extends his wings and stands erect while clicking his tongue . Other courtship rituals include hissing and clucking while hopping with wings partially spread , and dancing . The Andean condor prefers to roost and breed at elevations of 3 , 000 to 5 , 000 m ( 9 , 800 to 16 , 400 ft ) . Its nest , which consists of a few sticks placed around the eggs , is created on inaccessible ledges of rock . However , in coastal areas of Peru , where there are few cliffs , some nests are simply partially shaded crannies scraped out against boulders on slopes . It deposits one or two bluish - white eggs , weighing about 280 g ( 9 . 9 oz ) and ranging from 75 to 100 mm ( 3 . 0 to 3 . 9 in ) in length , during the months of February and March every second year . The egg hatches after 54 to 58 days of incubation by both parents . If the chick or egg is lost or removed , another egg is laid to take its place . Researchers and breeders take advantage of this behavior to double the reproductive rate by taking the first egg away for hand - rearing , causing the parents to lay a second egg , which they are generally allowed to raise . The young are covered with a grayish down until they are almost as large as their parents . They are able to fly after six months , but continue to roost and hunt with their parents until age two , when they are displaced by a new clutch . Healthy adults have no natural predators , but large birds of prey and mammalian predators , like foxes , may take eggs or hatchlings . Predation is relatively uncommon , since the vigilant parents often aggressively displace birds of prey who come near and the rocky , precipitous location of most nests are difficult for mammals to access . Longevity Being a slowly - maturing bird with no known natural predators in adulthood , an Andean condor is quite a long - lived bird . Longevity and mortality rates are not known to have been extensively studied in the wild . Some estimations of lifespans of wild birds has exceeded 50 years . In 1983 , the Guinness Book of World Records considered the longest - lived bird of any species with a confirmed lifespan was an Andean condor that died after surviving 72 years in captivity , having been captured from the wild as a juvenile of undetermined age . Several species of parrot have been reported to live for perhaps over 100 years , but these ( at least in 1983 ) were not considered authenticated . Another early captive - held specimen of condor reportedly lived for 71 years . However , these lifespans have been exceeded by a male , nicknamed " <unk> " , that was kept at Beardsley Zoo in Connecticut . <unk> was born in captivity in 1930 and died on January 26 , 2010 , making him 79 years of age . This would be the greatest verified age ever known for a bird . Relationship with humans Conservation status The Andean condor is considered near threatened by the IUCN . It was first placed on the United States Endangered Species list in 1970 , a status which is assigned to an animal that is in danger of extinction throughout all or a significant portion of its range . Threats to its population include loss of habitat needed for foraging , secondary poisoning from animals killed by hunters and persecution . It is threatened mainly in the northern area of its range , and is extremely rare in Venezuela and Colombia , where it has undergone considerable declines in recent years . Because it is adapted to very low mortality and has correspondingly low reproductive rates , it is extremely vulnerable to human persecution , most of which stems from the fact that it is perceived as a threat by farmers due to alleged attacks on livestock . Education programs have been implemented by conservationists to dispel this misconception . Reintroduction programs using captive - bred Andean condors , which release birds hatched in North American zoos into the wild to bolster populations , have been introduced in Argentina , Venezuela , and Colombia . The first captive - bred Andean condors were released into the wild in 1989 . When raising condors , human contact is minimal ; chicks are fed with glove puppets which resemble adult Andean condors in order to prevent the chicks from imprinting on humans , which would endanger them upon release as they would not be wary of humans . The condors are kept in aviaries for three months prior to release , where they acclimatize to an environment similar to that which they will be released in . Released condors are tracked by satellite in order to observe their movements and to monitor whether they are still alive . In response to the capture of all the wild individuals of the California condor , in 1988 the US Fish and Wildlife Service began a reintroduction experiment involving the release of captive Andean condors into the wild in California . Only females were released to eliminate the possibility of accidentally introducing a South American species into the United States . The experiment was a success , and all the Andean condors were recaptured and re - released in South America before the reintroduction of the California condors took place . Role in culture The Andean condor is a national symbol of Argentina , Bolivia , Chile , Colombia , Ecuador , Peru and Venezuelan Andes states . It is the national bird of Bolivia , Chile , Colombia , and Ecuador . It plays an important role in the folklore and mythology of the South American Andean regions , and has been represented in Andean art from c . 2500 BCE onward , and they are a part of indigenous Andean religions . In Andean mythology , the Andean condor was associated with the sun deity , and was believed to be the ruler of the upper world . The Andean condor is considered a symbol of power and health by many Andean cultures , and it was believed that the bones and organs of the Andean condor possessed medicinal powers , sometimes leading to the hunting and killing of condors to obtain its bones and organs . In some versions of Peruvian bullfighting , a condor is tied to the back of a bull , where it pecks at the animal as bullfighters fight it . The condor generally survives and is set free . In Peru , they are occasionally shot , but more often revered and used for ceremonial purposes . The <unk> Fiesta is a celebration , the pinnacle of which is the tying of an Andean condor to the back of a bull , allowing the condor to kill the bull with its talons before being released . This ceremony is a symbolic representation of the power of the Andean peoples ( the condor ) over the Spanish ( the bull ) . There is also a ceremony known as the <unk> del condor in which a live Andean condor is suspended from a frame and is punched to death by horsemen as they ride by . The Andean condor is a popular figure on stamps in many countries , appearing on one for Ecuador in 1958 , Argentina in 1960 , Peru in 1973 , Bolivia in 1985 , Colombia in 1992 , Chile in 2001 , and Venezuela in 2004 . It has also appeared on the coins and banknotes of Colombia and Chile . The condor is featured in several coats of arms of Andean countries as a symbol of Andes mountains . The Andean condor is depicted on the logo of Avianca and <unk> Argentinas , which are two of the largest airlines in South America .
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A1 in London The A1 in London is the southern part of the A1 road . It starts at Aldersgate in the City of London , passing through the capital to Borehamwood on the northern fringe of Greater London , before continuing to Edinburgh . The road travels through the City and three London boroughs : Islington , Haringey and Barnet , which include the districts of Islington , Holloway , Highgate , Hendon and Mill Hill , and travels along Upper Street and Holloway Road , crossing the North Circular Road in Hendon , a district in the London Borough of Barnet . The A1 is the most recent in a series of routes north out of London to York and beyond . It was designated in 1921 by the Ministry of Transport under the Great Britain road numbering scheme , comprising existing roads and streets , mostly historic , and later using stretches of purpose - built new roads in what is now the outer London borough of Barnet . The Archway Road section was built by Thomas Telford using Roman cement and gravel , an innovative technique that was used there for the first time , and is the basis for modern road building . The route closely follows the historic route of the Great North Road , though from 1954 it has diverted round the congested suburbs of Finchley and High Barnet along modern roads constructed in the 1920s and 1930s . The A1 is one of London 's main roads , providing a link to the M1 and the A1 ( M ) motorways , and on to the Midlands , Northern England and Scotland . Despite this , its main use is to connect a number of neighbourhoods within north London ; less than 5 % of its vehicles are through traffic – the bulk is local . The roads along which the A1 route travels are the shared responsibility of the local boroughs , the Greater London Authority , and the British Government via the Department for Transport . History The A1 is the latest in a series of routes north from London to York and beyond , and was formed in 1921 by the Ministry of Transport as part of the Great Britain road numbering scheme . The earliest documented northern routes out of London are the roads created by the Romans during the period 43 to 410 AD , which consisted of a variety of " <unk> " on the Antonine Itinerary , a combination of which were used by the Anglo - Saxons as the route from London to York , and which became known as Ermine Street . Ermine Street later became known as the Old North Road , and is used within London by the current A10 . By the 12th century , because of flooding and damage by traffic on Ermine Street , an alternative route out of London was found through Islington and Muswell Hill , and this was the origin of the Great North Road that would become the A1 . Until the 14th century the route went up what is now Hornsey Road – the <unk> road , but when that became impassable a new route along Holloway Road via Highgate was created in the 14th century . The section through Highgate was bypassed in the early 19th century by the creation of a new road , Archway Road , and around the same time a turnpike road , New North Road and Canonbury Road ( the <unk> road ) , was constructed linking the start of the Old North Road around Shoreditch with the Great North Road at Highbury Corner . The route of the A1 in London originally started at Aldersgate Bars , which marked the boundary of the City of London , and followed the Great North Road mail coach route through Barnet ; the route was re - designated in 1954 to follow the East Finchley and Barnet by - passes built in the 1920s and 1930s , so within London the coaching route is now mainly only followed when passing through the borough of Islington . During the early 1970s plans to widen the A1 along the Archway Road section were abandoned after considerable opposition and four public inquiries during which road protesters disrupted proceedings . The scheme was finally dropped in 1990 . Governance The roads along which the A1 route travels are the shared responsibility of the local boroughs , the Greater London Authority ( GLA ) , and the British Government . The first organised London - wide authority dealing with roads in London was the Metropolitan Board of Works ( MBW ) , set up in 1856 . The MBW replaced the disparate turnpike trusts which had already been amalgamated in 1826 into the single control of Government Commissioners , and was itself replaced by the London County Council ( LCC ) in 1889 . The LCC became the Greater London Council ( GLC ) in 1965 , and during the 1960s when traffic management in London was being modernised , and the London Ringways was proposed , the GLC , which was not in favour of increasing traffic into central London , had control of the inner London roads , while the government , through the Ministry of Transport , which was in favour of widening roads , had control of outer London . These different approaches resulted in the Ministry of Transport widening a stretch of the A1 until it reached the control of the GLC , when the widening abruptly stopped . Due to the problems associated with two different and opposing bodies having responsibility for London 's roads , the government were keen to take control of the major routes , and made plans in 1983 for the Department of Transport to take over 70 miles of road , including significant parts of the A1 ; when the GLC was abolished in 1986 , the Department of Transport took over direct control of the 70 miles of major routes , plus had a significant influence on another 300 . In 2000 control of roads in London passed to Transport for London , a department of GLA created in 2000 as part of the Greater London Authority Act 1999 , and the major roads , including the A1 , were declassified as trunk roads . Route The route of the A1 in London runs from the northern end of St. Martin 's Le Grand in the City to Borehamwood in Hertfordshire , then travels on the northern fringe of Greater London to Bignell 's Corner , where it crosses the M25 and becomes a motorway , designated A1 ( M ) , which alternates with the dual carriageway A1 as it continues to Edinburgh . The London section of the road passes through part of the City of London and three London boroughs : Islington , Haringey and Barnet . The A1 is one of London 's main northern routes , providing a link to the M1 motorway and the A1 ( M ) motorway , and on to the Midlands , Northern England and Scotland . It connects a number of major areas within London , and sections of it serve as the High Street for many of the now - joined villages that make up north London . Even though it is one of London 's major roads , less than 5 % of its approximate 60 , 000 vehicles a day are through traffic – the bulk is local . The current start of the A1 is the modern roundabout at the northern end of St. Martin 's Le Grand where it meets Aldersgate Street , near the site of the now demolished General Post Office , London , the headquarters of the Post Office from 1829 to 1910 . When originally designated in 1921 the A1 started a little further north along Aldersgate Street at Aldersgate Bars , which marked the boundary of the City , though some later maps indicate it starting at the southern end of St. Martin 's Le Grand , near St Paul 's Cathedral . The route runs north from Aldersgate along Aldersgate Street which is a modern dual carriageway , and from the 13th century was known as a wide street with fine buildings and travellers ' inns ; these were destroyed or badly damaged during the Blitz , and from 1965 to 1976 the 40 acre ( <unk> ² ) Barbican Estate , an arts complex and residential estate , was constructed along the entire eastern side of the street . At the end of Aldersgate Street stood Aldersgate Bars , which marked the limits of the City of London . Islington The route enters the London Borough of Islington at Goswell Road becoming a single carriageway running north from the border of the City to Angel through a mix of offices and urban housing . Goswell Road and St John Street were the ancient routes from the City to Islington , with St John Street being the start of the Great North Road until the General Post Office headquarters was built at St Martin 's - le - Grand in 1829 , whereafter stagecoaches used Aldersgate Street and Goswell Road . The New River originally flowed down the centre of Goswell Road , but is now underground and no trace of it can be seen at the surface . The street was reported in 1720 to be " meanly built and inhabited " , containing numerous inns and brothels , and it largely remained a slum area until the rebuilding that took place after the Second World War , and in particular the residential development that spread out from the Barbican since 1980 . At the northern end of Goswell Road , the route northwards follows a one - way section to the Angel , turning right into Islington High Street . The southwards route from Islington High Street follows City Road for a short distance before joining Goswell Road via <unk> Street . The earliest reference to Islington High Street is its appearance on a 1590 map of the area . At this time , nine inns ( including the Angel , which subsequently gave its name to the area ) , as well as housing and a public pond were shown lining the street . The Peacock Inn , one of the nine inns , and which operated on Islington High Street from 1564 to 1962 , was where Tom of Tom Brown 's Schooldays stayed prior to travelling to Rugby School . In 1716 Islington High Street came under the control of the newly formed Islington Turnpike Trust . The Trust grew rapidly and soon had control of most major roads in the area , building a number of major road arteries through the expanding residential areas , including Caledonian Road , Euston Road , City Road and New North Road . Upper Street , running roughly north from Islington High Street to Highbury Corner , is the main shopping street of Islington , and dates back to at least the 12th century . Livestock herded along the Great North Road for Smithfield Market , would – when passing through what was mainly fields and farmland – pause at lairs built between Upper Street and Liverpool Road by an enterprising farmer , Richard Laycock ; Laycock 's lairs would be used in 1861 for the site of the Royal Agricultural Hall , and a number of pubs and shops existed along the street to serve farmers and travellers headed for Smithfield . In the 18th century , Upper Street began to develop from an agricultural to a residential area . Ten houses were built in 1768 ( later named Hornsey Row ) , and a further group built immediately south of Hornsey Row in 1792 . Liverpool Road , originally called Back Road , was used as an alternative to Upper Street for the Smithfield herders , and both streets have a " high pavement " constructed to protect pedestrians from being splashed by the passing animals ; in places , the pavement is approximately 1 m above the road surface . After reaching the eight - way interchange at Highbury Corner , the A1 turns north - west as Holloway Road . Until the 14th century the route turned off along what is now Hornsey Road – the <unk> road – to go through Muswell Hill , but when that became impassable a new route along Holloway Road via Highgate was created in the 14th century . The earliest record giving the name of the road as the Holloway dates from 1307 . The main stretch of Holloway Road runs through the site of the villages of Tollington and Stroud . The exact time of their founding is not known , but the earliest record of them dates from 1000 . The names ceased to be used by the late 17th century but are still preserved in the local place names " Tollington Park " and " Stroud Green " ; since that time , the area has been known as Holloway . The northern point of Holloway Road is the complex interchange at Archway . The construction of the interchange left a few buildings isolated in the centre of the roundabout , including the Archway Tavern , which appears on the cover of The Kinks ' 1971 album Muswell Hillbillies . Haringey After the Archway roundabout , the A1 enters a cutting , and becomes Archway Road . The original road north went up the very steep Highgate Hill ( now the <unk> ) to the village of Highgate . By the early 19th century , this was proving unsuitable for increasingly heavy traffic , and a road , crossing the hill through a tunnel at a shallower gradient , was proposed by a mining engineer , Robert <unk> , in 1808 ; a turnpike trust – the Highgate Archway Company – was set up and work started in 1810 . The brick built tunnel collapsed during construction on 13 April 1812 , and John Nash constructed a brick bridge , using a series of arches like a canal viaduct , to carry Hornsey Lane over what was now a cutting . Nash 's Archway Bridge , a little way south of the current bridge , and the new Archway Road were opened in 1813 , though the road surface , being constructed of sand and gravel , proved difficult for heavy traffic . Parliamentary Commissioners took over the road , and John Benjamin <unk> , chief engineer to Thomas Telford , proposed using Roman cement and gravel , an innovative technique that was used for the first time on Archway Road , and is the basis for modern road building . The construction was financed by tolls which were abolished in 1876 – traffic increased substantially thereafter , particularly after the introduction of trams on the road . Between 1897 and 1900 , Nash 's bridge was replaced with the present cast - iron Hornsey Lane Bridge , designed by Sir Alexander Binnie , accessible from the Archway Road level by a steep flight of steps . Hornsey Lane Bridge is informally called " Suicide Bridge " as it is a known suicide spot . It was the venue for the mental illness campaign group Mad Pride 's inaugural vigil in 2000 , and was the subject of Johnny Burke 's 2006 film The Bridge . When , at the end of 2010 , three men in three weeks committed suicide by jumping from the bridge , a campaign was set up by local residents for better anti - suicide measures to be put in place . Hornsey Lane and the bridge marks the boundary between the Inner London Borough of Islington and the Outer London Borough of Haringey . An inquiry was held into widening the section from the Archway intersection to the Hornsey Lane Bridge to a three lane dual carriageway in 1969 and work started in 1971 . It was originally intended to widen a further section of the road , but severe disruption led to the first inquiry being abandoned in 1978 , and a second inquiry in 1984 , chaired by Air Marshal Sir Michael Giddings , was also abandoned . The traffic flow was projected to increase to 180 , 000 cars a day by 1981 , but by 1986 the actual flow was only 30 , 000 a day . When originally constructed , Archway Road went through countryside with few buildings - though by 1828 the Woodman pub at the junction with Muswell Hill Road , and the now demolished Wellington pub at the junction with North Hill provided refreshments to travellers ; however , with the coming of the railways in 1867 ribbon development started along the road , including the <unk> Heritage listed Winchester Tavern with the distinctive attached parade of shops and house with deep arched eaves built by the Imperial Property Investment Co in 1881 . At the northern end of Archway Road , the road re - intersects with the traditional Great North Road route ( at this point called North Hill ) . The roads almost immediately re - diverge , with the Great North Road route heading north as the A1000 towards Finchley , Whetstone and Barnet and the A1 heading west as Aylmer Road . Aylmer Road is a very short stretch of road , running west for less than half a mile between the junction with the A1000 in Haringey to the junction with The Bishops Avenue in Barnet . The entire southern side of the road is taken up by Highgate Golf Course , while the northern side is a mixture of small shops , flats and allotments . The road is named for General Sir Fenton John Aylmer , VC KCB , who received the Victoria Cross for his part in the assault on <unk> Fort on 2 December 1891 . Barnet After crossing The Bishops Avenue , the A1 becomes Lyttelton Road , which was laid out in 1931 as part of the residential development of the area , and runs east – west along the northern foot of Highgate Hill between Hampstead Garden Suburb and East Finchley . It is for the most part residential ; on the northern side stands the Belvedere Court block of flats . Built with the road in the 1930s , the building is now Grade II Listed as an example of 1930s architecture . After passing playing fields to the south , the A1 briefly becomes Market Place , a former street market that has evolved into a short stretch of shops , then becomes <unk> Way – built between 1914 and 1924 as part of a programme of planned extensions to Hampstead Garden Suburb , and runs on an embankment due to a dip in the ground caused by Mutton Brook , a tributary of the River Brent , which runs parallel to the road immediately to the south for its entire length . The north side of the road is occupied by 1930s housing blocks , whilst the southern side is occupied by a narrow strip of parkland following the brook , and by the northern tip of Big Wood and Little Wood – two of the few surviving remnants of the ancient woodland that once covered what is now north London . The A1 merges with the North Circular Road ( A406 ) and the two routes run briefly together , crossing over the Henlys Corner interchange . Henlys Corner is a junction with the 1820s turnpike road , Finchley Road , which was built to provide a by - pass to the route north from London through Hampstead ; the name changes to Regents Park Road on the northern , Finchley , side of the junction . The junction had an £ 8 million upgrade completed in January 2012 , which included Britain 's first " hands - free " pedestrian crossing to allow Orthodox Jews to reach the nearby Finchley Synagogue , one of Europe 's largest , without operating machinery on the Sabbath . While a synagogue has stood on the site since 1935 , the current building dates from 1967 . After the Henlys Corner interchange , the routes diverge , with the A406 going south to Brent Cross , while the A1 turns north - west as Great North Way through the leafy suburbs of Mill Hill and Hendon . Great North Way , built in 1926 , joins Watford Way carrying the A41 , completed in 1927 , at <unk> Corner , and in 1970 a junction with the M1 motorway was created . The A41 and A1 continue together as Watford Way via Mill Hill Circus to Apex Corner , where they separate , with the A41 turning west , and the A1 turning to run straight north . After passing Apex Corner , the A1 runs north and out of London as the dual carriageway Barnet Way / Barnet Bypass . This dual carriageway was part of a 1920 – 4 road improvement programme that was mentioned in parliament in 1928 as hopefully being completed by the end of that summer . The northbound carriageway passes the entrance to <unk> , an area of ancient forest which is now a local nature reserve , then crosses the <unk> from Watford to Barnet at the Stirling Corner roundabout . A 0 . 6 miles ( 0 . 97 km ) proposed link road at this roundabout , estimated at £ <unk> in 1987 , would have provided access to the M1 , but the plans were subsequently abandoned . The link had been planned during discussions for the Hendon Urban Motorway , which was intended to carry the M1 all the way down to Hyde Park Corner as part of the London Ringways scheme ; the interchange would have been junction 3 on the motorway ; which is currently the unnumbered junction for London Gateway services . Past Stirling Corner , the A1 skirts Borehamwood , before turning northeast and running through open countryside to Bignell 's Corner . At Bignell 's Corner the A1 crosses under the M25 motorway at a large roundabout near South Mimms services . North of Bignell 's Corner the A1 becomes the A1 ( M ) motorway for a while , and follows the Great North Road route , running north to Edinburgh . Construction The A1 route was designated in 1921 by the Ministry of Transport under the Great Britain road numbering scheme . Through the inner boroughs of the City , Islington , and Haringey it uses existing roads and streets ; when it reaches what is now the outer London borough of Barnet , some stretches of purpose - built new roads were built , and others have been widened and made into dual carriageways . In 1828 , John Benjamin <unk> , chief engineer to Thomas Telford , used Roman cement and gravel to solve problems with wear and tear on the Archway Road section of what is now the A1 , an innovative technique that was used there for the first time , and is the basis for modern road building .
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Mario Ramírez Treviño Mario Armando Ramírez Treviño ( born 5 March 1962 ) , commonly referred to by his aliases El Pelón and / or X - 20 , is an alleged Mexican drug lord and former leader of the Gulf Cartel , a drug trafficking organization . In the early 2000s , Ramírez Treviño was a close associate of Jaime González Durán ( El Hummer ) , a founder and top leader of Los Zetas drug cartel . In 2008 , González Durán was arrested and sentenced to 35 years in prison ; by 2010 , Los Zetas , who were working as the armed wing of the Gulf Cartel , separated from the organization to operate independently . Both criminal organizations went to war with each other , but Ramírez Treviño remained in the Gulf Cartel . Under the tutelage of Samuel Flores Borrego ( El Metro 3 ) , he worked as the second - in - command for the criminal organization in Reynosa , Tamaulipas . In an apparent power struggle within the Gulf Cartel , however , El Metro 3 was killed , and he became the regional kingpin in September 2011 . With the death of El Metro 3 , several groups within the Gulf Cartel went to war with each other , but Ramírez Treviño remained loyal to his faction , Los Metros . In late 2012 , the Gulf Cartel leaders Mario Cárdenas Guillén and Jorge Eduardo Costilla Sánchez were arrested by the Mexican Armed Forces , forcing him to take the lead of the criminal organization . To keep the Gulf Cartel under his control and in a single command structure , Ramírez Treviño resorted to kill El Metro 4 , Miguel " El Gringo " Villarreal , and other cartel leaders who stood in his way . He was arrested by the Mexican Army and Navy on 17 August 2013 in Reynosa . Early life and career Mario Armando Ramírez Treviño was born in Mexico on 5 March 1962 . For many years , he worked under the radar as he ascended in the ranks of the Gulf Cartel . In the early 2000s , he worked with Jaime González Durán ( El Hummer ) , one of the leaders and founders of Los Zetas , an organization that served as the armed wing of the Gulf Cartel . El Hummer was eventually arrested in November 2008 and sentenced to 35 years in prison ; Los Zetas later separated from the Gulf Cartel in early 2010 and went to war with them . But when the two organizations separated , Ramírez Treviño remained loyal to the Gulf Cartel and became the second - in - command in Reynosa , Tamaulipas , an area formerly controlled by the deceased Samuel Flores Borrego ( El Metro 3 ) . He was Flores Borrego 's right - hand man in Reynosa . On 2 September 2011 , however , the Mexican authorities discovered the bullet - ridden corpse of Flores Borrego inside a Ford Lobo truck on a highway that connects Reynosa with Monterrey . Although the information has not been confirmed , the Mexican Army alleges that Ramírez Treviño 's boss was killed by " members of his own cartel , " presumably on orders from the Gulf Cartel leaders Juan Mejía González ( El R - 1 ) and Rafael Cárdenas Vela ( El Junior ) . Within a few hours after his death , Ramírez Treviño , who had been working as the regional boss of Ciudad Victoria , Tamaulipas , succeeded him as the kingpin of Reynosa . The top echelons of the Gulf Cartel gave him " explicit orders to make the [ drug market ] profitable again . " The death of Ramírez Treviño 's boss triggered a war within the Gulf Cartel , resulting in the deaths and arrests of several high - ranking drug traffickers from 2011 to 2013 . When the Gulf Cartel 's top leaders Mario Cárdenas Guillén and Jorge Eduardo Costilla Sánchez were arrested in early September 2012 , Ramírez Treviño decided to step up for the job and become the undisputed leader of the cartel . In efforts to keep the Gulf Cartel under a single command structure , he ordered the assassination of high - ranking drug trafficker El Metro 4 on 15 January 2013 in Reynosa . His death , however , sparked a turf war . Reynosa turf wars Battle with Miguel " El Gringo " Villarreal On the night of 10 March 2013 , rival factions within the Gulf Cartel clashed when gunmen loyal to Ramírez Treviño and henchmen of Miguel " El Gringo " Villarreal , another high - ranking drug trafficker , battled in a three - hour gunfight in Reynosa , paralyzing the avenues and streets of the city while the Mexican Armed Forces missed most of the fighting . When the melee ended , the Mexican government initially confirmed two civilian deaths , but unofficial reports suggested that around 40 Gulf Cartel gunmen were reportedly killed ; the number may possibly be higher , considering that the cartel members were reported to have carried away the corpse of their fallen comrades in their vehicles . In the shootout , unofficial reports claimed that El Gringo 's ally , Jesús García Román ( El Puma ) , was killed . And that high - ranking Gulf Cartel leader Sergio <unk> Silva ( Comandante Cortez ) , who heads the faction known as Los <unk> ( The Zeros ) , confronted El Gringo and his forces . Ramírez Treviño and El Gringo vied for the control of the drug trade operations in Reynosa , but the former had taken the overall command of the Gulf Cartel and had committed himself to kill anyone that he considered his enemy , which included El Gringo . In order to put him down , Ramírez Treviño ordered his men to " erase everything and [ kill ] everyone that had ties El Gringo " , thereby creating a single structure among the cartel 's commanders . With the help of the Sinaloa Cartel , Ramírez Treviño was planning to oust El Gringo for reportedly failing to stay low - profile in Reynosa , and for considering him a " bloodthirsty " leader . In addition , he distrusted El Gringo because he had ties with his rival Juan Mejía González ( El R1 ) . Stratfor indicates that the infighting between both men might have triggered after El Gringo allegedly betrayed the Gulf Cartel and started working with Heriberto Lazcano Lazcano ( El <unk> ) , the deceased leader of the rival Los Zetas cartel . Intelligence reports indicate that the infighting between Ramírez Treviño and El Gringo left at least 60 dead throughout the state of Tamaulipas in March 2013 , particularly in Miguel Alemán and Camargo , Tamaulipas . After several prolonged battles for the control of Reynosa , Ramírez Treviño became the top leader of the Gulf Cartel in 2013 , a position he had been vying since the drug lords Costilla Sánchez and Cárdenas Guillén were arrested in late 2012 . Although the information has not been officially confirmed , Stratfor intelligence agency suggests that El Gringo and several of his top associates were killed in the infighting on 10 March 2013 . Bounty and status According to the United States Department of State , Ramírez Treviño is 1 . 73 m ( 5 ft 8 in ) tall , and weighs approximately 90 . 1 kilograms ( 200 lbs ) . He has black - colored hair and brown eyes , and his aliases are X - 20 , Comandante X - 20 ( " Commander X - 20 " ) , Pelón ( " Baldy " ) , and / or Mario Pelón . Ramírez Treviño was an active participant and coordinator of cocaine and marijuana shipments heading to the United States from Mexico . He is also involved in moving large sums of money from drug sales heading back to Mexico from the U.S. through the Reynosa corridor . He was also the leader of Los Metros , a Gulf Cartel subgroup . In 2008 , he was charged with a federal indictment in the District of Columbia for violations of Title 21 USC Sections 959 , 960 , 963 , and Title 18 USC Section 2 . The United States Department of State was offering up to US $ 5 million for information leading to his arrest and / or conviction . Mexico , however , did not have him on its most - wanted list and was not offering any financial reward for information leading to his arrest . His criminal profile portrays Ramírez Treviño as a violent , cold - blooded , and intelligent criminal . Assassins who have worked for him say that the drug lord enjoyed spending time alone , gambling , and drinking ; they also say that he was an introvert and was easily frustrated . To instill fear among his enemies and respect among his men , Ramírez Treviño reportedly tortured his victims . He was considered " at least as violent " as former Zetas leader Miguel Treviño Morales . Kingpin Act sanction On 24 March 2010 , the United States Department of the Treasury sanctioned Ramírez Treviño under the Foreign Narcotics Kingpin Designation Act ( sometimes referred to simply as the " Kingpin Act " ) , for his involvement in drug trafficking along with fifty - three other international criminals and ten foreign entities . The act prohibited U.S. citizens and companies from doing any kind of business activity with him , and virtually froze all his assets in the U.S. Months prior to arrest After Los Zetas leader Miguel Treviño Morales ( alias <unk> ) was arrested in July 2013 , the authorities speculated that Ramírez Treviño was planning to lead the Gulf Cartel into new grounds by retaking the turfs controlled by Los Zetas , their former allies , in northeastern Mexico . With a new armed squad known as Los Deltas ( a parallel version of what Los Zetas was for the Gulf Cartel prior to their separation ) , the drug lord was planning to fight off Los Zetas at a border area known as " La Frontera Chica , " which encompasses Miguel Alemán , Camargo and Ciudad Mier – directly across the U.S - Mexico border from Starr County , Texas . Other crime specialists believed that Ramírez Treviño stood a chance of reunifying the Gulf Cartel and Los Zetas as they were in early 2010 . Capture Ramírez Treviño was arrested during a joint operation between the Mexican Army and Navy in Reynosa , Tamaulipas on the morning of 17 August 2013 . In the operative the federal agents confiscated three assault rifles , nine communication equipment , and more than US $ 38 , 000 and $ 25 , 000 pesos ( about US $ 2 , 000 ) . They also arrested the drug lord with two of his bodyguards . The Mexican federal government first confirmed the arrest of the drug lord via Twitter and then issued a short statement of the operative , but did not offer major details until the following day during a formal press conference . That same day , he was flown from the General Lucio Blanco International Airport in Reynosa to Mexico City under tight security and kept at the <unk> installations , Mexico 's organized crime investigatory agency . The government responded to the arrest by strengthening security and increasing the presence of federal troops in northeastern Mexico in order to neutralize any incursion from rival criminal organizations like Los Zetas in the region . On 21 August 2013 , he was transferred to the Federal Social Readaptation Center No. 1 maximum security prison in Almoloya de Juárez , State of Mexico by the Mexican Army . The Mexican government has not officially confirmed the existence of a successor to Ramírez Treviño 's reign . However , the most rumored name is Homero Cárdenas Guillén ( El <unk> ) , the brother of the former leaders Osiel and Antonio . According to U.S. sources , there are three other possible leaders for the Gulf Cartel : Luis Alberto Trinidad Cerón ( El <unk> ) ; Juan Francisco <unk> ( El 98 ) ; and Alberto de la Cruz Álvarez ( El <unk> ) .
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San Juan Creek San Juan Creek , also called the San Juan River , is a 29 - mile ( 47 km ) stream in Orange County , California that consists of a catchment basin encompassing 133 . 9 square miles ( 347 km2 ) . Its mainstem rises in the Santa Ana Mountains , in the Trabuco Ranger District of the Cleveland National Forest . From there it runs parallel to the Ortega Highway as it winds west and south through San Juan Canyon , where it is joined by numerous small tributaries , and is joined by Trabuco Creek , its main branch as it passes through San Juan Capistrano . It flows into the Pacific Ocean at Doheny State Beach . Once out of the foothills , San Juan Creek flows through the city of San Juan Capistrano where groundwater flow direction generally is from the northeast to the southwest . Groundwater in this basin at the San Juan Capistrano reach is considered good . Recent efforts of stream conservation have been in the planning stage including habitat conservation plan work . Historically , the San Juan Creek watershed was inhabited by the Acjachemen , now Juañeno Indians . The Juañeno received their current name from Spanish conquistadors in the 1770s , who built Mission San Juan Capistrano very near San Juan Creek , giving it its name . After the Spanish settlement , development in the watershed continued to grow and pollution of the creek has increased . The construction of Dana Point Harbor in 1960 increased the pollution of San Juan Creek at its mouth , posing an increasing danger to visitors of Doheny State Beach . In the late 1990s and early 21st century , floods destroyed many river control structures in the San Juan watershed , and the risk of floods continues to grow . Although the San Juan watershed was formerly rich in biodiversity , with sixteen major plant communities and hundreds of species of birds , invertebrates , mammals , and others , the watershed is projected to be 48 percent developed by the year 2050 . Many reaches of open land in the San Juan watershed are now heavily developed , and urban runoff coming from residential communities is taking an increased toll on the creek and its tributaries . Although the mainstem San Juan Creek does not have any major water diversions or dams , its tributaries are heavily affected , most notably Trabuco and Oso Creeks . Course San Juan Creek begins high in the Santa Ana Mountains southwest of Lake Elsinore , at the head of the steep and narrow San Juan Canyon , at roughly 1 , 690 feet ( 520 m ) in elevation where Morrell Canyon Creek , draining the western Elsinore Mountains and southernmost Santa Ana Mountains , has its confluence with Bear Canyon Creek . From there , it flows steeply downhill over riffles and waterfalls , and paralleling California State Route 74 , here known as the Ortega Highway , as it winds through the rocky gorge . It drops over San Juan Falls , a 15 - foot ( 4 . 6 m ) cascade , then crosses under an arch bridge that carries the Ortega Highway . It is joined by Hot Springs Creek and Cold Springs Creek on the right bank , while Lucas Canyon Creek meets it on the left . Once out of the mountains , San Juan Creek proceeds to meander through a broad and shallow farming and ranching valley underlain by thick alluvial deposits . The creek swings west to receive Bell Canyon on the right , from several residential communities that overlook , but do not border , it. and Verdugo Canyon Creek from the left . Trampas Canyon enters from the left and Cañada <unk> and Cañada Chiquita enter from the right . The creek then crosses under Interstate 5 , and enters a flood control channel , turning south and receiving El Horno Creek on the right . It receives its largest tributary , Trabuco Creek , on the right bank , then continues south and east to the Pacific Ocean . Before it reaches the sea , however , it enters a lagoon at the northern end of Doheny State Beach , which occasionally spills into Capistrano Bay . Tributaries All direct tributaries of San Juan Creek , from mouth to source , are listed . The list also includes streams that join major tributaries . Geology Rocks and topography The geology of the San Juan Creek watershed is complex , but can be described as having many seismic fault zones , with streams tending to follow these fault zones where canyons have formed , and having extremely erosive soils . The alluvial floodplain of San Juan Creek tends to have very deep concentrations in lower reaches and are said to be poorly drained . Soil types in the San Juan watershed can be divided into the Metz - San <unk> , Sorrento - Mocho , <unk> . Alo - <unk> , Cieneba - Anaheim - Soper , and Friant - Cieneba - Exchequer associations , in order from most level to steepest . Sedimentary bedrock composes many hillsides in the San Juan watershed , and poses a landslide danger during earthquakes , severe erosion or other events that may cause failure of hillside stability . There are also several seismic faults within the watershed . These include a fault line ( <unk> ) running along Oso Creek northeast - southwest , passing offshore 7 miles ( 11 km ) south of the mouth of San Juan Creek , as well as another fault zone ( Mission Viejo ) that parallels the <unk> but ends far more south , in San Diego County . In summary , the San Juan watershed can be considered as being bisected by two faults , running through its approximate center . The first recorded earthquake in the area partially destroyed Mission San Juan Capistrano in 1812 , followed by others in 1862 , 1933 and 1938 . The uplift of the San Joaquin Hills , a small coastal mountain range generally following the Pacific coast of Orange County , created a physical barrier for streams flowing off the Santa Ana Mountains . But by the Wisconsinian Glaciation , an enormous climate change helped solve that problem . During the Wisconsinian Glaciation , a period of time that lasted from about 70 , 000 to 10 , 000 years ago , glaciers and ice sheets moved south from Canada into the northern United States , radically altering the climate of the entire continent . The arid Southern California climate was supplanted by a temperate rainforest climate that would receive rainfall in excess of 80 to 90 inches ( 2 , 000 to 2 , 300 mm ) per year . San Juan Creek and other streams along the South Coast became powerful rivers that cut their way through the San Joaquin Hills , but this condition reverted by the end of the period . Several wet periods did occur throughout the Ice Age , but the Wisconsinian was the largest . Hydrology and groundwater Groundwater in the San Juan Creek basin , also referred to as the " San Juan Creek Groundwater Basin " , has a total volume of roughly 900 , 000 acre feet ( 1 . 1 × 109 m3 ) . ( California State Water Resources Control Board , 1977 . ) Natural groundwater recharge in the San Juan basin is estimated to be roughly 160 , 000 acre feet ( 200 , 000 , 000 m3 ) per year historically , mostly from precipitation . This amount has been reduced due to extensive development of the lower segment of the watershed , which is continuing to reduce the amount of open ground that can potentially serve in groundwater recharge . Artificially sourced water from irrigation and other uses is responsible for recharging roughly 37 , 500 acre feet ( 46 , 300 , 000 m3 ) annually . The watershed is essentially split into half by the <unk> and Mission Viejo fault zones , which result in the division of the " Upper " and " Lower " groundwater basins . The groundwater mostly lies in alluvium , which ranges from a depth of 200 feet ( 61 m ) in the lower watershed to mostly none in the upper reaches of the watershed . Historically , the total surface outflow from the San Juan basin into the Pacific was calculated at 5 , 200 acre feet ( 6 , 400 , 000 m3 ) annually . Increasing urban development , resulting in increased runoff from irrigation and other sources , brought the annual outflow to 7 , 800 acre feet ( 9 , 600 , 000 m3 ) as of 1993 . The maximum annual yield is 9 , 000 acre feet ( 11 , 000 , 000 m3 ) . Although water from San Juan Creek , tributaries and basin groundwater are increasingly used for a limited amount of agricultural and municipal purposes , the annual yield from the watershed is continually increasing . As the groundwater recharge rate of the watershed is relatively high , it is safe to assume that groundwater levels will recover quickly from human use and human - induced pollution . Due to the lower amount of urbanization in the San Juan watershed as compared with other watersheds in the county , the 100 - year flood inundation risk is also significantly lower than that of most of the nearby watersheds . It has been calculated that a 100 - year flood in the watershed would only affect a roughly 0 . 5 mi ( 0 . 80 km ) wide area for the lower reaches of San Juan Creek inside San Juan Capistrano , while for Trabuco Creek , only a 0 . 2 mi ( 0 . 32 km ) wide area would be affected , mainly due to severe downcutting . A fact of note is that the failure of the earthen Trampas Canyon Dam ( in Trampas Canyon , 2 miles ( 3 . 2 km ) upstream of San Juan Capistrano ) would actually create a <unk> slightly larger than that of the 100 year flood that would race down San Juan Creek to its mouth . However , many levees in the San Juan area are still inadequately suited to a 100 - year flood , regardless of the extent . Watershed The Santa Ana Mountains occupy most of the north , east and south parts of the approximately 133 . 9 - square - mile ( 347 km2 ) San Juan Creek watershed , while the San Joaquin Hills and one of their small subranges border the watershed on the southwest , east , and northwest . The three major tributaries , San Juan , Trabuco and Bell Creeks , all originate in the Santa Ana Mountains . There are four main alluvial river valleys in the watershed , drained by San Juan , Trabuco , Oso and Bell Creeks . The San Juan Creek valley occupies the south portion of the watershed , running roughly south before spreading wider near the coast , and running northeast until it turns sharply to the southeast to meet the Pacific Ocean at the city of Dana Point . The Trabuco Creek valley runs west from the northeasternmost portion of the watershed , then gradually becomes wider in a section called the Plano Trabuco then it joins the smaller , urbanized valley of Oso Creek , which runs primarily south . The combined valley then runs southward to merge with the San Juan Creek valley in San Juan Capistrano . The Bell Creek valley is narrower , beginning a few miles south of Trabuco Canyon , California , and running in an almost perfectly straight southward course to San Juan Creek , which at this point is shortly out of the uppermost reach of its watershed , San Juan Canyon . There are 19 other major creeks in the watershed , including <unk> Canyon Creek and El Horno Creek , both of which drain parts of the foothills of the Santa Ana Mountains . San Juan Creek is considered as part of the 500 - square - mile ( 1 , 300 km2 ) San Juan <unk> Unit , which is a coastal region running from central - south Orange County to the north extent of San Diego County , which borders Orange County on the south . The hydrologic unit also covers the watersheds of Aliso Creek , Salt Creek , Prima <unk> Cañada , Segunda <unk> Cañada , and San Mateo Creek , in order from north to south . Elevation above sea level ranges from 0 to 5 , 700 feet ( 0 to 1 , 737 m ) , and precipitation in the hydrologic unit ranges from 12 to 16 inches ( 300 to 410 mm ) annually . Except for San Mateo Creek , all of the other streams in the unit have a relatively developed watershed . San Juan Creek receives extra runoff from agriculture , urban activities , commercial irrigation , and other human - induced sources , which creates an extra unnatural flow ( consisting of urban runoff and agricultural return flows ) . This runoff is often polluted by trash , heavy metals , and oil received while running over pavement , and pesticides and fertilizer if draining farmland . A specific point of concern in the watershed is Oso Creek . A Southern California environmentalist , Michael Hazzard , said after diving into Upper Oso Creek Reservoir to retrieve an outboard motor : I spent three days diving to retrieve an outboard motor and my skin broke out in hives and boils and my gallbladder suffered and I later had six operations over a 21 ⁄ 2 - year period . Wildlife San Juan Creek was originally rich in riparian zones and other habitats in both its upper and lower watershed , with wetlands totaling over 300 acres ( 1 . 2 km2 ) historically in the lower reaches , before the rapid population explosion of Orange County began . There are 16 major vegetation zones in the watershed . Currently , the total wetland acreage in the watershed is 3 acres ( 0 . 012 km2 ) , or one percent of the historic total . In 1987 , just five bird species were confirmed in the watershed , while for fish , benthic invertebrates , and certain insects there were no confirmed observations , in part due to insufficient site coverage . Steelhead trout have recently been observed in the creek and its tributary , Trabuco Creek . A further reason for the decline of creek habitat and wildlife is mainly due to invasive plant and animal species , including giant reed ( Arundo donax ) and many sport fishes , such as bluegill and striped bass . However , a notable aspect of the creek water is while a sample taken at the creek mouth in January 1995 had a temperature of <unk> ( 56 . 84 degrees Fahrenheit ) , many creeks along the Orange County coast have much higher temperatures . <unk> The USGS operated two stream gauges on San Juan Creek in the city of San Juan Capistrano , one from 1929 to 1969 and the second from 1970 to 1984 . For the former gauge , the highest recorded peak flow during that period was 22 , 400 cubic feet per second ( 630 m3 / s ) per second on 25 February 1969 , with a gauge height of 5 . 6 feet ( 1 . 7 m ) . The second highest peak flow during that period was 13 , 000 cubic feet per second ( 370 m3 / s ) on 2 March 1938 , presumably at the peak of the Los Angeles Flood of 1938 . For the more recent stream gauge , the highest recorded flow was 14 , 700 cubic feet per second ( 420 m3 / s ) on 4 March 1978 , gauge height 17 feet ( 5 . 2 m ) . The second highest flow was 11 , 700 cubic feet per second ( 330 m3 / s ) on 20 February 1980 , gauge height 15 . 43 feet ( 4 . 70 m ) . The highest flow recorded on San Juan Creek of all time , however , was not by a USGS stream gauge ; the flow of 33 , 650 cubic feet per second ( 953 m3 / s ) was recorded on 11 January 2005 . History Indigenous peoples Before the 18th century , San Juan Creek and its tributary , Trabuco Creek , had indigenous names , but these are thus far unknown . The land in the San Juan watershed was mostly Acjachemen Indian territory , which extended from Aliso Creek in the north to San Mateo Creek in the south , a distance of roughly 35 miles ( 56 km ) north - south . Most of the population centered on the outfalls of the two large perennial streams in the area , San Juan and San Mateo Creeks , as well as Trabuco Creek . Such inhabitants , who numbered roughly two thousand overall , were hunter - gatherers , living in small , semi - permanent villages beside or near perennial streams . There were five villages on the main stem , three of which were below the Trabuco Creek confluence , and four more in other parts of the watershed , mostly on Trabuco and Oso Creeks . Their diet usually consisted of fruits , acorns , and grains , and sometimes meat , while they practiced little agriculture . Shell middens indicate that they also harvested shellfish from the coast . Although natural disasters such as floods , drought , and wildfires occurred during that time , as they do today , the Juañeno did not affect the environment of the area in either a negative or positive way . No permanent structures were built in the San Juan watershed until the arrival of the Spanish . Spanish arrival The first European land exploration of Alta California , the Spanish Portolà expedition , passed this way on its way north , camping at the creek on July 23 , 1769 . Franciscan missionary Juan Crespi noted in his diary , " ... we came to a very pleasant green valley , full of willows , alders , live oaks , and other trees not known to us . It has a large arroyo , which at the point where we crossed it carried a good stream of fresh and good water , which , after running a little way , formed in pools in some large patches of tules . " On the return journey to San Diego , the party used the campsite again , on January 20 . In 1776 , Father Junípero Serra founded Mission San Juan Capistrano on a site that was most probably close to the creek , and as a result , the creek takes its name from the mission . The first site , however , was abandoned due to lack of water , although the creek was known in historical accounts to be perennial . The mission was moved to a second site , where it now stands . The Acjachemen were dubbed the " Juañeno " by the Spanish , after the mission . The Spanish were among the first to create hydrological changes in the San Juan watershed , which included excavating irrigation channels , diverting water from streams , and <unk> and changing course of streams . Grazing animals , including cows , sheep and other livestock , began their prevalence during this period , destroying many native grasses and leaving the ecosystem unbalanced and prone to erosion . The origin of the name of Trabuco Creek ( Spanish : " <unk> Creek " , literally ) stems from the Gaspar de Portolà expedition of 1769 , during which a soldier lost a blunderbuss ( " <unk> " ) , and the name became associated with the creek after that point . The origin of the name of Oso Creek ( Spanish : " Bear Creek " ) is not known . Many of the creeks in the watershed have names of Spanish origin , which were most likely named by the Spanish conquistadors a long time before the area was annexed by the United States . In 1812 , a heavy earthquake severely damaged many of the structures built by the Spanish . The Great Stone Church at Mission San Juan Capistrano , which had been built only six years before , collapsed ; over forty people were reported to have been killed . Before urban development , the partially devastated lands caused by overgrazing during the Spanish period was still potentially capable of rebounding to their natural state . In 1964 , the urban percentage was 3 , while by 1988 , it had increased to 18 percent . In the 1990s , the watershed was 32 percent urban , and the projected growth by 2050 is 50 percent . Many areas in the watershed now have no chance to revert to their natural state as long as human habitation continues . 20th century to present In the late 1960s , the construction of Dana Point Harbor began very near the mouth of San Juan Creek . This harbor prevented the occurrence of a large surf break phenomenon , colloquially known as " Killer Dana " , in the bay . With the disappearance of Killer Dana , water circulation in the bay decreased . Resultantly , as pollution from San Juan Creek continued to flow freely into the bay , it stayed there for a longer period of time in comparison with that if the harbor had never been built . The pollution problems are ongoing , posing problems at Doheny Beach , where the 850 , 000 annual visitors are threatened by the continuing pollution from San Juan Creek . During floods in the 1990s , an almost sheer 30 - foot ( 9 . 1 m ) waterfall was rapidly scoured out of a steep earthen slope on Trabuco Creek , downstream of a railroad bridge and upstream of the Oso Creek confluence . This drop required quick reinforcement with grouted riprap , and still exists , with an average gradient of 29 percent before sheerly plunging into a murky stream pool . It still poses a major barrier to migrating fish and other riverine organisms , and thus isolates the lower few miles of Trabuco Creek from the relatively natural upper course . In 1996 , severe floods caused by heavy rainstorms in the San Juan watershed caused both San Juan and Trabuco creeks to overflow , destroying long sections of concrete lining near their confluence . The damage was chiefly caused by severe basal erosion , which led to subsequent failure of the concrete walls and levees . Once the concrete was breached , the bare earth underlying it was exposed to erosion , threatening a nearby residential community , but the floods receded before any serious harm was done . The failed sections were repaired with grouted riprap , which can still be seen today . In early 2005 , even more severe floods that also caused flooding along area streams such as San Diego Creek and Aliso Creek impacted the San Juan watershed , with an all - time highest flow of 33 , 650 cubic feet per second ( 953 m3 / s ) recorded on January 11 . Although the floods did not exceed the San Juan Creek channel capacity of 58 , 800 cubic feet per second ( 1 , 670 m3 / s ) , the west levee of the channel inside San Juan Capistrano nearly failed . Also in 2005 , pumps were installed on Tick and Dove Creeks ( tributaries of Bell Canyon , which flows into San Juan Creek ) to remove urban runoff stemming from a 1 , 100 - acre ( 4 . 5 km2 ) residential community on a nearby ridge . The pumps remove excess flow and divert it to storage basins for later use as reclaimed irrigation water . In May 2009 , it was announced that levee repairs along San Juan Creek would close a popular bikeway for up to two years , with repairs finished later in 2013 . This spurred protests from many area residents who are common users of the path . River modifications Although most streams in the San Juan watershed are less developed than those in the neighboring Aliso Creek and Salt Creek watersheds , San Juan , Oso and Trabuco Creeks have undergone an extensive series of modifications designed to control floods , reduce excessive erosion , and provide reclaimed water for irrigation . A growing amount of urban runoff flows into the creek and its tributaries , adding to the excessive perennial flow referred to often as a " nuisance flow " or " dry season nuisance flow " . Historically , only San Juan and Trabuco creeks were known to be perennial , while most of the tributaries , except for spring - fed ones such as Holy Jim Creek , were ephemeral . Oso Creek was formerly ephemeral , but currently it can flow in excess of 100 cubic feet per second ( 2 . 8 m3 / s ) in up to ten percent of a year . Finally , the long series of human - made modifications to the creek have resulted in its mouth , Doheny State Beach , placing tenth in the most polluted beaches of California . San Juan Creek is channelized for approximately 3 . 5 miles ( 5 . 6 km ) from immediately upstream of the Interstate 5 bridge to the mouth . Trabuco Creek is only channelized for several hundred yards above its confluence with the larger stream . In sharp contrast is Oso Creek , which is channelized along nearly its entire length , while Bell Canyon Creek is free - flowing . Two large reservoirs , Upper Oso and Lake Mission Viejo , are built on Oso Creek , with a total storage capacity of roughly 7 , 500 acre feet ( 0 . <unk> km3 ) . While Lake Mission Viejo is primarily for recreation , the 115 - acre ( 0 . 47 km2 ) Upper Oso Reservoir collects Oso Creek water and diverts it for irrigation use , while any low - flow spillage that occurs over its dam is collected at a small downstream dam that feeds a pipe that pumps it back to the reservoir ; in this way the Upper Oso Reservoir can be considered as a pumped - storage operation , although it does not produce hydroelectricity . A notable aspect of the reservoir is that it was vital in providing water to extinguish a large wildfire in October 2002 . The dam is rockfill , 800 feet ( 240 m ) long and 142 feet ( 43 m ) high . A few check dams exist on small upper tributaries of San Juan Creek , mostly inside the Cleveland National Forest , as well as a small , abandoned gabion structure lower on San Juan Creek . The structure , which was formerly a small dam , is now out of operation , but its roughly 3 - to - 4 - foot ( 0 . 91 to 1 . 22 m ) drop still poses a problem for migrating steelhead trout . There are a few water diversion weirs that exist on San Juan tributary streams to divert water for irrigation , ranching and limited municipal uses , but due to limited flows and polluted water , the usefulness of these structures are limited . A number of drop structures , which are small dams used to control water velocity , exist on streams in the San Juan watershed , primarily also on Trabuco and Oso creeks . On Trabuco Creek , there are eight drop structures , mostly built of riprap . The largest are a 30 - foot ( 9 . 1 m ) cascade immediately downstream of a Metrolink bridge and a concrete drop structure at the terminus of a culvert that crosses underneath Interstate 5 ; however , neither is inventoried by the Orange County Flood Control Division . There are also about seven drop structures on Oso Creek , most of which are also built of riprap . The mainstem San Juan Creek does not have any notable drop structures , dams or water diversions . As with channelization , levees are only found in the lower San Juan watershed . San Juan Creek is bounded with levees from upstream of Interstate 5 to very near its mouth at Doheny Beach , while Trabuco Creek has levees from upstream of Del Obispo Street ( a continuation of the Ortega Highway ) downstream to its mouth at San Juan Creek . Oso Creek has some raised banks , but it is not certain if those are levees . Smaller tributaries , such as El Horno Creek and Bell Canyon , do not have levees . Although the San Juan and Trabuco Creek levees are said to have a " fairly high level of protection currently " , failure scenarios of levees in the San Juan watershed have been extensively studied , and they have been determined to possibly fail for a variety of reasons , some of which have already been demonstrated in the floods of 1996 and 2005 . In response to the danger of another flood , work has begun on a new west - bank levee replacement that will finish in 2013 . Stream crossings This is a list of major crossings of San Juan Creek , proceeding upstream of the mouth .
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Æthelstan Æthelstan or Athelstan ( Old English : <unk> , <unk> , meaning " noble stone " ; c . 894 – 27 October 939 ) was King of the Anglo - Saxons from 924 to 927 and King of the English from 927 to 939 . He was the son of King Edward the Elder and his first wife , Ecgwynn . Modern historians regard him as the first King of England and one of the greatest Anglo - Saxon kings . He never married , and was succeeded by his half - brother , Edmund . When Edward died in July 924 , Æthelstan was accepted by the Mercians as king . His half - brother Ælfweard may have been recognised as king in Wessex , but died within weeks of their father 's death . Æthelstan still encountered resistance in Wessex for several months , and was not crowned until September 925 . In 927 he conquered the last remaining Viking kingdom , York , making him the first Anglo - Saxon ruler of the whole of England . In 934 he invaded Scotland and forced Constantine II to submit to him , but Æthelstan 's rule was resented by the Scots and Vikings , and in 937 they invaded England . Æthelstan defeated them at the Battle of Brunanburh , a victory which gave him great prestige both in the British Isles and on the Continent . After his death in 939 the Vikings seized back control of York , and it was not finally reconquered until 954 . Æthelstan centralised government ; he increased control over the production of charters and summoned leading figures from distant areas to his councils . These meetings were also attended by rulers from outside his territory , especially Welsh kings , who thus acknowledged his overlordship . More legal texts survive from his reign than from any other tenth - century English king . They show his concern about widespread robberies , and the threat they posed to social order . His legal reforms built on those of his grandfather , Alfred the Great . Æthelstan was one of the most pious West Saxon kings , and was known for collecting relics and founding churches . His household was the centre of English learning during his reign , and it laid the foundation for the Benedictine monastic reform later in the century . No other West Saxon king played as important a role in European politics as Æthelstan , and he arranged the marriages of several of his sisters to continental rulers . Background By the ninth century the many kingdoms of the early Anglo - Saxon period had been consolidated into four : Wessex , Mercia , Northumbria and East Anglia . In the eighth century , Mercia had been the most powerful kingdom in southern England , but in the early ninth , Wessex became dominant under Æthelstan 's great - great - grandfather , Egbert . In the middle of the century , England came under increasing attack from Viking raids , culminating in invasion by the Great Heathen Army in 865 . By 878 , the Vikings had overrun East Anglia , Northumbria , and Mercia , and nearly conquered Wessex . The West Saxons fought back under Alfred the Great , and achieved a decisive victory at the Battle of Edington . Alfred and the Viking leader Guthrum agreed on a division that gave Alfred western Mercia , while eastern Mercia was incorporated into Viking East Anglia . In the 890s , renewed Viking attacks were successfully fought off by Alfred , assisted by his son ( and Æthelstan 's father ) Edward and Æthelred , Lord of the Mercians . Æthelred ruled English Mercia under Alfred and was married to his daughter Æthelflæd . Alfred died in 899 and was succeeded by Edward . Æthelwold , the son of Æthelred , King Alfred 's older brother and predecessor as king , made a bid for power , but was killed at the Battle of the Holme in 902 . Little is known of warfare between the English and the Danes over the next few years , but in 909 , Edward sent a West Saxon and Mercian army to ravage Northumbria . The following year the Northumbrian Danes attacked Mercia , but suffered a decisive defeat at the Battle of Tettenhall . Æthelred died in 911 and was succeeded as ruler of Mercia by his widow Æthelflæd . Over the next decade Edward and Æthelflæd conquered Viking Mercia and East Anglia . Æthelflæd died in 918 and was briefly succeeded by her daughter Ælfwynn , but in the same year Edward deposed her and took direct control of Mercia . When Edward died in 924 , he controlled all of England south of the Humber . The Viking king Sihtric ruled the Kingdom of York in southern Northumbria , but Ealdred maintained Anglo - Saxon rule in at least part of the former kingdom of Bernicia from his base in Bamburgh in northern Northumbria . Constantine II ruled Scotland , apart from the southwest , which was the British Kingdom of Strathclyde . Wales was divided into a number of small kingdoms , including Deheubarth in the southwest , Gwent in the southeast , Brycheiniog immediately north of Gwent , and Gwynedd in the north . Early life According to William of Malmesbury , Æthelstan was thirty years old when he came to the throne in 924 , which would mean that he was born in about 894 . He was the oldest son of Edward the Elder and also the tallest . He was Edward 's only son by his first consort , Ecgwynn . Very little is known about Ecgwynn , and she is not named in any pre - Conquest source . Medieval chroniclers gave varying descriptions of her rank : one described her as an ignoble consort of inferior birth , while others described her birth as noble . Modern historians also disagree about her status . Simon Keynes and Richard Abels believe that leading figures in Wessex were unwilling to accept Æthelstan as king in 924 partly because his mother had been Edward the Elder 's concubine . However , Barbara Yorke and Sarah Foot argue that allegations that Æthelstan was illegitimate were a product of the dispute over the succession , and that there is no reason to doubt that she was Edward 's legitimate wife . She may have been related to St Dunstan . William of Malmesbury wrote that Alfred the Great honoured his young grandson with a ceremony in which he gave him a scarlet cloak , a belt set with gems , and a sword with a gilded scabbard . Medieval Latin scholar Michael Lapidge and historian Michael Wood see this as designating Æthelstan as a potential heir at a time when the claim of Alfred 's nephew , Æthelwold , to the throne represented a threat to the succession of Alfred 's direct line , but historian Janet Nelson suggests that it should be seen in the context of conflict between Alfred and Edward in the 890s , and might reflect an intention to divide the realm between his son and his grandson after his death . Historian Martin Ryan goes further , suggesting that at the end of his life Alfred may have favoured Æthelstan rather than Edward as his successor . An acrostic poem praising prince " <unk> " , and prophesying a great future for him , has been interpreted by Lapidge as referring to the young Æthelstan , punning on the old English meaning of his name , " noble stone " . Lapidge and Wood see the poem as a commemoration of Alfred 's ceremony by one of his leading scholars , John the Old Saxon . In Michael Wood 's view , the poem confirms the truth of William of Malmesbury 's account of the ceremony . Wood also suggests that Æthelstan may have been the first English king to be groomed from childhood as an intellectual , and that John was probably his tutor . However , Sarah Foot argues that the acrostic poem makes better sense if it is dated to the beginning of Æthelstan 's reign . Edward married his second wife , Ælfflæd , at about the time of his father 's death , probably because Ecgwynn had died , although she may have been put aside . The new marriage weakened Æthelstan 's position , as his step - mother naturally favoured the interests of her own sons , Ælfweard and Edwin . By 920 Edward had taken a third wife , Eadgifu , probably after putting Ælfflæd aside . Eadgifu also had two sons , the future kings Edmund and Eadred . Edward had several daughters , perhaps as many as nine . Æthelstan 's later education was probably at the Mercian court of his aunt and uncle , Æthelflæd and Æthelred , and it is likely that the young prince gained his military training in the Mercian campaigns to conquer the Danelaw . According to a transcript dating from 1304 , in 925 Æthelstan gave a charter of privileges to St Oswald 's Priory , Gloucester , where his aunt and uncle were buried , " according to a pact of paternal piety which he formerly pledged with Æthelred , ealdorman of the people of the Mercians " . When Edward took direct control of Mercia after Æthelflæd 's death in 918 , Æthelstan may have represented his father 's interests there . Reign The struggle for power Edward died at Farndon in northern Mercia on 17 July 924 , and the ensuing events are unclear . Ælfweard , Edward 's eldest son by Ælfflæd , had ranked above Æthelstan in attesting a charter in 901 , and Edward may have intended Ælfweard to be his successor as king , either of Wessex only or of the whole kingdom . If Edward had intended his realms to be divided after his death , his deposition of Ælfwynn in Mercia in 918 may have been intended to prepare the way for Æthelstan 's succession as king of Mercia . When Edward died , Æthelstan was apparently with him in Mercia , while Ælfweard was in Wessex . Mercia acknowledged Æthelstan as king , and Wessex may have chosen Ælfweard . However , Ælfweard outlived his father by only sixteen days , disrupting any succession plan . Even after Ælfweard 's death there seems to have been opposition to Æthelstan in Wessex , particularly in Winchester , where Ælfweard was buried . At first Æthelstan behaved as a Mercian king . A charter relating to land in Derbyshire , which appears to have been issued at a time in 925 when his authority had not yet been recognised outside Mercia , was witnessed only by Mercian bishops . In the view of historians David Dumville and Janet Nelson he may have agreed not to marry or have heirs in order to gain acceptance . However , Sarah Foot ascribes his decision to remain unmarried to " a religiously motivated determination on chastity as a way of life " . The coronation of Æthelstan took place on 4 September 925 at Kingston upon Thames , perhaps due to its symbolic location on the border between Wessex and Mercia . He was crowned by the Archbishop of Canterbury , Athelm , who probably designed or organised a new ordo ( religious order of service ) in which the king wore a crown for the first time instead of a helmet . The new ordo was influenced by West Frankish liturgy and in turn became one of the sources of the medieval French ordo . Opposition seems to have continued even after the coronation . According to William of Malmesbury , an otherwise unknown nobleman called Alfred plotted to blind Æthelstan on account of his supposed illegitimacy , although it is unknown whether he aimed to make himself king or was acting on behalf of Edwin , Ælfweard 's younger brother . Blinding would have been a sufficient disability to render Æthelstan ineligible for kingship without incurring the odium attached to murder . Tensions between Æthelstan and Winchester seem to have continued for some years . The Bishop of Winchester , Frithestan , did not attend the coronation or witness any of Æthelstan 's known charters until 928 . After that he witnessed fairly regularly until his resignation in 931 , but was listed in a lower position than entitled by his seniority . In 933 Edwin was drowned in a shipwreck in the North Sea . His cousin , Adelolf , Count of Boulogne , took his body for burial at St Bertin Abbey in Saint - Omer . According to the abbey 's annalist , Folcuin , who wrongly believed that Edwin had been king , he had fled England " driven by some disturbance in his kingdom " . Folcuin stated that Æthelstan sent alms to the abbey for his dead brother and received monks from the abbey graciously when they came to England , although Folcuin did not realise that Æthelstan died before the monks made the journey in 944 . The twelfth - century chronicler Symeon of Durham said that Æthelstan ordered Edwin to be drowned , but this is generally dismissed by historians . Edwin might have fled England after an unsuccessful rebellion against his brother 's rule , and his death probably helped put an end to Winchester 's opposition . King of the English Edward the Elder had conquered the Danish territories in Mercia and East Anglia with the assistance of Æthelflæd and her husband , but when Edward died the Danish king Sihtric still ruled the Viking Kingdom of York ( formerly the southern Northumbrian kingdom of Deira ) . In January 926 , Æthelstan arranged for one of his sisters to marry Sihtric . The two kings agreed not to invade each other 's territories or to support each other 's enemies . The following year Sihtric died , and Æthelstan seized the chance to invade . Guthfrith , a cousin of Sihtric , led a fleet from Dublin to try to take the throne , but Æthelstan easily prevailed . He captured York and received the submission of the Danish people . According to a southern chronicler , he " succeeded to the kingdom of the Northumbrians " , and it is uncertain whether he had to fight Guthfrith . Southern kings had never ruled the north , and his usurpation was met with outrage by the Northumbrians , who had always resisted southern control . However , at Eamont , near Penrith , on 12 July 927 , King Constantine of Scotland , King Hywel Dda of Deheubarth , Ealdred of Bamburgh , and King Owain of Strathclyde ( or Morgan ap Owain of Gwent ) accepted Æthelstan 's overlordship . His triumph led to seven years of peace in the north . Whereas Æthelstan was the first English king to achieve lordship over northern Britain , he inherited his authority over the Welsh kings from his father and aunt . In the <unk> Gwent acknowledged the lordship of Wessex , and Deheubarth and Gwynedd accepted that of Æthelflæd of Mercia ; following Edward 's takeover of Mercia , they transferred their allegiance to him . According to William of Malmesbury , after the meeting at Eamont Æthelstan summoned the Welsh kings to Hereford , where he imposed a heavy annual tribute and fixed the border between England and Wales in the Hereford area at the River Wye . The dominant figure in Wales was Hywel Dda of Deheubarth , described by the historian of early medieval Wales Thomas Charles - Edwards as " the <unk> ally of the ' emperors of Britain ' among all the kings of his day " . Welsh kings attended Æthelstan 's court between 928 and 935 and witnessed charters at the head of the list of laity ( apart from the kings of Scotland and Strathclyde ) , showing that their position was regarded as superior to that of the other great men present . The alliance produced peace between Wales and England , and within Wales , lasting throughout Æthelstan 's reign , though some Welsh resented the status of their rulers as under - kings , as well as the high level of tribute imposed upon them . In Armes <unk> <unk> ( The Great Prophecy of Britain ) , a Welsh poet foresaw the day when the British would rise up against their Saxon oppressors and drive them into the sea . According to William of Malmesbury , after the Hereford meeting Æthelstan went on to expel the Cornish from Exeter , fortify its walls , and fix the Cornish boundary at the River Tamar . This account is regarded sceptically by historians , however , as Cornwall had been under English rule since the mid - ninth century . Thomas Charles - Edwards describes it as " an improbable story " , while historian John Reuben Davies sees it as the suppression of a British revolt and the confinement of the Cornish beyond the Tamar . Æthelstan emphasised his control by establishing a new Cornish see and appointing its first bishop , but Cornwall kept its own culture and language . Æthelstan became the first king of all the Anglo - Saxon peoples , and in effect overlord of Britain . His successes inaugurated what John Maddicott , in his history of the origins of the English Parliament , calls the imperial phase of English kingship between about 925 and 975 , when rulers from Wales and Scotland attended the assemblies of English kings and witnessed their charters . Æthelstan tried to reconcile the aristocracy in his new territory of Northumbria to his rule . He lavished gifts on the minsters of Beverley , Chester - le - Street , and York , emphasising his Christianity . He also purchased the vast territory of Amounderness in Lancashire , and gave it to the Archbishop of York , his most important lieutenant in the region . But he remained a resented outsider , and the northern British kingdoms preferred to ally with the pagan Norse of Dublin . In contrast to his strong control over southern Britain , his position in the north was far more tenuous . The invasion of Scotland in 934 In 934 Æthelstan invaded Scotland . His reasons are unclear , and historians give alternative explanations . The death of his half - brother Edwin in 933 might have finally removed factions in Wessex opposed to his rule . Guthfrith , the Norse king of Dublin who had briefly ruled Northumbria , died in 934 ; any resulting insecurity among the Danes would have given Æthelstan an opportunity to stamp his authority on the north . An entry in the Annals of Clonmacnoise , recording the death in 934 of a ruler who was possibly Ealdred of Bamburgh , suggests another possible explanation . This points to a dispute between Æthelstan and Constantine over control of his territory . The Anglo - Saxon Chronicle briefly recorded the expedition without explanation , but the twelfth - century chronicler John of Worcester stated that Constantine had broken his treaty with Æthelstan . Æthelstan set out on his campaign in May 934 , accompanied by four Welsh kings : Hywel Dda of Deheubarth , Idwal Foel of Gwynedd , Morgan ap Owain of Gwent , and Tewdwr ap <unk> of Brycheiniog . His retinue also included eighteen bishops and thirteen earls , six of whom were Danes from eastern England . By late June or early July he had reached Chester - le - Street , where he made generous gifts to the tomb of St Cuthbert , including a stole and maniple ( ecclesiastical garments ) originally commissioned by his step - mother Ælfflæd as a gift to Bishop Frithestan of Winchester . The invasion was launched by land and sea . According to the twelfth - century chronicler Simeon of Durham , his land forces ravaged as far as Dunnottar in north - east Scotland , while the fleet raided Caithness , then probably part of the Norse kingdom of Orkney . No battles are recorded during the campaign , and chronicles do not record its outcome . By September , however , he was back in the south of England at Buckingham , where Constantine witnessed a charter as subregulus , that is a king acknowledging Æthelstan 's overlordship . In 935 a charter was attested by Constantine , Owain of Strathclyde , Hywel Dda , Idwal Foel , and Morgan ap Owain . At Christmas of the same year Owain of Strathclyde was once more at Æthelstan 's court along with the Welsh kings , but Constantine was not . His return to England less than two years later would be in very different circumstances . The Battle of Brunanburh In 934 Olaf Guthfrithson succeeded his father Guthfrith as the Norse King of Dublin . The alliance between the Norse and the Scots was cemented by the marriage of Olaf to Constantine 's daughter . By August 937 Olaf had defeated his rivals for control of the Viking part of Ireland , and he promptly launched a bid for the former Norse kingdom of York . Individually Olaf and Constantine were too weak to oppose Æthelstan , but together they could hope to challenge the dominance of Wessex . In the autumn they joined with the Strathclyde Britons under Owain to invade England . Medieval campaigning was normally conducted in the summer , and Æthelstan could hardly have expected an invasion on such a large scale so late in the year . He seems to have been slow to react , and an old Latin poem preserved by William of Malmesbury accused him of having " languished in sluggish leisure " . The allies plundered English territory while Æthelstan took his time gathering a West Saxon and Mercian army . However , Michael Wood praises his caution , arguing that unlike Harold in 1066 , he did not allow himself to be provoked into precipitate action . When he marched north , the Welsh did not join him , and they did not fight on either side . The two sides met at the Battle of Brunanburh , resulting in an overwhelming victory for Æthelstan , supported by his young half - brother , the future King Edmund I. Olaf escaped back to Dublin with the remnant of his forces , while Constantine lost a son . The English also suffered heavy losses , including two of Æthelstan 's cousins , sons of Edward the Elder 's younger brother , Æthelweard . The battle was reported in the Annals of Ulster : A great , lamentable and horrible battle was cruelly fought between the Saxons and the Northmen , in which several thousands of Northmen , who are uncounted , fell , but their king <unk> [ Olaf ] , escaped with a few followers . A large number of Saxons fell on the other side , but Æthelstan , king of the Saxons , enjoyed a great victory . A generation later , the chronicler Æthelweard reported that it was popularly remembered as " the great battle " , and it sealed Æthelstan 's posthumous reputation as " victorious because of God " ( in the words of the homilist Ælfric of Eynsham ) . The Anglo - Saxon Chronicle abandoned its usual terse style in favour of a heroic poem vaunting the great victory , employing imperial language to present Æthelstan as ruler of an empire of Britain . The site of the battle is uncertain , however , and over thirty sites have been suggested , with Bromborough on the Wirral the most favoured among historians . Historians disagree over the significance of the battle . Alex Woolf describes it as a " pyrrhic victory " for Æthelstan : the campaign seems to have ended in a stalemate , his power appears to have declined , and after he died Olaf acceded to the kingdom of Northumbria without resistance . Alfred Smyth describes it as " the greatest battle in Anglo - Saxon history " , but he also states that its consequences beyond Æthelstan 's reign have been overstated . In the view of Sarah Foot , on the other hand , it would be difficult to exaggerate the battle 's importance : if the Anglo - Saxons had been defeated , their hegemony over the whole mainland of Britain would have disintegrated . According to historian Michael Livingston : ... it would be no small stretch to consider the battle the moment when Englishness came of age . The men who fought and died on that field forged a political map of the future that remains with us today , arguably making the Battle at Brunanburh one of the most significant battles in the long history not just of England but of the whole of the British Isles . Kingship Administration Anglo - Saxon kings ruled through ealdormen , who had the highest lay status under the king . In ninth - century Wessex they each ruled a single shire , but by the middle of the tenth they had authority over a much wider area , a change probably introduced by Æthelstan to deal with the problems of governing his extended realm . One of the ealdormen , who was also called Æthelstan , governed the eastern Danelaw territory of East Anglia , the largest and wealthiest province of England . After the king 's death , he became so powerful that he was known as Æthelstan Half - King . Several of the ealdormen who witnessed charters had Scandinavian names , and while the localities they came from cannot be identified , they were almost certainly the successors of the earls who led Danish armies in the time of Edward the Elder , and who were retained by Æthelstan as his representatives in local government . Beneath the ealdormen , reeves — royal officials who were noble local landowners — were in charge of a town or royal estate . The authority of church and state was not separated in early medieval societies , and the lay officials worked closely with their diocesan bishop and local abbots , who also attended the king 's royal councils . As the first king of all the Anglo - Saxon peoples , Æthelstan needed effective means to govern his extended realm . Building on the foundations of his predecessors , he created the most centralised government that England had yet seen . Previously , some charters had been produced by royal priests and others by members of religious houses , but between 928 and 935 they were produced exclusively by a scribe known to historians as " Æthelstan A " , showing an unprecedented degree of royal control over an important activity . Unlike earlier and later charters , " Æthelstan A " provides full details of the date and place of adoption and an unusually long witness list , providing crucial information for historians . After " Æthelstan A " retired or died , charters reverted to a simpler form , suggesting that they had been the work of an individual , rather than the development of a formal writing office . A key mechanism of government was the Royal Council ( or witan ) . Anglo - Saxon kings did not have a fixed capital city . Their courts were peripatetic , and their councils were held at varying locations around their realms . Æthelstan stayed mainly in Wessex , however , and controlled outlying areas by summoning leading figures to his councils . The small and intimate meetings that had been adequate until the enlargement of the kingdom under Edward the Elder gave way to large bodies attended by bishops , ealdormen , thegns , magnates from distant areas , and independent rulers who had submitted to his authority . Frank Stenton sees Æthelstan 's councils as " national assemblies " , which did much to break down the provincialism that was a barrier to the unification of England . John Maddicott goes further , seeing them as the start of centralised assemblies that had a defined role in English government , and Æthelstan as " the true if unwitting founder of the English parliament " . Law The Anglo - Saxons were the first people in northern Europe to write administrative documents in the vernacular , and law codes in Old English go back to Æthelberht of Kent at the beginning of the seventh century . The law code of Alfred the Great , from the end of the ninth century , was also written in the vernacular , and he expected his ealdormen to learn it . His code was strongly influenced by Carolingian law going back to Charlemagne in such areas as treason , peace - keeping , organisation of the hundreds and judicial ordeal . It remained in force throughout the tenth century , and Æthelstan 's codes were built on this foundation . Legal codes required the approval of the king , but they were treated as guidelines which could be adapted and added to at local level , rather than a fixed canon of regulations , and customary oral law was also important in the Anglo - Saxon period . More legal texts survive from Æthelstan 's reign than from any other tenth - century English king . The earliest appear to be his tithe edict and the " Ordinance on Charities " . Four legal codes were adopted at Royal Councils in the early 930s at Grately in Hampshire , Exeter , Faversham in Kent , and Thunderfield in Surrey . Local legal texts survive from London and Kent , and one concerning the ' <unk> ' on the Welsh border probably also dates to Æthelstan 's reign . In the view of the historian of English law , Patrick Wormald , the laws must have been written by Wulfhelm , who succeeded Athelm as Archbishop of Canterbury in 926 . Other historians see Wulfhelm 's role as less important , giving the main credit to Æthelstan himself , although the significance placed on the ordeal as an ecclesiastical ritual shows the increased influence of the church . Nicholas Brooks sees the role of the bishops as marking an important stage in the increasing involvement of the church in the making and enforcement of law . The two earliest codes were concerned with clerical matters , and Æthelstan stated that he acted on the advice of Wulfhelm and his bishops . The first asserts the importance of paying tithes to the church . The second enforces the duty of charity on Æthelstan 's reeves , specifying the amount to be given to the poor and requiring reeves to free one penal slave annually . His religious outlook is shown in a wider <unk> of the law in his reign . The later codes show his concern with threats to social order , especially robbery , which he regarded as the most important manifestation of social breakdown . The first of these later codes , issued at Grately , prescribed harsh penalties , including the death penalty for anyone over twelve years old caught in the act of stealing goods worth more than eight pence . This apparently had little effect , as Æthelstan admitted in the Exeter code : I King Æthelstan , declare that I have learned that the public peace has not been kept to the extent , either of my wishes , or of the provisions laid down at Grately , and my councillors say that I have suffered this too long . In desperation the Council tried a different strategy , offering an amnesty to thieves if they paid compensation to their victims . The problem of powerful families protecting criminal relatives was to be solved by expelling them to other parts of the realm . This strategy did not last long , and at Thunderfield Æthelstan returned to the hard line , softened by raising the minimum age for the death penalty to fifteen " because he thought it too cruel to kill so many young people and for such small crimes as he understood to be the case everywhere " . His reign saw the first introduction of the system of tithing , sworn groups of ten or more men who were jointly responsible for peace - keeping ( later known as <unk> ) . Sarah Foot commented that tithing and oath - taking to deal with the problem of theft had its origin in Frankia : But the equation of theft with disloyalty to Æthelstan 's person appears peculiar to him . His preoccupation with theft — tough on theft , tough on the causes of theft — finds no direct parallel in other kings ' codes . Historians differ widely regarding Æthelstan 's legislation . Patrick Wormald 's verdict was harsh : " The hallmark of Æthelstan 's law - making is the gulf dividing its exalted aspirations from his spasmodic impact . " In his view , " The legislative activity of Æthelstan 's reign has rightly been dubbed ' feverish ' ... But the extant results are , frankly , a mess . " In the view of Simon Keynes , however , " Without any doubt the most impressive aspect of King Æthelstan 's government is the vitality of his law - making " , which shows him driving his officials to do their duties and insisting on respect for the law , but also demonstrates the difficulty he had in controlling a troublesome people . Keynes sees the Grately code as " an impressive piece of legislation " showing the king 's determination to maintain social order . David Pratt describes his legislation as " a deep and far - reaching reform of legal structures , no less important than developments under King Alfred two generations earlier " . Coinage In the 970s , Æthelstan 's nephew , King Edgar , reformed the monetary system to give Anglo - Saxon England the most advanced currency in Europe , with a good quality silver coinage , which was uniform and abundant . In Æthelstan 's time , however , it was far less developed , and minting was still organised regionally long after Æthelstan unified the country . The Grately code included a provision that there was to be only one coinage across the king 's dominion . However , this is in a section that appears to be copied from a code of his father , and the list of towns with mints is confined to the south , including London and Kent , but not northern Wessex or other regions . Early in Æthelstan 's reign , different styles of coin were issued in each region , but after he conquered York and received the submission of the other British kings , he issued a new coinage , known as the " circumscription cross " type . This advertised his newly exalted status with the inscription , " Rex <unk> Britanniae " . Examples were minted in Wessex , York , and English Mercia ( in Mercia bearing the title " Rex <unk> " ) , but not in East Anglia or the Danelaw . In the early 930s a new coinage was issued , the " crowned bust " type , with the king shown for the first time wearing a crown with three stalks . This was eventually issued in all regions apart from Mercia , which issued coins without a ruler portrait , suggesting , in Sarah Foot 's view , that any Mercian affection for a West Saxon king brought up among them quickly declined . Church Church and state maintained close relations in the Anglo - Saxon period , both socially and politically . Churchmen attended royal feasts as well as meetings of the Royal Council . During Æthelstan 's reign these relations became even closer , especially as the archbishopric of Canterbury had come under West Saxon jurisdiction since Edward the Elder annexed Mercia , and Æthelstan 's conquests brought the northern church under the control of a southern king for the first time . Æthelstan appointed members of his own circle to bishoprics in Wessex , possibly to counter the influence of the Bishop of Winchester , Frithestan . One of the king 's mass - priests ( priests employed to say Mass in his household ) , Ælfheah , became Bishop of Wells , while another , <unk> , succeeded Frithestan as Bishop of Winchester . <unk> was succeeded by another member of the royal household , also called Ælfheah . Two of the leading figures in the later tenth - century Benedictine revival of Edgar 's reign , Dunstan and Æthelwold , served in early life at Æthelstan 's court and were ordained as priests by Ælfheah of Winchester at the king 's request . According to Æthelwold 's biographer , Wulfstan , " Æthelwold spent a long period in the royal palace in the king 's inseparable companionship and learned much from the king 's wise men that was useful and profitable to him " . Oda , a future Archbishop of Canterbury , was also close to Æthelstan , who appointed him Bishop of Ramsbury . Oda may have been present at the battle of Brunanburh . Æthelstan was a noted collector of relics , and while this was a common practice at the time , he was marked out by the scale of his collection and the refinement of its contents . The abbot of Saint Samson in Dol sent him some as a gift , and in his covering letter he wrote : " we know you value relics more than earthly treasure " . Æthelstan was also a generous donor of manuscripts and relics to churches and monasteries . Indeed , his reputation was so great that some monastic scribes later falsely claimed that their institutions had been beneficiaries of his largesse . He was especially devoted to the cult of St. Cuthbert in Chester - le - Street , and his gifts to the community there included Bede 's Lives of Cuthbert . He commissioned it especially to present to Chester - le Street , and out of all manuscripts he gave to a religious foundation which survive , it is the only one which was wholly written in England during his reign . This has a portrait of Æthelstan presenting the book to Cuthbert , the earliest surviving manuscript portrait of an English king . In the view of Janet Nelson , his " rituals of largesse and devotion at sites of supernatural power ... enhanced royal authority and underpinned a newly united imperial realm " . Æthelstan had a reputation for founding churches , although it is unclear how justified this is . According to late and dubious sources , these churches included minsters at Milton Abbas in Dorset and Muchelney in Somerset . In the view of historian John Blair , the reputation is probably well - founded , but " These waters are muddied by Æthelstan 's almost folkloric reputation as a founder , which made him a favourite hero of later origin - myths . " However , while he was a generous donor to monasteries , he did not give land for new ones or attempt to revive the ones in the north and east destroyed by Viking attacks . He also sought to build ties with continental churches . Cenwald was a royal priest before his appointment as Bishop of Worcester , and in 929 he accompanied two of Æthelstan 's half - sisters to the Saxon court so that the future Holy Roman Emperor , Otto , could choose one of them as his wife . Cenwald went on to make a tour of German monasteries , giving lavish gifts on Æthelstan 's behalf and receiving in return promises that the monks would pray for the king and others close to him in perpetuity . England and Saxony became closer after the marriage alliance , and German names start to appear in English documents , while Cenwald kept up the contacts he had made by subsequent correspondence , helping the transmission of continental ideas about reformed monasticism to England . Learning Æthelstan built on his grandfather 's efforts to revive ecclesiastical scholarship , which had fallen to a low state in the second half of the ninth century . John Blair described Æthelstan 's achievement as " a determined reconstruction , visible to us especially through the circulation and production of books , of the shattered ecclesiastical culture " . He was renowned in his own day for his piety and promotion of sacred learning . His interest in education , and his reputation as a collector of books and relics , attracted a cosmopolitan group of ecclesiastical scholars to his court , particularly Bretons and Irish . Æthelstan gave extensive aid to Breton clergy who had fled Brittany following its conquest by the Vikings in 919 . He made a confraternity agreement with the clergy of Dol Cathedral in Brittany , who were then in exile in central France , and they sent him the relics of Breton saints , apparently hoping for his patronage . The contacts resulted in a surge in interest in England for commemorating Breton saints . One of the most notable scholars at Æthelstan 's court was Israel the Grammarian , who may have been a Breton . Israel and " a certain Frank " drew a board game called " Gospel Dice " for an Irish bishop , Dub Innse , who took it home to Bangor . Æthelstan 's court played a crucial role in the origins of the English monastic reform movement . Few prose narrative sources survive from Æthelstan 's reign , but it produced an abundance of poetry , much of it Norse - influenced praise of the King in grandiose terms , such as the Brunanburh poem . Sarah Foot even made a case that Beowulf may have been composed in Æthelstan 's circle . Æthelstan 's court was the centre of a revival of the elaborate hermeneutic style of later Latin writers , influenced by the West Saxon scholar Aldhelm ( <unk> – 709 ) , and by early tenth - century French monasticism . Foreign scholars at Æthelstan 's court such as Israel the Grammarian were practitioners . The style was characterised by long , convoluted sentences and a predilection for rare words and neologisms . The " Æthelstan A " charters were written in hermeneutic Latin . In the view of Simon Keynes it is no coincidence that they first appear immediately after the king had for the first time united England under his rule , and they show a high level of intellectual attainment and a monarchy invigorated by success and adopting the trappings of a new political order . The style influenced architects of the late tenth - century monastic reformers educated at Æthelstan 's court such as Æthelwold and Dunstan , and became a hallmark of the movement . After " Æthelstan A " , charters became more simple , but the hermeneutic style returned in the charters of Eadwig and Edgar . The historian W. H. Stevenson commented in 1898 : The object of the compilers of these charters was to express their meaning by the use of the greatest possible number of words and by the choice of the most grandiloquent , bombastic words they could find . Every sentence is so overloaded by the heaping up of unnecessary words that the meaning is almost buried out of sight . The invocation with its appended clauses , opening with pompous and partly alliterative words , will proceed amongst a blaze of verbal fireworks throughout twenty lines of smallish type , and the pyrotechnic display will be maintained with equal magnificence throughout the whole charter , leaving the reader , dazzled by the glaze and blinded by the smoke , in a state of uncertainty as to the meaning of these frequently untranslatable and usually interminable sentences . However , Michael Lapidge argues that however unpalatable the hermeneutic style seems to modern taste , it was an important part of late Anglo - Saxon culture , and deserves more sympathetic attention than it has received from modern historians . In the view of historian David Woodman , " Æthelstan A " should " be accorded recognition as an individual author of no little genius , a man who not only overhauled the legal form of the diploma but also had the ability to write Latin that is as enduringly fascinating as it is complex ... In many ways the diplomas of " Æthelstan A " represent the stylistic peak of the Anglo - Saxon diplomatic tradition , a fitting complement to Æthelstan 's own momentous political feats and to the forging of what would become England . " British monarch Historians frequently comment on Æthelstan 's grand and extravagant titles . On his coins and charters he is described as Rex totius Britanniae , or " King of the whole of Britain " . A gospel book he donated to Christ Church , Canterbury is inscribed " Æthelstan , king of the English and ruler of the whole of Britain with a devout mind gave this book to the primatial see of Canterbury , to the church dedicated to Christ " . In charters from 931 he is " king of the English , elevated by the right hand of the almighty to the throne of the whole kingdom of Britain " , and in one manuscript dedication he is even styled " basileus et <unk> " , the titles of Byzantine emperors . Some historians are not impressed . " Clearly " , comments Alex Woolf , " King Æthelstan was a man who had pretensions , " while in the view of Simon Keynes , " Æthelstan A " proclaimed his master king of Britain " by wishful extension " . But according to George Molyneaux " this is to apply an anachronistic standard : tenth - century kings had a loose but real hegemony throughout the island , and their titles only appear inflated if one assumes that kingship ought to involve domination of an intensity like that seen within the English kingdom of the eleventh and later centuries . " Foreign contemporaries described him in panegyric terms . The French chronicler Flodoard described him as " the king from overseas " , and the Annals of Ulster as the " pillar of the dignity of the western world " . Some historians take a similar view . Michael Wood titled an essay , " The Making of King <unk> 's Empire : an English Charlemagne ? " , and described him as " the most powerful ruler that Britain had seen since the Romans " . In the view of Veronica Ortenberg , he was " the most powerful ruler in Europe " with an army that had repeatedly defeated the Vikings ; continental rulers saw him as a Carolingian emperor , who " was clearly treated as the new Charlemagne " . She wrote : Wessex kings carried an aura of power and success , which made them increasingly powerful in the 920s , while most Continental houses were in military trouble and engaged in internecine warfare . While the civil wars and the Viking attacks on the Continent had spelled the end of unity of the Carolingian empire , which had already disintegrated into separate kingdoms , military success had enabled Æthelstan to triumph at home and to attempt to go beyond the reputation of a great heroic dynasty of warrior kings , in order to develop a Carolingian ideology of kingship . European relations The West Saxon court had connections with the Carolingians going back to the marriage between Æthelstan 's great - grandfather Æthelwulf and Judith , daughter of the king of West Francia ( and future Holy Roman Emperor ) , Charles the Bald , as well as the marriage of Alfred the Great 's daughter , Ælfthryth to Judith 's son by a later marriage , Baldwin II , Count of Flanders . One of Æthelstan 's half - sisters , Eadgifu , married Charles the Simple , king of the West Franks , in the late <unk> . He was deposed in 922 , and Eadgifu sent their son , Louis to safety in England . By Æthelstan 's time the connection was well established , and his coronation was performed with the Carolingian ceremony of anointment , probably to draw a deliberate parallel between his rule and Carolingian tradition . His " crowned bust " coinage of 933 – 938 was the first Anglo - Saxon coinage to show the king crowned , following Carolingian iconography . Like his father , Æthelstan was unwilling to marry his female relatives to his own subjects , so his sisters either entered nunneries or married foreign husbands . This was one reason for his close relations with European courts , and he married several of his half - sisters to European nobles in what historian Sheila Sharp called " a flurry of dynastic bridal activity unequalled again until Queen Victoria 's time " . Another reason lay in the common interest on both sides of the Channel in resisting the threat from the Vikings , while the rise in the power and reputation of the royal house of Wessex made marriage with an English princess more prestigious to European rulers . In 926 Hugh , Duke of the Franks , sent Æthelstan 's cousin , Adelolf , Count of Boulogne , on an embassy to ask for the hand of one of Æthelstan 's sisters . According to William of Malmesbury , the gifts Adelolf brought included spices , jewels , many swift horses , a crown of solid gold , the sword of Constantine the Great , Charlemagne 's lance , and a piece of the Crown of Thorns . Æthelstan sent his half - sister <unk> to be Hugh 's wife . Æthelstan 's most important European alliance was with the new <unk> dynasty in East Francia . The Carolingian dynasty of East Francia had died out in the early tenth century , and its new <unk> king , Henry the Fowler , was seen by many as an arriviste . He needed a royal marriage for his son to establish his legitimacy , but no suitable Carolingian princesses were available . The ancient royal line of the West Saxons provided an acceptable alternative , especially as they ( wrongly ) claimed descent from the seventh - century king and saint , Oswald , who was venerated in Germany . In 929 or 930 Henry sent ambassadors to Æthelstan 's court seeking a wife for his son , Otto , who later became Holy Roman Emperor . Æthelstan sent two of his half - sisters , and Otto chose Eadgyth . Fifty years later , Æthelweard , a descendant of Alfred the Great 's older brother , addressed his Latin version of the Anglo - Saxon Chronicle to Mathilde , Abbess of Essen , who was Eadgyth 's granddaughter , and had apparently requested it . The other sister , whose name is uncertain , was married to a prince from near the Alps who has not definitely been identified . In early medieval Europe , it was common for kings to act as foster - fathers for the sons of other kings . Æthelstan was known for the support he gave to dispossessed young royalty . In 936 he sent an English fleet to help his foster - son , Alan II , Duke of Brittany , to regain his ancestral lands , which had been conquered by the Vikings . In the same year he assisted the son of his half - sister Eadgifu , Louis , to take the throne of West Francia , and in 939 he sent another fleet that unsuccessfully attempted to help Louis in a struggle with rebellious magnates . According to later Scandinavian sources , he helped another possible foster - son , Hakon , son of Harald Fairhair , king of Norway , to reclaim his throne , and he was known among Norwegians as " Æthelstan the Good " . Æthelstan 's court was perhaps the most cosmopolitan of the Anglo - Saxon period . The close contacts between the English and European courts ended soon after his death , but descent from the English royal house long remained a source of prestige for continental ruling families . According to Frank Stenton in his history of the period , Anglo - Saxon England , " Between Offa and Cnut there is no English king who played so prominent or so sustained a part in the general affairs of Europe . " Death Æthelstan died at Gloucester on 27 October 939 . His grandfather Alfred , his father Edward , and his half - brother Ælfweard had been buried at Winchester , but Æthelstan chose not to honour the city associated with opposition to his rule . By his own wish he was buried at Malmesbury Abbey , where he had buried his cousins who died at Brunanburh . No other member of the West Saxon royal family was buried there , and according to William of Malmesbury , Æthelstan 's choice reflected his devotion to the abbey and to the memory of its seventh - century abbot , Saint Aldhelm . William described Æthelstan as fair - haired " as I have seen for myself in his remains , beautifully intertwined with gold threads " . His bones were lost during the Reformation , but he is commemorated by an empty fifteenth - century tomb . Aftermath After Æthelstan 's death , the men of York immediately chose the Viking king of Dublin , Olaf Guthfrithson ( or his cousin , Anlaf Cuaran ) , as their king , and Anglo - Saxon control of the north , seemingly made safe by the victory of Brunanburh , collapsed . The reigns of Æthelstan 's half - brothers Edmund ( 939 – 946 ) and Eadred ( 946 – 955 ) were largely devoted to regaining control . Olaf seized the east midlands , leading to the establishment of a frontier at Watling Street . In 941 Olaf died , and Edmund took back control of the east midlands , and then York in 944 . Following Edmund 's death York again switched back to Viking control , and it was only when the Northumbrians finally drove out their Norwegian Viking king Eric Bloodaxe in 954 and submitted to Eadred that Anglo - Saxon control of the whole of England was finally restored . Legacy The reign of Æthelstan has been overshadowed by the achievements of his grandfather , Alfred the Great , but he is now considered one of the greatest kings of the West Saxon dynasty . Modern historians endorse the view of twelfth century chronicler William of Malmesbury that " no one more just or more learned ever governed the kingdom " . Frank Stenton and Simon Keynes both describe him as the one Anglo - Saxon king who will bear comparison with Alfred . In Keynes 's view he " has long been regarded , with good reason , as a towering figure in the landscape of the tenth century ... he has also been hailed as the first king of England , as a statesman of international standing " . David Dumville describes Æthelstan as " the father of mediaeval and modern England " , while Michael Wood regards Offa , Alfred , and Æthelstan as the three greatest Anglo - Saxon kings , and Æthelstan as " one of the more important lay intellectuals in Anglo - Saxon history " . Æthelstan is regarded as the first King of England by modern historians . Although it was Eadred who would achieve the final unification of England by the permanent conquest of Viking York , Æthelstan 's campaigns made this success possible . His nephew Edgar called himself King of the English and revived the claim to rule over all the peoples of Britain . Simon Keynes argued that " the consistent usages of Edgar 's reign represent nothing less than a determined reaffirmation of the polity created by Æthelstan in the 930s " . Historian Charles <unk> , however , sees Æthelstan 's hegemony as fragile : " The level of overlordship wielded by Æthelstan during the 930s over the rest of Britain was perhaps not attained again by an English king until Edward I. " George Molyneaux argues that : The tendency of some modern historians to celebrate Æthelstan as " the first king of England " is , however , problematic , since there is little sign that that in his day the title rex Anglorum was closely or consistently tied to an area similar to that which we consider England . Indeed , when Æthelstan 's rule was associated with any definite geographical expanse , the territory in question was usually the whole island of Britain . Simon Keynes saw Æthelstan 's law - making as his greatest achievement . His reign predates the sophisticated state of the later Anglo - Saxon period , but his creation of the most centralised government England had yet seen , with the king and his council working strategically to ensure acceptance of his authority and laws , laid the foundations on which his brothers and nephews would create one of the wealthiest and most advanced systems of government in Europe . Æthelstan 's reign built upon his grandfather 's ecclesiastical programme , consolidating the local ecclesiastical revival and laying the foundation for the monastic reform movement later in the century . Æthelstan 's reputation was at its height when he died . According to Sarah Foot , " He found acclaim in his own day not only as a successful military leader and effective monarch but also as a man of devotion , committed to the promotion of religion and the patronage of learning . " Later in the century , Æthelweard praised him as a very mighty king worthy of honour , and Æthelred the Unready , who named his eight sons after his predecessors , put Æthelstan first as the name of his eldest son . Memory of Æthelstan then declined until it was revived by William of Malmesbury , who took a special interest in him as the one king who had chosen to be buried in his own house . William 's account kept his memory alive , and he was praised by other medieval chroniclers . In the early sixteenth century William Tyndale justified his English translation of the Bible by stating that he had read that King Æthelstan had caused the Holy Scriptures to be translated into Anglo - Saxon . From the sixteenth century onwards Alfred 's reputation became dominant and Æthelstan largely disappeared from popular consciousness . Sharon Turner 's History of the Anglo - Saxons , first published between 1799 and 1805 , played a crucial role in promoting Anglo - Saxon studies , and he helped to establish Brunanburh as a key battle in English history , but his treatment of Æthelstan was slight in comparison with Alfred . Charles Dickens had only one paragraph on Æthelstan in his Child 's History of England , and although Anglo - Saxon history was a popular subject for nineteenth - century artists , and Alfred was frequently depicted in paintings at the Royal Academy between 1769 and 1904 , there was not one picture of Æthelstan . According to Michael Wood : " Among all the great rulers of British history , Æthelstan today is the forgotten man " , and in medieval historian Ann Williams 's view : " If Æthelstan has not had the reputation which accrued to his grandfather , the fault lies in the surviving sources ; Æthelstan had no biographer , and the Chronicle for his reign is scanty . In his own day he was ' the roof - tree of the honour of the western world ' " .
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Mycena sanguinolenta Mycena sanguinolenta , commonly known as the bleeding bonnet , the smaller bleeding Mycena , or the terrestrial bleeding Mycena , is a species of mushroom in the Mycenaceae family . It is a common and widely distributed species , and has been found in North America , Europe , Australia , and Asia . The fungus produces reddish - brown to reddish - purple fruit bodies with conic to bell - shaped caps up to 1 . 5 cm ( 0 . 6 in ) wide held by slender stipes up to 6 cm ( 2 . 4 in ) high . When fresh , the fruit bodies will " bleed " a dark reddish - purple sap . The similar Mycena haematopus is larger , and grows on decaying wood , usually in clumps . M. sanguinolenta contains alkaloid pigments that are unique to the species , may produce an antifungal compound , and is bioluminescent . The edibility of the mushroom has not been determined . Taxonomy First called Agaricus sanguinolentus by Johannes Baptista von Albertini , the species was transferred to the genus Mycena in 1871 by German Paul Kummer , when he raised many of Fries ' " tribes " to the rank of genus . The specific epithet is derived from the Latin word sanguinolentus and means " bloody " . It is commonly known as the " bleeding bonnet " the " smaller bleeding Mycena " , or the " terrestrial bleeding Mycena " . The fungus is classified in the section Lactipedes along with other latex - producing species . A molecular phylogenetic analysis of several dozen European Mycena species suggests that M. sanguinolenta is closely related to M. galopus . Other <unk> related species include M. galericulata and M. haematopus . Description The cap of M. sanguinolenta is either convex or conic when young , with its margin pressed against the stipe . As it expands , it becomes broadly convex or bell - shaped , ultimately reaching a diameter of 3 – 15 mm ( 0 . 1 – 0 . 6 in ) . The surface is initially covered with a dense whitish - grayish coating or powder that is produced by delicate microscopic cells , but these cells soon collapse and disappear , leaving the surface naked and smooth . The surface is moist with an opaque margin that soon developing furrows . The cap color is variable but always some shade of bright or dull reddish - brown with a dull grayish - brown margin . The flesh is thin , not very fragile , sordid reddish , and exudes a reddish latex when cut . The odor and taste are not distinctive . The gills are adnate or slightly toothed , and well - spaced . They are narrow to moderately broad , sordid reddish to grayish , with even edges that are dark reddish - brown . The stipe is 2 – 6 cm ( 0 . 8 – 2 . 4 in ) long , 1 – 1 . 5 mm thick , equal in width throughout , and fragile . The base of the stipe is covered with coarse , stiff white hairs , while the remainder is covered with a drab powder that soon sloughs off to leave the stipe polished , and more or less the same color as the cap . It also exudes a bright or dull - red juice when cut or broken . The edibility of the mushroom is unknown — but it is considered too insubstantial to be of culinary interest . The spores are 8 – 10 by 4 – 5 μm , roughly ellipsoid , and only weakly amyloid . The basidia ( spore - bearing cells ) four - spored ( occasionally two- or three - spored ) . The pleurocystidia ( cystidia on the face of a gill ) are rare to scattered or sometimes quite abundant , narrowly to broadly ventricose , measuring 36 – 54 by 8 – 13 μm . They are filled with a sordid - reddish substance . The cheilocystidia ( cystidia on the gill edge ) are similar to the pleurocystidia or shorter and more obese , and very abundant . The flesh if the gill is made of broad hyphae the cells of which are often <unk> ( covered with vesicles ) in age , and stain pale reddish - brown in iodine . The flesh of the cap is covered with a thin pellicle , and the hypoderm ( the layer of cells immediately underneath the pellicle ) is moderately well - differentiated . The remainder of the cap flesh is floccose and filamentous , and all except the pellicle stain pale vinaceous - brown in iodine . <unk> ( latex - producing ) hyphae are abundant . Similar species The other " bleeding Mycena " ( M. haematopus ) is readily distinguished from M. sanguinolenta by its larger size , different color , growth on rotting wood , and presence of a sterile band of tissue on the margin of the cap . Further , M. sanguinolenta consistently has red - edged gills , while the gill edges of M. haematopus are more variable . The similarly named M. <unk> has red to orange juice , is slightly yellower , and does not have pleurocystidia . M. <unk> has a similar furrowed cap , but also has a tough stipe and does not ooze liquid when injured . Mycena specialist Alexander H. Smith has noted a " striking " resemblance to M. <unk> , but this species has different colors ( pale vinaceous brown or sordid brown when faded ) , produces <unk> latex , and does not have differently - colored gill edges . Distribution and habitat Mycena sanguinolenta is common and widely distributed . It has been found from Maine to Washington and south to North Carolina and California in the United States , and from Nova Scotia to British Columbia in Canada . In Jamaica , it has been collected at an elevation of 1 , 800 m ( 5 , 900 ft ) . The distribution includes Europe ( Britain , Germany , The Netherlands , Norway , Romania and Sweden ) and Australia . In Asia , it has been collected from the alpine zone of the Changbai Mountains in Jilin Province , China , and from the provinces of Ōmi and Yamashiro in Japan . The fruit bodies grow in groups on leaf mold , moss beds , or needle carpets during the spring and fall . It is common in forests of fir and beech , and prefers to grow in soil of high acidity . Chemistry The fruit bodies of Mycena sanguinolenta contain the blue alkaloid pigments , sanguinones A and B , unique to this species . It also has the red - colored alkaloid <unk> . The sanguinones are structurally related to <unk> A , made by M. rosea , and the <unk> , a series of compounds produced by marine sponges . Although the function of the sanguinones is not known , it has been suggested that they may have " an ecological role ... beyond their contribution to the color of the fruiting bodies , ... since predators rarely feed on fruiting bodies " . When grown in pure culture in the laboratory , the fungus produces the antifungal compound <unk> - D. M. sanguinolenta is one of over 30 Mycena species that is bioluminous .
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William de St - Calais William de St - Calais ( also Calais or <unk> or <unk> ; died 1096 ) was a medieval Norman monk , abbot of the abbey of Saint - Vincent in Le Mans in Maine , who was nominated by King William I of England as Bishop of Durham in 1080 . During his term as bishop , St - Calais replaced the canons of his cathedral chapter with monks , and began the construction of Durham Cathedral . In addition to his ecclesiastical duties , he served as a commissioner for the Domesday Book . He was also a councilor and advisor to both King William I and his son , King William II , known as William Rufus . Following William Rufus ' accession to the throne in 1087 , St - Calais is considered by scholars to have been the new king 's chief advisor . However , when the king 's uncle , Odo of Bayeux , raised a rebellion against the king in 1088 , St - Calais was implicated in the revolt . William Rufus laid siege to St - Calais in the bishop 's stronghold of Durham , and later put him on trial for treason . A contemporary record of this trial , the De Iniusta Vexacione Willelmi Episcopi Primi , is the earliest surviving detailed contemporary report of an English state - trial . Imprisoned briefly , St - Calais was allowed to go into exile after his castle at Durham was surrendered to the king . He went to Normandy , where he became a leading advisor to Robert Curthose , Duke of Normandy , the elder brother of William Rufus . By 1091 , St - Calais had returned to England and regained royal favour . In England , St - Calais once more became a leading advisor to the king . In 1093 he negotiated with Anselm , Abbot of Bec , concerning Anselm 's becoming Archbishop of Canterbury ; in 1095 it was St - Calais who prosecuted the royal case against Anselm after he had become archbishop . During his bishopric , St - Calais stocked the cathedral library with books , especially canon law texts . He was also active in defending the north of England against Scots raids . Before his death , he had made his peace with Anselm , who blessed and consoled St - Calais on his deathbed . Early life St - Calais was a Norman , and a native of Bayeux ; he may have been a member of one of its clerical dynasties . His mother 's name , <unk> or <unk> , is given in Durham 's records ; his father , whose name is unknown , became a monk at the monastery of Saint - Calais in Maine , and may previously have been a knight . Although St - Calais is generally referred to as Saint Calais or St - Calais , the main source of information about his life , the monastic chronicle of Symeon of Durham , does not call him such . St - Calais studied under Odo , Bishop of Bayeux , the half - brother of the future William I of England , who was then Duke of Normandy . Other bishops educated at Bayeux around this time included Archbishop Thomas of York and Samson , Bishop of Worcester . Symeon of Durham considered St - Calais to be well - educated in classical literature and the scriptures ; at some point St - Calais also acquired a knowledge of canon law . He became a Benedictine monk at Saint - Calais in Maine , where his father had become a monk , and soon became the prior of that house . He became abbot of St Vincent - des - Prés near Le Mans in Maine , sometime around 1078 . As abbot , his only appearance in historical records is his upholding of the monasteries ' right to some property , and his acceptance of a gift of property in the town . William the Conqueror nominated him to the see of Durham on 9 November 1080 , and he was duly consecrated on either 27 December 1080 or 3 January 1081 . His elevation may have been a reward for diplomatic services he rendered to the king in France , or to help secure the see from further disorder following the death of the previous bishop , William Walcher , during a feud . However , it was most likely in recognition of his administrative ability . Symeon of Durham stated that St - Calais was chosen as a bishop for this reason , describing him as " very well versed in sacred and secular learning , very conscientious in matters of divine and worldly business , and so remarkable for good conduct that he had no equal amongst his contemporaries " . Early ecclesiastical affairs The chronicler Symeon of Durham asserted that when St - Calais was consecrated bishop by Archbishop Thomas of York , he managed to avoid professing obedience to the archbishop , which , if true , would have freed St - Calais from interference in his diocese . After his appointment , St - Calais decided to replace his cathedral chapter of secular clergy with monks , and consulted the king and Lanfranc , the Archbishop of Canterbury , before going to Rome to receive permission from Pope Gregory VII . These consultations , and the conditions within his diocese , may have kept St - Calais from visiting Durham until some time after his elevation . In 1083 he expelled the married clergy from the cathedral , and moved a small community of monks from Bede 's old monastery at Jarrow to Durham , to form the new chapter . This community had been founded at Jarrow by <unk> , a Norman ex - knight and monk of Evesham Abbey , and Eadwine , an English monk from Winchcombe Abbey . After the community had settled in Durham , St - Calais named Eadwine as prior , and arranged for lands to be set aside to support the monks . The expelled clergy were offered the option of joining the new monastic house , but only one actually joined . St - Calais enjoyed good relations with his cathedral chapter , and they supported him when construction began on a new cathedral in 1093 . He also gave a set of constitutions to the cathedral chapter , modeled on Lanfranc 's rule for Canterbury . Symeon of Durham said that the bishop acted towards the monks of his chapter as a " loving father " , and that the monks fully returned the sentiment . St - Calais is said to have researched exhaustively the pre - Norman Conquest customs of the cathedral , before re - establishing monks in the cathedral . He imposed the Monastic Constitutions of Lanfranc on the community , instead of the older Regularis Concordia . Work for William the Conqueror During William the Conqueror 's reign , St - Calais was a frequent witness on charters . While it is often difficult to determine who was considered most important on a charter 's witness list , placement near the top of the list is usually understood to mean that the signatory was considered important . Almost always during the Conqueror 's reign , St - Calais is listed right below the royal family and the archbishops . The king sent St - Calais on diplomatic missions to the French royal court and to Rome . After the king 's imprisonment of Odo of Bayeux , Pope Gregory VII complained to him . The pope was also concerned about the king 's refusal to allow the delivery of papal letters to the English bishops unless royal permission was secured . To placate the pope , the king dispatched St - Calais to Rome , possibly with Lanfranc , to explain to the pope the reasons for imprisoning Odo . St - Calais also served as a commissioner in the south - western part of England for the Domesday Book , which aimed to survey the whole of England and record who owned the lands . Some historians , including David Bates , have argued that St - Calais was the driving force behind the organization of the entire Domesday survey , although other candidates have been put forward , including Samson , Bishop of Worcester , before he became bishop . Pierre Chaplais , who argues for St - Calais being the main organizer of the survey , argues the bishop 's exile in 1088 interrupted work on the Little Domesday Book , a subproject of the survey which was left uncompleted . Rebellion Soon after the accession of William Rufus , St - Calais became one of the king 's most trusted lieutenants , along with the recently released Odo of Bayeux . Later chroniclers often referred to the position that St - Calais held as justiciar , although the formal office did not yet exist . Around Easter 1088 , Odo of Bayeux and many of the nobles revolted against the king and tried to place the king 's elder brother Robert Curthose , Duke of Normandy , on the throne . After the king had set off with St - Calais and some troops to counter Odo in Kent , St - Calais suddenly deserted , shutting himself in Durham Castle . Why St - Calais joined the rebellion , or at least did nothing to aid the king , is unclear . He and Odo had never been close , and despite the fact that St - Calais was educated at Bayeux , there is no evidence that Odo helped St - Calais ' career . Some historians , including W. M. Aird , have suggested that St - Calais felt the division of the Conqueror 's realm between two sons was unwise . It has been suggested that St Calais joined the rebellion to reunite the Normans and English under one ruler . St - Calais was the only bishop who did not actively aid the king ; the rebelling magnates included Roger de Montgomery Earl of Shrewsbury , Robert de Mowbray Earl of Northumbria , and Odo 's brother Robert Count of Mortain . The rebellion had failed by the end of the summer , but St - Calais continued to hold out in Durham , at first claiming he had never actually rebelled . When the king 's army arrived , St - Calais agreed to come out , but only after receiving a safe conduct that would allow him to attend a trial while his men continued to hold the castle . St - Calais 's actions suggest that he did rebel , whatever his claims to the contrary and affirmations of his innocence in northern chronicles . Trial St - Calais was brought before the king and royal court for trial on 2 November 1088 , at Salisbury , before which the king seized his lands . At the trial , St - Calais held that as a bishop he could not be tried in a secular court , and refused to answer the accusations . Lanfranc presented the king 's case , declaring that the confiscated lands had been held as fiefs , and thus St - Calais could be tried as a vassal , not as a bishop . St - Calais objected , and continued to refuse to answer the allegations . After numerous conferences and discussions , the court held that St - Calais could be tried as a vassal in a feudal court . St - Calais then asked for an appeal to Rome , which was rejected by the king and the judges . Those judging the case held that because St - Calais never answered the formal accusation , and because he appealed to Rome , his fief , or lands , was forfeit . Although St - Calais claimed to be defending the rights of clergy to be tried in clerical courts and to appeal to Rome , his fellow bishops believed otherwise . Lending support to their belief is the fact that St - Calais never pursued his appeal to Rome , and that later , in 1095 , he took the side of the king against Anselm of Canterbury when Anselm tried to assert a right to appeal to Rome . During the course of the trial , Lanfranc is said to have stated that the court was " trying you not in your capacity as bishop , but in regard to your fief ; and in this way we judged the bishop of Bayeux in regard to his fief before the present king 's father , and that king did not summon him to that plea as bishop but as brother and earl . " Unlike the later case of Thomas Becket , St - Calais received little sympathy from his fellow bishops . Most of the bishops and barons that judged the case seem to have felt that the appeal to Rome was made to avoid having to answer an accusation that St - Calais knew was true . The final judgement was only reached after the king lost his temper and exclaimed : " Believe me , bishop , you 're not going back to Durham , and your men aren 't going to stay at Durham , and you 're not going to go free , until you release the castle . " The extant De Iniusta Vexacione Willelmi Episcopi Primi , or Of the Unjust Persecution of the Bishop William I , details the trial of St - Calais before the king . This work is the earliest surviving detailed contemporary report of an English state - trial ; some have doubted its authenticity , however , claiming St - Calais would not have been as knowledgeable in canon law as the work portrays him . The historian Mark Philpott , however , argues that St - Calais was knowledgeable in canon law , since he owned a copy of the canon law , the False Decretals , which still survives . Return to favour After the court adjourned , St - Calais was held as a prisoner at Wilton Abbey until his followers in Durham relinquished the castle . Once the castle was back under the king 's control , St - Calais was released , and left for Normandy , and no more was heard of his appeal to Rome . Pope Urban II did write to the king in 1089 requesting that St - Calais be restored to his see , but nothing came of it . In Normandy , St - Calais quickly became one of Duke Robert 's principal advisors and his chief administrator . On 14 November 1091 he regained the favour of William Rufus , and was restored to his see . Duke Robert had persuaded the king to allow Bishop William 's return , perhaps in recognition of a service St - Calais performed for the king by brokering the end of a siege in Normandy that the king 's forces were about to lose . The end of the siege prevented the loss of the castle . St - Calais returned to Durham on 11 September 1091 , with a large sum of money and gifts for his church . Thereafter he remained in the king 's favour . In fact , in 1093 his lands were restored without the need to perform feudal services . For the rest of his life , St - Calais remained a frequent advisor to the king . It was St - Calais , along with Robert , Count of Meulan who negotiated with Anselm , the abbot of Bec , in 1093 over the conditions under which Anselm would allow himself to be elected Archbishop of Canterbury . St - Calais managed the king 's case against Anselm at Rockingham in 1095 , when Anselm wished to go to receive his pallium from Pope Urban II . At that time St - Calais opposed Anselm 's attempt to appeal to Rome over the issue , and steadfastly maintained the king 's position against Anselm , even advocating that the archbishop be deprived of his lands and sent into exile . Later , when the king was negotiating with Walter of Albano , the papal legate sent by Urban to convey the pallium to Anselm and to secure the king 's recognition of Urban as pope , St - Calais was the king 's chief negotiator . The clerical reformers , Eadmer among them , who supported Anselm in these quarrels , later tried to claim that St - Calais had supported the king out of a desire to succeed Anselm as archbishop if Anselm was deposed , but it is unlikely that St - Calais seriously believed that Anselm would be deposed . St - Calais secured grants from the king in return for his services . His efforts on behalf of the king earned him hostile accounts in Eadmer 's later writings . Diocesan affairs Durham 's location in the north left it insecure , as Malcolm Canmore , King of Scots , raided and invaded the north of England on a number of occasions . Malcolm claimed Northumbria , in which Durham was located , as part of his kingdom . St - Calais managed to befriend Malcolm , and secured his support for the patron saint of Durham , Saint Cuthbert . Malcolm and his wife helped lay the foundation stone of the new cathedral dedicated to Cuthbert . Respect for the saint did not mean that Malcolm refrained entirely from raiding the north ; he was killed in 1093 while once more raiding Northumbria . Both the English king and St - Calais did all in their power to support Malcolm 's sons , who had been educated in England , in their attempts to secure the Scottish throne . Later , in 1095 , an English noble , Robert de Mowbray , who was Earl of Northumbria , challenged the bishop 's authority in the north . When Mowbray rebelled again in 1095 , St - Calais helped the king put down the rebellion , and Mowbray was captured . The death of Malcolm and the capture of Mowbray did much to make the north more secure . In St - Calais ' time as bishop , a long - running dispute began between the monks of the cathedral chapter and successive bishops . This arose because St - Calais did not make a formal division of the diocesan revenues between the bishop 's household and the monks of the chapter . Nor had he allowed free elections of the prior . He may have promised these things to the monks before his death , but nothing was in writing . Thus , when a non - monk was selected to replace St - Calais , the monks began a long struggle to secure what they felt had been promised to them , including the forging of charters ascribed to St - Calais that supported their case . These forged charters date from the second half of the 12th century . St - Calais also ordered the destruction of the old cathedral that had been built by <unk> , to make way for the construction of a new , larger cathedral , the current Romanesque - style Durham Cathedral . The construction of the new cathedral began on 29 July 1093 , when St - Calais led his cathedral chapter in dedicating the site . The first stones were laid shortly afterwards , on 11 August 1093 . However , St - Calais ' exile after his trial as well as his employment in the royal service meant that he was often absent from his bishopric , and this probably is the cause of the medieval chronicler Symeon of Durham 's comparatively neutral treatment of St - Calais in his works . There is no evidence of St - Calais performing any of the normal episcopal functions , including consecrating priests or churches . Probably dating from St - Calais ' time is the confraternity relationship between the monks of Durham and the monks of the monastery of Saint Calais in Maine . The cult of Saint Calais appears to have been confined to the region around the monastery which the saint had founded . St - Calais appears to have been a devotee of the cult , and the most likely date for the creation of the confraternity link between the two houses is during St - Calais ' time as bishop . Death and legacy Shortly before Christmas 1095 , one of St - Calais ' knights , Boso , fell ill and dreamed he was transported to the afterlife , where he found a large house with gates made of iron . Suddenly , St - Calais emerged from the gates , asking the knight the whereabouts of one of his servants . Boso 's guide in the dream then informed Boso that this was a warning that St - Calais would soon die . Boso recovered and warned St - Calais of the dream . St - Calais died on 2 January 1096 after falling gravely ill on the previous Christmas Day . Before his death he was consoled by Anselm and was blessed by his former opponent . He was buried on 16 January 1096 in the chapter house at Durham . The king had summoned St - Calais shortly before Christmas to answer an unknown charge , and it is possible that the stress of this threat caused his death . In 1796 St - Calais ' grave was supposedly found during the demolition of the chapter house at Durham Cathedral . Found in the grave were a pair of sandals , which still survive , and fragments of a gold embroidered robe . While in office as bishop , St - Calais gave a copy of the False Decretals to his cathedral library . The manuscript was an edition that had been collected or prepared by Lanfranc for the use of the chapter of Canterbury . St - Calais may have used this copy in his trial . His plea for an appeal to Rome was grounded in the False Decretals , whether or not it was based on this particular manuscript . The manuscript itself is now in the Peterhouse Library . St - Calais also gave a copy of Bede 's Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum to his cathedral chapter ; this copy still survives . Other works that St - Calais gave to the cathedral library were copies of Augustine of Hippo 's De <unk> Dei and Confessions ; Gregory the Great 's Pastoral Care , Moralia , and Homilies ; and Ambrose 's De <unk> . St - Calais was known to his contemporaries as an intelligent and able man . He had an excellent memory . Frank Barlow , a historian , describes him as a " good scholar and a monk of blameless life " . Besides his copy of the Decretals , he left at his death over fifty books to the monks of Durham , and the list of those volumes still exists . His best - known legacy is the construction of Durham Cathedral , although the nave was not finished until 1130 . The construction technique of combining a pointed arch with another rib allowed a six - pointed vault , which enabled the building to attain a greater height than earlier churches . This permitted larger <unk> windows , and let more light into the building . The technique of the six - pointed vault spread to Saint - Etienne in Caen from which it influenced the development of early Gothic architecture near Paris . The system of rib vaulting in the choir was the earliest use of that technique in Europe . The historian Frank Barlow called the cathedral " one of the architectural jewels of western Christendom " .
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Switzerland in the Roman era The territory of modern Switzerland was a part of the Roman Republic and Empire for a period of about six centuries , beginning with the step - by - step conquest of the area by Roman armies from the 2nd century BC and ending with the decline of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century AD . The mostly Celtic tribes of the area were subjugated by successive Roman campaigns aimed at control of the strategic routes from Italy across the Alps to the Rhine and into Gaul , most importantly by Julius Caesar 's defeat of the largest tribal group , the Helvetii , in 58 BC . Under the Pax Romana , the area was smoothly integrated into the prospering Empire , and its population assimilated into the wider Gallo - Roman culture by the 2nd century AD , as the Romans enlisted the native aristocracy to engage in local government , built a network of roads connecting their newly established colonial cities and divided up the area among the Roman provinces . Roman civilization began to retreat from Swiss territory when it became a border region again after the Crisis of the Third Century . Roman control of most of Switzerland ceased in 401 AD , after which the area began to be occupied by Germanic peoples . Switzerland prior to the Roman conquest The Swiss plateau , within the natural borders of the Alps to the South and East , Lake Geneva and the Rhône to the west and the Rhine to the north , was recognized as a contiguous territory by Julius Caesar . This area had been dominated by the La Tène culture since the 5th century BC , settled by a mostly Celtic population ( Gauls ) , of which the Helvetii were the most numerous , but which also included the Rauraci in north - west Switzerland centered on Basel , and the Allobroges around Geneva . South of the Swiss plateau were the <unk> , <unk> and <unk> in the Valais , the <unk> in the Ticino , while the Raetians controlled the Grisons as well as large areas around it . The Roman conquest Early contact The first part of what is now Switzerland to fall to Rome was the southern Ticino , annexed after the Roman victory over the <unk> in 222 BC . The territory of the Allobroges around Geneva came under Roman sway by 121 BC and was incorporated into the province of Gallia Narbonensis prior to the Gallic Wars ( 58 – 51 BC ) . In around 110 BC , two Helvetic tribes under <unk> – the Tigurini and the <unk> , sometimes identified with the Teutons – joined the wandering Germanic Cimbri on a march to the West . In the course of the Cimbrian War they defeated a Roman force under Lucius Cassius Longinus at the Battle of <unk> in 107 BC , but after the Roman victory over the Teutons at Aquae Sextiae in 102 BC , the Tigurini returned to settle in the Swiss Plateau . Defeat of the Helvetii In 61 BC , the Helvetii , led by <unk> , decided to leave their lands and move to the West , burning their settlements behind them – twelve oppida , according to Caesar , and some 400 villages . They were decisively beaten by Caesar in the Battle of Bibracte in 58 BC . After their surrender , Caesar sent the Helvetii home , according them the status of foederati or Roman allies , but not yet ( as has previously been believed ) fully subjugating them to Roman sovereignty . Caesar 's policy aimed at controlling the territory west of the Jura and Rhine , as well as at blocking the potential incursion routes from the East along the Jura . The Raetians , described as savage warriors by Strabo , continued to launch incursions into the Swiss Plateau and also had to be contained . To that end , Caesar charged the Helvetii and the Rauraci with defending their territory and established two colonies of veterans – one , the Colonia Julia Equestris ( now Nyon ) on the shores of Lake Geneva and the other through Lucius <unk> Plancus in northwestern Switzerland , preceding the larger Augusta Raurica founded by Augustus in around 6 AD . Conquest of the Alps Caesar 's attempt to open the Great St Bernard Pass for Roman traffic failed in 57 BC due to strong opposition by the local <unk> . Concerted and successful efforts to gain control over the Alpine region were undertaken by his successor , Augustus , as the rapid development of Lugdunum ( Lyon ) made the establishment of a safe and direct route from Gaul to Italy a priority . In 25 BC , an army under Aulus Terentius Varro Murena wiped out the <unk> in the Aosta Valley . At some time between 25 and 7 BC – either following the Aosta campaign or , more likely , in the course of the conquest of Raetia in 15 BC – a campaign also subjugated the Celtic tribes of the Valais and opened the Great St Bernard Pass . That conquest was a consequence of the Augustan imperative of securing the Imperial borders . To effectively control the Alps as the shield of northern Italy , Rome needed to control both flanks of the mountain range . Thus it had to extend its power to the Rhine and Danube , thereby also opening a direct route to Germania and all of Central Europe . The last obstacle in this path were the Raetians . After a first expedition against them by Publius Silius Nerva in 16 BC , a more thorough campaign by Drusus and the later emperor Tiberius brought Raetia – and thereby all of Switzerland – firmly under Roman control . The <unk> <unk> , built by Augustus in 7 BC to celebrate his conquest of the Alps , lists among the defeated peoples the tribes of Raetia and of the Valais , but not the Helvetii . It appears that they were absorbed peacefully into the Empire during the first century AD , except for their part in the conflicts of the Year of the Four Emperors , AD 69 . Roman Switzerland The history of Switzerland under Roman rule was , from the Augustan period up until 260 AD , a time of exceptional peace and prosperity . The Pax Romana was made possible by the protection of well - defended and distant Imperial borders and a peaceful and smooth Romanization of the local population . The Romans urbanized the territory with numerous settlements and built a network of high - quality Roman roads connecting them , allowing for the integration of Helvetia into the imperial economy . Roman settlements While the Roman presence was always strong in the Alps , where the crucial North - South connection had to be kept open , the Swiss plateau was not really Romanized until decades after the conquest . The principal Roman settlements in Switzerland were the cities of Iulia Equestris ( Nyon ) , Aventicum ( Avenches ) , Augusta Raurica ( <unk> ) and Vindonissa ( Windisch ) . Evidence has also been found of almost twenty Roman villages ( vici ) established in the 1st to 3rd century AD , as well as hundreds of villas of varying sizes built in the western and central part of the Swiss Plateau . The known vici include : in the Romandie : <unk> ( <unk> - les - Bains ) , <unk> ( Geneva ) , <unk> ( Lausanne ) , <unk> ( <unk> ) , Urba ( Orbe ) , <unk> ( Oron ) , <unk> ( Vevey ) ; in the Valais : <unk> or <unk> ( St. Maurice ) , Forum Claudii <unk> ( Martigny ) , <unk> , <unk> ( Sitten ) , <unk> ( <unk> ) ; in central and northern Switzerland : Aquae <unk> ( Baden ) , Ad Fines ( <unk> ) , Bern , <unk> ( Basel ) , <unk> ( <unk> ) , <unk> , <unk> ( <unk> ) , Centum Prata ( <unk> ) , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> ( <unk> ) , Pierre <unk> , <unk> or <unk> ( Solothurn ) , <unk> or <unk> ( <unk> ) , <unk> ( Zurzach ) , <unk> ( Zürich ) , <unk> or <unk> ( Winterthur ) ; in Raetia : Ad <unk> ( <unk> ) , Arbor Felix ( Arbon ) , <unk> ( Bellinzona ) , Curia ( Chur ) , Magia ( Maienfeld ) , <unk> , <unk> or <unk> ( <unk> - Rona ) . The colonies of Nyon and Augusta Raurica at first had little cultural influence beyond their immediate surroundings . After Roman military defeats in Germania in 12 – 9 BC and 6 – 9 AD , the frontier was moved back to the Rhine and guarded by eight legions , of which one , originally Legio XIII Gemina , was based in the permanent camp of Vindonissa ( Windisch ) . Aventicum ( Avenches ) was likely the capital of the Helvetii since its founding at the beginning of the 1st century . In the 40s , it benefited from the traffic brought over the St Bernard pass over a street expanded by Claudius , and in 71 it acquired the status of a Roman colony and of an allied city . This is believed to have been a favor of Vespasian for the city in which he had lived for a time , or a measure to better control the Helvetii after the events of 69 by implanting a colony of veterans in their midst . Administrative divisions The Alps were first administered by a legatus pro <unk> in Augusta <unk> ( Augsburg ) , then by the procurator of the new province of Raetia . The Valais was split from Raetia by Claudius in AD 43 and merged with the province of Alpes Graiae to form a new province , Alpes Graiae et Poeninae . As for the Swiss plateau , its western and central part up to Ad Fines ( <unk> ) was administratively part of the province of Belgica and for military purposes part of Germania Superior . Its eastern part belonged to Raetia . This division , established by Augustus in 22 BC , was accompanied by a redistribution of tribal settlement areas . It remained essentially unchanged until Diocletian 's reforms in the third century , when parts of Switzerland each belonged to the provinces of <unk> , Vienna , Raetia Prima , Liguria and Alpes Graiae et Poeninae . Government The colonies of Nyon , Aventicum and Augusta Raurica were governed under republican constitutions similar to that of Rome . Most governmental powers were exercised by a pair of magistrates , the <unk> , elected annually first by all citizens older than 25 , and in later times by the city council or ordo <unk> . The 100 members of this council , which corresponded to the Roman Senate , were selected by the <unk> among former officials or priests according to their wealth , and held office for life . Augusta Raurica and Aventicum were also the civitates , or capitals , of the non - Roman tribes of the Rauraci and Helvetii , respectively . In that capacity , the magistrates of Aventicum , as <unk> <unk> <unk> , also governed the entire Helvetic population , which had the legal status of <unk> ( inhabitants ) invested with the Latin Right . The rights of the Roman <unk> , or colonists , were represented by a special authority , the curatores <unk> <unk> ( " Heads of the colonists of Aventicum " ) . Moreover , the Roman citizens of the entire territory established the cives Romani <unk> <unk> ( " Association of Roman citizens in Helvetia " ) . The civitas ( tribal community ) of the Helvetii was similar to that of the Celtic tribes of the Valais , which were merged into a single civitas <unk> probably around 40 AD , and given Forum Claudii <unk> ( Martigny ) as their capital . Parts of the modern Ticino belonged to the colony of <unk> ( Como ) , founded in the 1st century AD . On the local level , the basic administrative units were the vici , replacing the Helvetic <unk> , or tribes , which were dissolved at the time of colonization . These villages enjoyed a certain autonomy and were governed by popularly elected magistrates ( magistri or curatores ) . While the governmental system in the central and western part of Switzerland , as described above , is well documented , nothing of substance is known about the political and administrative system in eastern Raetia . However , records of the time show that a great number of local nobles held political and religious offices in Raetia , indicating that the Romans successfully co - opted the local elite . Culture and society Testaments of Roman culture such as baths , floor heating and imported goods ( pottery , glass , religious icons and artworks ) have been found in even the poorest Roman era dwellings , indicating that Romanization was effective at all levels of society . Roman public baths were found in all villages , temples with integrated theaters – showing animal or gladiatorial combat – in most . While the superimposition of Roman culture on the local population appears to have been unproblematic and thorough , the Celtic traditions did not disappear entirely , resulting in a fusion of Roman and local culture that characterized all aspects of society . Latin , the language of government and instruction , only gradually replaced the local Celtic dialects in everyday use . Local artworks and religious icons of the period exhibit influences of ornamental Celtic art , classical Greco - Roman art and even Oriental styles from the far reaches of the Empire . An important incentive for the local people to <unk> was the perspective of obtaining the various degrees of Roman citizenship and the rights conferred thereby , including the right to vote , to hold public office and to render military service . The hundreds of villae found in Switzerland , some very luxurious , attest to the existence of a wealthy and cultured upper class of landowners . Many villae belonged not to Roman immigrants , but to members of the Celtic aristocracy who continued to hold their lands and their rank after the Roman conquest . Of the lower classes , much less is known , although there are inscriptions attesting to the existence of guilds ( collegia ) of boat skippers , doctors , teachers and traders , as well as to the existence of a trade in slaves . Religion <unk> In the course of Romanization , the Celtic polytheism of the local tribes was merged – syncretized – with the Roman religion . The Celtic deities came to be worshiped under the names of their Roman counterparts . Thus <unk> was replaced by Mercury , <unk> by Apollo , Taranis by Jupiter and so forth , in a practice called interpretatio romana by Caesar , who pioneered it . Roman gods also acquired the names of local gods as epithets ; thus Mars was venerated as Mars <unk> , Mercury as Mercurius <unk> and Jupiter as Jupiter <unk> after the god of the Pennine Alps . As oriental religions grew more popular in the later Empire – unlike the traditional Roman cults , they promised rewards in the afterlife – they also percolated into Gaul . Artifacts related to the cults of gods such as Isis , Osiris , Serapis , <unk> , <unk> , Dionysos or Mithras have been found at the site of every Roman settlement in Switzerland . The great significance of religion in the culture of Roman Switzerland is illustrated by the imposing size and central location of the Roman temples in the cities , as well as by the great number of religious artifacts found by archaeologists . As everywhere in the Empire , the Imperial cult was practiced in Switzerland ; it had a particularly prominent temple in the center of the forum of Nyon . Christianity The first clear testaments to Christian communities in Switzerland date after 313 , when the religion was officially tolerated with the Edict of Milan . It is however certain that , as in Gaul , the Christian faith had already had adherents for some time prior to 313 . The first bishop in Switzerland was either Justinianus , bishop of the <unk> , in 340 ( his historicity is not certain ) or Theodorus , bishop of <unk> , in 381 or earlier . The first Christian religious buildings date to the 4th century ; they are found in Geneva , Chur and Saint - Maurice , known for the legend of the Theban Legion . Decline of Roman civilization in Switzerland The catastrophe of 260 The order and prosperity that the Pax Romana had brought to Switzerland ended , as elsewhere in the Empire , with the Crisis of the Third Century . In 260 , when the Gallic Empire briefly seceded from Rome , the emperor Gallienus withdrew the legions from the Rhine to fight the usurper <unk> , allowing the warlike Alemanni to enter the Swiss plateau . There , cities , villages and most villae were raided or sacked by marauding bands . The numerous caches of coins recovered from the period between 250 and 280 attest to the severity of the crisis . Only the Valais , shielded by mountains , escaped these predations . Borderlands As the Empire 's frontiers receded to the Rhine , Switzerland once again became a border area . Its defenses were strengthened , especially under Diocletian and Constantine , who rebuilt the roads and built castles ( castra ) alongside . Numerous fortifications were built along the Rhine border and further south , providing for a defense in depth . The border fortifications were completed by Valentinian I in 371 , who established a chain of watchtowers along the Rhine from Lake Constance to Basel , with each tower no more than 2 kilometers ( 1 . 2 mi ) away from the next one . But even these efforts could not restore peace and order in Switzerland , and numerous settlements were abandoned as their inhabitants fled to more defensible places or to the South . Urban culture faded away as the cities of Nyon and Augusta Raurica were permanently abandoned during the 4th century , the stones of their ruins serving to fortify Geneva and Basel . Aventicum never recovered from its pillages : Ammianus Marcellinus noted in around 360 that " the city was once very illustrious , as its half - ruined buildings attest . " Transition to the Middle Ages The Roman era of Switzerland is traditionally held to have ended in 401 AD , when Stilicho withdrew all troops from the Rhine and the Danube . However , it has been argued that the withdrawal was only temporary and partial , and that Roman control of these rivers was reestablished in 411 – 413 with the assistance of tribes moving south from Germania . In any case , the fifth century saw the apparently non - violent takeover of western Switzerland by the Burgundians ( placed there by Flavius Aetius in 443 as a shield against the invading Huns ) and of Northern and Central Switzerland by the Alamanni , a move not opposed by either absent or weakened Roman forces . These settlements established the most important cultural and linguistic division in modern Switzerland : the Burgundian areas eventually became the French - speaking Romandie , while the people in the larger Eastern half – called la suisse <unk> in French – still speak variants of Alemannic German . Raetia maintained its Roman traditions longer than the rest of Switzerland , but most of it was eventually assimilated as well , leaving only a small territory where a Vulgar Latin dialect , Romansh , is spoken to this day . The assassination of Aetius in 454 and the subsequent retreat of Roman forces to the south of the Alps marked the definitive end of Roman power in Switzerland , and the beginning of the transition to the Middle Ages .
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T. Arthur Cottam T. Arthur Cottam is a screenwriter , actor , producer and film director . A graduate of the Film and Television Production program at the Tisch School of the Arts of New York University , Cottam resides in Los Angeles , California . He acted in theatre , and received an Artistic Director Achievement Award from the Valley Theatre League for his role in the theatre production Othello as a cast member of Zombie Joe 's Underground Theatre Group . Cottam directed short films along a topical series called " Dirty Little Shorts " . His existential work Pornographic Apathetic deals with four people recounting pornographic film dialog in a state of apathy . Pornographic Apathetic was featured in numerous movie festivals , and received eight film awards as well as critical acclaim . Cottam 's film Carbuncle was featured in 2006 at the Milano Film Festival in Italy , and was recognized with a nomination in the category of " Best Feature Film " . His 2006 film Filthy Food received the award for " Best Experimental Short Film " at the festival <unk> NYC . Cottam 's film 52 Takes of the Same Thing , Then Boobs was an entrant in the 2010 International Short Film Festival in Piombino , Italy , and was featured in AFI FEST in the same year . Education Cottam graduated from the Film and Television Production program at the Tisch School of the Arts of New York University . Cottam 's thesis work at NYU was titled Beer Goggles , the film received the Best Editing award at the First Run Film Festival and was featured at the Chicago and New York Underground Film Festivals . He received a Bachelor of Fine Arts degree from NYU in 1998 . Career T. Arthur Cottam is an actor , and film - maker , based in Los Angeles , California . Cottam was a member of Zombie Joe 's Underground Theatre Group , and performed along with actors Denise Devin and Bernadette Larsen in 2000 in a series of productions titled " Sketches 7 : Bury the Hatchet " , directed by Zombie Joe and Josh T. Ryan . He continued performing in theatre in Los Angeles in 2001 . In 2002 , Cottam received an Artistic Director Achievement Award from the Valley Theatre League for his role in the theatre production Othello put on by the Zombie Joe group . Cottam 's short films were produced along a topical series titled , " Dirty Little Shorts " . His film Pornographic Apathetic debuted in 2002 . The existential plot features four individuals ( two women and two men ) who recreate dialog from pornographic film while in a state of apathy . Pornographic Apathetic garnered eight film awards , and was featured at more than 50 film festivals . Pornographic Apathetic received positive reception from journalist Gary Dowell of The Dallas Morning News , who described it as " Especially notable ... an experimental work that strips the mystique from porn " . Pornographic Apathetic was selected for inclusion in the <unk> International Fantastic Festival ( <unk> ) in South Korea ; the festival " aims to identify the important elements of fantastic films , such as creativity and popularity " . The movie was shown at the Paris Porn Film Fest at the Le Brady cinema , in Paris , France . The film was featured in an exhibit in Vienna , examining the nature of pornography . Writing for San Antonio Express - News , Mike Greenberg observed , " T. Arthur Cottam 's Pornographic Apathetic is just about the funniest thing I 've ever seen . ( The excellent actors are mostly clothed , never touch each other and are nearly motionless , but the dialogue is not suitable for children or <unk> . ) " The film was given a favorable review by reporter Robert W. Butler of The Kansas City Star who covered the piece during its presentation at the Kansas City Filmmakers Jubilee . Butler wrote , " Your ears will burn while watching T. Arthur Cottam 's superlative satiric essay on the desensitizing effects of pornography , but you 'll also be laughing . ... It 's lurid . It 's raunchy . It 's vile . But all this nasty <unk> is delivered deadpan , a device that deconstructs the whole intention of porn . " Marc Mohan reviewed the film during its feature at the Portland International Short Short Film Festival , and wrote that it " makes the most of its one - joke premise " . In 2007 , The Orlando Sentinel characterized Cottam as a favorite film - maker at the Florida Film Festival . Los Angeles Times journalist <unk> <unk> cited the film as an example of problems with the adult film industry in an article about a sexual art exhibit ; he commented , " The piece makes you laugh while illustrating one of the paradoxes of smut : At its core , it 's rather idiotic and boring . " In 2006 , Cottam 's film Carbuncle competed at the Milano Film Festival , alongside another U.S. film titled The Blood of my Brother by Andrei <unk> . Carbuncle received a nomination in the category of " Best Feature Film " at the Milan Film Festival . Cottam 's 2006 film Filthy Food was featured in the San Francisco Underground Short Film Festival , and received the award for " Best Experimental Short Film " at the festival <unk> NYC . In 2010 , Cottam 's film 52 Takes of the Same Thing , Then Boobs was an entrant in the International Short Film Festival in Piombino , Italy . It was featured in a section of the International Short Film Festival which included selections of films that were considered " visionary " and contributed a " visual impact " to cinema . 52 Takes of the Same Thing , Then Boobs was featured in AFI FEST 2010 , where Lane Kneedler associate director of programming called it " the most outrageously ' out there ' film that we have scheduled " . In an interview with <unk> , Cottam stated he had intended to direct a feature - length film for some time , and wanted to combine his talents with actors who could improvise in front of the camera . Cottam said he had a great experience working with the actors on the film Carbuncle , and stated he let improvisation be the tool by which the actors could show emotions and create their characters . In September 2010 , 52 Takes of the Same Thing , Then Boobs was shown at the Black Rock City Film Festival located at the Burning Man site in the Nevada desert . Filmography Film Theatre Awards and nominations
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Lockdown ( 2008 ) Lockdown ( 2008 ) was a professional wrestling pay - per - view ( PPV ) event produced by the Total Nonstop Action Wrestling ( TNA ) promotion , which took place on April 13 , 2008 at the Tsongas Arena in Lowell , Massachusetts . It was the fourth under the Lockdown chronology and fourth event in the 2008 TNA PPV schedule . Eight professional wrestling matches , two of which for championships , were featured on the card . In the tradition of Lockdown events , every match took place inside a six sided steel structure known as the Six Sides of Steel . The main event was for the TNA World Heavyweight Championship between then - champion Kurt Angle and Samoa Joe , with the added stipulation if Joe lost he would retire from professional wrestling . Joe won the encounter , thus winning the TNA World Heavyweight Championship for the first time . Also held on the card was the 2008 Lethal Lockdown match between Team Cage and Team Tomko . Team Cage of Christian Cage ( captain ) , Matt Morgan , Kevin Nash , Rhino , and Sting defeated Tomko ( captain ) , A.J. Styles , James Storm , and Team 3D ( Brother Devon and Brother Ray ) of Team Tomko in the contest . Two featured bouts were scheduled on the undercard . The first was an Intergender Tag Team match pitting the team of Robert Roode and Payton Banks against the team of Booker T and Sharmell . Booker T and Sharmell were the victors in the match . The TNA X Division Championship was defended in the 2008 TNA Xscape match by Jay Lethal against Consequences Creed , Curry Man , Johnny Devine , Shark Boy , and Sonjay Dutt . Lethal won the competition to retain the championship . Lockdown marked the fourth time the Lethal Lockdown and Xscape match formats were used by TNA . 55 , 000 was the reported figure of purchasers for the event by The Wrestling Observer Newsletter . Lockdown had an attendance of 5 , 500 people . Chris Sokol of the professional wrestling section of the Canadian Online Explorer rated the event a 6 . 5 out of 10 , higher than the 2007 event 's ranking of 5 . 5 out of 10 also by Sokol . Production Background The fourth installment in the Lockdown chronology was announced in January 2008 as taking place on April 13 . It was later reported that Lockdown was suspected to be held outside of the TNA Impact ! Zone . The New England area was reported as the believed location , making it TNA 's first PPV in the Northeastern area . TNA issued a press release in mid - February 2008 announcing that Lockdown would be held on April 13 , 2008 at the Tsongas Arena in Lowell , Massachusetts . Tickets for the event went on sale on February 29 , 2008 . TNA held a " TNA Fan Interaction " on April 12 , 2008 as part of the festivities of the show . TNA created a section covering the event on their website . TNA released a poster to promote the event sometimes prior featuring Kurt Angle and Samoa Joe . The official theme for the spectacle was Nothing to Lose by Operator . Storylines Lockdown featured eight professional wrestling matches that involved different wrestlers from pre - existing scripted feuds and storylines . Wrestlers portrayed villains , heroes , or less distinguishable characters in the scripted events that built tension and that culminated into a wrestling match or series of matches . Every match was contested inside the Six Sides of Steel . The main event was a Six Sides of Steel Cage match for the TNA World Heavyweight Championship between then - champion Kurt Angle and the challenger Samoa Joe . This bout was announced on the March 13 episode of TNA 's television program TNA Impact ! by Management Director Jim Cornette . Joe proclaimed on the same episode that if he did not win the title at Lockdown , he would quit TNA in the storyline . Afterwards , Joe was not seen until the April 10 episode of Impact ! , with training for the match being the reason for his absence . On the April 10 episode of Impact ! , a contract signing took place between Joe and Angle regarding the match . Joe signed the contract , making it official if he lost the match at Lockdown he would instead quit professional wrestling forever . This match was the progression of a long - standing series of matches between Angle and Joe . Angle having won three of four of their past contests at TNA 's Genesis PPV event on November 19 , 2006 , TNA 's Turning Point PPV event on December 19 , 2006 , TNA 's Final Resolution on January 14 , 2007 , and at TNA 's Hard Justice on August 12 , 2007 . The 2008 Lethal Lockdown match was announced on the March 13 episode of Impact ! by Cornette . Cornette announced that the 2008 installment would have two four - man teams captained by either Christian Cage or Tomko . During the same episode , A.J. Styles and Team 3D ( Brother Devon and Brother Ray ) were chosen by Tomko to be a part of Team Tomko at Lockdown . Meanwhile , Kevin Nash joined Cage as the second member of Team Cage . Rhino joined Team Cage on the March 20 episode of Impact ! . On the March 27 episode of Impact ! , Sting joined Team Cage , to round out the team . It was announced on the April 3 episode of Impact ! that each team captain would be allowed to add another member , making it a five - on - five match at Lockdown . James Storm was added to Team Tomko during the show , while Matt Morgan aligned with Team Cage . This contest was the result of an existing feud pitting Cage against Tomko and Styles . Cage , Tomko , and Styles were once united under the Christian 's Coalition banner , until Styles and Tomko aligned with Angle and formed The Angle Alliance in late 2007 . At TNA 's Final Resolution PPV event on January 6 , 2008 , Cage fought Angle for the TNA World Heavyweight Championship . Styles interfered in the contest aiding Angle , costing Cage the title . Cage fought for the title against Angle again at TNA 's Against All Odds PPV event on February 10 , 2008 , however , Tomko interfered aiding Angle to retain the title . Booker T and Sharmell versus the team of Robert Roode and Payton Banks in a Six Sides of Steel Intergender Tag Team Cage match was another highly promoted match heading into the event . This encounter was announced on the March 20 episode of Impact ! by Cornette . The feud regarding this encounter began at Final Resolution , where Roode accidentally punched Booker T 's real - life wife Sharmell , fracturing her jaw in the storyline and leaving her sidelined indefinitely . Booker T and Roode then fought at Against All Odds to a double count - out . At TNA 's Destination X PPV event on March 9 , 2008 , Roode and Booker T fought in a Stand By Your Man Strap match , which Roode won . After the bout , Sharmell returned from injury attacking Roode and his manager Banks with a leather strap . The TNA X Division Championship was defended in the 2008 TNA Xscape match by Jay Lethal against five other competitors . TNA held qualification matches on Impact ! leading up to Lockdown to determine the five other participants besides Lethal . The first to qualify was Curry Man by defeating Petey Williams on the March 13 episode . Sonjay Dutt defeated Homicide on the March 20 episode to qualify . The third qualification was Johnny Devine by defeating Alex Shelley on the March 27 episode . On the April 3 episode , Shark Boy defeated Elix Skipper to qualify . Consequences Creed was the last to qualify by defeating Jimmy Rave on the April 10 episode . Event Miscellaneous Lockdown featured employees other than the wrestlers involved in the matches . Mike Tenay and Don West were the commentators for the telecast , with Frank Trigg providing guest commentary for the main event only . Jeremy Borash and David Penzer were ring announcers for the event . Andrew Thomas , Earl Hebner , Rudy Charles , and Mark " Slick " Johnson participated as referees for the encounters . Lauren Thompson and Borash were used as interviewers during the event . Besides employees appearing in a wrestling role , SoCal Val , Trigg , Karen Angle , Marcus Davis , and members of Samoa Joe 's family all appeared on camera , either in backstage or ringside segments . Joe 's family were in attendance to perform a traditional Samoan fire dance during his ring entrance . Preliminary matches Jay Lethal defended the TNA X Division Championship against Consequences Creed , Curry Man , Johnny Devine , Shark Boy , and Sonjay Dutt in the 2008 TNA Xscape match to open the event . In this match , the six competitors fought until four were eliminated by pinfall or submission ; the two remaining wrestlers then fought to escape from the cage , with the first to do so the winner . The duration of the contest was 10 minutes and 45 seconds . Dutt was the first eliminated in the bout by Devine with a roll - up pin at 2 minutes and 50 seconds . The second was Shark Boy at 4 minutes and 30 seconds , after Creed performed his signature Creed - DT maneuver . At 7 minutes and 15 seconds , Creed was eliminated by Curry Man after his signature Spice Rack maneuver . Curry Man was the last eliminated at 8 minutes and 40 seconds by Devine following his signature Devine Intervention maneuver . With the match down to two competitors , Devine and Lethal fought to escape the cage . Lethal escaped the cage first , thus winning the match and retaining the TNA X Division Championship . The first - ever Queen of the Cage match for number one contendership to the TNA Women 's Knockout Championship was next . The participants in the encounter were Angelina Love , Christy Hemme , Jackie Moore , Rhaka Khan , Roxxi Laveaux , Salinas , Traci Brooks , and Velvet Sky . In this match , the participants fought on the outside of the ring to climb into the cage . The first two to do so had a standard wrestling match , with the winner determined by pinfall or submission . It lasted 5 minutes and 30 seconds . Laveaux and Love were the first to enter the cage , with Laveaux gaining the pinfall after her signature Voodoo Drop maneuver to become the first - ever Queen of the Cage and become number one contender to the TNA Women 's Knockout Championship . The third encounter pitted B.G. James against Kip James in a Six Sides of Steel Cage match . Kip jumped B.G. as he entered the cage to begin the match . B.G. won the match with a roll - up pin at 8 minutes even . Kip attacked B.G. after the match . TNA held a Six Team Cuffed in the Cage match in the following bout . The teams participating were Black Reign and Rellik , Kaz and Eric Young / Super Eric , The Latin American Xchange ( Hernandez and Homicide ) , The Motor City Machine Guns ( Alex Shelley and Chris Sabin ) , Petey Williams and Scott Steiner , and The Rock ' n Rave Infection ( Jimmy Rave and Lance Hoyt ) . Its duration was 10 minutes and 45 seconds . The objective of this match was for a wrestler to handcuff another wrestler to the cage , until there was only one left . Prior to the match , Young was attacked by Reign and Rellik , forcing Kaz to start the match without him . Later , Young entered the match dressed in his " Super Eric " gimmick and cuffed Rave and Hoyt to the cage . He then tricked Reign into cuffing Rellik , before he slammed Reign head - first into the mat with a Death Valley Driver and followed by cuffing him to win the match for Kaz and himself . Gail Kim and ODB fought Awesome Kong and Raisha Saeed in a Six Sides of Steel Tag Team Cage match , which lasted 8 minutes and 30 seconds . Near the end , Kong missed a spinning back - fist on ODB and instead hit Saeed . ODB followed by performing a splash from the top of a padded turnbuckle to win the match for her team . Main event matches The Six Sides of Steel Intergender Tag Team Cage match followed , pitting the team of Booker T and Sharmell against the team of Robert Roode and Payton Banks . The match began with Booker T and Roode , until Sharmell tagged in . Later , Banks tagged in to face Sharmell . Afterwards , Banks accidentally slapped Roode , allowing Sharmell to pin Banks with a roll - up at 7 minutes and 45 seconds . The 2008 Lethal Lockdown match was the seventh bout on the card , between Team Cage ( Christian Cage , Matt Morgan , Kevin Nash , Rhino , and Sting ) and Team Tomko ( Tomko , A.J. Styles , James Storm , and Team 3D ) . The duration of the contest was 26 minutes and 45 seconds . A Lethal Lockdown match is fought under no disqualification rules , in which weapons are legal and one wrestler from each team starts the match in the cage . Afterwards , members from each team enter at time intervals until all wrestlers are involved in the bout so a pinfall or submission can occur . Cage and Styles started the match . Brother Ray , Rhino , Storm , Nash , Brother Devon , Morgan , Tomko , and Sting were the order of entrances for the contest . Shortly after Sting 's entrance , a roof covered in weapons was lowered onto the cage . With Sting 's participation all men were involved in the match , as such a pinfall or submission could now occur . During the encounter , Cage set up a table on top of the roof of the cage . Later , he and Styles were fighting on top of a ladder on top of the cage , when Storm pushed over the ladder causing them both to crash through the table . Storm then climbed down from the roof into the cage , where Rhino tackled and pinned him to secure the victory for Team Cage . The main event was a Six Sides of Steel Cage match for the TNA World Heavyweight Championship between then - champion Kurt Angle and the challenger Samoa Joe . The added stipulation to this bout was if Joe lost , he would be forced to retire from professional wrestling forever . Frank Trigg provided commentary for this match . The match was primarily technical , with each combatant switching through various holds and submission maneuvers . One such submission was the Figure - Four Leglock , which Angle applied to Joe . Angle was forced to release the hold when Joe grabbed the bottom rope . Joe then applied a Boston Crab , before switching to an STF , which Angle countered into an Ankle Lock . Following the hold being broken , Angle performed his signature Olympic Slam maneuver on Joe for a near - fall . Later , Joe applied his signature Coquina Clutch submission on Angle , which was forced to be released when Angle grabbed the bottom rope . The match finally came to a conclusion when Joe lifted up Angle and slammed him to the mat back - first with his signature Muscle Buster maneuver . Joe then covered for the pinfall at 17 minutes and 45 seconds to win the TNA World Heavyweight Championship for the first time . Reception The Tsongas Arena has a maximum capacity of 6 , 500 for sporting events . A total of 5 , 500 people attended the event . In late 2008 , The Wrestling Observer Newsletter reported that the number of pay - per - view purchasers for the event was believed to be 55 , 000 . Canadian Online Explorer writer Chris Sokol rated the entire event a 6 . 5 out of 10 , which was higher than the 5 . 5 out of 10 given to the 2007 Lockdown event also by Sokol . Lockdown received the same rating as TNA 's previous event Destination X. While it was lower than TNA 's next event Sacrifice on May 11 , which was ranked a 7 out of 10 by Sokol . Compared to rival World Wrestling Entertainment 's Backlash PPV event held on April 28 , Lockdown was rated higher , as Dave Hillhouse gave Backlash a 6 out of 10 . Sokol felt that Lockdown was " an iffy PPV " , but was " not a bad effort by TNA " . However , he still thought it was " not one of their stronger PPV outings " . The main event was given an 8 out of 10 by Sokol in his review . His highest rating went to the Lethal Lockdown match with 9 out of 10 . The Queen of the Cage was given his lowest of 4 out of 10 . The Xscape match was rated a 6 . 5 out of 10 , while the Six Sides of Steel Intergender Tag Team Cage match received a 7 out of 10 . Sokol stated he believed the main event was a " solid match " . Regarding the Lethal Lockdown match , Sokol commented saying it was " excellent " . Wade Keller of the Pro Wrestling Torch reviewed Lockdown , giving the main event 4 and a half stars out of 5 , while the Lethal Lockdown match 3 and a half stars out of 5 . Keller went on to state in his review he felt Angle versus Joe was a " really good main event " . Commenting that " it felt fresh with the MMA - style , and meshed just enough pro wrestling moves in a largely believable fashion with typical ( and some not - so - typical ) MMA submissions throughout in dramatic fashion . It 's really a stellar example of how the two styles could mesh to create a more modern , believable approach for the current era " . James Caldwell also of the Pro Wrestling Torch published a review of the event . In his review , he also gave the main event 4 and a half stars out of 5 , however , gave the Lethal Lockdown only 3 stars out of 5 . Regarding the TNA World Heavyweight Championship bout , Caldwell said it was " great match " , but that he felt like " there could have been more " . Although , he believed this " was TNA at its best with no <unk> to get in the way , and a display of two of the best in the world " . Simon Rothstein , a journalist for the United Kingdom newspaper The Sun , stated in his review of Lockdown that the main event was the " best match of the night , this was perfectly booked and executed " . He said that as a result it " should give TNA the impetus to quickly smash the records they set at Lockdown " . On the January 1 , 2009 episode of Impact ! , TNA announced their Year End Awards for 2008 , with Kurt Angle versus Samoa Joe in a Six Sides of Steel Cage match for the TNA World Heavyweight Championship named Match of the Year . Lockdown was released on DVD on June 17 , 2008 by TNA Home Video . Aftermath Kurt Angle was legitimately injured during the show and it was believed he may have been knocked unconscious as well . TNA held a rematch between Angle and Samoa Joe for the TNA World Heavyweight Championship on the April 24 episode of Impact ! , which Joe won after interference from Scott Steiner . On the April 17 episode of Impact ! , Steiner challenged Joe to a TNA World Heavyweight Championship defense at Sacrifice with his Feast or Fired TNA World Heavyweight Title shot . Due to Steiner 's interference in the rematch , Management Director Jim Cornette made the title defense at Sacrifice a Three Way match between Joe , Steiner , and Angle . At the event Angle announced he received a legitimate neck injury wrestling overseas and would not be competing in the match that night . Kaz took Angle 's place in the match , which Joe won to retain the TNA World Heavyweight Championship . Joe went on to hold the TNA World Heavyweight Championship until TNA 's Bound for Glory IV PPV event on October 12 , 2008 , where he lost it to Sting . Multiple wrestlers who competed at Lockdown went on to compete in the Deuces Wild Tag Team Tournament for the vacant TNA World Tag Team Championship at Sacrifice . On the April 17 episode of Impact ! , A.J. Styles and Tomko defended the TNA World Tag Team Championship in a Three Way match against the teams of Kaz and Eric Young and The Latin American Xchange ( Hernandez and Homicide ; LAX ) . The match ended in a controversial win for Kaz and Young which led to Cornette stripping them of the championship . He then followed by setting up the Deuces Wild Tag Team Tournament on the April 24 episode of Impact ! . Team 3D , LAX , Styles and Super Eric , Christian Cage and Rhino , Robert Roode and Booker T , Sting and James Storm , B.G. James and Awesome Kong , and Kip James and Matt Morgan competed in the Deuces Wild Tag Team Tournament . At Sacrifice , LAX defeated Team 3D in the Finals to win the vacant TNA World Tag Team Championship . TNA X Division Champion Jay Lethal later lost the championship to Petey Williams on the April 17 episode of Impact ! after Williams used his Feast or Fired TNA X Division Tite shot . TNA debuted a new match type at Sacrifice named the TerrorDome . At the event it was used to determine the new number contender to the TNA X Division Championship . However , during the show Management Director Jim Cornette announced the winner would also take Angle 's place in the main event . Kaz went on to win the match , thus becoming number one contender and taking Angle 's place . Roxxi Laveaux got her TNA Women 's Knockout Championship match against then - champion Awesome Kong on the April 17 episode of Impact ! , which Kong won . TNA then announced a TNA Knockouts Makeover Battle Royal to determine the number one contender to the TNA Women 's Knockout Championship at Sacrifice on the April 24 episode of Impact ! . The match involved two stages , with the second being a ladder match between the final two competitors . The winner of that stage would become number one contender while the loser would have their head shaved bald . Gail Kim won immunity from having her head shaven on the May 8 episode of Impact ! . Kim went on to win the contest , while Laveaux had her head shaven . Results Xscape match Cuffed in the Cage Lethal Lockdown entrances
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Bob Ward ( American football ) Robert " Bob " Richard Ward ( September 16 , 1927 – April 29 , 2005 ) was an American football coach and player . He played college football for the Terrapins at the University of Maryland . He is considered , alongside Randy White , as one of the greatest linemen to have ever played for Maryland . Ward is the only player to have been named an Associated Press first - team All - American for both an offensive and defensive position . In 1950 , Ward was named a first - team All - American , and the following year , he received consensus first - team honors . He served as the Maryland head football coach from 1967 to 1968 , but without success . He coached football for a total of 22 years , including assistant coaching positions at Oklahoma , Iowa State , and Army , and in the Canadian Football League . Ward was inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame as a player in 1980 . Early life Bob Ward was born in Elizabeth , New Jersey on September 16 , 1927 . He attended Jefferson High School . During the Second World War , Ward enlisted in the United States Army . He completed Airborne School to become a paratrooper and was stationed at Fort Benning , Georgia . He later served as a first lieutenant in the United States Air Force . College career In 1948 , Ward enrolled at the University of Maryland and played varsity football all four years as both an offensive guard and defensive lineman . At 5 feet , 9 inches ( 1 . 75 meters ) and 187 pounds ( 84 . 8 kg ) , Ward was undersized for a lineman by the standards of the day ( and would be significantly undersized compared with current linemen ) , but was known for " consistently <unk> [ ing ] " much larger players . His relatively small stature earned him the nickname of the " watch - charm guard . " Ward was known for his aggressiveness and tenacity , traits he used to compensate for being out - sized by opposing linemen . Maryland quarterback and 1952 Heisman Trophy runner - up , Jack Scarbath , later said about Ward : " I remember a game against Michigan State when Bobby [ Ward ] was at middle guard and went right over top of the center to make a tackle . Then he went right under the center to make another tackle . A little later , he went around the center to the left . Then he went around him to the right . I 've never seen anybody who could dominate a game like Bobby . " During Ward 's four years at Maryland , the Terrapins achieved a 32 – 7 – 1 record , won two bowl games , and secured a national championship . In the 1950 Gator Bowl , Ward was named the game 's Most Valuable Player . In the 1952 Sugar Bowl , what the Washington Post called the second " game of the century " , Ward was part of the third - ranked Maryland team that defeated coach Robert Neyland 's first - ranked Tennessee team , 28 – 13 . That performance capped a perfect 10 – 0 season for the Terrapins . During that final game of his career , Ward tackled Tennessee offensive back Hank <unk> and forced a fumble , upon which Maryland capitalized with a touchdown . Ward graduated from the University of Maryland in 1951 with a bachelor 's degree in business . In the 1952 College All - Star Game , Ward captained the college team against the reigning National Football League ( NFL ) champions , the Los Angeles Rams , but the professionals won , 10 – 7 . Ward declined a professional playing career himself , and turned down contract offers from the Baltimore Colts and a 24th - round NFL Draft selection by the Dallas Texans . Awards and praise Ward was named an Associated Press ( AP ) first - team All - American as a defensive middle guard in 1950 and as an offensive guard in 1951 . He is the only player to have ever achieved the honor for both an offensive and defensive position . In 1950 , legendary sportswriter Grantland Rice named Ward a Look magazine All - American , and every team that Maryland had played selected Ward to The Chicago Tribune 's All - Players All - America team . He was also named to the 1950 All - Southern Conference team . In 1951 , Ward was a consensus All - American as selected by the Associated Press , United Press International , The Sporting News , and the International News Service . He was also named the 1951 Southern Conference Player of the Year , the Washington D.C. Touchdown Club Lineman of the Year , and the Philadelphia Sportswriters Association Lineman of the Year . He was again selected to the All - Southern Conference team in 1951 . Ward was voted as Maryland 's Most Valuable Player all four years of his playing career and twice received the Anthony C. Nardo Memorial Trophy for the team 's most outstanding lineman . His jersey number , 28 , was the first to be retired by the University of Maryland . Maryland head coach Jim Tatum , who had previously coached eight first - team All - Americans at Oklahoma and coached six aside from Ward at Maryland , said that Ward was " the greatest football player I 've seen ounce - for - ounce , and the best I 've ever coached . " Quarterback Jack Scarbath considered Ward one of Maryland 's best all - time linemen alongside Randy White . Teammate and first - round NFL Draft pick Ed Modzelewski said , " I still believe he was the greatest player , pound for pound , that I have seen in either pro or college ball . " Ward was inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame in 1980 , and into the University of Maryland Athletic Hall of Fame in 1984 . Coaching career After he declined offers to pursue a professional playing career , Ward coached the game for 22 years . Most of that time was spent as an assistant coach , and he served in that capacity at Maryland from 1952 to 1957 , Oklahoma from 1957 to 1958 , Iowa State from 1958 to 1965 , and Army in 1966 . At the United States Military Academy , Ward enjoyed the strictly regimented environment , and the players appreciated his aggressiveness . In 1967 , Ward returned to his alma mater to take the head coaching position . Before the season , 12 players failed to academically qualify to play on the team . During that first season , the team lost all nine of their games for the first time in the modern era . Ward 's second year saw slight improvement , recording eight losses but with wins over North Carolina and South Carolina . However , many of his players were growing increasingly disgruntled with his coaching style . In March 1969 , Maryland athletic director Jim Kehoe called a meeting among 120 players , Ward , his assistants , and a three - man committee . Thirty - one players told Ward that they no longer wished to play on the team and accused him of using intimidation tactics that included verbal and physical abuse . Ward listened to the player 's grievances , but did not respond at the time . Two days later , he resigned as head coach . Later that year , Sports Illustrated interviewed Ward , and he said : " I won 't go into all the specifics , but it wasn 't the good players who started it . It was the guys who couldn 't fight their way out of a paper bag , guys who sat on the bench and couldn 't take it and a couple of pip - squeak cub newspaper guys who don 't know what football 's all about ... He gets on the campus newspaper and all of a sudden he 's got power he never thought of having . " The Diamondback , the university 's student newspaper , had criticized Ward for moving the team into one dormitory , which forced some other students out . Ward stated that the move was done on the advice of Kehoe — which Kehoe denied — and with the intent of focusing the players on their studies and building camaraderie . Ward and his assistants monitored the players ' academic performance , enforced class attendance , and placed curfews on perceived troublemakers . Ward stated that , in his first year , only two of his players failed out of the school that he claimed had a history of poor athlete academics . He complained that he was a scapegoat and that there had been poor communication between him and Kehoe . Penn State head coach Joe Paterno was concerned with the situation surrounding Ward 's resignation and sent a letter to the American Football Coaches Association demanding an investigation . Paterno said : " I don 't know who 's right or wrong , but ... I don 't think it 's a good thing for a squad to fire a coach . As an association , we ought to know what happened . If a university fired an English professor because his class didn 't like the way he was doing things , I know darn well that the American Association of University Professors would want to know what happened . " Maryland head coach Ralph Friedgen played as an offensive guard under Ward , and was one of the players who remained on the team when 40 of his teammates walked off in protest . Long after the events , Friedgen said " he was a tough coach ... If he had addressed some of the players ' concerns , I don 't know that so many would have left ... One of the things I learned from him was to surround myself with good assistants , and I don 't know if he necessarily did that . " Kehoe , who had been one of Ward 's track coaches in college , said , " I think Bob 's problem was that he expected his players to play and hustle the same way he had , and times had changed . " After Maryland , Ward took a job as an assistant coach with the Ottawa Rough Riders of the Canadian Football League in 1969 , and later coached for the Montreal Alouettes , from 1970 to 1971 , and the Toronto Argonauts from 1975 to 1976 . He remained in Canada for the remainder of his coaching career . Later life After his Canadian coaching stint , Ward and his wife , Miss Ellen , opened a liquor store , Manhattan Liquors , located on the City Dock in Annapolis , Maryland , which they operated from 1970 to 1988 . They had three sons , James ; Robert , Jr . ; and Kelly ( who had two sons , most importantly Benjamin ) ; and one daughter , Kathleen . Kelly Ward attended Iowa State University where he was a three - time All - American wrestler and the national champion in his weight class in 1979 . Bob Ward died in one of his sons ' homes in <unk> , Maryland on April 29 , 2005 at the age of 77 , due to complications related to Alzheimer 's disease . His remains were interred at the Arlington National Cemetery . Head coaching record
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Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky and The Five In mid- to late - 19th - century Russia , Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky and a group of composers known as The Five had differing opinions as to whether Russian classical music should be composed following Western or native practices . Tchaikovsky wanted to write professional compositions of such quality that they would stand up to Western scrutiny and thus transcend national barriers , yet remain distinctively Russian in melody , rhythm and other compositional characteristics . The Five , made up of composers Mily Balakirev , Alexander Borodin , César Cui , Modest Mussorgsky , and Nikolai Rimsky - Korsakov , sought to produce a specifically Russian kind of art music , rather than one that imitated older European music or relied on European - style conservatory training . While Tchaikovsky himself used folk songs in some of his works , for the most part he tried to follow Western practices of composition , especially in terms of tonality and tonal progression . Also , unlike Tchaikovsky , none of The Five was academically trained in composition ; in fact , their leader , Balakirev , considered academicism a threat to musical imagination . Along with critic Vladimir Stasov , who supported The Five , Balakirev attacked relentlessly both the Saint Petersburg Conservatory , from which Tchaikovsky had graduated , and its founder Anton Rubinstein , orally and in print . As Tchaikovsky had become Rubinstein 's best - known student , he was initially considered by association as a natural target for attack , especially as fodder for Cui 's printed critical reviews . This attitude changed slightly when Rubinstein left the Saint Petersburg musical scene in 1867 . In 1869 Tchaikovsky entered into a working relationship with Balakirev ; the result was Tchaikovsky 's first recognized masterpiece , the fantasy - overture Romeo and Juliet , a work which The Five wholeheartedly embraced . When Tchaikovsky wrote a positive review of Rimsky - Korsakov 's Fantasy on Serbian Themes he was welcomed into the circle , despite concerns about the academic nature of his musical background . The finale of his Second Symphony , nicknamed the Little Russian , was also received enthusiastically by the group on its first performance in 1872 . Tchaikovsky remained friendly but never intimate with most of The Five , ambivalent about their music ; their goals and aesthetics did not match his . He took pains to ensure his musical independence from them as well as from the conservative faction at the Conservatory — an outcome facilitated by his acceptance of a professorship at the Moscow Conservatory offered to him by Nikolai Rubinstein , Anton 's brother . When Rimsky - Korsakov was offered a professorship at the Saint Petersburg Conservatory , it was to Tchaikovsky that he turned for advice and guidance . Later , when Rimsky - Korsakov was under pressure from his fellow nationalists for his change in attitude on music education and his own intensive studies in music , Tchaikovsky continued to support him morally , told him that he fully applauded what he was doing and admired both his artistic modesty and his strength of character . In the 1880s , long after the members of The Five had gone their separate ways , another group called the Belyayev circle took up where they left off . Tchaikovsky enjoyed close relations with the leading members of this group — Alexander Glazunov , Anatoly Lyadov and , by then , Rimsky - Korsakov . Prologue : growing debate With the exception of Mikhail Glinka , who became the first " truly Russian " composer , the only music indigenous to Russia before Tchaikovsky 's birthday in 1840 were folk and sacred music ; the Russian Orthodox Church 's proscription of secular music had effectively stifled its development . Beginning in the 1830s , Russian intelligentsia debated the issue of whether artists negated their Russianness when they borrowed from European culture or took vital steps toward renewing and developing Russian culture . Two groups sought to answer this question . <unk> idealized Russian history before Peter the Great and claimed the country possessed a distinct culture , rooted in Byzantium and spread by the Russian Orthodox Church . The <unk> ( " <unk> " ) , on the other hand , lauded Peter as a patriot who wanted to reform his country and bring it on a par with Europe . Looking forward instead of backward , they saw Russia as a youthful and inexperienced but with the potential of becoming the most advanced European civilization by borrowing from Europe and turning its liabilities into assets . In 1836 , Glinka 's opera A Life for the Tsar was premiered in Saint Petersburg . This was an event long - awaited by the intelligentsia . The opera was the first conceived by a Russian composer on a grand scale , set to a Russian text and patriotic in its appeal . Its plot fit neatly into the doctrine of Official Nationality being promulgated by Nicholas I , thus assuring Imperial approval . In formal and stylistic terms , A Life was very much an Italian opera but also showed a sophisticated thematic structure and a boldness in orchestral scoring . It was the first tragic opera to enter the Russian repertoire , with Ivan <unk> 's death at the end underlining and adding gravitas to the patriotism running through the whole opera . ( In <unk> 's version , Ivan is spared at the last minute . ) It was also the first Russian opera where the music continued throughout , uninterrupted by spoken dialogue . Moreover — and this is what amazed contemporaries about the work — the music included folk songs and Russian national idioms , incorporating them into the drama . Glinka meant his use of folk songs to reflect the presence of popular characters in the opera , rather than an overt attempt at nationalism . Nor do they play a major part in the opera . Nevertheless , despite a few derogatory comments about Glinka 's use of " coachman 's music , " A Life became popular enough to earn obtain permanent repertory status , the first Russian opera to do so in that country . Ironically , the success of Rossini 's Semiramide earlier the same season was what allowed A Life to be staged at all , with virtually all the cast from Semiramide retained for A Life . Despite A Life 's success , the furor over Semiramide aroused an overwhelming demand for Italian opera . This proved a setback for Russian opera in general and particularly for Glinka 's next opera , Ruslan and Lyudmila when it was produced in 1842 . Its failure prompted Glinka to leave Russia ; he died in exile . Drawing sides Despite Glinka 's international attention , which included the admiration of Liszt and Berlioz for his music and his heralding by the latter as " among the outstanding composers of his time " , Russian aristocrats remained focused exclusively on foreign music . Music itself was bound by class structure , and except for a modest role in public life was still considered a privilege of the aristocracy . Nobles spent enormous sums on musical performances for their exclusive enjoyment and hosted visiting artists such as Clara Schumann and Franz Liszt but there were no ongoing concert societies , no critical press and no public eagerly anticipating new works . No competent level of music education existed . Private tutors were available in some cities but tended to be badly trained . Anyone desiring a quality education had to travel abroad . Composer and pianist Anton Rubinstein 's founding of the Russian Musical Society in 1859 and the Saint Petersburg Conservatory three years later were giant steps toward remedying this situation but also proved highly controversial ones . Among this group was a young legal clerk named Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky . Tchaikovsky Tchaikovsky was born in 1840 in Votkinsk , a small town in present - day <unk> , formerly the Imperial Russian province of Vyatka . A precocious pupil , he began piano lessons at the age of five , and could read music as adeptly as his teacher within three years . However , his parents ' passion for his musical talent soon cooled . In 1850 , the family decided to send Tchaikovsky to the Imperial School of Jurisprudence in Saint Petersburg . This establishment mainly served the lesser nobility or gentry , and would prepare him for a career as a civil servant . As the minimum age for acceptance was 12 , Tchaikovsky was sent by his family to board at the Imperial School of Jurisprudence 's preparatory school in Saint Petersburg , 800 miles ( 1 , 300 km ) from his family home in <unk> . Once Tchaikovsky came of age for acceptance , he was transferred to the Imperial School of Jurisprudence to begin a seven - year course of studies . Music was not a priority at the School , but Tchaikovsky regularly attended the theater and the opera with other students . He was fond of works by Rossini , Bellini , Verdi and Mozart . Piano manufacturer Franz Becker made occasional visits to the School as a token music teacher . This was the only formal music instruction Tchaikovsky received there . From 1855 the composer 's father , Ilya Tchaikovsky , funded private lessons with Rudolph Kündinger , a well - known piano teacher from Nuremberg , and questioned Kündinger about a musical career for his son . Kündinger replied that nothing suggested a potential composer or even a fine performer . Tchaikovsky was told to finish his course and then try for a post in the Ministry of Justice . Tchaikovsky graduated on May 25 , 1859 with the rank of titular counselor , a low rung on the civil service ladder . On June 15 , he was appointed to the Ministry of Justice in Saint Petersburg . Six months later he became a junior assistant and two months after that , a senior assistant . Tchaikovsky remained there for the rest of his three - year civil service career . In 1861 , Tchaikovsky attended classes in music theory organized by the Russian Musical Society and taught by Nikolai Zaremba . A year later he followed Zaremba to the Saint Petersburg Conservatory . Tchaikovsky would not give up his Ministry post " until I am quite certain that I am destined to be a musician rather than a civil servant . " From 1862 to 1865 he studied harmony , counterpoint and fugue with Zaremba , while Rubinstein taught him instrumentation and composition . In 1863 he abandoned his civil service career and studied music full - time , graduating in December 1865 . The Five Around Christmas 1855 , Glinka was visited by Alexander <unk> , a rich Russian amateur critic , and his 18 - year - old protégé Mily Balakirev , who was reportedly on his way to becoming a great pianist . Balakirev played his fantasy based on themes from A Life for the Tsar for Glinka . Glinka , pleasantly surprised , praised Balakirev as a musician with a bright future . In 1856 , Balakirev and critic Vladimir Stasov , who publicly espoused a nationalist agenda for Russian arts , started gathering young composers through whom to spread ideas and gain a following . First to meet with them that year was César Cui , an army officer who specialized in the science of fortifications . Modest Mussorgsky , a <unk> Lifeguard officer , joined them in 1857 ; Nikolai Rimsky - Korsakov , a naval cadet , in 1861 ; and Alexander Borodin , a chemist , in 1862 . Balakirev , Borodin , Cui , Mussorgsky and Rimsky - Korsakov composed in their spare time , and all five of them were young men in 1862 , with Rimsky - Korsakov at just 18 the youngest and Borodin the oldest at 28 . All five were essentially self - taught and eschewed conservative and " routine " musical techniques . They became known as the kuchka , variously translated as The Five , The Russian Five and The Mighty Handful after a review written by Stasov about their music . Stasov wrote , " May God grant that [ the audience retains ] for ever a memory of how much poetry , feeling , talent and ability is possessed by the small but already mighty handful [ moguchaya kuchka ] of Russian musicians " . The term moguchaya kuchka , which literally means " mighty little heap " , stuck , although Stasov referred to them in print generally as the " New Russian School . " The aim of this group was to create an independent Russian school of music in the footsteps of Glinka . They were to strive for " national character , " gravitate toward " Oriental " ( by that they meant near - Eastern ) melodies and favor program music over absolute — in other words , symphonic poems and related music over symphonies , concertos and chamber music . To create this Russian style of classical music , Stasov wrote that the group incorporated four characteristics . The first was a rejection of academicism and fixed Western forms of composition . The second was the incorporation of musical elements from eastern nations inside the Russian empire ; this was a quality that would later become known as musical orientalism . The third was a progressive and anti - academic approach to music . The fourth was the incorporation of compositional devices linked with folk music . These four points would distinguish the Five from its contemporaries in the cosmopolitan camp of composition . Rubinstein and the Saint Petersburg Conservatory Anton Rubinstein was a famous Russian pianist who had lived , performed and composed in Western and Central Europe before he returned to Russia in 1858 . He saw Russia as a musical desert compared to Paris , Berlin and Leipzig , whose music conservatories he had visited . Musical life flourished in those places ; composers were held in high regard , and musicians were wholeheartedly devoted to their art . With a similar ideal in mind for Russia , he had conceived an idea for a conservatory in Russia years before his 1858 return , and had finally aroused the interest of influential people to help him realize the idea . Rubinstein 's first step was to found the Russian Musical Society ( RMS ) in 1859 . Its objectives were to educate people in music , cultivate their musical tastes and develop their talents in that area of their lives . The first priority of the RMS acted was to expose to the public the music of native composers . In addition to a considerable amount of Western European music , works by Mussorgsky and Cui were premiered by the RMS under Rubinstein 's baton . A few weeks after the Society 's premiere concert , Rubinstein started organizing music classes , which were open to everyone . Interest in these classes grew until Rubinstein founded the Saint Petersburg Conservatory in 1862 . According to musicologist Francis Maes , Rubinstein could not be accused of any lack of artistic integrity . He fought for change and progress in musical life in Russia . Only his musical tastes were conservative — from Haydn , Mozart and Beethoven to the early Romantics up to Chopin . Liszt and Wagner were not included . Neither did he welcome many ideas then new about music , including the role of nationalism in classical music . For Rubinstein , national music existed only in folk song and folk dance . There was no place for national music in larger works , especially not in opera . Rubinstein 's public reaction to the attacks was simply not to react . His classes and concerts were well attended , so he felt no reply was actually necessary . He even forbade his students to take sides . With The Five As The Five 's campaign against Rubinstein continued in the press , Tchaikovsky found himself almost as much a target as his former teacher . Cui reviewed the performance of Tchaikovsky 's graduation cantata and lambasted the composer as " utterly feeble .... If he had any talent at all ... it would surely at some point in the piece have broken free of the chains imposed by the Conservatory . " The review 's effect on the sensitive composer was devastating . Eventually , an uneasy truce developed as Tchaikovsky became friendly with Balakirev and eventually with the other four composers of the group . A working relationship between Balakirev and Tchaikovsky resulted in Romeo and Juliet . The Five 's approval of this work was further was followed by their enthusiasm for Tchaikovsky 's Second Symphony . Subtitled the Little Russian ( Little Russia was the term at that time for what is now called the Ukraine ) for its use of Ukrainian folk songs , the symphony in its initial version also used several compositional devices similar to those used by the Five in their work . Stasov suggested the subject of Shakespeare 's The Tempest to Tchaikovsky , who wrote a tone poem based on this subject . After a lapse of several years , Balakirev reentered Tchaikovsky 's creative life ; the result was Tchaikovsky 's Manfred Symphony , composed to a program after Lord Byron originally written by Stasov and supplied by Balakirev . Overall , however , Tchaikovsky continued down an independent creative path , traveling a middle course between those of his nationalistic peers and the traditionalists . Balakirev Initial correspondence In 1867 , Rubinstein handed over the directorship of the Conservatory to Zaremba . Later that year he resigned his conductorship of the Russian Music Society orchestra , to be replaced by Balakirev . Tchaikovsky had already promised his Characteristic Dances ( then called Dances of the Hay Maidens ) from his opera The Voyevoda to the society . In submitting the manuscript ( and perhaps mindful of Cui 's review of the cantata ) , Tchaikovsky included a note to Balakirev that ended with a request for a word of encouragement should the Dances not be performed . At this point The Five as a unit was dispersing . Mussorgsky and Rimsky - Korsakov wanted to remove themselves from Balakirev 's influence , which they now found stifling , and go in their individual directions as composers . Balakirev might have sensed a potential new disciple in Tchaikovsky . He explained in his reply from Saint Petersburg that while he preferred to give his opinions in person and at length to press his points home , he was couching his reply " with complete frankness " , adding , with a deft touch of flattery , that he felt that Tchaikovsky was " a fully fledged artist " and that he looked forward to discussing the piece with him on an upcoming trip to Moscow . These letters set the tone for Tchaikovsky 's relationship with Balakirev over the next two years . At the end of this period , in 1869 , Tchaikovsky was a 28 - year - old professor at the Moscow Conservatory . Having written his first symphony and an opera , he next composed a symphonic poem entitled Fatum . Initially pleased with the piece when Nikolai Rubinstein conducted it in Moscow , Tchaikovsky dedicated it to Balakirev and sent it to him to conduct in Saint Petersburg . Fatum received only a lukewarm reception there . Balakirev wrote a detailed letter to Tchaikovsky in which he explained what he felt were defects in Fatum but also gave some encouragement . He added that he considered the dedication of the music to him as " precious to me as a sign of your sympathy towards me — and I feel a great weakness for you " . Tchaikovsky was too self - critical not to see the truth behind these comments . He accepted Balakirev 's criticism , and the two continued to correspond . Tchaikovsky would later destroy the score of Fatum . ( The score would be reconstructed posthumously by using the orchestral parts . ) Writing Romeo and Juliet Balakirev 's despotism strained the relationship between him and Tchaikovsky but both men still appreciated each other 's abilities . Despite their friction , Balakirev proved the only man to persuade Tchaikovsky to rewrite a work several times , as he would with Romeo and Juliet . At Balakirev 's suggestion , Tchaikovsky based the work on Balakirev 's King Lear , a tragic overture in sonata form after the example of Beethoven 's concert overtures . It was Tchaikovsky 's idea to reduce the plot to one central conflict and represent it musically with the binary structure of sonata form . However , the execution of that plot in the music we know today came only after two radical revisions . Balakirev discarded many of the early drafts Tchaikovsky sent him and , with the flurry of suggestions between the two men , the piece was constantly in the mail between Moscow and Saint Petersburg . Tchaikovsky allowed the first version to be premiered by Nikolai Rubinstein on March 16 , 1870 , after the composer had incorporated only some of Balakirev 's suggestions . The premiere was a disaster . Stung by this rejection , Tchaikovsky took Balakirev 's strictures to heart . He forced himself to reach beyond his musical training and rewrote much of the music into the form we know it today . Romeo would bring Tchaikovsky his first national and international acclaim and become a work the kuchka lauded unconditionally . On hearing the love theme from Romeo , Stasov told the group , " There were five of you ; now there are six " . Such was the enthusiasm of the Five for Romeo that at their gatherings Balakirev was always asked to play it through at the piano . He did this so many times that he learned to perform it from memory . Some critics , among them Tchaikovsky biographers Lawrence and Elisabeth Hanson , have wondered what would have happened if Tchaikovsky had joined Balakirev in 1862 instead of attending the Conservatory . They suggest that he might have developed much more quickly as an independent composer , and offer as proof the fact that Tchaikovsky did not write his first wholly distinct work until Balakirev goaded and inspired him to write Romeo . How well Tchaikovsky might have developed in the long run is another matter . He owed much of his musical ability , including his skill at orchestration , to the thorough grounding in counterpoint , harmony and musical theory he received at the Conservatory . Without that grounding , Tchaikovsky might not have been able to write what would become his greatest works . Rimsky - Korsakov In 1871 , Nikolai Zaremba resigned from the directorship of the Saint Petersburg Conservatory . His successor , <unk> Azanchevsky , was more progressive - minded musically and wanted new blood to freshen up teaching in the Conservatory . He offered Rimsky - Korsakov a professorship in Practical Composition and Instrumentation ( orchestration ) , as well as leadership of the Orchestra Class . Balakirev , who had formerly opposed academicism with tremendous vigor , encouraged him to assume the post , thinking it might be useful having one of his own in the midst of the enemy camp . Nevertheless , by the time of his appointment , Rimsky - Korsakov had become painfully aware of his technical shortcomings as a composer ; he later wrote , " I was a dilettante and knew nothing " . Moreover , he had come to a creative dead - end upon completing his opera The Maid of Pskov and realized that developing a solid musical technique was the only way he could continue composing . He turned to Tchaikovsky for advice and guidance . When Rimsky - Korsakov underwent a change in attitude on music education and began his own intensive studies privately , his fellow nationalists accused him of throwing away his Russian heritage to compose fugues and sonatas . Tchaikovsky continued to support him morally . He told Rimsky - Korsakov that he fully applauded what he was doing and admired both his artistic modesty and his strength of character . Before Rimsky - Korsakov went to the Conservatory , in March 1868 , Tchaikovsky wrote a review of his Fantasia on Serbian Themes . In discussing this work , Tchaikovsky compared it to the only other Rimsky - Korsakov piece he had heard so far , the First Symphony , mentioning " its charming orchestration ... its structural novelty , and most of all ... the freshness of its purely Russian harmonic turns ... immediately [ showing ] Mr. Rimsky - Korsakov to be a remarkable symphonic talent " . Tchaikovsky 's notice , worded in precisely a way to find favor within the Balakirev circle , did exactly that . He met the rest of The Five on a visit to Balakirev 's house in Saint Petersburg the following month . The meeting went well . Rimsky - Korsakov later wrote , As a product of the Conservatory , Tchaikovsky was viewed rather negligently if not haughtily by our circle , and , owing to his being away from St. Petersburg , personal acquaintanceship was impossible .... [ Tchaikovsky ] proved to be a pleasing and sympathetic man to talk with , one who knew how to be simple of manner and always speak with evident sincerity and heartiness . The evening of our first meeting [ Tchaikovsky ] played for us , at Balakirev 's request , the first movement of his Symphony in G minor [ Tchaikovsky 's First Symphony ] ; it proved quite to our liking ; and our former opinion of him changed and gave way to a more sympathetic one , although Tchaikovsky 's Conservatory training still constituted a considerable barrier between him and us . Rimsky - Korsakov added that " during the following years , when visiting St. Petersburg , [ Tchaikovsky ] usually came to Balakirev 's , and we saw him . " Nevertheless , as much as Tchaikovsky may have desired acceptance from both The Five and the traditionalists , he needed the independence that Moscow afforded to find his own direction , away from both parties . This was especially true in light of Rimsky - Korsakov 's comment about the " considerable barrier " of Tchaikovsky 's Conservatory training , as well as Anton Rubinstein 's opinion that Tchaikovsky had strayed too far from the examples of the great Western masters . Tchaikovsky was ready for the nourishment of new attitudes and styles so he could continue growing as a composer , and his brother Modest writes that he was impressed by the " force and vitality " in some of the Five 's work . However , he was too balanced an individual to totally reject the best in the music and values that Zaremba and Rubinstein had cherished . In his brother Modest 's opinion , Tchaikovsky 's relations with the Saint Petersburg group resembled " those between two friendly neighboring states ... cautiously prepared to meet on common ground , but jealously guarding their separate interests " . Stasov , The Tempest and the Little Russian symphony Tchaikovsky played the finale of his Second Symphony , subtitled the Little Russian , at a gathering at Rimsky - Korsakov 's house in Saint Petersburg on January 7 , 1873 , before the official premiere of the entire work . To his brother Modest , he wrote , " [ T ] he whole company almost tore me to pieces with rapture — and Madame <unk> - Korsakova begged me in tears to let her arrange it for piano duet " . <unk> - Korsakova was a noted pianist , composer and arranger in her own right , transcribing works by other members of the kuchka as well as those of her husband and Tchaikovsky 's Romeo and Juliet . Borodin was present and may have approved of the work himself . Also present was Vladimir Stasov . Impressed by what he had heard , Stasov asked Tchaikovsky what he would consider writing next , and would soon influence the composer in writing the symphonic poem The Tempest . Tchaikovsky wanted to focus his tone poem The Tempest primarily on her . What endeared the Little Russian to the kuchka was not simply that Tchaikovsky had used Ukrainian folk songs as melodic material . It was how , especially in the outer movements , he allowed the unique characteristics of Russian folk song to dictate symphonic form . This was a goal toward which the kuchka strived , both collectively and individually . Tchaikovsky , with his Conservatory grounding , could sustain such development longer and more cohesively than his colleagues in the kuchka . ( Though the comparison may seem unfair , Tchaikovsky authority David Brown has pointed out that , because of their similar time - frames , the finale of the Little Russian shows what Mussorgsky could have done with " The Great Gate of Kiev " from Pictures at an Exhibition had he possessed academic training comparable to that of Tchaikovsky . ) Tchaikovsky 's private concerns about The Five The Five was among the myriad of subjects Tchaikovsky discussed with his benefactress , Nadezhda von Meck . By January 1878 , when he wrote to Mrs. von Meck about its members , he had drifted far from their musical world and ideals . In addition , The Five 's finest days had long passed . Despite considerable effort in writing operas and songs , Cui had become better known as a critic than as a composer , and even his critical efforts competed for time with his career as an army engineer and expert in the science of fortification . Balakirev had withdrawn completely from the musical scene , Mussorgsky was sinking ever deeper into alcoholism , and Borodin 's creative activities increasingly took a back seat to his official duties as a professor of chemistry . Only Rimsky - Korsakov actively pursued a full - time musical career , and he was under increasing fire from his fellow nationalists for much the same reason as Tchaikovsky had been . Like Tchaikovsky , Rimsky - Korsakov had found that , for his own artistic growth to continue unabated , he had to study and master Western classical forms and techniques . Borodin called it " apostasy " , adding , " Many are grieved at present by the fact that Korsakov has turned back , has thrown himself into a study of musical antiquity . I do not bemoan it . It is understandable .... " Mussorgsky was harsher : " [ T ] he mighty kuchka had degenerated into soulless traitors . " Tchaikovsky 's analysis of each of The Five was unsparing . While at least some of his observations may seem distorted and prejudiced , he also mentions some details which ring clear and true . His diagnosis of Rimsky - Korsakov 's creative crisis is very accurate . He also calls Mussorgsky the most gifted musically of the Five , though Tchaikovsky could not appreciate the forms Mussorgsky 's originality took . Nonetheless , he badly underestimates Borodin 's technique and gives Balakirev far less than his full due — all the more telling in light of Balakirev 's help in conceiving and shaping Romeo and Juliet . Tchaikovsky wrote to Nadezhda von Meck that all of the kuchka were talented but also " infected to the core " with conceit and " a purely <unk> confidence in their superiority . " He went into some detail about Rimsky - Korsakov 's epiphany and turnaround regarding musical training , and his efforts to remedy this situation for himself . Tchaikovsky then called Cui " a talented dilettante " whose music " has no originality , but is clever and graceful " ; Borodin a man who " has talent , even a strong one , but it has perished through neglect ... and his technique is so weak that he cannot write a single line [ of music ] without outside help " ; Mussorgsky " a hopeless case " , superior in talent but " narrow - minded , devoid of any urge towards self - perfection " ; and Balakirev as one with " enormous talent " yet who had also " done much harm " as " the general inventor of all the theories of this strange group " . Balakirev returns Tchaikovsky finished his final revision of Romeo and Juliet in 1880 , and felt it a courtesy to send a copy of the score to Balakirev . Balakirev , however , had dropped out of the music scene in the early 1870s and Tchaikovsky had lost touch with him . He asked the publisher Bessel to forward a copy to Balakirev . A year later Balakirev replied . In the same letter that he thanked Tchaikovsky profusely for the score , Balakirev suggested " the programme for a symphony which you would handle wonderfully well " , a detailed plan for a symphony based on Lord Byron 's Manfred . Originally drafted by Stasov in 1868 for Hector Berlioz as a sequel to that composer 's Harold en <unk> , the program had since been in Balakirev 's care . Tchaikovsky declined the project at first , saying the subject left him cold . Balakirev persisted . " You must , of course , make an effort " , Balakirev exhorted , " take a more self - critical approach , don 't hurry things " . Tchaikovsky 's mind was changed two years later , in the Swiss Alps , while tending to his friend <unk> <unk> and after he had re - read Manfred in the milieu in which the poem is set . Once he returned home , Tchaikovsky revised the draft Balakirev had made from Stasov 's program and began sketching the first movement . The Manfred Symphony would cost Tchaikovsky more time , effort and soul - searching than anything else he would write , even the Pathetique Symphony . It also became the longest , most complex work he had written up to that point , and though it owes an obvious debt to Berlioz due to its program , Tchaikovsky was still able to make the theme of Manfred his own . Near the end of seven months of intensive effort , in late September 1885 , he wrote Balakirev , " Never in my life , believe me , have I labored so long and hard , and felt so drained by my efforts . The Symphony is written in four movements , as per your program , although — forgive me — as much as I wanted to , I have not been able to keep all the keys and modulations you suggested ... It is of course dedicated to you " . Once he had finished the symphony , Tchaikovsky was reluctant to further tolerate Balakirev 's interference , and severed all contact ; he told his publisher P. Jurgenson that he considered Balakirev a " madman " . Tchaikovsky and Balakirev exchanged only a few formal , not overly friendly letters after this breach . Belyayev circle In November 1887 , Tchaikovsky arrived in Saint Petersburg in time to hear several of the Russian Symphony Concerts , one of which included the first complete performance of the final version of his First Symphony and another the premiere of the revised version of Rimsky - Korsakov 's Third Symphony . Before this visit he had spent much time keeping in touch with Rimsky - Korsakov and those around him . Rimsky - Korsakov , along with Alexander Glazunov , Anatol Lyadov and several other nationalistically - minded composers and musicians , had formed a group called the Belyayev circle . This group was named after timber merchant Mitrofan Belyayev , an amateur musician who became an influential music patron and publisher after he had taken an interest in Glazunov 's work . During Tchaikovsky 's visit , he spent much time in the company of these men , and his somewhat fraught relationship with The Five would meld into a more harmonious one with the Belyayev circle . This relationship would last until his death in late 1893 . As for The Five , the group had long since dispersed , Mussorgsky had died in 1881 and Borodin had followed in 1887 . Cui continued to write negative reviews of Tchaikovsky 's music but was seen by the composer as merely a critical irritant . Balakirev lived in isolation and was confined to the musical sidelines . Only Rimsky - Korsakov remained fully active as a composer . A side benefit of Tchaikovsky 's friendship with Glazunov , Lyadov and Rimsky - Korsakov was an increased confidence in his own abilities as a composer , along with a willingness to let his musical works stand alongside those of his contemporaries . Tchaikovsky wrote to von Meck in January 1889 , after being once again well represented in Belyayev 's concerts , that he had " always tried to place myself outside all parties and to show in every way possible that I love and respect every honorable and gifted public figure in music , whatever his tendency " , and that he considered himself " flattered to appear on the concert platform " beside composers in the Belyayev circle . This was an acknowledgment of wholehearted readiness for his music to be heard with that of these composers , delivered in a tone of implicit confidence that there were no comparisons from which to fear . Legacy The initial hostility of The Five against Tchaikovsky was mitigated by Tchaikovsky 's improved relationships , first with Balakirev and then with Rimsky - Korsakov . The latter substantially embraced the cosmopolitan conservatory - based approach , as distinct from pure Russian nationalism . The Five dispersed as a unit , but were replaced by the Belyayev circle of younger composers that grew around Rimsky - Korsakov . This group , while writing in a nationalistic style pioneered by Rimsky - Korsakov and Balakirev , was much more accommodating of Western compositional practices as personified by the music of Tchaikovsky . Rimsky - Korsakov wrote about this tendency : At this time [ approximately 1892 ] there begins to be noticeable a considerable cooling off and even somewhat inimical attitude toward the memory of the " mighty kuchka " of Balakirev 's period . On the contrary a worship of Tchaikovsky and a tendency toward eclecticism grow even stronger . Nor could one help noticing the predilection ( that sprang up then in our circle ) for Italian - French music of the time of wig and farthingale [ that is , the eighteenth century ] , music introduced by Tchaikovsky in his Queen of Spades and Iolanthe . By this time quite an accretion of new elements and young blood had accumulated in Belyayev 's circle . New times , new birds , new songs . As a result of this influence plus their academic training from Rimsky - Korsakov , especially in the cases of Anton Arensky and Glazunov , these composers combined the best compositional techniques of The Five and Tchaikovsky in their music . Often , however , composers in this group fell back on two sources — musical clichés and mannerisms handed down from The Five , and academic compositional techniques learned at the Conservatory . Also , the eclecticism about which Rimsky - Korsakov wrote tended to overpower originality in many works , including those of Glazunov . Nevertheless , the Belyayev circle continued to influence the development of Russian music well into the 20th century .
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Imperial War Museum Imperial War Museums ( IWM ) is a British national museum organisation with branches at five locations in England , three of which are in London . Founded as the Imperial War Museum in 1917 , the museum was intended to record the civil and military war effort and sacrifice of Britain and its Empire during the First World War . The museum 's remit has since expanded to include all conflicts in which British or Commonwealth forces have been involved since 1914 . As of 2012 , the museum aims ' to provide for , and to encourage , the study and understanding of the history of modern war and " wartime experience " ' . Originally housed in the Crystal Palace at Sydenham Hill , the museum opened to the public in 1920 . In 1924 the museum moved to space in the Imperial Institute in South Kensington , and finally in 1936 the museum acquired a permanent home which was previously the Bethlem Royal Hospital in Southwark . The outbreak of the Second World War saw the museum expand both its collections and its terms of reference , but in the post - war period the museum entered a period of decline . The 1960s saw the museum redevelop its Southwark building , now referred to as Imperial War Museum London , which serves as the organisation 's corporate headquarters . During the 1970s the museum began to expand onto other sites . The first , in 1976 , was a historic airfield in Cambridgeshire now referred to as IWM Duxford . In 1978 the Royal Navy cruiser HMS Belfast became a branch of the museum , having previously been preserved for the nation by a private trust . In 1984 the Cabinet War Rooms , an underground wartime command centre , was opened to the public . From the 1980s onwards the museum 's Bethlem building underwent a series of multimillion - pound redevelopments , completed in 2000 . Finally , 2002 saw the opening of IWM North in Trafford , Greater Manchester , the fifth branch of the museum and the first in the north of England . In 2011 the museum rebranded itself as IWM , standing for ' Imperial War Museums ' . The museum 's collections include archives of personal and official documents , photographs , film and video material , and oral history recordings ; an extensive library , a large art collection , and examples of military vehicles and aircraft , equipment and other artefacts . The museum is funded by government grants , charitable donations and revenue generation through commercial activity such as retailing , licensing , and publishing . Admission is free to IWM London and IWM North , but an admission fee is levied at the other branches . The museum is an exempt charity under the Charities Act 1993 and a non - departmental public body under the Department for Culture , Media and Sport . As of January 2012 the Chairman of the Trustees is Sir Francis Richards . Since October 2008 , the museum 's Director General has been Diane Lees . History Establishment : 1917 – 1924 On 27 February 1917 Sir Alfred Mond , a Liberal MP and First Commissioner of Works , wrote to the Prime Minister David Lloyd George to propose the establishment of a National War Museum . This proposal was accepted by the War Cabinet on 5 March 1917 and the decision announced in The Times on 26 March . A committee was established , chaired by Mond , to oversee the collection of material to be exhibited in the new museum . This National War Museum Committee set about collecting material to illustrate Britain 's war effort by dividing into subcommittees examining such subjects as the Army , the Navy , the production of munitions , and women 's war work . There was an early appreciation of the need for exhibits to reflect personal experience in order to prevent the collections becoming dead relics . Sir Martin Conway , the Museum 's first Director General , said that exhibits must ' be <unk> by contributions expressive of the action , the experiences , the valour and the endurance of individuals ' . The museum 's first curator and secretary was Charles <unk> , who had previously been curator of the Royal Armouries at the Tower of London . In July 1917 Mond made a visit to the Western Front in order to study how best to organise the museum 's growing collection . While in France he met French government ministers , and Field Marshal Haig , who reportedly took great interest in his work . In December 1917 the name was changed to the Imperial War Museum after a resolution from the India and Dominions Committee of the museum . The museum was opened by The King at the Crystal Palace on 9 June 1920 . During the opening ceremony , Sir Alfred Mond addressed the King on behalf of the committee , saying that ' it was hoped to make the museum so complete that every one who took part in the war , however obscurely , would find therein an example or illustration of the sacrifice he or she made ' and that the museum ' was not a monument of military glory , but a record of toil and sacrifice ' . Shortly afterwards the Imperial War Museum Act 1920 was passed and established a Board of Trustees to oversee the governance of the museum . To reflect the museum 's Imperial remit the board included appointees of the governments of India , South Africa , Canada , Australia and New Zealand . While the Act was being debated , some Parliamentarians felt that the museum would perpetuate an undesirable war spirit and Commander Joseph Kenworthy MP said that he would ' refuse to vote a penny of public money to commemorate such suicidal madness of civilisation as that which was shown in the late War ' . On the August Bank Holiday 1920 , the first public holiday since the museum 's opening , 94 , 179 visitors were received , and by November 1921 , 2 , 290 , 719 had visited the museum . Relocation 1924 – 1936 In 1924 the museum moved to the Imperial Institute building ( demolished in the 1950s and 1960s to make way for Imperial College ) in South Kensington . While this location was more central and in a prestigious area for museums , the accommodation itself proved cramped and inadequate and in 1936 a new permanent location was found south of the River Thames in Southwark . The building , designed by James Lewis was the former Bethlem Royal Hospital which had been vacated following the hospital 's relocation to Beckenham in Kent . The site was owned by Lord Rothermere , who had originally intended to demolish the building entirely in order to provide a public park in what was a severely overcrowded area of London . Eventually the central portion of the hospital building was retained while its two extensive wings were removed and the resulting space named Geraldine Mary Harmsworth Park , after Lord Rothermere 's mother . Sir Martin Conway described the building as ' ... a fine building , really quite noble building , with a great portico , a distinguishing dome , and two great wings added to it for the accommodation of lunatics no longer required . This particular building can be made to contain our collection admirably , and we shall preserve from destruction quite a fine building which otherwise will disappear ' . The ' distinguishing dome ' was added by Sydney Smirke in 1846 and housed the hospital 's chapel . The museum was reopened by the Duke of York ( later King George VI ) in its new accommodation on 7 July 1936 . Second World War and after : 1939 – 1966 With the outbreak of the Second World War in 1939 , the museum began to collect material documenting the conflict . In November 1939 , during the so - called ' Phoney War ' , the museum appeared in the opening sequence of the GPO Film Unit production The First Days , in which children are seen playing on some of the museum 's German artillery pieces captured during the First World War . With the evacuation of British forces from Dunkirk in May / June 1940 , however , the British Army 's shortage of equipment saw eighteen of the museum 's artillery pieces return to military service . The museum 's trench clubs were used by the Home Guard , while other items such as sights and optical instruments were returned to the Ministry of Supply . The museum refused , however , to return some historic items such as a naval gun from HMS Lance ( which had fired Britain 's first shot of the First World War ) or a gun served by Victoria Cross - winning boy seaman Jack Cornwell . The museum initially remained open but was closed for the duration of the war in September 1940 with the onset of the Blitz . On 31 January 1941 the museum was struck by a Luftwaffe bomb which fell on the naval gallery . A number of ship models were damaged by the blast and a Short Seaplane , which had flown at the Battle of Jutland , was destroyed . While closed to the public the museum 's building was used for a variety of purposes connected to the war effort , such as a repair garage for government motor vehicles , a centre for Air Raid Precautions civil defence lectures and a fire fighting training school . In October 1945 the museum mounted a temporary exhibition , the first since the end of the war in August , which showcased technologies developed by the Petroleum Warfare Department . These included the submarine fuel pipeline <unk> , the fog dispersal method FIDO , and flame weapons such as the Churchill Crocodile and Wasp Universal Carrier . However , due to bomb damage to both the building and exhibits , the museum was obliged to reopen its galleries piecemeal . The museum reopened a portion of its galleries in November 1946 . A third of the galleries were opened in 1948 and a further wing opened in 1949 . In 1953 , with Commonwealth forces engaged in Korea and Malaya the museum began its current policy of collecting material from all modern conflicts in which British or Commonwealth forces were involved . However , despite this expansion of remit , the early postwar period was a period of decline for the museum . Dr Noble Frankland , the museum 's Director from 1960 to 1982 , described the museum 's galleries in 1955 as appearing ' dingy and neglected [ and in a ] dismal state of decay ' the museum 's ' numerous stunning exhibits ' notwithstanding . Redevelopment and expansion : 1966 – 2012 In 1966 the Museum 's Southwark building was extended to provide collections storage and other facilities , the first major expansion since the Museum had moved to the site . The development also included a purpose - built cinema . In 1967 the museum acquired a pair of 15 - inch naval guns . One had been mounted on the Royal Navy 's HMS Ramillies and the other on both HMS Resolution and HMS Roberts . Both had been fired in action during the Second World War . They went on permanent display outside the museum in May 1968 . The acquisition of these guns , representative of the dreadnought era of British battleships , led the museum to seek to acquire a 6 - inch triple turret that would be representative of a number of classes of British cruisers . This would eventually lead to the preservation of the Royal Navy light cruiser HMS Belfast , which became a branch of the museum in 1978 . Later in 1968 on 13 October the Museum was attacked by an arsonist , Timothy John Daly , who claimed he was acting in protest against the exhibition of militarism to children . He caused damage valued at approximately £ 200 , 000 , not counting the loss of irreplaceable books and documents . On his conviction in 1969 he was sentenced to four years in prison . In 1969 RAF Duxford , a Royal Air Force fighter airfield in Cambridgeshire was declared surplus to requirements by the Ministry of Defence . Needing further space , the museum duly requested permission to use part of the site as temporary storage . The entire site was later transferred to the museum in February 1976 and Duxford , now referred to as Imperial War Museum Duxford became the museum 's first branch . Also during the 1970s the government raised the possibility of the museum taking over the historic Cabinet War Rooms in Whitehall . The museum was reluctant due to its new commitments related to Duxford and HMS Belfast , but agreed in 1982 . By 1983 the museum was again looking to redevelop the Southwark site and approached engineering firm Arup to plan a phased programme of works that would expand the building 's exhibition space , provide appropriate environmental controls to protect collections , and improve facilities for visitors . The following year , in April 1984 , the Cabinet War Rooms were opened to the public as a branch of the museum . The first phase of the works to the Southwark building started in 1986 and were completed in 1989 , during which time the museum was closed to the public . The work included the conversion of what was previously the hospital 's courtyard into a centrepiece Large Exhibits Gallery . This gallery featured a strengthened ground floor ( to support the weight of very heavy exhibits ) , a first floor mezzanine and second storey viewing balcony . Into this space were placed tanks , artillery pieces , vehicles , ordnance and aircraft from the First World War to the Falklands War . For some years the museum was marketed as ' The new Imperial War Museum ' . This atrium , with its concentration of military hardware , has been described as ' the biggest boys ' bedroom in London ' . This first phase cost £ 16 . 7 million ( of which £ 12 million was provided by the government ) and the museum was reopened by The Queen on 29 June 1989 . In September 1992 the museum was the target of a Provisional Irish Republican Army attack against London tourist attractions . Two incendiary devices were found in a basement gallery , but were extinguished by staff before the arrival of the fire brigade , and caused only minor damage . The second stage of the redevelopment of the Southwark building , during which the museum remained open to the public , was completed in 1994 . During the 1990s , while these works were going on , the museum was also seeking to open a branch in the north of England . Seventy - one sites were offered for consideration by 36 local councils and in January 1999 the then Culture Secretary Chris Smith formally launched a project to construct a new branch of the museum , Imperial War Museum North , in Trafford , Greater Manchester . The following year , 2000 , the final phase of the Southwark redevelopment was completed . The development included the installation of the museum 's Holocaust Exhibition which was opened by the Queen on 6 June 2000 . This was the first permanent exhibition dedicated to the Holocaust in a UK museum ; its development had taken five years at a cost of £ 5 million . Two years later , in July 2002 , Imperial War Museum North was opened . Between 2004 – 2010 the museum was a partner in a national learning project entitled ' Their Past Your Future ' ( <unk> ) , part of the Big Lottery Fund 's Veterans Reunited programme to commemorate the 60th anniversary of the end of the Second World War . A partnership between the IWM , the Museums , Libraries and Archives Council , and Scottish , Northern Irish and Welsh museum authorities , phase one included a touring exhibition seen by more than two million people , overseas educational visits and further activities run by local authorities . A second phase took a wider 20th century historical remit ; it comprised a learning programme using overseas visits and social media , and a professional development scheme for educators . A digital archive of the project , online exhibitions and learning resources were also produced . In October 2011 the museum rebranded itself as Imperial War Museums , the initials IWM forming the basis of a new corporate logo . In September 2011 the museum secured funding from <unk> , the Arts and Humanities Research Council and Arts Council England to develop ' social interpretation ' systems to allow visitors to comment on , collect , and share museum objects via social media . These systems were incorporated in ' A Family in Wartime ' an exhibition at IWM London depicting British family life during the Second World War , which opened in April 2012 . First World War centenary : 2014 In August 2009 the Museum announced the creation of the Imperial War Museum Foundation . Chaired by Jonathon Harmsworth the foundation was charged with raising funds to support the redevelopment of Imperial War Museum London 's permanent galleries . In December 2010 plans were announced to redevelop IWM London 's First World War gallery in time for the conflict 's centenary in 2014 , and Prince William , Duke of Cambridge became the foundation 's patron . In a speech at IWM London on 11 October 2012 , Prime Minister David Cameron announced an additional £ 5 million of government funding to support the museum 's redevelopment , as part of funding arrangements to facilitate national centenary commemorations . The £ 40 million redevelopment , designed by Foster and Partners , provides new gallery spaces dedicated to the history of the First World War , a new central hall , easier navigation and improved visitor facilities , access and circulation . In preparation for building work , a number of galleries were closed during September 2012 , and by December 2012 over sixty large objects had been removed from the IWM London atrium for conservation at Duxford . To allow building work to go ahead , IWM London closed to the public on 2 January 2013 . The museum partially reopened on 29 July 2013 . IWM London was formally reopened on 17 July 2014 by Prince William , Duke of Cambridge . Branches From the 1970s onwards the Imperial War Museum began to expand onto other sites . The first branch , Imperial War Museum Duxford opened to the public on a regular basis in June 1976 . HMS Belfast became a branch of the museum in 1978 . The Cabinet War Rooms opened in 1984 , and Imperial War Museum North in 2002 . Imperial War Museum London Architecture and layout The museum has occupied the former Bethlem Royal Hospital on Lambeth Road since 1936 . The hospital building was designed by the hospital surveyor , James Lewis , from plans submitted by John Gandy and other architects , and construction completed in October 1814 . The hospital consisted of a range of buildings 580 feet long with a basement and three storeys , parallel to Lambeth Road , with a central entrance under a portico . The building was substantially altered in 1835 by architect Sydney Smirke . In order to provide more space , he added blocks at either end of the frontage , and galleried wings on either side of the central portion . He also added a small single - storey lodge , still in existence , at the Lambeth Road gate . Later , between 1844 – 46 , the central cupola was replaced with a copper - clad dome in order to expand the chapel beneath . The building also featured a theatre in a building to the rear of the site . The building remained substantially unchanged until vacated by the hospital in 1930 . After the freehold was purchased by Lord Rothermere , the wings were demolished to leave the original central portion ( with the dome now appearing disproportionately tall ) and Smirke 's later wings . When the museum moved into the building in 1936 the ground floor of the central portion was occupied by the principal art gallery , with the east wing housing the Naval gallery and the west wing the Army gallery . The Air Force gallery was housed in the former theatre . The first floor comprised further art galleries ( including rooms dedicated to William Orpen and John Lavery ) , a gallery on women 's war work , and exhibits relating to transport and signals . The first floor also housed the museum 's photograph collection . The second floor housed the museum 's library in its west wing , and in the east wing the map collection and stored pictures and drawings . This division of exhibits by service , and by civil or military activity , persisted until a wide - ranging <unk> of the galleries from the 1960s onwards . In September 1972 the building received Grade II listed building status . The original hospital building is now largely occupied by corporate offices . The 1966 extension houses the library , art store , and document archives while the 1980s redevelopments created exhibition space over five floors . The first stage created 8 , 000 m2 of gallery space of which 4 , 600 m2 was new , and the second provided a further 1 , 600 m2 . The final phase , the Southwest Infill , was partly funded by a £ 12 . 6 million grant from the Heritage Lottery Fund and provided <unk> of gallery space and educational facilities over six floors . Before the 2013 - 14 redevelopment , the basement was occupied by permanent galleries on the First and Second World Wars , and of conflicts after 1945 . The ground floor comprised the atrium , cinema , temporary exhibition spaces , and visitor facilities . The first floor included the atrium mezzanine , education facilities , and a permanent gallery , Secret War , exploring special forces , espionage and covert operations . The second floor included the atrium viewing balcony , two art galleries , a temporary exhibition area and the permanent Crimes against Humanity exhibition . The third floor housed the permanent Holocaust Exhibition , and the fourth floor , a vaulted roof space , accommodated the Lord Ashcroft Gallery . Opened in November 2010 the gallery exhibits the museum 's Victoria Cross ( VC ) and George Cross collection , alongside the private VC collection amassed by Michael Ashcroft , 241 medals in total . All Saints Annexe In 1989 the museum acquired the All Saints Annexe , a former hospital building in Austral Street off West Square . The 1867 building , which backs onto Geraldine Mary Harmsworth Park , was originally an orphanage opened by local philanthropist Charlotte Sharman , then later used as a hospital . It houses the museum 's photographic , film and sound archives , and offices . Imperial War Museum Duxford Imperial War Museum Duxford , near the village of Duxford in Cambridgeshire , is Britain 's largest aviation museum . Duxford houses the museum 's large exhibits , including nearly 200 aircraft , military vehicles , artillery and minor naval vessels in seven main exhibitions buildings . The site also provides storage space for the museum 's collections of film , photographs , documents , books and artefacts . The site accommodates a number of British Army regimental museums , including those of the Parachute Regiment and the Royal Anglian Regiment . Based on the historic Duxford Aerodrome , the site was originally operated by the Royal Air Force ( RAF ) during the First World War . During the Second World War Duxford played a prominent role during the Battle of Britain and was later used by United States Army Air Forces fighter units in support of the daylight bombing of Germany . Duxford remained an active RAF airfield until 1961 . Many of Duxford 's original buildings , such as hangars used during the Battle of Britain , are still in use . A number of these buildings are of architectural or historic significance and over thirty have listed building status . The site also features a number of purpose - built exhibition buildings , such as the Stirling Prize - winning American Air Museum , designed by Sir Norman Foster . The site remains an active airfield and is used by a number of civilian flying companies , and hosts regular air shows . The site is operated in partnership with Cambridgeshire County Council and the Duxford Aviation Society , a charity formed in 1975 to preserve civil aircraft and promote appreciation of British civil aviation history . HMS Belfast HMS Belfast , a Town class cruiser , was launched in 1938 and served throughout the Second World War , participating in the December 1943 Battle of North Cape and firing some of the first shots of Operation Overlord , the Allied invasion of Normandy in June 1944 . She saw further combat in the Korean War . Expected to be disposed of as scrap after she was decommissioned in 1963 , in 1967 efforts were initiated to preserve Belfast as a museum ship . A joint committee of the Imperial War Museum , the National Maritime Museum and the Ministry of Defence was established , and reported in June 1968 that preservation was practical . In 1971 the government decided against preservation , prompting the formation of the private HMS Belfast Trust to campaign for her to be saved for the nation . The Trust was successful in its efforts , and the government transferred the ship to the Trust in July 1971 . Brought to London , she was moored on the River Thames near Tower Bridge in the Pool of London . Opened to the public in October 1971 Belfast became a branch of the Imperial War Museum on 1 March 1978 , being acknowledged by the then Secretary of State for Education and Science , Shirley Williams , as ' a unique demonstration of an important phase of our history and technology ' . In service for 24 years HMS Belfast was in Frankland 's opinion , capable of representing ' a whole generation of [ historical evidence ] ' . Churchill War Rooms The Cabinet War Rooms is an underground complex that served as a British government command centre throughout the Second World War . Located beneath the Treasury building in the Whitehall area of Westminster , the facilities became operational in 1939 and were in constant use until their abandonment in August 1945 after the surrender of Japan . Their historical value was recognised early on , and the public were able to visit by appointment . However , the practicalities of allowing public access to a site beneath a working government office meant that only 4 , 500 of 30 – 40 , 000 annual applicants to visit the War Rooms could be admitted . The museum agreed to take over the administration of the site in 1982 , a development keenly supported by the then Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher , an admirer of Britain 's wartime Prime Minister Winston Churchill . Thatcher opened the War Rooms in April 1984 . In 2003 a further suite of rooms , used as accommodation by Churchill , his wife and close associates , were added to the museum . The restoration of these rooms , which since the war had been stripped out and used for storage , cost £ 7 . 5 million . In 2005 the War Rooms were rebranded as the Churchill Museum and Cabinet War Rooms , with 850 m2 of the site redeveloped as a biographical museum exploring Churchill 's life . The development of the Churchill Museum cost a further £ 6 million . The centrepiece is a 15m interactive table which enables visitors to access digitised material , particularly from the Churchill Archives Centre , via an ' electronic filing cabinet ' . The museum was renamed the Churchill War Rooms in 2010 . Imperial War Museum North The Imperial War Museum North was opened in Trafford , Greater Manchester in 2002 . It was the first branch of the museum outside southeast England , and the first to be purpose - built as a museum . Designed by architect Daniel Libeskind , Imperial War Museum North was his first building in Britain . Libeskind ’ s building , overlooking the Manchester Ship Canal at Salford Quays , was based on the concept of a globe shattered by conflict into shards and reassembled . These shards , representing earth , air and water , give the building its shape . Originally budgeted at £ 40 million , the museum was eventually completed for £ 28 . 5 million after anticipated funding was not forthcoming . The museum was funded by local , national and European development agencies , by private donations and by Peel Holdings , a local transport and property company which contributed £ 12 . 5 million . The museum 's first floor main gallery space houses the permanent exhibitions . These consist of a chronological display which runs around the gallery 's 200m perimeter and six thematic displays in ' silos ' within the space . The walls of the gallery space are used as screens for the projection of an hourly audiovisual presentation , the Big Picture . The main gallery , described as cavernous and dramatic , includes objects such as a Russian T - 34 tank , a United States Marine Corps AV - 8A Harrier jet , and a British 13 - pounder field gun which fired the British Army 's first shot of the First World War . The museum also hosts a programme of temporary exhibitions , mounted in a separate gallery . Collections The Imperial War Museum 's original collections date back to the material amassed by the National War Museum Committee . The present departmental organisation came into being during the 1960s as part of Frankland 's reorganisation of the museum . The 1970s saw oral history gain increasing prominence and in 1972 the museum created the Department of Sound Records ( now the Sound Archive ) to record interviews with individuals who had experienced the First World War . The museum maintains an online database of its collections . Documents The museum 's documents archive seeks to collect and preserve the private papers of individuals who have experienced modern warfare . The archive 's holdings range from the papers of senior British and Commonwealth army , navy and air officers , to the letters , diaries and memoirs of lower - ranked servicemen and of civilians . The collection includes the papers of Field Marshals Bernard Montgomery , and Sir John French . The archive also includes large collections of foreign documents , such as captured German Second World War documents previously held by the Cabinet Office Historical Section , Air Historical Branch and other British government bodies . The foreign collection also includes captured Japanese material transferred from the Cabinet Office . The collection also includes files on Victoria and George Cross recipients , and correspondence relating to the BBC documentary The Great War . The documents collection also includes the UK National Inventory of War Memorials . In 2012 the museum reported its documents collection to contain 24 , 800 collections of papers . Art The museum 's art collection includes paintings , prints , drawings , sculpture , and works in film , photography and sound . The collection originated during the First World War , when the museum acquired works that it had itself commissioned , as well as works commissioned by the Ministry of Information 's British War Memorials Committee . As early as 1920 the art collection held over 3 , 000 works and included pieces by John Singer Sargent , Wyndham Lewis , John Nash and Christopher Nevinson . Notable First World War works include Sargent 's <unk> and other works commissioned for an , unbuilt , Hall of Remembrance . The collection expanded again after the Second World War , receiving thousands of works sponsored by the Ministry of Information 's War Artists ' Advisory Committee . In 1972 the museum established the Artistic Records Committee ( since renamed the Art Commissions Committee ) to commission artists to cover contemporary conflicts . Commissioned artists include Ken Howard , Linda Kitson , John Keane , Peter Howson , Steve McQueen ( see Queen and Country ) and Langlands & Bell , responding to conflicts in Northern Ireland , the Falklands , the Persian Gulf , Bosnia , Iraq and Afghanistan . The collection also includes over twenty thousand items of publicity material such as posters , postcards , and proclamations from both world wars , and more recent material such as posters issued by anti - war organisations such as the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament and the Stop the War Coalition . The museum 's collection is represented in digital resources such as the Visual Arts Data Service ( <unk> ) , and Google Art Project . In 2012 the museum reported the total size of its art collection as 84 , 980 items . Film The museum 's Film and Video Archive is one of the oldest film archives in the world . The archive preserves a range of historically significant film and video material , including the official British film record of the First World War . Notable among the archive 's First World War holdings is The Battle of the Somme , a pioneering 1916 documentary film ( which was inscribed on the UNESCO Memory of the World register in 2005 ) , and Der <unk> <unk> , a German 1917 propaganda film about the submarine U - 35 . The archive 's Second World War holdings include unedited film shot by British military cameramen , which document combat actions such as the British landings on D - Day in June 1944 , and the liberation of the Bergen - Belsen concentration camp in April 1945 . The archive also holds government information films and propaganda features such as Target for Tonight and Desert Victory . The archive 's post - Second World War collections include material from the Korean War , Cold War material , the former film library of NATO , and material produced by the United Nations <unk> service in Bosnia . As an official repository under the 1958 Public Records Act , the archive continues to receive material from the Ministry of Defence . The archive also seeks to acquire amateur film taken by both service personnel and civilian cameramen . Material from the collection was used to make a number of well - known TV documentary series including The Great War and The World at War . In 2012 the museum reported the size of its film archive as being in excess of 23 , 000 hours of film , video and digital footage . Photographs The museum 's Photograph Archive preserves photographs by official , amateur and professional photographers . The collection includes the official British photographic record of the two world wars ; the First World War collection includes the work of photographers such as Ernest Brooks and John Warwick Brooke . The archive also holds 150 , 000 British aerial photographs from the First World War , the largest collection of its kind . The Second World War collection includes the work of photographers such as Bill Brandt , Cecil Beaton and Bert Hardy . Like the Film Archive , the Photograph Archive is an official repository under the 1958 Public Records Act , and as such continues to receive material from the Ministry of Defence . In 2012 the museum reported the size of its photographic holdings as approximately 11 million images in 17 , 263 collections . Exhibits The museum 's exhibits collection includes a wide range of objects , organised into numerous smaller collections such as uniforms , badges , insignia and flags ( including a Canadian Red Ensign carried at Vimy Ridge in 1917 , a Union flag from the 1942 British surrender of Singapore , and another found among the wreckage of the World Trade Center following the September 11 attacks ) ; personal mementoes , souvenirs and miscellanea such as trench art ; orders , medals and decorations ( including collections of Victoria and George Crosses ) ; military equipment ; firearms and ammunition , ordnance , edged weapons , clubs ( such as trench clubs ) and other weapons , and vehicles , aircraft and ships . The museum holds the national collection of modern firearms . The firearms collection includes a rifle used by T. E. Lawrence , and an automatic pistol owned by Winston Churchill . The ordnance collection includes artillery pieces that participated in notable battles , such as the Néry gun , a field gun that was used during the 1914 action at Néry , and equipment captured from enemy forces . The museum 's vehicles collection includes Ole Bill , a bus used by British forces in the First World War , and a number of vehicles used by Field Marshal Montgomery during the Second World War . The museum 's aircraft collection includes aircraft that are notable for their rarity , such as the only complete and original Royal Aircraft Factory R.E.8 in existence and one of only two surviving TSR - 2 strike aircraft , and aircraft associated with particular actions , such as a Supermarine Spitfire flown during the Battle of Britain . The museum 's naval collection includes HM Coastal Motor Boat 4 and a midget submarine HMS <unk> . In 2012 the museum reported its exhibits collection to contain 155 , 000 objects and a further 357 vehicles and aircraft . Library The museum 's library is a national reference collection on modern conflict , and holds works on all aspects of warfare , including regimental or unit histories ( such as 789 rare German unit histories from the First World War ) , technical manuals , biographical material and works on war 's social , cultural , economic , political and military aspects . The library also holds printed ephemera such as the Imperial War Museum Stamp Collection , leaflets and ration books , printed proclamations , newspapers , trench magazines ( such the Wipers Times ) and trench maps . In 2012 the museum reported its library collection to contain over 80 , 000 items of historic importance ( such as maps , proclamations and rare books ) and a further 254 , 000 items of reference material . Sound The museum 's Sound Archive holds 33 , 000 sound recordings , including a large collection of oral history recordings of witnesses to conflicts since 1914 . The museum 's sound collection originated in 1972 with the creation of the Department of Sound Records and the instigation of an oral history recording programme . The sound collection opened to the public in July 1977 . The collection also includes recordings made by the BBC during the Second World War , actuality sound effects , broadcasts , speeches and poetry . As part of the museum 's First World War centenary programme , the museum is producing Voices of the First World War , a podcast series drawing upon the museum 's oral history recordings . In 2012 the museum reported the size of its sound collection as 37 , 000 hours . Governance The Imperial War Museum is an executive non - departmental public body under the Department for Culture , Media and Sport , from which it receives financial support in the form of a grant - in - aid . The governance of the museum is the responsibility of a Board of Trustees , originally established by the Imperial War Museum Act 1920 , later amended by the Imperial War Museum Act 1955 and the Museums and Galleries Act 1992 and other relevant legislation . The board comprises a president ( currently Prince Edward , Duke of Kent ) who is appointed by the sovereign , and fourteen members appointed in varying proportions by the Prime Minister , and the Foreign , Defence , and Culture Secretaries . Seven further members are Commonwealth High Commissioners appointed ex officio by their respective governments . As of January 2012 the Chairman of the Trustees is Sir Francis Richards and his deputy is Lieutenant - General Sir John <unk> . Past chairmen have included Admiral Sir Deric Holland - Martin ( 1967 – 77 ) , Admiral of the Fleet Sir Algernon Willis and Marshal of the Royal Air Force Sir John Grandy ( trustee 1971 – 78 , Chairman 1978 – 89 ) . During the Second World War Grandy had commanded RAF Duxford , and was chairman during the planning of Duxford 's American Air Museum , which opened in 1997 . The museum 's Director - General is answerable to the trustees and acts as accounting officer . Since 1917 the museum has had six directors . The first was Sir Martin Conway , a noted art historian , mountaineer and explorer . He was knighted in 1895 for his efforts to map the Karakoram mountain range of the Himalayas , and was Slade Professor of Fine Arts at the University of Cambridge from 1901 to 1904 . Conway held the post of Director until his death in 1937 , when he was succeeded by Leslie Bradley . Bradley had served in the First World War in the Middlesex Regiment before being invalided out in 1917 . He later became acquainted with Charles <unk> , who invited him to join the museum where he was initially engaged in assembling the museum 's poster collection . Bradley retired in 1960 and was succeeded by Dr Noble Frankland . Frankland had served as a navigator in RAF Bomber Command , winning a Distinguished Flying Cross . While a Cabinet Office official historian he co - authored a controversial official history of the RAF strategic air campaign against Germany . Frankland retired in 1982 and was succeeded by Dr Alan Borg who had previously been at the Sainsbury Centre for Visual Arts . In 1995 Borg moved to the Victoria and Albert Museum and was succeeded by Sir Robert Crawford , who had originally been recruited by Frankland as a research assistant in 1968 . Upon Crawford 's retirement in 2008 he was succeeded by Diane Lees , previously Director of the V & A Museum of Childhood . She was noted in the media as the first woman appointed to lead a British national museum .
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Coronation A coronation is a ceremony marking the formal investiture of a monarch and / or their consort with regal power , usually involving the ritual placement of a crown upon his or her head and the presentation of other items of regalia . A ceremony without the placement of a crown on one 's head is known as an enthronement . The ceremony may include the taking of special vows by the monarch , acts of homage by the new ruler 's subjects and the performance of other ritual deeds of special significance to the particular nation . Once a vital ritual among the world 's monarchies , coronations have changed over time for a variety of socio - political and religious factors ; most modern monarchies have dispensed with them altogether , preferring simpler enthronement , investiture or benediction ceremonies . Coronations are still observed in the United Kingdom , Tonga , and several Asian and African countries . In common usage today , coronation normally refers to the official investiture or enthronement of the monarch , whether or not an actual crown is bestowed . In addition to investing the monarch with symbols of state , Western - style coronations have often traditionally involve anointing with holy oil , or chrism as it is often called . Wherever a ruler is anointed in this way , as in Great Britain and Tonga , this ritual takes on an overtly religious significance , following examples found in the Bible . Some other lands use bathing or cleansing rites , the drinking of a sacred beverage , or other religious practices to achieve a comparable effect . Such acts symbolise the granting of divine favour to the monarch within the relevant spiritual - religious paradigm of the country . In the past , concepts of royalty , coronation and deity were often inexorably linked . In some ancient cultures , rulers were considered to be divine or partially divine : the Egyptian Pharaoh was believed to be the son of Ra , the sun god , while in Japan , the Emperor was believed to be a descendant of Amaterasu , the sun goddess . Rome promulgated the practice of emperor worship ; in Medieval Europe , monarchs claimed to have a divine right to rule . Coronations were once a direct visual expression of these alleged connections , but recent centuries have seen the lessening of such beliefs due to increasing secularization and democratization . Thus , coronations ( or their religious elements , at least ) have often been discarded altogether or altered to reflect the constitutional nature of the states in which they are held . However , some monarchies still choose to retain an overtly religious dimension to their accession rituals . Others have adopted simpler enthronement or inauguration ceremonies , or even no ceremony at all . History and development The coronation ceremonies in medieval Christendom , both Western and Eastern , are influenced by the practice of the Roman Emperors as it developed during Late Antiquity , indirectly influenced by Biblical accounts of kings being crowned and anointed . The European coronation ceremonies , perhaps best known in the form they have taken in Great Britain ( the most recent of which occurred in 1953 ) , descend from rites initially created in Byzantium , Visigothic Spain , Carolingian France and the Holy Roman Empire and brought to their apogee during the Medieval era . In non - Christian states , coronation rites evolved from a variety of sources , often related to the religious beliefs of that particular nation . Buddhism , for instance , influenced the coronation rituals of Thailand , Cambodia and Bhutan , while Hindu elements played a significant role in Nepalese rites . The ceremonies used in modern Egypt , Malaysia , Brunei and Iran were shaped by Islam , while Tonga 's ritual combines ancient Polynesian influences with more modern Anglican ones . Antiquity Coronations , in one form or another , have existed since ancient times . Egyptian records show coronation scenes , such as that of Seti I in 1290 BC . Judeo - Christian scriptures testify to particular rites associated with the conferring of kingship , the most detailed accounts of which are found in II Kings 11 : 12 and II Chronicles 23 : 11 . The corona radiata , the " radiant crown " known best on the Statue of Liberty , and perhaps worn by the Helios that was the Colossus of Rhodes , was worn by Roman emperors as part of the cult of Sol Invictus , part of the imperial cult as it developed during the 3rd century . The origin of the crown is thus religious , comparable to the significance of a halo , marking the sacral nature of kingship , expressing that either the king is himself divine , or ruling by divine right . The precursor to the crown was the <unk> called the diadem , which had been worn by the Achaemenid rulers , was adopted by Constantine I , and was worn by all subsequent rulers of the later Roman Empire . Following the assumption of the diadem by Constantine , Roman and Byzantine emperors continued to wear it as the supreme symbol of their authority . Although no specific coronation ceremony was observed at first , one gradually evolved over the following century . The emperor Julian was hoisted upon a shield and crowned with a gold necklace provided by one of his standard - bearers ; he later wore a jewel - studded diadem . Later emperors were crowned and acclaimed in a similar manner , until the momentous decision was taken to permit the Patriarch of Constantinople to physically place the crown on the emperor 's head . Historians debate when exactly this first took place , but the precedent was clearly established by the reign of Leo II , who was crowned by the Patriarch Acacius in 473 . This ritual included recitation of prayers by the Byzantine prelate over the crown , a further — and extremely vital — development in the liturgical ordo of crowning . After this event , according to the Catholic Encyclopedia , " the ecclesiastical element in the coronation ceremonial rapidly develop [ ed ] " . In some European Celtic or Germanic countries prior to the adoption of Christianity , the ruler upon his election was raised on a shield and , while standing upon it , was borne on the shoulders of several chief men of the nation ( or tribe ) in a procession around his assembled subjects . This was usually performed three times . Following this , the king was given a spear , and a diadem wrought of silk or linen ( not to be confused with a crown ) was bound around his forehead as a token of regal authority . Middle Ages According to Adomnan of Iona , the King of Dal Riata Áedán mac Gabráin came to the monastery at Iona in 574 to be crowned as King by St Columba . In 610 , Heraclius arranged a ceremony in Constantinople where he was crowned and acclaimed emperor . In Spain , the Visigothic king <unk> was crowned in 631 , and in 672 , <unk> was the first occidental king to be anointed as well , by the archbishop of Toledo . In England , the Anglo - Saxon king Eardwulf of Northumbria was " consecrated and enthroned " in 796 , and Æthelstan was crowned and anointed in 925 . These practices were nevertheless irregularly used or occurred some considerable time after the rulers had become kings , until their regular adoption by the Carolingian dynasty in France . To legitimate his deposition of the last of the Merovingian kings , Pepin the Short was twice crowned and anointed , at the beginning of his reign in 752 , and for the first time by a pope in 754 in Saint - Denis . The anointing served as a reminder of the baptism of Clovis I in Reims in 496 , where the ceremony was finally transferred in 816 . His son Charlemagne , who was crowned emperor in Rome in 800 , passed as well the ceremony to the Holy Roman Empire , and this tradition acquired a newly constitutive function in England too , with the kings Harold Godwinson and William the Conqueror immediately crowned in Westminster Abbey in 1066 . The European coronation ceremonies of the Middle Ages were essentially a combination of the Christian rite of anointing with additional elements . Following Europe 's conversion to Christianity , crowning ceremonies became more and more ornate , depending on the country in question , and their Christian elements — especially anointing — became the paramount concern . Crowns and sceptres , used in coronations since ancient times , took on a Christian significance together with the orb as symbols of the purported divine order of things , with the monarch as the divinely ordained overlord and protector of his dominion . During the Middle Ages , this rite was considered so vital in some European kingdoms that it was sometimes referred to as an " eighth sacrament " . The anointed ruler was viewed as a mixta persona , part priest and part layman , but never wholly either . This notion persisted into the twentieth century in Imperial Russia , where the Tsar was considered to be " wedded " to his subjects through the Orthodox coronation service . Coronation stones marked the site of some medieval ceremonies , though some alleged stones are later inventions . Crowning ceremonies arose from a worldview in which monarchs were seen as ordained by God to serve not merely as political or military leaders , nor as figureheads or historical symbols — a role played by most royals today — but rather to occupy a vital ( and very real ) spiritual place in their dominions as well . Coronations were created to reflect and enable these alleged connections ; however , the belief systems that gave birth to them have been radically altered in recent centuries by secularism , egalitarianism and the rise of constitutionalism and democracy . During the Protestant Reformation , the idea of divinely ordained monarchs began to be challenged . Modern history The Age of Enlightenment and various revolutions of the last three centuries all helped to further this trend , until the religious dimension of the ceremony has become relatively meaningless in all but a few kingdoms ( mostly in Asia and Oceania ) . Hence , many monarchies — especially in Europe — have dispensed with coronations altogether , or transformed them into simpler inauguration or benediction rites that better reflect the secular nature of those states . Of all European monarchies today , only the United Kingdom still retains its coronation rite , though even this ritual has been altered in the last few centuries . Other nations that still crowning their rulers include Bhutan , Brunei , Cambodia , Lesotho , Swaziland , Thailand , and Tonga , as well as several subnational entities such as the Toro Kingdom . The Papacy retains the option of a coronation , but no pope has used it since 1963 after Pope John Paul I opted for an Inauguration in 1978 . Canonical Coronation A Canonical Coronation ( Latin : <unk> Canonicus ) : is a pious institutional act of the Pope , on behalf of a devotion . This tradition still stands in 2015 , in 2014 Pope Francis crowned Our Lady of Immaculate Conception of <unk> . Since 1989 , the act has been carried out through the authorised decree by the Congregation for Divine Worship and the Discipline of the Sacraments . Coronations and monarchical power In most kingdoms , a monarch succeeding <unk> does not have to undergo a coronation to ascend the throne or exercise the prerogatives of their office . King Edward VIII of the United Kingdom , for example , did not reign long enough to be crowned before he abdicated , yet he was unquestionably the King of the United Kingdom and Emperor of India during his brief reign . This is because in Britain , the law stipulates that the moment one monarch dies , the new one assumes the throne ; thus , there is no point at which the throne is vacant . In France , the new king ascended the throne when the coffin of the previous monarch descended into the vault at Saint Denis Basilica , and the Duke of <unk> proclaimed " Le Roi est mort , vive le Roi " ! In Hungary , on the other hand , no ruler was regarded as being truly legitimate until he was physically crowned with St. Stephen 's Crown , while monarchs of Belgium or Albania were not allowed to succeed or exercise any of their prerogatives until swearing a formal constitutional oath before their respective nations ' parliaments . Following their election , the kings of Poland were permitted to perform a variety of political acts prior to their coronation , but were not allowed to exercise any of their judicial powers prior to being crowned . Coronation of heirs apparent During the Middle Ages , Capetian Kings of France chose to have their heirs apparent crowned during their own lifetime in order to avoid succession disputes . This practice was later adopted by Angevin Kings of England , Kings of Hungary and other European monarchs . From the moment of their coronation , the heirs were regarded as junior kings ( rex <unk> ) , but they exercised little power and historically were not included in the numbering of monarchs if they predeceased their fathers . The nobility disliked this custom , as it reduced their chances to benefit from a possible succession dispute . The last heir apparent to the French throne to be crowned during his father 's lifetime was the future Philip II of France , while the only crowned heir apparent to the English throne was Henry the Young King , who was first crowned alone and then with his wife , Margaret of France . The practice was eventually abandoned by all kingdoms that had adopted it , as the rules of primogeniture became stronger . The last coronation of an heir apparent , with the exception of the investiture of the current Prince of Wales in 1969 , was the coronation of the future Emperor Ferdinand I of Austria as junior King of Hungary in 1830 . In the modern era Specific coronation rituals by country , arranged by continent or region , are described in the following articles : Coronations in Africa Coronations in the Americas Coronations in Asia Coronations in Europe Coronations in Oceania Other uses The term coronation is sometimes used in a semi - ironic sense to refer to uncontested party leadership elections , with all potential party leaders choosing to back a single candidate or to stay silent , rather than stand in an election they are likely to lose . This typically happens where there has been a protracted behind - the - scenes attempt to remove the outgoing leader , leading to a significant amount of time to determine who has the most party support before the election proper . Gallery
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Parc Cwm long cairn Parc Cwm long cairn ( Welsh : <unk> hir Parc Cwm ) , also known as Parc le Breos burial chamber ( <unk> <unk> Parc le Breos ) , is a partly restored Neolithic chambered tomb , identified in 1937 as a Severn - Cotswold type of chambered long barrow . The cromlech , a megalithic burial chamber , was built around 5850 years before present ( BP ) , during the early Neolithic . It is about seven 1 ⁄ 2 miles ( 12 km ) west south – west of Swansea , Wales , in what is now known as Coed y Parc Cwm at Parc le Breos , on the Gower Peninsula . A trapezoidal cairn of rubble – the upper part of the cromlech and its earth covering now removed – about 72 feet ( 22 m ) long by 43 feet ( 13 m ) ( at its widest ) , is revetted by a low dry - stone wall . A bell - shaped , south - facing forecourt , formed by the wall , leads to a central passageway lined with limestone slabs set on end . Human remains had been placed in the two pairs of stone chambers that lead from the passageway . Corpses may have been placed in nearby caves until they decomposed , when the bones were moved to the tomb . The cromlech was discovered in 1869 by workmen digging for road stone . An excavation later that year revealed human bones ( now known to have belonged to at least 40 people ) , animal remains , and Neolithic pottery . Samples from the site show the tomb to have been in use for between 300 and 800 years . North - West European lifestyles changed around 6000 BP , from the nomadic lives of the hunter - gatherer , to a settled life of agricultural farming : the Neolithic Revolution . However , analysis of the human remains found at Parc Cwm long cairn show the people interred in the cromlech continued to be either hunter - gatherers or herders , rather than agricultural farmers . Parc Cwm long cairn lies in a former medieval deer park , established in the 1220s CE by the Marcher Lord of Gower as Parc le Breos – an enclosed area of about 2 , 000 acres ( 810 ha ) , now mainly farmland . The cromlech is on the floor of a dry narrow limestone gorge containing about 500 acres ( 2 . 0 km2 ) of woodland . Free pedestrian access is via an asphalt track leading from the park 's entrance , which has free parking for 12 – 15 cars about 250 yards ( 230 m ) from the site . Parc Cwm long cairn is maintained by Cadw , the Welsh Government 's historic environment division . History From the end of the last ice age ( between 12 , 000 and 10 , 000 BP ) Mesolithic hunter - gatherers began to migrate northwards from Central Europe ; the area that would become known as Wales was free of glaciers by about 10 , 250 BP . At that time sea levels were much lower than today , and the shallower parts of what is now the North Sea were dry land . The east coast of present day England and the coasts of present day Denmark , Germany and the Netherlands were connected by the former landmass known as Doggerland , forming the British Peninsula on the European mainland . The post - glacial rise in sea level separated Wales and Ireland , forming the Irish Sea . Doggerland was submerged by the North Sea and , by 8000 BP , the British Peninsula had become an island . By the beginning of the Neolithic ( 6 , 000 BP ) sea levels in the Bristol Channel were still about 33 feet ( 10 m ) lower than today . Historian John Davies has theorised that the story of <unk> 'r <unk> 's drowning , and tales in the Mabinogion of the water between Wales and Ireland being narrower and shallower , may be distant folk memories of that time . The warmer climate caused major changes to the flora and fauna of Great Britain , and encouraged the growth of dense forest that covered 80 – 90 % of the island . Human lifestyles in North - West Europe changed around 6000 BP ; from the Mesolithic ( Middle Stone Age ) nomadic lives of hunting and gathering , to the Neolithic ( New Stone Age ) agrarian life of agriculture and settlement . John Davies notes that such a transformation cannot have been developed by the people living in North - West Europe independently , as neither the grain necessary for crops nor the animals suitable for domestication are indigenous to the area . Recent genetic studies conclude that these cultural changes were introduced to Britain by farmers migrating from the European mainland . They cleared the forests to establish pasture and to cultivate the land , developed new technologies such as ceramics and textile production , and used a similar tradition of long barrow construction that began in continental Europe during the 7th millennium BP – the free standing megalithic structures supporting a sloping capstone ( known as dolmens ) , common across Atlantic Europe that were , according to John Davies , " the first substantial , permanent constructions of man " . Such massive constructions would have needed a large labour force ( up to 200 men ) suggestive of large communities nearby . However , in his contribution to History of Wales , 25 , 000 BC AD 2000 , archaeologist Joshua Pollard notes that not all Neolithic communities were part of the simultaneous " marked transformations in material culture , ideology and technical practices " known as the Neolithic Revolution . Severn - Cotswold tombs The cromlech at Parc le Breos Cwm is one of 120 – 30 sites identified as belonging to the category of long barrow tomb known as the Severn - Cotswold or Cotswold - Severn group . Excavations show these tombs to have been built on sites that had already " gained some significance " . Archaeologist Julian Thomas theorises that these sites may have been " very long - lived woodland clearances " that had become landmarks and meeting - places . Constructed during the Neolithic , cairns in the Severn - Cotswold tradition share several characteristics : an elongated trapezoidal ( or wedge ) shape up to 328 feet ( 100 m ) long ; a cairn ( a mound of deliberately placed stones or rocks erected as a memorial or marker ) ; a revetment ( retaining wall ) of carefully constructed dry - stone walling that also defines a horned forecourt at the widest end ; huge capstones supported by <unk> ; and a chamber ( or chambers ) in which human remains were placed , accessible after the cairn was completed by way of a gallery ( passageway ) . Diverse internal transept chamber plans exist within the group . The earlier tombs contained multiple chambers set laterally , or pairs of transept chambers leading from a central passageway ; the later , terminally chambered tombs , contained a single chamber . As the name implies , Severn - Cotswold cairns are concentrated mainly to the east of the River Severn , in and around the Cotswolds , in present - day England . However , similar Severn - Cotswold type structures have been identified in south east Wales – between Brecon , Gower and Gwent – and in Capel Garmon ( near Betws - y - Coed , Conwy , north Wales ) , Wayland 's Smithy ( Oxfordshire , England ) and Avebury ( Wiltshire , England ) . As well as monuments to house and to honour their departed ancestors , these <unk> may have been communal and ceremonial sites where , according to archaeologist Francis Pryor , people met " to socialise , to meet new partners , to acquire fresh livestock and to exchange ceremonial gifts " . Parc Cwm long cairn is one of six chambered tombs discovered on Gower and one of 17 in what is commonly known as Glamorgan . Severn - Cotswold cairns are the oldest surviving examples of architecture in Great Britain – Parc Cwm long cairn was built about 1 , 500 to 1 , 300 years before either Stonehenge or the Great Pyramid of Giza , Egypt was completed . Features The megalithic cromlech at Parc le Breos Cwm , known as Parc Cwm long cairn ( <unk> hir Parc Cwm ) , is a Severn - Cotswold type chambered tomb , built around 5850 BP ( during the early Neolithic ) in what is now known as Gower – about eight miles ( 13 km ) west of Swansea , Wales , and about 1 1 ⁄ 4 miles ( 2 km ) north of the Bristol Channel . Alternative names include Parc le Breos burial chamber ( <unk> <unk> Parc le Breos ) , the Long Cairn and the Giant 's Grave . The cromlech consists of a north – south aligned long mound of locally obtained rocks and cobbles , mainly of limestone , revetted by two coursed , dry - stone kerbs of " a fine standard " . The inner wall was built using a heavier stone . <unk> - shaped and about 72 feet ( 22 m ) long , the cromlech tapers from 43 feet ( 13 m ) wide at its southern entrance to about 20 feet ( 6 m ) at its northern end . The wall at the front , right section , is missing or has collapsed , and the rubble has tumbled out leaving a previously covered <unk> exposed . At the entrance to the tomb the kerbs sweep inwards to form a pair of deep protrusions , or horns , forming a narrow bell - shaped forecourt . A straight central passageway ( or gallery ) , 21 feet ( 6 m ) long by 3 feet ( 1 m ) wide , orientated north – south , leads from the forecourt into the cairn . Each side of the passageway is lined with thin limestone slabs known as <unk> , placed on end and up to 5 feet ( 1 . 5 m ) high with a coursed dry - stone infill between the slabs . Two pairs of rectangular transept chambers lead from the passageway , averaging 5 1 ⁄ 2 feet ( 1 . 6 m ) , east – west , by 3 1 ⁄ 4 feet ( 1 . 0 m ) ; or " 6 ft by 2 ft " , according to Archaeologia Cambrensis in 1886 . Each , except the south west chamber , has shallow limestone <unk> at its entrance . Archaeologist R J C Atkinson believed that ( unusually among cairns in the Severn - Cotswold tradition ) Parc Cwm long cairn had been built beside a stream that now flows underground . He noted that the stones on the eastern side had " marked signs of erosion and rounding by silt - laden flood - water " . Originally , the transept chambers would have been covered with one large ( or several smaller ) capstones , enclosing the chambers containing human remains . The earth covering and the upper part of the cromlech have been removed , leaving the passageway and lateral chambers fully exposed . There is no record of a capstone having been discovered . Excavation Workmen digging for road stone discovered the site in 1869 . John Lubbock and Hussey Vivian excavated it that year , believing it to be a round barrow . The excavation revealed human bones that were " much broken and in no regular arrangement " , animal remains ( " deer and swine 's teeth " ) , and sherds of " plain Western Neolithic pottery " . The bones , initially thought to <unk> been disturbed by repeated access or subsequent interments , were at first thought to be from 20 – 24 individuals , all of whom except three were adults . Archaeologists Alasdair Whittle and Michael Wysocki note that such estimates were commonly based on the " numbers of skulls or mandibles " , and recent analysis has shown the bones to be from at least 40 individuals . Following the excavation , most of the human remains were reburied in clay pots beneath their original contexts , some are held in the Ashmolean Museum , University of Oxford , England – with the animal and pottery remains – and the whereabouts of the remainder are unrecorded . An excavation led by Professor Glyn Daniel in 1937 identified the site as a chambered long barrow . However , more recently , long barrows have been defined as having long earthen mounds with wooden internal structures , whereas chambered tombs , while also being covered by a long mound , have internal chambers built of stone . No long barrows with wooden internal structures have been identified in southeast Wales , perhaps because long barrows were usually built where there was no suitable stone . At Parc Cwm long cairn a variety of mortuary practices was evident and the deliberate ordering of skeletal parts noticeable . Whittle and Wysocki ( 1998 ) note cremated human remains were placed only in the front , right ( south – east ) chamber , where females and males , and all age ranges were represented . The south – east chamber was also unusual in that it contained nearly three times as many individuals as in each of the other chambers , which contained the remains of all representative groups except younger children and infants . At the forecourt entrance Atkinson recorded finds , deposited in groups , including : flint <unk> , lithic cores and a <unk> ( burnt and unburnt ) ; a leaf - shaped arrowhead ( burnt ) ; pieces of quartz ; pieces of stalactite ( now missing ) ; sherds of Neolithic pottery ; and cremated bone fragments . Atkinson speculated that the stalactite originated from Cat Hole cave , which ( along with Tooth Hole cave ) Whittle and Wysocki note as a possible source of the quartz too . Following the excavation led by R J C Atkinson in 1960 , the cromlech was placed under the guardianship of the then Ministry of Public Building and Works and , in 1961 , was partly restored . Atkinson made " minimal " excavation records , and no report of it was published until Whittle and Wysocki 's detailed report in 1998 . In it , they suggest that corpses may have been placed in caves near the cromlech until they decomposed , when the bones were moved to the tomb ; a process known as excarnation . Analysis Few human remains survive in Great Britain from the early Neolithic ( c . 6400 – c . 5850 BP ) , although they are comparatively well preserved in the Black Mountains ( Mynydd Du ) , Gower and the Vale of Glamorgan ( Bro Morgannwg ) where up to 50 individuals have been interred – men , women and children – in each cromlech . The skeletal remains of over 40 individuals were recovered from the cromlech at Parc le Breos Cwm , some of which showed evidence of weathering and of biting and gnawing by animals . This suggests the corpses lay exposed to decompose and were interred in the burial chambers <unk> , as parcels of bone . Skeletal remains from the passageway were part – articulated , showing no sign of animal scavenging , suggesting they were placed in the cromlech as fleshed corpses . Whittle and Wysocki note that among the human remains are the bones of " 8 dogs , a cat , a red deer , pig , sheep and cattle " . They speculate that the two caves near the cromlech were used as depositories for the corpses prior to decomposition , and that when the bones were collected from the caves for reinterment others already lying in the cave were unwittingly gathered too . Radiocarbon dated samples from the cromlech show the tomb was accessed by many generations over a period of 300 – 800 years , and that the human bones are the disarticulated remains ( i.e. , not complete skeletons ) of at least 40 individuals : male and female adults , adolescents , children , and infants . One of the red deer bones has been radiocarbon dated to between 2750 BP and 2150 BP , showing that at least some of the bones entered long after the site had been deserted . Lifestyle indicators Examination of the bones from which stature could be estimated , indicate that the male mortuary population were " big men " – the 1869 report notes males of " gigantic proportions " – whereas the females were " short and gracile " . Pollard notes that males analysed from Parc Cwm long cairn were " particularly robust " when compared to females . Prior to the publication of Whittle and Wysocki 's 1998 report , bones and teeth of the mortuary population of Parc Cwm long cairn were re - examined for indications of lifestyle and diet . Musculoskeletal analysis showed significant gender lifestyle variation . Greater leg muscle development was found in males of the Parc Cwm cromlech , possibly the result of hunting or herding , confirming the sexual dimorphism found in previous analyses of the remains . In contrast , no such variation was noticeable in the remains found during excavations from other nearby sites , for example the <unk> burial chamber , in the Vale of Glamorgan . The variation in musculoskeletal stress markers may indicate a mobile lifestyle for at least some of the males analysed . Evidence obtained from stable isotope analysis shows plant foods , including cereals , formed only a small proportion of their dietary protein . The majority derived from animals – i.e. , meat , and milk or blood – and contained none from marine sources . Remains of human teeth were analysed for evidence of arrested development and decay . Arrested development implies periods of nutritional shortage , which could indicate failed harvests . Decay implies either periods of food shortage , or a diet consisting of high proportions of carbohydrate or softer cooked meat , or both . Dental analyses showed no sign of periods of decay or arrested development , even where there was " considerable wear " , indicating a lifestyle that was not dependent on farming cereals . The 1887 bone report notes the " good condition of the teeth " . Whittle and Wysocki noted the " slight " presence of tartar , and that only one tooth had been lost before death , a mandibular incisor . Whittle and Wysocki conclude , from the skeletal and dental analyses , that the lifestyles of the people who were to be interred in the cromlech either continued to be one of hunting and gathering or , more likely , a pastoral life of herding , rather than one of agrarian - based farming . Cathole Cave The Cathole Cave , Cat Hole Cave or Cathole Rock Cave , is a steep limestone outcrop , about 200 yards ( 180 m ) north of the cromlech along the Parc le Breos Cwm valley and near the top of the gorge , about 50 feet ( 15 m ) from the valley floor . The cave is a deep triangular fissure penetrating the hillside and narrowing towards the top . It has two entrances , with a natural platform outside the larger of the two . The cave was used as a shelter by bands of Mesolithic hunters and as a Neolithic ossuary . During the first excavation of the cave in 1864 , finds were made only from the Mesolithic to medieval periods . In his " The Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society vol.25 ( 1959 ) , pp. 260 – 69 " , archaeologist Charles McBurney notes that " In the Post Glacial period the cave was much used by Mesolithic hunters " ; a conclusion confirmed by John Campbell 's excavation of 1977 . A 1984 excavation by <unk> - Green revealed the earliest finds from the cave , two <unk> points that may date to c . 28 , 000 BP , an interglacial period during the Late Pleistocene roughly contemporaneous with the Red Lady of Paviland . The " lady " was discovered in a cave between Port <unk> and <unk> , about eight miles ( 13 km ) west of Cathole Cave , and has been radiocarbon dated to c . 29 , 000 BP , the oldest known human burial in Great Britain . Rock art from the Upper Paleolithic , thought to represent a reindeer , was discovered on the back wall of Cathole Cave in September 2010 . The engraving , measuring approximately 15 x 11 cm , has been radiocarbon dated to 14 , 505 ± 560 BP . According to George Nash , the archeologist who made the discovery , it is " the oldest rock art in the British Isles , if not north - western Europe " . Late glacial tool finds from the Upper Palaeolithic date to c . 12 , 000 BP : flint blades known as Cheddar points ; smaller <unk> known as Cresswell points ; scrapers ; burins or lithic flakes ; flint and bone awls ; and a bone needle . Flint rarely occurs in Wales other than in drifts , or as small pebbles on beaches . Flint tools would therefore have to have been brought to Gower from other areas , such as those now known as southern or eastern England , or Antrim , either as finished tools or as incomplete , or unworked , nodules . Remains of red fox , Arctic fox , brown bear , tundra vole , and possibly reindeer , were found at the same level as the Upper Palaeolithic tools , providing evidence of the climate c . 12 , 000 BP . Other animal remains excavated during the 19th century , which may predate the Late glacial finds , include mammoth , woolly rhinoceros , red deer and giant deer . Several finds date to the Bronze Age , including a bronze socketed axe , two human skeletons , and sherds of pottery from burial urns and other vessels . <unk> Tooth Cave An excavation of the <unk> Tooth Cave , or Tooth Hole cave , a Bronze Age ossuary site at a cave about 1 , 500 yards ( 1 . 4 km ) north , north west of the cromlech , was carried out by D. P. Webley and J. Harvey in 1962 . It revealed the disarticulated remains of six people , dated to the Early Bronze Age or Beaker culture . Other contemporary finds , now held at the <unk> Cymru – National Museum Wales , Cardiff , include collared urn pottery , flaked knives , a scraper , flint flakes , a bone spatula , a needle and bead , and animal bones – the remains of domesticated animals , including cat and dog . Whittle and Wysocki note that this period of occupation may be " significant " , with respect to Parc Cwm long cairn , as it is " broadly contemporary with the secondary use of the tomb " . Location The Neolithic cromlech at Parc le Breos is about seven 1 ⁄ 2 miles ( 12 km ) west south – west of Swansea , Wales , near the centre of Gower , midway between the villages of <unk> and Bishopston . Its nearest village is <unk> , a small rural settlement about one mile ( 1 . 5 km ) to the south – east . Parc Cwm long cairn lies on the floor of a dry , narrow , limestone gorge , at an elevation of about 50 feet ( 15 m ) above sea level , less than 1 1 ⁄ 4 miles ( 2 km ) from the south coast of Gower . It is in about 500 acres ( 200 ha ) of woodland called Coed y Parc , the remnants of a former medieval deer park ( Parc le Breos ) from which the cromlech derives its alternative name : Parc le Breos burial chamber . Established as an enclosed area of about 2 , 000 acres ( 810 ha ) by John de Braose , Marcher Lord of Gower , in about 1221 – 32 CE , the park is now mainly farmland . A 19th - century hunting lodge about 1 , 200 yards ( 1 . 1 km ) north – east of Parc Cwm long cairn has been converted into a hotel and pony trekking ( horse riding ) centre called Parc le Breos . Coed y Parc is owned and managed by Forestry Commission Wales . The site is open to the public free of charge and has parking for 12 – 15 cars about 750 feet ( 230 m ) away . Facing the car park on the opposite side of the lane , a kissing gate allows wheelchair access to a level asphalt track running past the cromlech down the length of the gorge , passing within about 10 feet ( 3 . 0 m ) of the cairn . Parc Cwm long cairn is maintained by Cadw ( English : to keep ) , the Welsh Government 's historic environment division .
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United Nations Memorial Cemetery The United Nations Memorial Cemetery ( <unk> ; Hangul : <unk> ; RR : jae <unk> UN ki <unk> gong won ) , located at Tanggok in the Nam District , City of Busan , Republic of Korea , is a burial ground for United Nations Command ( UNC ) casualties of the Korean War . It contains 2 , 300 graves and is the only United Nations cemetery in the world . Laid out over 14 hectares ( 35 acres ) , the graves are set out in 22 sites designated by the nationalities of the buried servicemembers . History Temporary battlefield cemeteries and remains recovery The Korean War began when North Korean People 's Army forces attacked south in June 1950 . As the fighting progressed , temporary military cemeteries for battle casualties were established by United Nations forces near the towns of Taejon ( July 9 , 1950 ) , Kwan - ui ( Kwan - ni ) , Kum - chon , and <unk> . When the North Korean forces pushed towards Pusan , these cemeteries had to be abandoned . Later , as the Battle of Pusan Perimeter developed , temporary cemeteries were established at Masan , Miryang , and Taegu , with a Pusan cemetery being established on July 11 , 1950 . As the fighting pushed into North Korea , temporary cemeteries were established in or near the towns of Kaesong , <unk> , Wonsan , <unk> ( <unk> County ) , <unk> - ni and Koto - ri . Some 11 division - level cemeteries were established in the first two months of fighting and later 5 UN military cemeteries were established in North Korea . At the beginning of the war , the nearest U.S. Army mortuary affairs unit was the 108th Graves Registration Platoon in Yokohama , Japan , which was searching for the remains of missing World War II American airmen . The 108th was reconfigured as the 114th Graves Registration Company and deployed to establish temporary cemeteries at Hungnam , Pyongyang , and <unk> as the fighting continued . Supporting the 2nd Infantry Division was the Graves Registration Section of the 2nd Quartermaster Company , which collected the remains of Allied and American soldiers to be further processed by the 148th Graves Registration Company . When UN forces launched the Inchon Invasion in September 1950 , a platoon from the 565th Graves Registration Company accompanied them . Other mortuary affairs units included the 293rd Graves Registration Company , activated in April 1951 . It was difficult to recover remains and conduct burials in Korea , due to the rugged geography and harsh climate , and the threat of unexploded ordnance and booby - traps . Construction of the Tanggok cemetery Construction of the United Nations Military Cemetery ( UNMC ) at Tanggok began on January 18 , 1951 and was carried out by hand - labor over a 28 . 2 hectares ( 70 acres ) site . It was dedicated by General Matthew Ridgeway on April 6 , 1951 . Graves Registration units then concentrated American and allied remains at Tanggok before they were permanently buried or repatriated . Besides burial services , refrigeration units to store remains were added , as were cremation facilities . Today the 2 , 300 graves in the cemetery are set out in 22 sites designated by the nationalities of the buried service members . Post - armistice Following the signing of the Korean Armistice Agreement in July 1953 , the United Nations Command sought to recover bodies interred in North Korean territory . Cemeteries for POWs in North Korea were established at 16 POW camps . From September to October 1954 , the resulting exchange of casualties , dubbed Operation Glory , between United Nations forces and the North Koreans resulted in 4 , 219 remains being recovered , of which 1 , 275 were non - US casualties . ( Also exchanged were the remains of approximately 14 , 000 North Korean and Chinese casualties . ) From 1950 to 1954 , approximately 11 , 000 casualties were interred at UNMC , which was maintained by the United States Army Graves Registration Agency . Foundation as a United Nations cemetery and transfer to <unk> It was officially established as the United Nations Memorial Cemetery on December 15 , 1955 with the passage of UN General Assembly Resolution 977 ( X ) . Following the war , the cemetery was funded from the United Nations budget , but the Sino - Soviet world objected to this funding . In 1973 , the cemetery was transferred from the UN to the Commission for the United Nations Memorial Cemetery ( <unk> ) , which is composed of representatives from the 11 countries who have servicemembers buried there . Cultural heritage and tourism The cemetery is designated as Site 359 in the listing of Registered Cultural Heritage Sites in Korea by the Cultural Heritage Administration of Korea . Also , it is a visitor attraction for Pacific Rim tourists . In 2011 , United Nations Secretary - General Ban Ki - Moon described it as the only United Nations cemetery in the world . Memorials An Honour Guard from the Republic of Korea 53rd Division carries out flag ceremonies daily . The UN Sculpture Park was established in October 2001 and twenty - nine permanent memorials are in the cemetery . The memorials include : Commonwealth of Nations memorials : Australian Memorial British Memorial – dedicated 2010 Monument to Canadian Fallen – an identical monument is located in downtown Ottawa Commonwealth <unk> Missing in Action Memorial New Zealand Memorial – designed by Warren and Mahoney architects and built of marble from the Coromandel Peninsula South Africa Memorial – the 2001 sculpture Reconciliation by South African sculptor <unk> van der <unk> , was created as part of the International Sculpture Symposium French Memorial – dedicated 2007 Greek Memorial – dedicated 1961 Interfaith memorial chapel – built by the United Nations Command in 1964 Main gate – designed by Korean architect Kim <unk> - up and built by the city of Busan in 1966 Memorabilia display hall – built by the UN in 1968 Norwegian Memorial Thai Memorial – dedicated November 2008 Turkish Memorials I and II – dedicated 1960 , 1962 , and 2008 UN Forces Monument – dedicated 1978 and refurbished in 2007 United States Korean War Memorial – the Frank Gaylord sculpture was carved from Barre Granite at the Rock of Ages Corporation in Barre , Vermont , and dedicated under the auspices of the American Battle Monuments Commission in 2013 The Unknown Soldiers ' Pathway The Wall of Remembrance , completed in 2006 , has the names of the 40 , 896 United Nations casualties ( killed and missing ) inscribed on 140 marble panels . The <unk> maintains a website in Korean , English , and Turkish ( <unk> ) , which allows website visitors to post online flowers and tributary messages . Notable graves The cemetery contains the graves of 2 , 289 military personnel and 11 non - combatants . Amongst those are the graves of Bill Madden GC , 3rd Battalion , Royal Australian Regiment , ( who died as a prisoner of war ) , Kenneth Muir VC ( killed in action in the Battle of Hill 282 while serving with the Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders ) , and Philip Curtis VC ( killed in action in the Battle of the Imjin River while serving with The Duke of Cornwall 's Light Infantry ) . Also buried is Lt. Col. Charles Hercules Green DSO , commander of the 3rd Battalion , Royal Australian Regiment , who was mortally wounded at Battle of Chongju and died at nearby Anju . Dutch Lt. Col. Marinus Petrus Antonius den Ouden , commander of the Regiment Van Heutsz , was killed in action during Operation Roundup in 1951 and is buried with members of his regiment – posthumously , den Ouden was awarded Netherlands ' highest military award , the Military Order of William . In the early days of the war , journalist Christopher Buckley died from a land mine explosion , and was subsequently buried at the cemetery .
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Keating Five The Keating Five were five United States Senators accused of corruption in 1989 , igniting a major political scandal as part of the larger Savings and Loan crisis of the late 1980s and early 1990s . The five senators – Alan Cranston ( Democrat of California ) , Dennis DeConcini ( Democrat of Arizona ) , John Glenn ( Democrat of Ohio ) , John McCain ( Republican of Arizona ) , and Donald W. Riegle , Jr . ( Democrat of Michigan ) – were accused of improperly intervening in 1987 on behalf of Charles H. Keating , Jr . , Chairman of the Lincoln Savings and Loan Association , which was the target of a regulatory investigation by the Federal Home Loan Bank Board ( FHLBB ) . The FHLBB subsequently backed off taking action against Lincoln . Lincoln Savings and Loan collapsed in 1989 , at a cost of over $ 3 billion to the federal government . Some 23 , 000 Lincoln bondholders were defrauded and many investors lost their life savings . The substantial political contributions Keating had made to each of the senators , totaling $ 1 . 3 million , attracted considerable public and media attention . After a lengthy investigation , the Senate Ethics Committee determined in 1991 that Cranston , DeConcini , and Riegle had substantially and improperly interfered with the FHLBB 's investigation of Lincoln Savings , with Cranston receiving a formal reprimand . Senators Glenn and McCain were cleared of having acted improperly but were criticized for having exercised " poor judgment " . All five senators served out their terms . Only Glenn and McCain ran for re - election , and they both retained their seats . McCain would go on to run for President of the United States twice , and was the Republican Party nominee in 2008 . Circumstances The U.S. Savings and Loan crisis of the 1980s and early 1990s was the failure of 747 savings and loan associations ( S & Ls ) in the United States . The ultimate cost of the crisis is estimated to have totaled around $ 160 . 1 billion , about $ 124 . 6 billion of which was directly paid for by the U.S. federal government . The accompanying slowdown in the finance industry and the real estate market may have been a contributing cause of the 1990 - 1991 economic recession . Between 1986 and 1991 , the number of new homes constructed per year dropped from 1 . 8 million to 1 million , at the time the lowest rate since World War II . The Keating Five scandal was prompted by the activities of one particular savings and loan : Lincoln Savings and Loan Association of Irvine , California . Lincoln 's chairman was Charles Keating , who ultimately served five years in prison for his corrupt mismanagement of Lincoln . In the four years after Keating 's American Continental Corporation ( ACC ) had purchased Lincoln in 1984 , Lincoln 's assets had increased from $ 1 . 1 billion to $ 5 . 5 billion . Such savings and loan associations had been deregulated in the early 1980s , allowing them to make highly risky investments with their depositors ' money . Keating , John Granger , and other savings and loan operators took advantage of this deregulation . Savings and loans established connections to many members of Congress , by supplying them with needed funds for campaigns through legal donations . Lincoln 's particular investments took the form of buying land , taking equity positions in real estate development projects , and buying high - yield junk bonds . Corruption allegations The core allegation of the Keating Five affair is that Keating had made contributions of about $ 1 . 3 million to various U.S. Senators , and he called on those Senators to help him resist regulators . The regulators backed off , to later disastrous consequences . Beginning in 1985 , Edwin J. Gray , chair of the Federal Home Loan Bank Board ( FHLBB ) , feared that the savings industry 's risky investment practices were exposing the government 's insurance funds to huge losses . Gray instituted a rule whereby savings associations could hold no more than ten percent of their assets in " direct investments " , and were thus prohibited from taking ownership positions in certain financial entities and instruments . Lincoln had become burdened with bad debt resulting from its past aggressiveness , and by early 1986 , its investment practices were being investigated and audited by the FHLBB : in particular , whether it had violated these direct investment rules ; Lincoln had directed Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation - insured accounts into commercial real estate ventures . By the end of 1986 , the FHLBB had found that Lincoln had $ 135 million in unreported losses and had surpassed the regulated direct investments limit by $ 600 million . Keating had earlier taken several measures to oppose Gray and the FHLBB , including recruiting a study from then - private economist Alan Greenspan saying that direct investments were not harmful , and getting President Ronald Reagan to make a recess appointment of a Keating ally , Atlanta real estate developer Lee H. Henkel Jr . , to an open seat on the FHLBB . By March 1987 , however , Henkel had resigned , upon news of his having large loans due to Lincoln . Meanwhile , the Senate had changed control from Republican to Democratic during the 1986 Congressional elections , placing several Democratic senators in key positions , and starting in January 1987 , Keating 's staff was putting pressure on Cranston to remove Gray from any FHLBB discussion regarding Lincoln . The following month , Keating began large - scale contributions into Cranston 's project to increase California voter registration . In February 1987 , Keating met with Riegle and began contributing to Riegle 's 1988 re - election campaign . It appeared as though the government might seize Lincoln for being insolvent . The investigation was , however , taking a long time . Keating was asking that Lincoln be given a lenient judgment by the FHLBB , so that it could limit its high risk investments and get into the safe ( at the time ) home mortgage business , thus allowing the business to survive . A letter from audit firm Arthur Young & Co. bolstered Keating 's case that the government investigation was taking a long time . Keating now wanted the five senators to intervene with the FHLBB on his behalf . By March 1987 , Riegle was telling Gray that " Some senators out west are very concerned about the way the bank board is regulating Lincoln Savings , " adding , " I think you need to meet with the senators . You 'll be getting a call . " Keating and DeConcini were asking McCain to travel to San Francisco to meet with regulators regarding Lincoln Savings ; McCain refused . DeConcini told Keating that McCain was nervous about interfering . Keating called McCain a " wimp " behind his back , and on March 24 , Keating and McCain had a heated , contentious meeting . On April 2 , 1987 , a meeting with Gray was held in DeConcini 's Capitol office , with Senators Cranston , Glenn , and McCain also in attendance . The senators requested that no staff be present . DeConcini started the meeting with a mention of " our friend at Lincoln " . Gray told the assembled senators that he did not know the particular details of the status of Lincoln Savings and Loan , and that the senators would have to go to the bank regulators in San Francisco that had oversight jurisdiction for the bank . Gray did offer to set up a meeting between those regulators and the senators . On April 9 , 1987 , a two - hour meeting with three members of the FHLBB San Francisco branch was held , again in DeConcini 's office , to discuss the government 's investigation of Lincoln . Present were Cranston , DeConcini , Glenn , McCain , and additionally Riegle . The regulators felt that the meeting was very unusual and that they were being pressured by a united front , as the senators presented their reasons for having the meeting . DeConcini began the meeting by saying , " We wanted to meet with you because we have determined that potential actions of yours could injure a constituent . " McCain said , " One of our jobs as elected officials is to help constituents in a proper fashion . ACC [ American Continental Corporation ] is a big employer and important to the local economy . I wouldn 't want any special favors for them .... I don 't want any part of our conversation to be improper . " Glenn said , " To be blunt , you should charge them or get off their backs , " while DeConcini said , " What 's wrong with this if they 're willing to clean up their act ? ... It 's very unusual for us to have a company that could be put out of business by its regulators . " The regulators then revealed that Lincoln was under criminal investigation on a variety of serious charges , at which point McCain severed all relations with Keating . The San Francisco regulators finished their report in May 1987 and recommended that Lincoln be seized by the government due to unsound lending practices . Gray , whose time as chair was about to expire , deferred action on the report , saying that his adversarial relationship with Keating would make any action he took seem vindictive , and that instead the incoming chair should take over the decision . Meanwhile , Keating filed a lawsuit against the FHLBB , saying it had leaked confidential information about Lincoln . The new FHLBB chair was M. Danny Wall , who was more sympathetic to Keating and took no action on the report , saying its evidence was insufficient . In September 1987 , the Lincoln investigation was removed from the San Francisco group and in May 1988 , the FHLBB signed an agreement with Lincoln that included not going ahead with a criminal referral to the Department of Justice . In July 1988 , a new audit of both Lincoln and American Continental began in Washington . Cranston continued intervening on behalf of Keating after the April 1987 meetings , contacting both Wall and California state regulators and continuing to receive large amounts of new donations to the voter registration projects from Keating . DeConcini also continued on behalf of Keating , contacting Wall , California State regulators , and the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation ( FDIC ) advocating approval of a sale of Lincoln as a December 1988 alternative to government seizure . Bank regulators refused to approve the sale of Lincoln . Glenn too continued to help Keating after the April 1987 revelation , by setting up a meeting with then - House Majority Leader Jim Wright . News of the April meetings between the senators and the FHLBB officials first appeared in National Thrift News in September 1987 , but was only sporadically covered by the general media for the next year and a half . In early 1988 , The Detroit News ran a story on Riegle 's participation , which Riegle responded to on Meet the Press by denying an interceding on Lincoln 's behalf , before returning Keating 's campaign contributions back to him . In spring 1988 , the Los Angeles Times ran a short piece in their business section , but their political reporters did not follow up on it ; two isolated , inside page mentions by The Washington Post and The Wall Street Journal similarly failed to develop further . As media critic Howard Kurtz would later write , " the saga of Charles Keating took years to penetrate the national consciousness . " The political fortunes of the senators involved did not suffer at this time . During the 1988 U.S. presidential election , McCain was mentioned by the press as a vice - presidential running mate for Republican nominee George H. W. Bush , while Glenn was one of the two vice - presidential finalists in Michael Dukakis ' selection process , losing out to Lloyd Bentsen . Failure of Lincoln and investigation of the senators Lincoln stayed in business ; from mid - 1987 to April 1989 , its assets grew from $ 3 . 91 billion to $ 5 . 46 billion . During this time , the parent American Continental Corporation was desperate for cash inflow to make up for losses in real estate purchases and <unk> Granger <unk> Lincoln 's branch managers and tellers to convinced customers to replace their federally - insured certificates of deposit with higher - yielding bond certificates of American Continental ; the customers later said they were never properly informed that the bonds were uninsured and very risky given the state of American Continental 's finances . Indeed , the regulators had already adjudged the bonds to have no solvent backing . FDIC chair L. William Seidman would later write that Lincoln 's push to get depositors to switch was " one of the most heartless and cruel frauds in modern memory . " American Continental went bankrupt in April 1989 , and Lincoln was seized by the FHLBB on April 14 , 1989 . About 23 , 000 customers were left with worthless bonds . Many investors , often ones living in California retirement communities , lost their life savings , and felt emotional damage for having been duped on top of their financial devastation . The total bondholder loss came to between $ 250 million and $ 288 million . The federal government was eventually liable for $ 3 . 4 billion to cover Lincoln 's losses when it seized the institution . Keating and John Granger was hit with a $ 1 . 1 billion fraud and racketeering action , filed against them by the regulators . In talking to reporters in April , Keating said , " One question , among many raised in recent weeks , had to do with whether my financial support in any way influenced several political figures to take up my cause . I want to say in the most forceful way I can : I certainly hope so . " In the wake of the Lincoln failure , former FHLBB chair Gray went public about all five of the senators ' assistance to Keating in a May 21 , 1989 , front page story by John Dougherty in the Dayton Daily News , saying that in the April 1987 meetings the senators had sought " to directly subvert the regulatory process " to benefit Keating . Press attention to the senators began to pick up , with a July 1989 Los Angeles Times article about Cranston 's role . Within a couple of months , Arizona Republic and Washington Post reporters were investigating McCain 's personal relationships with Keating . On September 25 , 1989 , several Republicans from Ohio filed an ethics complaint against Glenn , charging that he had improperly intervened on Keating 's behalf . The initial charges against the five Senators were made on October 13 , 1989 , by Common Cause , a public interest group , who asked for the U.S. Justice Department and the Senate Ethics Committee to investigate the actions of the senators relative to Lincoln and the contributions received from Keating and whether they violated the rules of the Senate or federal election laws . But the most public attention came from the House Banking Committee , whose new chair Henry B. Gonzalez held 50 hours of hearings into the Lincoln failure and associated events . By November 1989 , the estimated cost of the overall savings and loan crisis had reached $ 500 billion , and the media 's formerly erratic coverage had turned around and become a feeding frenzy . The Lincoln matter was getting large - scale press attention and the senators became commonly known as the " Keating Five " . All the senators denied they had done anything improper in the matter , and said Keating 's contributions made no difference to their actions . The senators ' initial defense of their actions rested on Keating being one of their constituents ; McCain said , " I have done this kind of thing many , many times , " and said the Lincoln case was like " helping the little lady who didn 't get her Social Security . " Some of the five hired high - power Washington lawyers to represent them – including Charles Ruff for Glenn and John Dowd for McCain – while others feared that to do so would give the appearance their political careers were in jeopardy . The Justice Department and the FBI began by investigating possible criminal actions by Keating and John Granger , but then expanded its inquiries to include the five senators . The FBI soon focused their attention on Cranston , because the largest sums of money from Keating came into Cranston - involved voter - registration drives whose tax - exempt status might have been violated . Relationships of senators to Keating Much of the press attention to the Keating Five focused on the relationships of each of the senators to Keating . Cranston had received $ 39 , 000 from Keating and his associates for his 1986 Senate re - election campaign . Furthermore , Keating had donated some $ 850 , 000 to assorted groups founded by Cranston or controlled by him , and another $ 85 , 000 to the California Democratic Party . Cranston considered Keating a constituent because Lincoln was based in California . DeConcini had received about $ 48 , 000 from Keating and his associates for his 1988 Senate re - election campaign . In September 1989 , after the government sued Keating and American Continental for improper actions regarding contributions , DeConcini returned the money . DeConcini considered Keating a constituent because Keating lived in Arizona ; they were also long - time friends . Glenn had received $ 34 , 000 in direct contributions from Keating and his associates for his 1984 presidential nomination campaign , and a political action committee tied to Glenn had received an additional $ 200 , 000 . Glenn considered Keating a constituent because one of Keating 's other business concerns was headquartered in Ohio . McCain and Keating had become personal friends following their initial contacts in 1981 , and McCain was the only one of the five with close social and personal ties to Keating . Like DeConcini , McCain considered Keating a constituent since Keating lived in Arizona . Between 1982 and 1987 , McCain had received $ 112 , 000 in political contributions from Keating and his associates . In addition , McCain 's wife Cindy McCain and her father Jim Hensley had invested $ 359 , 100 in the Fountain Square Project , a Keating shopping center , in April 1986 , a year before McCain met with the regulators . McCain , his family , and their baby - sitter had made nine trips at Keating 's expense , sometimes aboard Keating 's jet ; three of the trips were made during vacations to Keating 's Bahamas retreat at Cat Cay . McCain did not pay Keating ( in the amount of $ 13 , 433 ) for some of the trips until years after they were taken , when he learned that Keating was in trouble over Lincoln . Riegle had received some $ 76 , 000 from Keating and his associates for his 1988 Senate re - election campaign . Riegle later announced in April 1989 he was returning the money . Riegle 's constituency connection to Keating was that Keating 's Hotel Pontchartrain was located in Michigan . John Granger and other Lincoln Saving and loan executives had reportedly taken more than $ 1 . 4 billion for themselves . To date none of that money has ever been recovered . John Granger was infamously known as the " White Ghost " around the banking <unk> it is suspected that he walked away with over $ 30 million . Senate Ethics Committee investigation and findings History The Senate Ethics Committee 's investigation began on November 17 , 1989 . It focused on all five senators and lasted 22 months , with 9 months of active investigation and 7 weeks of hearings . The committee was composed of three Democratic senators , Howell Heflin ( chair ) , David Pryor , and Terry Sanford , and three Republican senators , Warren Rudman ( vice chair ) , Trent Lott , and Jesse Helms . Washington attorney Robert S. Bennett was appointed as special outside counsel to the committee , tasked with conducting the investigation . Initially the committee investigated in private . On September 10 , 1990 , Bennett submitted a confidential report , which soon leaked , that recommended that the committee continue its investigation of Cranston , DeConcini , and Riegle , but take no action against Glenn and McCain , as there was insufficient evidence to pursue the latter two . Bennett also recommended that public hearings be held . Speculation that this would be the decision had already taken place , and both Glenn and McCain were frustrated that the long delay in resolving their cases was damaging their reputations . However , there were political implications , as the removal of the two would eliminate the only Republican from the case . The committee 's work was further made difficult by there being no specific rule that governed the propriety of members intervening with federal regulators . By mid - October , several Republican senators , including former Ethics Committee chair Ted Stevens , were taking the unusual step of publicly complaining about the Ethics Committee 's inaction , saying that it was unfair to Glenn and McCain , that the whole lengthy process was unfair to all five , and that political motives might be behind the delays . Eventually , the committee could not agree on the Bennett recommendation regarding Glenn and McCain : vice chair Rudman agreed with Bennett , chair Heflin did not . On October 23 , 1990 , the committee decided to keep all five senators in the case , and scheduled public hearings to question them and other witnesses . These hearings would take place from November 15 through January 16 , 1991 . They were held in the Hart Senate Office Building 's largest hearing room . They were broadcast live in their entirety by C - SPAN , with CNN and the network news programs showing segments of the testimonies . At the opening of the hearings , as The Washington Post would later write , " the senators sat <unk> alongside one another in a long row , a visual suggestive of co - defendants in a rogues ' docket . " Overall , McCain would later write , " The hearings were a public humiliation . " The committee reported on the other four senators in February 1991 , but delayed its final report on Cranston until November 1991 . During that period there was partisan - aligned disagreement within the committee over how to treat Cranston , and in August 1991 a special counsel 's report was released by Helms . A delay was also caused when Pryor suffered a heart attack in April 1991 , and was replaced on the committee by Jeff Bingaman . Bingaman spent months learning the complex materials involved in the matter , only to resign in July due to a conflict of interest . Pryor was reassigned to the committee in August 1991 , so as to not further delay its deliberations . The various committee reports addressed each of the five senators . Cranston : reprimanded The Senate Ethics Committee ruled that Cranston had acted improperly by interfering with the investigation by the FHLBB . He had received more than a million dollars from Keating , including $ 850 , 000 to the voter registration groups closely affiliated with him ; he had done more arm - twisting than the other Senators on Keating 's behalf ; and was the only senator officially rebuked by the Senate in this matter . Cranston was given the harshest penalty of all five senators . In November 1991 , the Senate Ethics Committee voted unanimously to reprimand Cranston , instead of the more severe measure that was under consideration : censure by the full Senate . <unk> circumstances that helped to save Cranston from censure included the fact that he was suffering from cancer , and that he had decided to not seek reelection , according to Heflin . The Ethics Committee took the unusual step of delivering its reprimand to Cranston during a formal session of the full Senate , with almost all 100 Senators present . Cranston was not accused of breaking any specific laws or rules , but of violating standards that Heflin said " do not permit official actions to be linked with fund - raising . " Although the Ethics Committee stated " No evidence was presented to the Committee that Senator Cranston ever agreed to help Mr. Keating in return for a contribution , " the Committee officially found that Cranston 's conduct had been " improper and repugnant " , deserving of " the fullest , strongest and most severe sanction which the committee has the authority to impose . " The sanction was in these words : " the Senate Select Committee on Ethics , on behalf of and in the name of the United States Senate , does hereby strongly and severely reprimand Sen. Alan Cranston . ” After the Senate reprimanded Cranston , he took to the Senate floor to deny key charges against him . In response , Rudman charged that Cranston ’ s response to the reprimand was “ arrogant , unrepentant and a smear on this institution , " and that Cranston was wrong to imply that everyone does what Cranston had done . Alan Dershowitz , serving as Cranston 's attorney , alleged that other senators had merely been better at “ covering their tracks . ” Riegle and DeConcini : criticized for acting improperly The Senate Ethics Committee ruled that Riegle and DeConcini had acted improperly by interfering with the investigation by the FHLBB . Specifically , it said that even though neither of them violated any Senate rule , their conduct " gave the appearance of being improper . " DeConcini was especially faulted for having taken the lead in the two meetings with the FHLBB . After the ruling , Riegle expressed contrition , saying " I certainly regret and accept responsibility [ for actions that ] did lend themselves to an appearance of a conflict of interest . " DeConcini , however , said he would continue to be " aggressive " in representing his constituents in their affairs with federal regulators . Glenn and McCain : cleared of impropriety but criticized for poor judgment The Senate Ethics Committee ruled that the involvement of Glenn in the scheme was minimal , and the charges against him were dropped . He was only criticized by the Committee for " poor judgment . " The Ethics Committee ruled that the involvement of McCain in the scheme was also minimal , and he too was cleared of all charges against him . McCain was criticized by the Committee for exercising " poor judgment " when he met with the federal regulators on Keating 's behalf . The report also said that McCain 's " actions were not improper nor attended with gross negligence and did not reach the level of requiring institutional action against him .... Senator McCain has violated no law of the United States or specific Rule of the United States Senate . " On his Keating Five experience , McCain has said : " The appearance of it was wrong . It 's a wrong appearance when a group of senators appear in a meeting with a group of regulators , because it conveys the impression of undue and improper influence . And it was the wrong thing to do . " Regardless of the level of their involvement , both senators were greatly affected by it . McCain would write in 2002 that attending the two April 1987 meetings was " the worst mistake of my life " . Glenn has described the Senate Ethics Committee investigation as the low point of his life . The Senate Ethics Committee did not pursue , for lack of jurisdiction , any possible ethics breaches in McCain 's delayed reimbursements to Keating for trips at the latter 's expense , because they occurred while McCain was in the House . The House Committee on Standards of Official Conduct said that it too lacked jurisdiction , because McCain was no longer in the House . It said it did not require that McCain amend his existing financial disclosure forms for his House years , on the grounds that McCain had now fully reimbursed Keating 's company . Reactions Not everyone was satisfied with the Senate Ethics Committee conclusions . Fred Wertheimer , president of Common Cause , which had initially demanded the investigation , thought the treatment of the senators far too lenient , and said , " [ The ] action by the Senate Ethics Committee is a cop - out and a damning indictment of the committee , " and " The U.S. Senate remains on the auction block to the Charles Keatings of the world . " Joan <unk> , president of Public Citizen , called it a " whitewash " . Jonathan Alter of Newsweek said it was a classic case of the government trying to investigate itself , labeling the Senate Ethics Committee " shameless " for having " let four of the infamous Keating Five off with a wrist tap . " The New York Times ran several editorials criticizing the Ethics Committee for having let the senators off lightly . Margaret Carlson of Time suspected the committee had timed its first report to coincide with the run - up to the Gulf War , minimizing its news impact . One of the San Francisco bank regulators felt that McCain had gotten off too lightly , saying that Keating 's business involvement with Cindy McCain was an obvious conflict of interest . Some of the Senate Ethics Committee members were concerned that letting the senators off lightly would harm their own reputations . Nevertheless , the existing Senate rules did not specifically proscribe the actions taken by DeConcini , Riegle , Glenn , and McCain . Vice - chair Rudman defended the committee 's actions , saying : " Given the news media frenzy surrounding [ the Keating Five ] , the easiest thing for the committee to do would have been to find them guilty of something and recommend sanctions . ... The politically difficult thing , the one requiring backbone , was what we did — to review all the evidence and reach a predictably unpopular conclusion based only on fact . " Leaks A number of press reports came out during the Ethics Committee 's work that purported to reveal aspects of the investigations . Chair Heflin was upset by the leaks and two investigations into them were held , one by the General Accounting Office acting on behalf of the committee and one by the Senate 's Temporary Special Independent Counsel . Neither report reached a conclusive finding or directly implicated anyone in the leaks . The special counsel report , released in 1992 , ascribed partisanship as the motive for the leaks and said they were intended to hurt DeConcini , Riegle , and Cranston ; it also gave an inference that McCain and his staff were responsible for key leaks . DeConcini later charged that McCain had leaked to the press sensitive information about the investigation that came from some of the closed proceedings of the Ethics Committee . McCain denied doing so under oath , although several press reports concluded that McCain had been one of the main <unk> during that time . The GAO investigator later said , " There is absolutely no doubt in my mind that McCain made those leaks . " Vice chair Rudman stated in his 1996 autobiography that McCain and his staff were responsible for some of the leaks , but later repudiated the assertion . Aftermath Keating and Lincoln Savings became convenient symbols for arguments about what had gone wrong in America 's financial system and society , and were featured in popular culture references . The senators did not escape infamy either . By spring 1992 , a deck of playing cards was being marketed , called " The Savings and Loan Scandal " , that featured on their face Charles Keating holding up his hand , with images of the five senators portrayed as puppets on his fingers . Polls showed that most Americans believed the actions of the Keating Five were typical of Congress as a whole . Political historian Lewis Gould would later echo this sentiment , as well as Cranston attorney Dershowitz 's argument , writing that , " the real problem for the ' Keating Three ' who were most involved was that they had been caught . " McCain testified against Keating in a civil suit brought by Lincoln bondholders , and was seen as the plaintiffs ' best witness . The other four senators refused to testify . Cranston left office in January 1993 , and died in December 2000 . DeConcini and Riegle continued to serve in the Senate until their terms expired , but they did not seek re - election in 1994 . DeConcini was appointed by President Bill Clinton in February 1995 to the Board of Directors of the Federal Home Loan Mortgage Corporation . Glenn did choose to run for re - election in 1992 , trying to become the first senator ever to win a fourth term from Ohio . The Republican candidate , Lieutenant Governor R. Michael DeWine , attacked Glenn on Keating Five as well as a number of other matters , in one of the dirtiest campaigns in the country that year and the toughest of Glenn 's senatorial contests . Glenn prevailed , however , defeating DeWine by nine percentage points to gain one more term in the Senate before retiring and not running for re - election in 1998 . After 1999 , the only member of the Keating Five remaining in the U.S. Senate was John McCain , who had an easier time gaining re - election in 1992 than he anticipated . He survived the political scandal in part by becoming friendly with the political press . McCain subsequently ran for president in 2000 and became the Republican presidential nominee in 2008 . During the 2000s , several retrospective accounts of the controversy reiterated the contention that McCain was included in the investigation primarily so that there would be at least one Republican target . Glenn 's inclusion in the investigation has been attributed to Republicans who were angered by the inclusion of McCain , as well as committee members who thought that dropping Glenn ( and McCain ) would make it look bad for the remaining three Democratic Senators . The scandal was followed by a number of attempts to adopt campaign finance reform — spearheaded by U.S. Sen. David Boren ( D - OK ) — but most attempts died in committee . A weakened reform was passed in 1993 . Substantial campaign finance reform was not passed until the adoption of the McCain - Feingold Act in 2002 . Bennett would later write that the Keating Five investigation did make a difference , as members of Congress were afterward far less likely to intercede with federal investigations on behalf of contributors . In early October 2008 , the Keating Five scandal , its possible parallel to the subprime mortgage crisis and financial crisis of 2007 - 08 , and specifically the role in the scandal of Republican presidential nominee McCain , were briefly emphasized by the campaign of his Democratic opponent , Barack Obama , through a 13 - minute " documentary " entitled Keating Economics . This introduction occurred after the McCain campaign began emphasizing the Obama – Ayers controversy . The Keating Five matter otherwise had little impact on McCain 's eventually unsuccessful campaign . Reports United States Senate Select Committee on Ethics . Preliminary inquiry into allegations regarding Senators Cranston , DeConcini , Glenn , McCain , and Riegle , and Lincoln Savings and Loan : Open session hearings before the Select Committee on Ethics , United States Senate , One Hundred First Congress , second session , November 15 , 1990 , through January 16 , 1991 . Washington D.C. : Government Printing Office , 1991 . United States Senate Select Committee on Ethics . Senate Select Committee on Ethics , Investigation of Senator Alan Cranston together with Additional Views , Report of the Senate Select Committee on Ethics , S. Rep. No. 223 , 102d Cong . , 1st <unk> . 36 ( November 20 , 1991 ) . Washington D.C. : Government Printing Office , 1991 .
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Elgato Elgato is a brand of consumer technology products . The manufacturer , also called Elgato , was founded in 1992 by Markus Fest and is headquartered in Munich , Germany . Elgato is best known for a line of video - recording products called EyeTV , which record video from over - the - air antennas , satellite TV , or mobile devices . The first EyeTV product was introduced in November 2002 . More recently , Elgato introduced a line of " smart " products , such as a key fob that track 's the user 's distance from their car or purse and provides notifications to help them find it . In 2014 , it introduced a home monitoring system called Eve , which provides alerts to users regarding things like air pressure , temperature and water use . Elgato also developed light bulbs that can respond to programming on a mobile device and respond to commands over Bluetooth and it produces two Thunderbolt products : a dock for MacBooks and an external hard drive . EyeTV History The first EyeTV hardware device was introduced in November 2002 . It was a small USB - powered device that contained a cable tuner and hardware encoder in order to convert television video into an MPEG - 1 format for watching on a computer . It also had coaxial and RCA plugs to connect it with a VCR or camcorder . A 2002 article in Macworld said it was the " first step " in bridging computers and television , but at this point still had " some <unk> " . The next iteration was released in 2004 and called EyeTV 200 . EyeTV 200 introduced a digital remote control and converted video programming into the higher - quality MPEG - 2 format . A Macworld review gave it 4 out of 5 stars for " very good " and emphasized the video quality and ease - of - use . A story in the Washington Post said it was more expensive than some alternatives , but worked on a Mac and had good - quality recordings . Also in 2004 the first EyeTV product for satellite television was introduced with the EyeTV 310 , which was later discontinued and replaced with EyeTV Sat . That same year a home media server called <unk> was introduced . It had recording features similar to other EyeTV products , but was also intended for steaming a computer display to a television . It connected Mac computers and televisions that share the same home network . A review in Macworld gave it three stars or a " good " rating , saying that it was easy to install and worked well with Apple applications , but some aspects were quirky or frustrating . Sound and Vision Magazine said it was " pretty darn cool " and an easy , inexpensive way to get media server functionality , though there were some user interface quirks . It gave the product an 89 out of 100 rating . By 2005 , several other EyeTV products had been introduced , such as the EyeTV for DTT , the EyeTV EZ and the EyeTV Wonder . The EyeTV for DTT ( digital terrestrial TV ) is a small USB - powered device with an antenna for receiving free over - the - air television broadcasts . It received a 4 out of 5 rating in TechRadar . A review in The Register gave it an 85 percent rating . The Eye TV Wonder was only available from July 2005 to January 2006 , before being discontinued and replaced with the Eye TV EZ . The EZ was a basic , entry - level product with an analog tuner for watching TV on a Mac computer . In 2006 , version 2 . 1 of the EyeTV software was introduced with a new user - interface , an integrated TV guide from <unk> and compatibility with Apple remotes . The interface was similar to that of other Apple products . An article in Macworld praised the update and especially the new editing features , but said it had some quirks , such as a difficult - to - find Edit button . Some of the iHome software , which plays video content from a computer onto a television , was released in 2006 as a universal binary . Version 2 . 4 of the EyeTV software was released in 2007 and added an export tool for Apple TV . Exit from the ATSC tuner market As of February 2015 , Elgato no longer sells ATSC tuners . ( ATSC is the digital television standard used in the United States , Canada , South Korea , Mexico and the Dominican Republic . ) The Elgato web site explicitly declines to give a reason : " Elgato Technical Support is not able to comment on this business decision . " Current products Over the air The EyeTV Diversity is a USB - powered device with dual tuners for receiving over the air television broadcasts . The tuners can be used simultaneously for an optimized signal , or one tuner can be used to record a channel , while another is used to watch a separate show . Diversity was first introduced in November 2006 . A driver in 2009 added compatibility with Windows 7 . A review in TechRadar gave EyeTV Diversity five out of five stars . PC advisor and Pocket - Lint both gave it four out of five stars . EyeTV Hybrid , which can pick up digital or analog television broadcasts , was first released in early 2009 . A CNET review said the device was easy and effective to use , but that buffering was often too slow to make watching live TV practical . Macworld said EyeTV 's " core strength " was recording scheduled TV shows . A review in PC Magazine gave the product 3 . 5 out of 5 stars . The review said it " works exceptionally well " but doesn 't come with Windows software . Satellite In June 2010 , the EyeTV HD product for recording high - definition cable and satellite programming was introduced . Because cable and satellite signals are encoded , the device must be connected to a tuner from a television provider . Then it provides remote controls , recording and DVR - functionality from a connected computer . A Macworld review gave the product four out of five stars . A review in Laptop Magazine gave EyeTV HD 3 . 5 out of 5 stars . It said the interface was intuitive and the video quality was good , but noted it was only compatible with Macs . The EyeTV <unk> <unk> has four satellite tuners , allowing four channels to be watched simultaneously from different devices . It was introduced in 2014 . A review in Macworld gave it 5 out of 5 stars . The review said Elgato had addressed some of the limitations of prior EyeTV satellite tuners like <unk> Sat / DTT . Pocket - Lint gave it 4 . 5 out of 5 stars CNET gave it five stars . The EyeTV Sat product , which receives free - to - air television , was introduced in Europe in late 2009 . The Register gave it an 80 % rating , saying that it " works well " and that the documentation did not make it clear how to install the Apple and Windows versions of the software . Software The EyeTV software was updated to version 3 . 0 in 2008 . 3 . 0 made user interface improvements , such as being able to mark favorites or automatically record shows in a series . A review in TechRadar gave it 4 . 5 out of 5 stars . The review noted that EyeTV was the de facto software for TV and computer video integration and praised its new features , but said it was expensive when purchased separately . A 2007 article in MacLife said their " top picks " for USB - powered tuners were those using the EyeTV software , such as the EyeTV hybrid or EyeTV 250 . In addition to Elgato 's EyeTV line of consumer devices , other brands such as <unk> and Miglia use the EyeTV software in their products through licensing agreements with Elgato . Mobile The EyeTV W was introduced in November 2013 . It is a small 44 gram device that receives free digital over - the - air television broadcasts and makes it available to portable devices through a wireless hot spot . A review in Macworld said it was portable , easy to use and had good battery life , but noted that users can 't connect to other wi - fi networks and watch TV at the same time . It gave the product 4 out of 5 stars . An EyeTV Mobile device for iPads was announced at the 2011 International Franchise Conference as the first tuner for the new Freeview system in the United Kingdom . Subsequently the EyeTV Mobile and EyeTV Micro products were released for iPhones and Android respectively . The Micro and Mobile allow users to watch or record free over - the - air television programming from their smartphone . Reviews of the mobile products ranged from 2 out of 5 stars by CNET 4 out of 5 stars in Macworld and 3 out of 5 stars in PC Magazine . There is also an EyeTV iPhone app that allows the user to watch their recorded shows on their iPhone , control their EyeTV recordings or watch live TV while connected to Wi - Fi . A compact version for laptops , the EyeTV GO , was introduced in May 2014 . Smart product line Smart key Elgato manufactures and markets a smart - key system . The system comes with a small 10 - gram device that is placed on a key ring , in a purse , inside a car , or somewhere else . Then it communicates with an Elgato app on an iOS device . If it is set up for keys , the app will alert the user when they are 10 meters away from their keys , indicating that they may have forgotten them . It takes advantage of the " Smart Bluetooth " Apple implemented in iOS 7 . A review in <unk> said it was " money well spent " and worked " exactly as described " , but that the beeping of the device could be louder and users will still need to supplement it with the Find my Phone app . A review in Macworld gave it 4 out of 5 stars . Smart home In September 2014 , Elgato announced a home monitoring system called Eve , which monitors a home 's air pressure , water usage , temperature , air quality and other factors . Elgato said the product won 't be available until the <unk> software , which is expected to come with Apple iOS 8 , is released . It also introduced smart light bulbs , which communicate with iOS devices through Bluetooth and allow users to adjust home lighting from their mobile device . Smart power In late 2014 , Elgato introduced the Smart Power battery backup for mobile devices . It communicates with the user 's bluetooth - enabled device to provide notifications and calendar reminders when it needs to be charged . Thunderbolt Thunderbolt dock Elgato introduced a Thunderbolt docking station in June 2014 . A computer is plugged into the dock using a Thunderbolt port in order to gain access to the dock 's three USB ports , audio jacks , HDMI and ethernet . It is typically used to plug a Macbook into an office setting ( printer , monitor , keyboard ) or to provide additional ports not available in the Macbook Air . A review in The Register said it was compact and useful , but Windows users should consider a USB 3 . 0 dock . The Register and CNET disagreed on whether it was competitively priced . Reviews in TechRadar and Macworld gave it 4 out of 5 stars . Thunderbolt SSD Elgato introduced two <unk> external hard drives in September 2012 called Thunderbolt Drive . Benchmark tests by MacWorld and Tom 's Hardware said that the hard drive was slower than other products they tested , despite being connected through a faster Thunderbolt port , rather than <unk> . The following year , in 2013 , Elgato replaced them with similar drives identified as " Thunderbolt Drive + " , which added USB 3 . 0 support and was claimed to be faster than the previous iteration . A CNET review of a Thunderbolt Drive + drive gave it a 4 . 5 out of 5 star rating . It said the drive was " blazing fast " and " the most portable drive to date " but was also expensive . An article in The Register explained that the original drives introduced in 2012 didn 't perform well in benchmark tests , but the newer " plus " version had impressive speed results during testing . Gaming Game Capture HD , which connects to gaming consoles to record gameplay , was introduced in 2012 . It was created in response to gamers that were hacking EyeTV products for gameplay recording . The device connects between a gaming console and the TV and is powered by a USB connection . It captures video as the console sends it to the television , compresses and stores it . A review in iPhone Life gave it 4 out of 5 stars and noted that it could also be used to record iPad games with the right setup . In October 2014 Elgato released a new version called HD 60 . It recorded in 60 frames per second and 1080p high definition video , whereas typical low - end video game recording devices capture in 720p and 30 frames per second . The Telegraph gave it four out of five stars . A review in Gizmodo said that it captured extremely high - quality footage , but it may be higher - end than needed for many gamers that would be satisfied with the recording features built - in to the console .
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Nutrition Assistance for Puerto Rico Nutrition Assistance for Puerto Rico ( NAP ) — Spanish : Programa de Asistencia <unk> ( PAN ) commonly known in Puerto Rican Spanish as <unk> ( English : Food Stamps ) — is a federal assistance nutritional program provided by the United States Department of Agriculture ( USDA ) solely to Puerto Rico . It provides over $ 1 . 5 billion USD in supplemental economic resources to help just over 1 million impoverished residents cope with their nutritional needs . It is based on , though not directly part of , the USDA 's national Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program . Since its inception in 1982 , the program has been providing low - income families living in Puerto Rico with cash benefits used for food purchases . It is a collaborative effort between the USDA and the island 's government , where the former provides annual federal appropriations for the Puerto Rican government to distribute individually among eligible participants . Although the methods of providing such benefits have changed over the years , the program 's basic objective of helping low - income families meet their nutritional needs has remained constant . It has , however , been controversial throughout its existence . Federal reviews and assessments have revealed deficiencies in its operations and management , requiring the implementation of various changes , including increased scrutiny . It has also attracted both criticism and advocacy from Puerto Rico and the United States over its effectiveness in helping poor families , and its impact on Puerto Rico 's social classes and economy . History Food stamps have been issued in the United States since World War II , but the program did not include Puerto Rico until the early 1970s , when U.S. Public Laws 91 - 671 of January 11 , 1971 and 93 - 86 of November 1 , 1974 partially extended the Food Stamp Program to U.S. territories . The Food Stamp program was later expanded to provide full coverage and benefits to Puerto Rico and other territories under Section 19 of the Food Stamp Act of 1977 . By 1977 , the Food Stamp Program in Puerto Rico was larger , in terms of both the percentage of the population participating and expenditures , than any of the programs operating in the 50 U.S. States , with 56 % of the Puerto Rican population participating in the program . In total , it accounted for approximately 8 percent of the national program 's beneficiaries , and its operations and benefits awarded accounted for 8 percent of the national program 's total federal expenditures . To address these issues , the 1981 Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act ( <unk> ) eliminated Puerto Rico from the national Food Stamp program and created the Nutrition Assistance Program for Puerto Rico as a block grant to provide more administrative flexibility to the Commonwealth while reducing Federal expenditures . After a year of studies and design , it commenced operations on July 1 , 1982 with an annual appropriation of $ 825 million . The new block grant program differed significantly from the former Food Stamp program in three major ways . First , the new NAP program was designed to distribute the benefits through physical cheques , ensuring that the benefit would be payable only to the beneficiary while at the same time reducing administrative costs , since the former physical vouchers ( <unk> in Spanish ) were subject to storage and accountability problems , theft , counterfeiting and even trafficking . Second , the benefits were no longer restricted to vouchers redeemable only for food , but were provided in cash . The beneficiary could then elect to purchase a product or select services other than food . < ref " > <unk> - 19 - 3 , Chapter 11 , pg . 286 , par . 7 < / ref > Third , the overall assistance provided to Puerto Rico was limited to an annual block appropriation , requiring the Puerto Rican government to adjust its program management to allocate the funds . Between 1982 and 1986 , the U.S. Congress awarded $ 825 million annually in block grants for NAP program , and since then the appropriations have steadily increased by an estimated 3 % to 4 % to compensate for inflation . It has surpassed $ 1 billion annually since the early 1990s , and increased 30 % from 1993 to 2002 . Since fiscal year 2006 , the appropriation has reached over $ 1 . 5 billion annually . Over the years there has been a gradual decline in participation in the nutrition assistance program . Participation in the previous Food Stamp program was estimated at 56 % , more than 1 . 5 million island residents , before the creation of the block grant . By 1994 , participation in the NAP program had decreased to 1 . 3 million , and by 2006 it had decreased to just over 1 million . While the Puerto Rican population has steadily increased throughout those periods , the percentage of the population participating in the nutrition assistance program has significantly declined . With Puerto Rico 's current population estimated at 3 , 944 , 000 residents and a current estimated NAP participation of 1 million beneficiaries , the program 's participation rate is roughly 26 % , almost half of the participation under the original Food Stamp program in 1981 . Since its creation , the program has received much criticism both within and outside Puerto Rico . Critics argue that , since the program provides non - taxable income without any employment requirements , recipients receive free money without incentives for work , which hinders the economic output and development of the island , especially when Puerto Rico 's employment participation and unemployment rates have been consistently inferior to U.S. national levels , while the average aid provided in Puerto Rico has exceeded the U.S. national average ( $ 94 versus $ 74 . 79 , respectively ; 2001 estimate ) . Because of this , Puerto Rico has been called the " welfare island " . People from the Dominican Republic do many of the jobs in Puerto Rico that pay too little to attract the locals . However , proponents of the program argue that Puerto Rico 's social condition is in far worse shape than any of the 50 U.S. states . Approximately half of the island 's population lives below the U.S. Federal poverty guidelines , and many have difficulties in meeting their nutritional needs due to increasing inflation and economic stagnation in the island . Furthermore , the relation between the NAP program 's benefits and the low employment participation and high unemployment rates has not been studied , and there is no consensus on their actual causes . Program administration The Food and Nutrition Service ( FNS ) , a component of the USDA , provides the funds to the Puerto Rican government 's Department of the Family to operate the program through an annual block grant , which covers the full cost of the benefits to participants , as well as fifty percent ( 50 % ) of the costs required to administer the program ( the remaining 50 % must be provided by the Puerto Rican government ) . Although federal regulations require Puerto Rico to pay the benefits during the year for which the annual block grant was awarded , since 2002 the federal government has allowed Puerto Rico to use 2 % of an annual surplus for benefits in future years . As a condition of receiving the grant , the P.R. Department of the Family must submit an annual plan of operation to the FNS , which describes how it will distribute the funds assigned as nutrition assistance to qualifying persons . This includes identifying the island population which is eligible for the NAP benefits ( i.e. , family income limits , family status limits , etc . ) , establishing the process in which individual participants are selected , and the process of determining the benefit amount for each participant . The plan of operation is reviewed and approved by the FNS before funds are disbursed . The Puerto Rico Department of the Family currently provides the benefits to each participating family through a debit card , which replaced the physical cheques in the early 2000s . The monthly benefit is deposited through an electronic benefit transfer ( EBT ) system into a government - designated personal bank account , which can be accessed at any time with the debit card to withdraw cash or to make food purchases from authorized retailers . Since September 2001 , 75 % of each family ’ s monthly benefit has been designated exclusively for making direct food and grocery purchases , while the remaining 25 % can be withdrawn as a cash benefit . The EBT debit card system has improved the program ’ s payment accuracy rate to 96 . 4 % in 2003 , 4 years ahead of its 2007 goal of 95 % accuracy . The FNS also requires the Puerto Rican government to submit financial and performance reports on a regular basis , including quarterly Federal Cash Transactions Reports , quarterly and annual Financial Status Reports , and monthly Program Participation and Benefits Reports . These reports provide details on the program 's obligations and actual expenditures , and help the FNS monitor the use of program funds and reconcile the program ’ s budget with actual expenditures . Management assessment In a collaborative effort by the United States Office of Management and Budget ( OMB ) and various other Federal agencies , the NAP program was recently assessed and given a 44 % and 40 % score ( out of a possible 100 % ) in its Program Management and Program Results / Accountability performance indicators , respectively , stating that " the program 's financial management practices need improvement . " The assessment revealed that the Puerto Rican government has not established short - term goals , objectives , and targets to evaluate the program ’ s performance and results , that the program 's oversight has been lax in previous years , and that the program 's impact and results in Puerto Rico 's society have not been evaluated in recent years . The financial management and oversight concerns were later emphasized when , on March 15 , 2007 , a U.S. investigative task force uncovered a $ 30 million fraud scheme involving 31 participants , including retailers and beneficiaries , who were withdrawing the funds as cash from the benefits designated exclusively for food purchases , and charging the customers a 20 % to 25 % fee for the transaction . The Puerto Rican government 's Departments of Family , Education , and Health have since combined efforts to create a 5 - year strategic plan to improve the program 's long - term performance and financial management . The Family Department has recently implemented a quality control - like program titled Measure of Efforts and Results System , which evaluates the quality and promptitude of services while reviewing various eligibility elements , to improve customer services and program management . The Department has also agreed to switch from a biennial audit to an annual Single Audit , and subject the program to periodic audits by its Administration for Socio - Economic Development , to detect and correct problems more quickly . Furthermore , the USDA 's Office of Inspector General ( OIG ) has performed regular audits to assure compliance and identify areas for improvement . Regardless of deficiencies , the federal government 's assessment revealed that the current NAP program is actually an improvement over the former Food Stamp program provided in Puerto Rico . In its 2005 assessment report , it concluded : Program benefits Under the NAP , participating families receive monthly cash benefits to supplement their incomes which must be used to purchase foods for preparation and consumption at home . In order to qualify for the program , potential beneficiaries must meet several conditions , listed as follows : The candidate must be living in Puerto Rico to receive the benefits . The candidate must maintain a maximum bank balance ( all checking and savings accounts combined ) of : $ 2 , 000 if the candidate is responsible for one or more persons age 60 or younger , or $ 3 , 000 if the candidate is responsible for one or more persons age 61 or older . The candidate 's annual household income must not exceed the predefined income limits set by the Puerto Rico government ( see table , right ) . The amount of a family ’ s monthly benefit payment depends on that family 's specific characteristics and financial circumstances , as well as the overall amount of program funds available for distribution . The latest statistics show that benefits average $ 103 each month ( 2003 , see table below right ) . It is the Puerto Rico government 's responsibility to establish the eligibility requirements and benefit levels for participation in the program . The benefits are revised annually every October 1 to consider the nutritional needs of Puerto Rico 's impoverished population , analyze the impact of inflation in Puerto Rico , and plan the distribution of available funds accordingly . Impact Since the program started in 1982 , only three formal studies over the nutritional impact of the benefits provided to each family have been publicly released , in 1985 , 1993 , and 1996 , respectively . All studies were designed to analyze the impact of the program with respect to the previous food stamps program , focusing on changes in household nutrient availability , while the 1985 and 1993 studies also focused on changes in household food expenditures ( the amount of money households spent on acquiring food ) . The first and most widely recognized study , published by Mathematica Policy Research , Inc. in 1985 , found that the NAP program increased household food expenditures for beneficiaries when compared to non - participating families , just as its predecessor did . It also found that the program had the same relevant impact on increasing household food expenditures as the previous food stamp program , however this has been contested by subsequent studies performed on the national food stamp program , which found that " stamp " or " coupon " -type benefits are more effective at increasing food expenditures than direct " cash " benefits . The 1993 study , which also researched the impact on household expenditures , formed a completely different conclusion : that the average beneficiaries under the NAP program spent $ 5 less per week on food than non - participating families , considering if both would have the same amount of resources available . Nevertheless , this conclusion has also been questioned by subsequent research , attributing this result on the author 's determination of the population sample . All studies revealed minor improvements in household nutrient availability , with the 1985 study revealing an improvement of vitamin and mineral consumption over non - participating families and the 1993 study partially confirming these results . The most extensive study on nutrient availability was published in 1996 , which concluded that nutrition did not change significantly after the implementation of the NAP program for all beneficiaries , however most improvements were noted for very low - income beneficiaries versus their non - participating equivalents . Although these three studies have been used by the federal government and other entities to understand the impact of the NAP program 's benefits , the data used by the authors dates back to the periods between 1977 and 1984 , providing limited relevant information for the current program of today . Additionally , subsequent research and analysis have revealed insufficiencies in the methodology applied by the authors of all three publications , thereby casting doubt on whether a definitive conclusion of the program 's overall impact has been established . A 2004 report published by USDA 's Economic Research Service evaluated the reliability and relevancy of these studies , concluding that they are not sufficient to determine the program 's current impact and performance , and stating :
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Call of Duty 2 Call of Duty 2 is a 2005 first - person shooter video game developed by Infinity Ward and published by Konami in Japan and Activision in the rest of the world . It is the second installment of the Call of Duty series . The game was released on October 25 , 2005 for Microsoft Windows and on November 22 , 2005 as a launch game for the Xbox 360 in Europe , Australia and South America , and later in Japan . Other versions were released on other platforms , including mobile phones as well as Pocket PCs . The game is set during World War II and the campaign mode is experienced through the perspectives of four soldiers : one in the Red Army , one in the United States Army , and two in the British Army . It contains four individual campaigns , split into three stories , with a total of twenty - seven missions . Activision officially announced the game on April 7 , 2005 in a press release . Many features were added and changed from the original Call of Duty . The most notable change is the regenerating health . Additions include an icon that indicates a nearby grenade about to explode . The game was met with positive reception . Critics praised the game particularly for the graphics , sound and the regenerating health system . As a launch game , the Xbox 360 version sold over 250 , 000 copies in its first week , and had sold 2 million copies by January 2008 . By November 2013 , the game had sold 5 . 9 million copies . Gameplay Call of Duty 2 is a first - person shooter that has a single - player story mode and a multiplayer mode . The player takes on the roles of several Allied protagonists in specific missions during World War II . The player can crouch and lie prone , and is able to scale low walls and other obstacles . Two firearms can be carried , which can be swapped with those left on the battlefield , and both fragmentation and smoke grenades can also be carried . A gun 's iron sights can be used to aim more accurately . A compass on the heads - up display ( HUD ) shows both allies and enemies , and objective markers to indicate locations the player must reach , areas to defend , or enemy cannons or tanks that the player must plant explosives on to disable . <unk> weapons such as machine guns and flak cannons are available in some locations to take out enemy troops . In addition , some missions place the player in control of a tank . The player has a set of binoculars . While it is generally ignored during infantry - limited gameplay , it is vital to the long - range use of the Crusader tanks and one of the missions in which the player must direct artillery fire to defend a town . It is also important for scouting , though most of the game takes place in personal , close combat situations reducing the importance of this tactic . Should the player take severe damage , the screen will turn red and the sound of the character 's heartbeat will increase in volume ; this indicates the player 's health is low . The player must find a way to stay out of fire to recover before entering battle again or else will die and restart from the last checkpoint . Health is only restored through automatic recharging when the player is not taking fire . Some attacks , such as explosions from grenades or shells , will kill the player instantly if the player is too close . In April 2006 , Infinity Ward released the Call of Duty 2 Radiant , which allows a player to create their own multiplayer or single - player maps . Along with Radiant , the mapmaker includes Maya plug - in support , an effects editor , and an asset manager which allows custom models to be made and imported into the game , as well as custom effects . Campaign Call of Duty 2 contains four individual campaigns , split into three stories , with a total of twenty - seven missions . Each story concerns a World War II soldier overcoming the odds in the war . The game also has four difficulty levels : Easy , Regular , Hardened , and Veteran . Multiplayer Call of Duty 2 features several game types : Deathmatch , Team Deathmatch , Search & Destroy , Capture the Flag and Headquarters . The maps include Normandy , Africa , and Russia . Each team can choose a variety of weapons , depending on the map . Players can choose between American soldiers , Soviet soldiers , and British soldiers for the Allied forces , while the Axis forces must play as German soldiers . Each PC multiplayer server can hold a maximum of sixty - four players , while the limit is eight players on Xbox . In the Xbox 360 version , players can play on Xbox Live and get new map packs . There are a total of thirteen official maps , and three of these are remakes from the original Call of Duty . There are also three extra map packs named Bonus Pack , Skirmish Pack , and Invasion Pack , adding a total of eight maps . Plot Soviet campaign The player controls Private Vasili Koslov of the 13th Guards Rifle Division , initially involved in the defense of Moscow from the advancing German forces . The next level involves the destruction of a German stronghold in Stalingrad during September 1942 . The next objective involves battling for strongholds throughout Stalingrad throughout December 1942 , including re - connecting cut telephone wires and re - capturing the rail - yard and train - station . The final mission takes place during the final Soviet offensive in Stalingrad in January 1943 , which involves the re - capture and defense of city blocks and Stalingrad city hall . British campaign The player takes control as a British soldier , Sergeant John Davis of the 7th Armoured Division in North Africa , led by Captain Price . The first level has the player taking part in a sneak attack on German Afrika Korps troops , ending with the destruction of a German supply station . The next level has the player defending a town from overwhelming numbers of Germans sending counter attacks from North , West , South and East ; finally achieving victory by destroying much of the German tank force using artillery . This is followed by the Second Battle of El Alamein , during which the player has to fight through several trenches , machine gun nests , 88 millimeter guns and finally taking the German field headquarters . The assault on El <unk> to intercept the remaining Germans in Egypt and destroy several 88 millimeter guns soon follows , ending the first British campaign . An addendum to the second set of missions has the player taking on the role of a British tank commander , David Welsh , while engaging enemies in Libya . The first mission of the third campaign in <unk> , Tunisia , has the player immediately under fire , holding a house until they break out and rendezvous with the second squad . They then retake <unk> with reinforcements the next day all before assaulting Matmata . The final British campaign takes place during the Battle for Caen as part of Operation Overlord . American campaign As Corporal Bill Taylor of the 2nd Ranger Battalion , the player starts off by playing a part in D - Day , at the assault of Pointe du Hoc , to destroy a German artillery battery , and hold it against a massive German counter - offensive in the following mission . Soon after , the player captures a nearby town and serves as a sniper against mortar crews until reinforcements arrive . The second objective is focused on Hill 400 , involving the capture of Bergstein , a disastrous charge at Hill 400 's bunkers and the defense against the German counterattack , with the player again performing sniper work against German mortar teams , destroying enemy armor , and generally holding the hill against the counter - offensive , all the while burdened by artillery and overwhelming numbers of German soldiers . The final mission is set amongst the Americans in the Rhine River crossing into Germany . It begins as one of the few missions with the player immediately under fire , providing cover fire against the Germans until reaching the river banks and then fighting through most of the town . The final fight has the player defeat two German Tiger I 's . Ending The end credits depict the dramatic rescue of Captain Price from the Germans by a group of American soldiers . After the credits end , the words " No cows were harmed in the making of this game " appear , as in the original Call of Duty . This is a reference to the dead cattle visible in the Normandy missions . Development On April 7 , 2005 , Activision announced that Infinity Ward was developing Call of Duty 2 , set for release in Fall 2005 for PC . It had been speculated that Infinity Ward was developing the sequel at the same time as Gray Matter Interactive developed Call of Duty : United Offensive . Infinity Ward president Grant Collier said : " Our team at Infinity Ward is committed to thrusting gamers into the heat of battle like no other , taking players on a thrill - ride of adrenaline that leaves everyone gasping for air . In Call of Duty 2 , we are creating the most intense and realistic action game imaginable with a stunning visual atmosphere and an advanced technology that delivers an unprecedented level of authenticity " . The press release said players would engage enemies in a less linear battlefield , tackle the major battles chronologically , and use squad tactics not available in previous Call of Duty games . Infinity Ward also confirmed making a " Battle <unk> System " , similar to Medal of Honor : Pacific Assault , where squad members converse to create situational awareness . The game engine — proprietary IW engine 2 . 0 — is a modified version of id Tech 3 , which was used in the first Call of Duty game . With the new game engine , Infinity Ward expanded the scope of combat to deliver a realistic battlefield experience and improved the visuals . The developers were able to cloud visibility with smoke from smoke grenades and create weather effects like dusty sandstorms and whiteout blizzard . The game was known to " let players experience four individual soldier stories as they overcome insurmountable odds in multiple campaigns . Players have the freedom to follow each of the four storylines through for the ultimate character - driven experience , or they can engage in the historic battles chronologically for quick hitting action . Squads now have the freedom to take on a variety of mission objectives , on expansive battlefields that allow for multiple paths and the ability to utilize actual combat tactics like outflanking and fire and maneuver capabilities " . Call of Duty 2 was going to be more immersive than the original Call of Duty . Vince Zampella , creative director of Infinity Ward , said , " We didn 't want to take any of the parts out that made Call of Duty so good . But there were a couple of things that we admit could have been done better " . A demo of the game showed a more open gameplay style and a better AI for the enemies , who would actively go after the player . There are a set number of enemies set on the map that will begin reacting to the player 's presence once the first shot has been fired . Groups of enemies farther away send units up to see what is happening and add to the combat while enemies directly in front of the player will join in and take cover quickly . Infinity Ward spent a lot of time on WWII battlefields , which led them to scrap whole levels for parts of the game that took place in France , since they found the location a lot different than what they imagined . One of the details the team added are post - war effects that continue on the battlefield throughout the game , where dust and smoke continue to roll through the streets , clouding up vision , and junk and debris scattered everywhere . The game has sound attenuation , with a 5 . 1 surround sound system , and context sensitive dialog , with a total of twenty - thousand lines of dialog . Each of the soldiers fighting alongside the player will call out the position of enemy soldiers , warn of flank attacks , and help out in ways that were not possible in the first game of the series . Zampella said , " We really wanted realistic battle chatter going that 's not only entertaining , but actually adds to the gaming experience . So now you 'll hear your guys telling you that there 's [ sic ] two guys hiding behind that rusty car in the street or that there are people on the second floor of a building " . A small <unk> - out grenade icon appears in the center of the screen when the player is near a grenade , with an arrow pointing in the direction of the grenade . Enemies can sometimes seem to be dead when they are not , where the enemy can still wield his side arm and fire at the player . The game was showcased in E3 in 2005 and was announced as a launch title for the upcoming Xbox 360 . Reception Call of Duty 2 was generally received well by reviewers . The graphics and sound were widely praised and the reactions to the regenerating health system were mostly positive , with reviewers from GameSpot and GamePro calling it an improvement over the previous health bar system . For the Xbox 360 version , IGN 's Douglass C. Perry described the presentation as " classy and well - produced " , and said the graphics were some of the best on the Xbox 360 at its launch . He called the sound effects " unbelievable " , whilst the gameplay was described as containing an " enormous amount of action " . GameSpot reviewer Bob Colayco summarized his review by stating that Call of Duty 2 has " smooth , detailed graphics and great sound " , as well as praising the artificial intelligence , realism , and variety in the campaign . GamePro called the game " breathtaking " , and commended the game for its " strikingly realistic detail on weapons and walls , emphasized by normal mapping , exceptional shading and lighting , specular highlights , and some absolutely phenomenal particle effects " . GameSpy editor Will Tuttle called it " One of the finest <unk> ever created . Thanks to a combination of sharp visuals , teeth - rattling sound effects , and tricky enemy AI , you 'll be on the edge of your seat from the moment you 're dropped into combat until your dying breath " . For the PC version , IGN editor Tom McNamara was impressed with the presentation and graphics , describing them as " Excellent " and " smooth " respectively . He also said the graphics did not suffer " from also being developed for the 360 " . McNamara also praised the sound , describing it as " sad music , encompassing battle noise , and excellent voice work " . Bob Colayco of GameSpot also reviewed the PC version of the game , as he did its Xbox 360 counterpart . Colayco again commended the sound , calling the presentation of the game " excellent " , as well as praising the aggression of the artificial intelligence . Unlike in his review of the Xbox 360 version , Colayco felt the multiplayer aspect was " fun " . His main critique was for performance , stating " performance can chug at times " . GameSpy 's Sal Accardo noted " Instead of feeling like a stale retread [ of the original Call of Duty ] or losing steam halfway through , it manages to be a blast from start to finish " . GamesRadar Joshua <unk> called the single - player campaign " stunning " and cited that the multiplayer was even better . Despite this praise , McNamara of IGN commented that he finds implementing regenerating health to be " a little troublesome " , and that it allows players to " experience a kind of combat only a mythical super - soldier could withstand " which , therefore , " propels the game from gritty authenticity to John Woo fantasy " . GameSpot 's Colayco was critical of the game 's pricing , stating it had a " higher <unk> than its PC counterpart " . He also complained that the multiplayer aspect could only support eight players . For the PC version , his main critique was for performance , stating " performance can chug at times " . The PC version multiplayer was criticized as being a step back from that of Call of Duty : United Offensive . Call of Duty 2 was the most popular launch title on the Xbox 360 , with 200 , 000 units sold in its first week of availability . 77 % of people who purchased an Xbox 360 also purchased the game , which contributed to its high sales . As of July 2006 , 1 . 4 million copies of the game had been sold on the Xbox 360 . By January 2008 , the game had sold 2 million copies . By November 2013 , the game had sold 5 . 9 million copies . Advertisement controversy A television advertisement for Call of Duty 2 was the subject of some controversy in 2006 . The commercial , created by a Los Angeles animation studio Rhythm and Hues Studios , depicted a first - person view of events that were supposed to transpire during the game , rather than scenes from the game itself . Some consumers felt that the advertisements were misleading , and in February 2006 the United Kingdom 's Advertising Standards Authority ( ASA ) demanded that networks remove the advertisements after three consumers filed complaints of false advertising . According to ASA spokesperson Donna Mitchell , " Viewers felt that the ad was misleading because the quality of graphics was superior to that of the game 's " . Activision denies that the scenes were meant to give an impression of gameplay , stating in a press release shortly after the ASA banning that " The footage was intended purely to communicate the subject matter of the game rather than to represent actual gameplay " . Other versions A collector 's edition of the game was released for Windows on October 25 , 2005 and for the Xbox 360 labeled as the " Special Edition " . It features the game and a bonus disc , which includes interviews , a making of the movie and two mission walkthroughs . On May 17 , 2006 , Activision announced a Game of the Year Edition for the Xbox 360 , which includes material from the Special Edition , plus a token to download the Skirmish Map Pack . In January 2006 , <unk> ( now Hands - On Mobile ) released Call of Duty 2 for mobile phones . The mobile version is a 2D top - down shooter . It received a favorable review from IGN , praising its length and storytelling .
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Radical Dreamers Radical Dreamers : Nusumenai Hōseki ( Japanese : <unk> ・ <unk> <unk> , lit . " Radical Dreamers : The <unk> Jewel " ) is a Japanese video game developed by Square in 1996 for the Satellaview add - on for the Super Famicom . It is a text - based visual novel in which the player takes the role of Serge , a young adventurer accompanied by Kid , a teen - aged thief , and Gil , a mysterious masked magician . The game belongs to the Chrono series and is a gaiden , or side story , to the 1995 game Chrono Trigger . It was released to complement its predecessor 's plot , and later served as inspiration for Chrono Cross . It features text - based gameplay with minimal graphics and sound effects , and was scored by composer Yasunori Mitsuda . Unlike many Satellaview titles , Radical Dreamers was not designed to lock after a certain number of playthroughs , so players owning an <unk> Memory Pack onto which the game was downloaded can still play today . Square tried to integrate Radical Dreamers into the Japanese PlayStation port of Chrono Trigger as an Easter egg . Writer and director Masato Kato halted this and other releases , unhappy with the quality of his work . Though the game was never officially released abroad , ROM hackers completed an English fan translation in 2003 . Gameplay Gameplay consists of word - based scenarios presented to the player through the narration of the main character , Serge . As the narrative progresses , the game presents a list of possible actions and the player must choose his or her course . Depending on the choices made , the player may enter a new area , be presented with a new situation or character , or have to choose again if the previous selection was incorrect . In combat with enemies , the player must select from options such as " Fight " , " Magic " , " Run " , and often more complex situational commands like " Run my knife into the goblin 's chest ! " or " Quickly slash at its hand ! " . Some decisions must be made before an invisible timer runs out ; in combat , hesitation results in injury or death . Serge 's health is tracked by an invisible point count , restored by various events ( such as finding a potion ) . The game also tracks Kid 's affection for Serge , influenced by battles and scripted events . Her feelings determine whether Serge survives the story 's climactic fight . Radical Dreamers features minimal graphics and animation ; most areas are rendered with dim , static backgrounds . The game also uses atmospheric music and sounds . Like other Chrono games , Radical Dreamers contains a variant of New Game + mode . Only one scenario is available on the first play - through ; after finishing it and obtaining one of three possible endings , players can explore six others . These later stories often feature comical situations or allusions to Chrono Trigger . Characters and story Radical Dreamers features three protagonists — Serge , Kid , and Magil — who seek out treasure as venturesome , reputable thieves . The young adult narrator , Serge , is a drifting musician who met Kid by chance three years ago in a remote town . Serge enjoys adventure with a carefree attitude . Kid , only sixteen years old , is a renowned professional thief with a reputation for boisterous behavior . Possessing a turbulent history , Kid dubiously fancies herself as a kind of Robin Hood . Magil is an enigmatic , handsome masked man skilled in magic who rarely speaks and can fade into shadow at will . Crowned by flowing , blue hair , Magil accompanied Kid well before Serge joined the group . They seek the Frozen Flame , a mythic artifact capable of granting any wish . It is hidden in Viper Manor — the home of a terrible and powerful aristocrat named Lynx , who gained control of the estate after usurping power from and killing the Acacia Dragoons , a familial unit of warriors . Following Kid , the group infiltrates Viper Manor on the night of a full moon . While sneaking through the corridors , they battle goblins and other creatures of legend while unraveling the history of the manor and its occupants . Magil explains that the Frozen Flame is a fragment of the massive , extraterrestrial creature known as Lavos , splintered off when Lavos impacted the planet in prehistory and burrowed to its core . The thieves locate Lynx and the Frozen Flame deep within an underground ruin of the Kingdom of Zeal — an ancient , airborne civilization destroyed after it awakened Lavos in search of immortality . Serge discovers that Kid is an orphan , hoping to exact revenge upon Lynx for killing her caretaker , Lucca . Kid attempted to find Lynx in her childhood after Lucca 's death , but was stopped and saved from certain defeat by Magil , who accompanied her thereafter . The trio battle Lynx for the Frozen Flame , and Lynx gains the upper hand after trapping Magil with a powerful spell . He plans to acquire Kid 's special gift from Lucca — a Time Egg , or Chrono Trigger . With a Time Egg and the Frozen Flame , Lynx boasts that he shall achieve control over time . Kid lunges at him , but Lynx easily parries her attack and wounds her . She desperately removes the Chrono Trigger from her back pocket . The Trigger shatters and causes a localized temporal distortion , leading Serge to see various scenes in history . Kid learns of her heritage as princess Schala of Zeal , a meek girl who was coerced to help awaken Lavos with her magical power . As Zeal collapsed , Schala was wracked with anguish and guilt for her role in the incident . Nearby in the Ocean Palace , the Frozen Flame felt her grief and changed her to a baby , sending her to the modern era where Lucca found her . It is also <unk> revealed that Magil is in fact Magus , Schala 's wayward brother who searched for her after battling Lavos in Chrono Trigger . Once the distortion subsides , an army from Porre — a large nation in search of the Frozen Flame — storms the mansion . Lynx withdraws as Kid , Serge , and Magil flee . Kid tells Serge that she is aware of her true origin , and knowing that is a treasure which cannot be stolen . She bids him goodbye before disappearing into the darkness with Magil . Other scenarios are available after players complete the first . These include both humorous and serious variations of the main plot . " Magil : Caught Between Love and Adventure " – Magil is actually a lifelong friend of Riddel who courts her . When the manor is alerted to his presence , Magil throws Riddel over his shoulder and dashes off into the morning sun as her proud father Lynx <unk> bids goodbye . " Kid and the Sunflower " – Kid insults a lecherous sunflower who transforms her into a malicious monster . Serge must kiss her to change her back , or use a special dagger to take her soul at risk of his own soul 's capture . Three endings are available . " <unk> <unk> Police Case EX Ultra " – Magil is a space cop searching for Lynx , secretly a green Martian creature with tentacles . Magil 's rock guitar forces Lynx out of hiding , and Serge assaults him with a Martian Forest League Concealed Lesser Armament Bunny . " Homecoming : Shea 's Light " – Kid learns that Lynx and her caretaker Shea are trapped in a magical seal as part of Lynx 's effort to escape a spirit prison . Shea selflessly instructs Magil to destroy the Frozen Flame , killing Lynx forever . " The Enigmatic <unk> : Paradise X " – Serge finds an odd crystal inhabited by an entity named Gange , who tests his strength with gladiatorial combat . Using Gange 's Paradise X mecha , Serge and Gange challenge Mecha - Lynx for the Frozen Flame . " The Shadow Realm and the Goddess of Death " – Kid accidentally summons Lilith , the Goddess of Death . She tries to take Kid 's soul , but Magil intervenes . The outcome is slightly affected by Kid 's affection for Serge . Development Masato Kato wrote Radical Dreamers after Chrono Trigger 's release , feeling that Trigger concluded with " unfinished business " . He composed the main story and drafted the concepts for the sub - scenarios , leaving them to be completed by his peers . He allowed Makoto Shimamoto to write the entire " Kid and the Sunflower " segment , later joking that he " avoided having any part in that episode , " while Miwa Shoda was in charge of the " Shadow Realm and the Goddess of Death " segment . According to scenario writer Daisuke Fukugawa ( responsible for the game 's " The Enigmatic <unk> : Paradise X " subplot ) , the game 's graphical content pushed the Satellaview 's technical limits , requiring developers to redraw prerendered models until functional gameplay could be ensured . Kato remarked that his " savage feelings " from Chrono Trigger 's hectic development manifested in Kid 's " unusually nihilistic attitude " . He explained his approach towards the project in 1999 : ... due to the fact that this was a text - based game , the contents of the game ended up being rather serious and emotional . The game itself was a real life - or - death kind of survival adventure game . I think there was a feeling somewhere deep in my heart that said , ' I wanna try making a horror game ! ' But soon after that , they came out with Biohazard , so I quickly got over that phase ( laughs ) . ... the comical sub - scenarios were written to be extremely comical beyond any measurement , so I think it sorta ' balances out ... But I can say that since this game wasn 't expected to be widely sold on the market , and also since there wasn 't any profit on our part , there was a feeling that I wanted to make this game out of my sole interest . In a way , I think that ' Radical ' helped me to find my own path ... But then again , I guess you could say that I strayed away from the paths of normal people . Kato 's team completed Radical Dreamers in only three months under a rushed production schedule , prompting him to label the game " unfinished " in an interview for the Ultimania Chrono Cross guide . Kato regretted that the schedule hampered the quality of his work , and explained that the connections to Chrono Trigger were evoked towards the end of the project : When I originally started working on Radical Dreamers , I never thought that it would have such an ending . We only had three months for development , and I was just making up the story while inputting data . When I finally realized the connection of the identities of Kid and Magil near the final stage of development , I even amazed myself , saying , ' So , that 's who they were ! ? ' ( laughs ) Also , since there were issues with the media , the connections between Radical Dreamers and Chrono Trigger were intentionally left blurred in the background so that it 'd only be recognizable by those who would understand . Music The music of Radical Dreamers was written by composer Yasunori Mitsuda , who scored Chrono Trigger and later Chrono Cross . The soundtrack includes several ambient pieces , including the sound of water running in a fountain and wind accompanied by strings . Players can listen to the game 's songs by accessing a hidden menu in the " Gil : Caught Between Love and Adventure " scenario . Several themes and musical patterns were later adapted for Chrono Cross on the suggestion of director Masato Kato ; many appear unchanged except for new instrumentation . Fan translation In April 2003 , the ROM hacking group <unk> released a fan translation rendering Radical Dreamers in English . The patch works by modifying the ROM image of Dreamers used for playing console - based video games on personal computers through emulation . The ability to save games was not enabled with the first patch , and some minor typos were left in , later remedied by successive releases . On Christmas Day 2005 , <unk> and Radical R released the final version ( 1 . 4 ) of the translation , which fixed remaining minor bugs . The French team Terminus <unk> made a French translation patch soon after . Masato Kato did not perceive significant demand to include Radical Dreamers as a bonus with the release of Chrono Trigger DS , and omitted it to preserve continuity between Trigger and Cross . He expressed concern in 2009 over re - releasing Radical Dreamers " as - is " , citing a need to revise the work . A reviewer for Home of the Underdogs lauded the game 's excellent writing and the " superb " English translation patch , noting that the " interesting plot " would appeal to fantasy fans if they could stomach the limited interactivity . Having never played a Chrono game prior , the reviewer stated , " I was still able to follow the story and be drawn into the world of colorful characters . " While praising the replay value afforded by the extra scenarios , the critic derided the random battles of Radical Dreamers , writing that " RPG - style random combat doesn 't translate well to [ a ] text - only medium . " The website awarded Dreamers " Top Dog " status , and the game maintains a voter score of 8 . 95 out of 10 . Radical Dreamers preceded Chrono Cross , a full role - playing video game sequel to Chrono Trigger . Masato Kato cited the desire to " redo Radical Dreamers properly " as the genesis of Cross , attributing the latter 's serious atmosphere to the influence of Dreamers . Kato 's desire to finish the story of the characters Kid and Serge principally shaped the plot of Cross . Chrono Cross borrowed certain thematic elements , story points , characters , music , and objects introduced in Radical Dreamers — including the infiltration of Viper Manor , the Frozen Flame , the name Radical Dreamers for Kid 's thievery , and the characters of Kid , Lynx , and Serge ( who became a non - speaking protagonist ) . Though these characters and items were not presented in the same context , their general traits survived the transition . Gil , confirmed by Kato to be Magus , was also going to be featured in Chrono Cross . This idea was scrapped due to difficulties in representing the story of Magus among the game 's numerous other characters ; the unrelated , enigmatic magician Guile was created instead . Since the release of Chrono Cross , Radical Dreamers is considered an alternate continuity of the Chrono series . Chrono Cross addressed this through an easter egg hinting that Radical Dreamers took place in a different dimension . In the English version of Chrono Cross , this easter egg refers to Gil as " Magil " . Kato intended Dreamers and Cross to prompt players to pursue their personal dreams in life .
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Stakes ( miniseries ) Stakes is an American animated miniseries based on the show Adventure Time by Pendleton Ward . It aired as part of the show 's seventh season from November 16 , 2015 to November 19 , 2015 on Cartoon Network . Adventure Time follows the adventures of Finn ( voiced by Jeremy Shada ) , a human boy , and his best friend and adoptive brother Jake ( voiced by John DiMaggio ) , a dog with magical powers to change shape , grow and shrink at will . In this limited event series , Princess Bubblegum ( voiced by Hynden Walch ) removes Marceline the Vampire Queen 's ( voiced by Olivia Olson ) vampiric essence , which unleashes five recently resurrected vampires onto Ooo . Marceline , Bubblegum , Finn , Jake , and Peppermint Butler ( voiced by Steve Little ) are forced to deal with the fallout . The miniseries ' story was developed by series creator Pendleton Ward , showrunner Adam Muto , head writer Kent Osborne , and staff writer Jack Pendarvis . The eight episodes were storyboarded by Ako Castuera , Jesse Moynihan , Muto , Hanna K. Nyström , Herpich , Seo Kim , Somvilay Xayaphone , Emily Partridge , and Luke Pearson , whilst Andres Salaff , Elizabeth Ito , and Muto handled supervising direction . Former Adventure Time storyboard artist Rebecca Sugar returned briefly to the show to voice Marceline 's mother , and to contribute a song , entitled " Everything Stays " . Stakes was a ratings success , and was met with mostly positive reviews , with Sugar 's song in particular being met with critical applause . With that being said , a few commentators felt that the miniseries did not meet expectations . Stakes was released on DVD on January 19 , 2016 . Plot Told in eight parts , Stakes documents the reemergence of five of Marceline the Vampire Queen 's most powerful vampiric foes : the Fool ( voiced by Ron Funches ) , the Empress Eyes ( voiced by Rebecca Romijn ) , the Hierophant ( voiced by Paul Williams ) , the Moon ( voiced by Beau Billingslea ) , and the Vampire King himself ( voiced by Billy Brown ) . The quintet <unk> after Bubblegum tries to extract Marceline ’ s vampiric essence , in an attempt to return Marceline to her normal half - demon state . The reappearance of these vampires forces Marceline , Bubblegum , Finn , Jake , and Peppermint Butler to stake them one - by - one . Production Stakes was announced in February 2015 alongside news of Long Live the Royals , a separate miniseries created by Sean <unk> , at an upfront regarding Cartoon Network 's programming for the 2015 to 2016 television season . Writing for Cartoon Brew , Amid Amidi speculated that both were commissioned following the success of Over the Garden Wall , the network 's first miniseries created by Patrick McHale ( a former writer for Adventure Time ) . Michael <unk> , the chief marketing officer of the network , later said that " miniseries provide the network with more opportunities to try different creative textures and give new properties a chance to get on air . " Despite being touted by some outlets as a " spin - off " , Adventure Time showrunner Adam Muto later clarified that Stakes would air as part of the series ' seventh season . At the 2015 New York Comic Con , Muto revealed that the miniseries originated with ideas that were initially developed during the show 's second season . He remarked , " There was this idea from season two about Marceline and ... how she got her powers to begin with . We kind of rolled with that and expanded that into eight episodes . " When Olivia Olson — the voice actress who plays Marceline — was informed that the show would be making an eight - part series about her character , she reportedly cried because she was so excited . Due to the Marceline - centric nature of the miniseries , a new opening was created that features Olson singing the theme song . This intro was storyboarded by Tom Herpich and animated by Masaaki Yuasa 's company Science <unk> . The miniseries ' story was developed by head writer Kent Osborne , series creator Pendleton Ward , Jack Pendarvis , and Muto . The eight episodes were storyboarded by Ako Castuera , Jesse Moynihan , Muto , Hanna K. Nyström , Herpich , Seo Kim , Somvilay Xayaphone , Emily Partridge , and Luke Pearson . Andres Salaff , Elizabeth Ito , and Muto served as the miniseries ' supervising directors . Notably , the miniseries saw the return of several artists who had previously left the series , like Castuera ( a storyboard artist who had left the series after storyboarding the fifth season finale " Billy 's Bucket List " ) , and Rebecca Sugar ( a storyboard artist and songwriter , who had left the series after storyboarding the fifth season episode " Simon & Marcy " ) . Castuera storyboarded the first , sixth , and seventh parts of Stakes alongside Moynihan , and Sugar wrote a new song for the miniseries entitled " Everything Stays " and voiced Marceline 's mother . In regards to the miniseries ' song " Everything Stays " , Nyström revealed that , during the storyboarding of the episode of the same name , she found herself unable to write a lullaby for the scene between Marceline and her mother . She relayed her issue to Muto , who contacted Sugar and asked if she would be willing to pen the song . Sugar agreed and based the song on an incident in which she lost a stuffed animal in a garden . A year later , she found it ; the sun had bleached the exposed surfaces , but the underside was still the same . She explained , " [ The stuffed animal ] wasn ’ t better , or worse , just different . It was the first time I realized that things will change no matter what , even if they ’ re left alone , and stay completely still . " Muto was excited to have Sugar return to work on the show , and noted at the 2015 Adventure Time San Diego Comic - Con International panel that " because [ Stakes ] was a Marceline miniseries , it wouldn 't really feel complete unless Rebecca Sugar wrote a song for it . " Ghostshrimp , a background artist who worked on the series during seasons one through four , also returned to draw around 70 background pieces for this miniseries . Ghostshrimp , who had left the series during the middle of season four , noted : " I was super pumped that they wanted me to work on it , [ and ] it was great to return to that world for another go around . " Cast The miniseries features vocal performances courtesy of the show 's regular crew : Jeremy Shada ( who voices Finn the Human ) , John DiMaggio ( who portrays Jake the Dog ) , Olivia Olson ( who portrays Marceline ) , Tom Kenny ( who lends his voice to the Ice King ) , Hynden Walch ( who voices Princess Bubblegum ) , Steve Little ( who plays Peppermint Butler ) , and Pendleton Ward ( who voices Lumpy Space Princess ) . The Adventure Time cast records their lines together in group recordings as opposed to different recording sessions with each voice actor . This is to record more natural sounding dialogue among the characters . Hynden Walch has described these group recordings as akin to " doing a play reading — a really , really out there play . " The miniseries also features several guest actors lending their voices to various characters . Sugar , in addition to her role as songwriter , was also brought on board to voice Marceline 's mother ; this role marks her first foray into voice acting . Other guest stars include Rebecca Romijn as Empress Eyes , Billy Brown as the Vampire King , Paul Williams as the Hierophant , Ron Funches as the Fool , Beau Billingslea as the Moon , Kyle Kinane as Cloud Dance , and Ava Acres as Young Marceline and the rabbit - hatted child . Release and reception Broadcast Although several sources suggested that the miniseries would air in October 2015 , the miniseries instead debuted on Cartoon Network on November 16 , 2015 . An exclusive sneak peek was screened at the New York Comic Con on October 9 . The first two episodes of Stakes debuted on November 16 , and , following this , two episodes aired every day for three days . On November 20 , the entirety of the miniseries re - aired . On January 18 , 2016 , preceding the miniseries ' January 19 , 2016 , DVD release in the United States , Cartoon Network aired Stakes as an 88 - minute standalone movie . The miniseries made its international debut on Cartoon Network in Australia and New Zealand on January 18 , and concluded airing on January 21 , 2016 . Stakes premiered on Cartoon Network UK and Ireland on March 14 , 2016 , and concluded on March 17 , 2016 . Ratings According to a Cartoon Network press release distributed prior to Stakes being available on DVD , the miniseries was a " phenomenal success , ranking as the # 1 program in its time period with all key kids and boys audiences . " The premiere episodes , " Marceline the Vampire Queen " / " Everything Stays " , were collectively watched by 1 . 87 million viewers and they both scored a 0 . 45 in the 18- to 49 - year - old demographic according to Nielsen ( Nielsen ratings are audience measurement systems that determine the audience size and composition of television programming in the United States ) ; this means that 0 . 45 percent of all households with viewers aged 18 to 49 years old were watching television at the time of the episodes ' airing . This made the two episodes were the most - watched installments of the series , in terms of viewers , since the sixth season episode " The Diary " , which was viewed by 1 . 91 million viewers . The miniseries ' finale , " Checkmate " / " The Dark Cloud " , was viewed by 1 . 7 million viewers , and scored a 0 . 4 in the 18- to 49 - year - old demographic . Critical reception Stakes was met with mostly positive reviews , although a few commentators felt that the miniseries did not meet expectations . Charlie Jane Anders of io9 applauded the miniseries , noting that it 's an interesting meditation of the concept of change , as well as the philosophical idea that everything is cyclical . In regards to the art and direction of the miniseries , Anders wrote : " There is so much insane gorgeous imagery in this [ miniseries ] , including a ton of really fantastic dream sequences . This show is really pushing its limits in terms of pure visual artistry . " Anders noted that , while some fans of the show have been suffering from " Adventure Time fatigue " — largely based on the belief that the show has not moved forward since Finn met his father — Stakes " really feels like a rejoinder to the people who complain the show isn ’ t moving fast enough with its plots " . Writing for Vox , Todd VanDerWerff wrote highly of the miniseries , arguing that it was an excellent example of the coming - of - age story that " shows off the kids series ' emotional maturity " . He did note that the miniseries is " less a cohesive whole than a bunch of short stories that feel as if they accidentally add up to something bigger " , and that the need for every installment to exist as a self - contained unit made Stakes " a little clunky " . With that being said , he felt that it ended up being " suitably epic " and " rich with metaphor " . Ultimately , VanDerWerff felt that the moral message of the miniseries was : " Change is good . Growth is good . Supporting others ' growth is good . And accepting others when they need to change is the best thing you can do . " Heather Hogan of <unk> lauded the miniseries for " color [ ing ] in some of Marceline 's past , answer [ ing ] lots of questions about her relationship with Bonnie , and <unk> [ ing ] her a richer future . " She argued that the miniseries as a whole was a commentary on depression , and that at the conclusion of Stakes , while Marceline had not vanquished depression , " fighting it helped her grow . " Brandon Russell of TechnoBuffalo wrote , " The miniseries does an excellent job of exploring themes of depression , change , and forgiveness . " Russell praised the miniseries for showing Marceline 's emotional transformation , noting that Marceline 's momentary depression in " The Dark Cloud " at the futility of her plight is " a reminder that , although change is hard , it 's necessary for growth . " However , Russell critiqued the fact that , due to the individual episodes ' lengths , some of the miniseries ' more poignant material was not explored to its full extent . Oliver Sava of The A.V. Club awarded the miniseries a " B " , noting that the event " loses steam when it moves away from the introspective personal elements of the past to detail Marceline and her friends ' vampire hunting adventure in the present . " He also bemoaned the fact that only " Everything Stays " features flashbacks , arguing that " rushing through those past events is a missed opportunity to offer a more comprehensive look at where Marceline comes from and how those circumstances have shaped her " . With that being said , Sava was highly complimentary towards the voice acting , with praise being directed towards Olson and the actors who voice the villains ; Sava wrote , " The new characters ' personalities are quickly solidified by the guest stars ' expressive performances . " Eric Thurm of Pitchfork Media opined that Stakes " includes all sorts of cool action sequences and , best of all , it focuses on the backstory of the show 's most musical character : Marceline [ ... ] But Stakes , as fun as it is , ultimately fails to fully deliver , mostly because of a lack of , um , stakes . " Sugar 's " Everything Stays " was met with critical praise . VanDerWerff described it as " beautiful " . Russell argued that it is " arguably the most beautiful and poignant song in the Adventure Time canon . " Sava called it " poignant " , noting that " Olson brings a mournful quality to the song when Marceline reprises it later , and the combination of her somber vocals with Sugar 's delicate songwriting gives the song a quiet power that highlights the importance of this melody in Marceline 's story . " Likewise , Thurm called it the " most exciting moment " in the miniseries and that the song " is pretty much a perfect Adventure Time song . It 's quiet , beautiful , and heartfelt — a lullaby for children at heart , no matter their age . " Episodes Home media Warner Home Video released the entire miniseries on DVD on January 19 , 2016 . The individual episodes can be downloaded from both the iTunes Store and Amazon.com. DVD release
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OS T1000 T1000 and T1300 were two rapid transit train classes used on Oslo Metro in Oslo , Norway . The 197 cars were built by Strømmens Verksted , Norsk Elektrisk & Brown Boveri and AEG between 1960 and 1981 . They were the first metro trains used in Oslo , and had remained in active use until being replaced by OS MX3000 trains in 2007 . Each car is equipped with a driver 's cab at one or both ends and four motors , each with 98 kilowatts ( 131 hp ) . The cars are 17 metres ( 56 ft ) long , 3 . 2 metres ( 10 ft ) wide and 3 . 65 metres ( 12 . 0 ft ) tall . The trains use 750 V current , and are capable of 70 kilometres per hour ( 43 mph ) . Signaling is provided through automatic train protection . In 1960 , two less powerful T single - car units were built , designed to be prototypes used on the Oslo Tramway . After a one - year trial , they were put into scheduled traffic to the Kolsås Line , where they remained in regular service until 1983 . The production series is somewhat different in design and performance . T1000 is both used to refer to the class as a whole , or the first 162 cars , that are only equipped with third - rail shoes . They have four slight variations , which have been given the designations T1 – T4 . The T1300 is a series of 33 new and sixteen rebuilt T4 trains equipped with pantographs which previously allowed them operate on the western part of the network , prior to it being upgraded to third - rail metro standards . The newer units were designated T5 and T6 , while the rebuilt units were designated T7 and T8 . History In 1954 , the Oslo City Council decided to build a four - line metro to the new suburbs to the east of the city center . The plans would lead to the system opening in 1966 , after the conversion of the Østensjø and the Lambertseter Line of the Oslo Tramway to metro standard , and supplemented with the new Furuset and Grorud Line . The system would feature higher and longer platforms , allowing step - free access to six - car trains , automatic train protection and third rail power supply . This would make the metro incompatible with the existing tramways . The first two single - car trains were delivered in 1959 and given the designation T. They were delivered by Strømmens Værksted and NEBB as prototypes , without compensation from the planning office . They were tested on the Østensjø and Lambertseter Lines until 1 December 1960 , when they were transferred to Bærumsbanen , who used them on the Kolsås Line . During their service they were prone to technical problems , and were more in the depot than in service . However , they gave valuable knowledge for the serial production . The trains were originally painted silver with a dark - blue cheatline and numbered 1 and 2 . About 1970 , they were repainted dark blue with a silver cheatline , and in 1971 given the numbers 451 and 452 . The latter remained in service until 1977 , when it was put aside , and scrapped in 1987 . The former remained in service until it was put aside as defect , although it had rarely been used since 1982 . It was fixed up and made operational again 1993 , but was withdrawn the same year and scrapped the following year . Serial production started in 1964 , with the bodies built at Strømmens Værksted , the motors built by NEBB and the electrical equipment by AEG . By 1978 , 162 cars had been delivered to Oslo Sporveier . These were manufactured in four series , named T1 through T4 , with varying specifications . T1 was manufactured in 90 units from 1964 to 1966 for the opening of the Grorud Line and the conversion of the Lambertseter Line . The first 30 have driver 's cabs in both directions ( designated T1 - 2 ) , while the latter 60 have it in only one end ( designated T1 - 1 ) . In 1967 , 15 T2s were built for the conversion of the Østensjø Line . Although given a new designation , they are in all ways identical to the T1 - 1s . From 1969 to 1972 , 30 <unk> were built for the Furuset Line . Further expansions of the lines resulted in 37 T4s being built from 1976 to 1978 . The T1000s are numbered 1001 – 1162 . The need for new rolling stock on the western suburban tramways prompted Oslo Sporveier to order a modified version to the T1000 . This was because they had plans to connect the eastern and western networks , and gradually convert the western lines to metro standard . The T1300 units were built with the same specifications as the T1000 , but were also equipped with pantographs so they could operate on the light rail lines . They also had a slightly different front . The initial order was for 33 units , which were designated T5 and T6 . The former 18 units had a cab in one end , while the latter 15 had a cab in both ends , allowing Oslo Sporveier to operate single - car trains . The new units were put into service on the Røa and Sognsvann Lines , and were also used on the Kolsås Line outside rush - hour . To replace the aging Class C trains , from 1985 to 1987 , ten T4s were converted to T1300 . They were equipped with a pantograph , received a new front and the doors were moved . Six additional T4s were converted in 1989 , and given the designation T8 . These only had the pantographs equipped and kept the same front and door arrangement . With the introduction of the T1300 , the western lines could remove the conductor and have single - manned trains with the motorman selling tickets . The T1300 - units have had better regularity than the older models they replaced . However , because they are designed for a closed system with automatic train protection , the braking systems are not sufficiently dimensioned for when the drivers use line of sight to regulate the speed and distances between trains . The 1300 units were numbered 1301 – 1349 . After the conversions , Oslo Sporveier operated 49 T1300 - cars and 146 T1000 - cars . The trains were originally painted red with a beige cheatline . The Sognsvann Line was finished upgraded to metro standard on 7 January 1993 , allowing the first T1000 trains to operate through the Common Tunnel into the western network , converting parts of the Oslo Tramway to metro . The Røa Line was finished on 19 November 1995 , allowing all trains from the east to operate through the city center . To have sufficient metro - compatible trains , six two - car T2000 units were bought , and during the mid - 1990s were considered to be a possible replacement for the T1000s . Starting in 1995 , Oslo Sporveier made an interior and livery upgrade to the T1000 trains . The main red color to the exterior was kept , but the doors and around the windows were painted blue . The lights and seats were changed , and the latter colored gray . The interior walls were painted red at the end , white on the sides , blue on the doors and received yellow hand bars . Oslo City Council decided in 2003 to order 33 new three - car units from Siemens , that would be designated MX3000 . In 2005 , the city council voted to replace all existing T1000 and T1300 stock with the MX3000 , increasing the order by another 30 units . Following a labor dispute in 2006 , it was decided that all rolling stock belonging to Oslo Sporveier would be transferred to a new holding company , Oslo Vognselskap . The first deliveries of the MX3000 were made in April 2007 . The first T1000 was scrapped on 14 March 2007 , and the last T1000 train was run on 19 July 2009 . Oslo Tramway Museum has preserved seven T1000 cars : numbers 1002 ( T1 - 2 ) , 1018 ( T1 - 2 ) , 1076 ( T1 - 1 ) , 1089 ( T1 - 1 ) , 1092 ( T2 ) , 1129 ( T3 ) and 1141 ( T4 ) . 1089 is displayed in the museum , the other six cars are meant to be kept as an operative train . Of the T1000 units , no . 1076 was the one to run the furthest , reaching 2 , 974 , 076 kilometres ( 1 , 848 , 005 mi ) before retirement . On 22 April 2010 , the last T1300 was taken out of service , leaving only MX3000 units in service . Oslo Tramway Museum has preserved three T1300 cars : numbers 1306 ( T5 ) , 1320 ( T6 ) and 1335 ( T7 , originally T4 no . 1155 ) . The three cars are meant to be kept as an operative train . No T8 car was preserved . Specifications All versions have identical bodies , that are 17 metres ( 55 ft 9 in ) long , 3 . 2 metres ( 10 ft 6 in ) wide and 3 . 65 metres ( 12 ft 0 in ) high . Each car is equipped with two bogies , each with two axles . The axle distance is 2 . 17 metres ( 7 ft 1 in ) , the bogie distance is 11 metres ( 36 ft 1 in ) and the wheel diameter is 82 centimetres ( 2 ft 8 in ) . They are each equipped with four 98 - kilowatt ( 131 hp ) motors from NEBB , giving a maximum speed of 70 kilometres per hour ( 43 mph ) . They each weigh 27 . 740 tonnes ( 27 . 302 long tons ; 30 . 578 short tons ) . The electrical equipment was delivered by AEG . The train 's speed is controlled by an ATP system . The speed codes are transferred from the ATP points in the infrastructure , using 75 hertz pulses in the tracks . The trains pick up the signals via antennas . The speed codes are 15 km / h ( 9 mph ) , 30 km / h ( 19 mph ) , 50 km / h ( 31 mph ) and 70 km / h ( 43 mph ) . The permitted speeds are presented to the driver via displays in the driver 's cab ; in addition , the system will automatically reduce the speed , should the limit be exceeded . The driver can put the trains in an automatic mode , where the train adjusts its own speed to match the speed limit . The driver is always responsible for starting and stopping the train at stations . The prototype T series consisted of two single - car units . It had the same dimensions as the T1000 and T1300 , but had four 75 - kilowatt ( 101 hp ) motors and weighed only 26 . 5 tonnes ( 26 . 1 long tons ; 29 . 2 short tons ) . They were equipped with a pantograph and were bi - directional , but lacked ATP and third rail shoes . For the T1000 - series , the T1 - 2 are the only to have a cab on both ends , although this is also featured on the T6 . Since the T3 , the trains have been delivered with electromagnetic brakes in addition to dynamic brakes , hand brakes and air brakes with . Models from T4 and onwards have larger cabs . The T1300 differ in that they had a pantograph and were built for conductors . The seating varies between the models : T1000 has a total capacity of 180 passengers , of which 63 can be seated . T5 has the same total capacity , but 70 people can be seated . T6 has a capacity for 154 people , of which 64 can be seated . T7 and T8 have a capacity for 177 passengers , of which 60 can be seated . All models are capable of operating six cars in multiple , although they are commonly used in shorter configurations .
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Avonmouth railway station Avonmouth railway station is on the Severn Beach Line and serves the district of Avonmouth in Bristol , England . It is 9 . 0 miles ( 14 . 5 km ) from Bristol Temple Meads . Its three letter station code is AVN . The station has two platforms , on either side of two running lines . As of 2015 it is managed by Great Western Railway , which is the third franchise to be responsible for the station since privatisation in 1997 . They provide all train services at the station , mainly a train every forty minutes to Bristol Temple Meads and one every two hours to Severn Beach . The station was opened in 1877 by the Bristol Port Railway and Pier , a railway which ran along the River Avon from Hotwells to a pier at Avonmouth . The station , originally known as Avonmouth Dock , had a single platform , but was rebuilt with two platforms by the Great Western and Midland Railways in 1885 when they began services via Clifton Down . The station was enhanced numerous times in the early part of the twentieth century , and by 1913 employed 72 staff . Facilities included a goods yard , signal box and engine shed . The Severn Beach Line declined over the latter half of the twentieth century , with passenger numbers falling significantly . Goods services at Avonmouth ended in 1966 , and all staff were withdrawn in 1967 . Services had decreased to 10 per day each direction by 2005 , but have since increased to 25 trains per day . Description The station is located in the Avonmouth district of Bristol , an area of mixed industrial and residential usage . The station sits to the south of the junction of Gloucester Road and <unk> Road , the tracks running to parallel to <unk> Road and crossing Gloucester Road at a level crossing . The station is on the Severn Beach Line from Bristol Temple Meads to Severn Beach , 9 miles 02 chains ( 14 . 5 km ) from Temple Meads and 4 miles 42 chains ( 7 . 3 km ) from Severn Beach . It is the eighth station from Temple Meads . The next station towards Temple Meads is Shirehampton ; the next towards Severn Beach is St Andrews Road . The station is on a north - west / south - east alignment , with two platforms separated by two running lines . The southern " up " platform , adjacent to the " Up Main " line , is used for trains towards Severn Beach . The northern " down " platform , adjacent to the " Down Main " line , is <unk> signalled , allowing it to be used by terminating trains and those heading towards Bristol . Both platforms have significant portions of their length fenced off , giving usable lengths of 91 yards ( 83 m ) for the southern platform and 70 yards ( 64 m ) for the northern . Facilities at the station are minimal – there is a wooden canopy and bench seating on the northern platform , with a small metal shelter on the southern . Timetable information is provided ; help points show next train information and allow users to contact railway staff . There is no ticket office or other means for buying or collecting tickets . There is a car park with six spaces , as well as stands for four bicycles . The nearest bus stops are 150 metres ( 160 yd ) away on Avonmouth Road . The line through Avonmouth has a speed limit of 30 miles per hour ( 48 km / h ) for locomotive - hauled trains and 50 miles per hour ( 80 km / h ) for diesel multiple units . The line , which is not electrified , handles less than 5 million train tonnes per year , has a loading gauge of W6 and a route availability of 7 . In the 2013 / 14 financial year , more than 110 , 000 passengers used Avonmouth station , making it the <unk> busiest station in the country and the sixth busiest within the Bristol unitary authority area . This was an increase of 175 % from the 2002 – 03 financial year , and reflected a general rise in usage of the Severn Beach Line . The 2014 - 15 estimates of station usage saw a further increase of 8 % to 120 , 000 making it the <unk> busiest station in the country . Services Services at Avonmouth are all operated by Great Western Railway , using mainly Class 150 Sprinter units . Avonmouth is the main terminus of the Severn Beach Line ; as of 2015 there are 25 trains to and from Bristol Temple Meads each day from Monday to Friday , a service of three trains every two hours , giving a train every 40 minutes on average . Of these , one train every two hours runs to and from Severn Beach . Most services start at Bristol , but one evening service to Avonmouth starts at Weston - super - Mare . On Saturdays there is a similar level of service , at 24 trains per day . Sunday sees a roughly hourly service to and from Bristol , ten trains per day , with only two services extending to Severn Beach , except during the May – September timetable period when all services are extended . The first and last Sunday trains towards Bristol are extended to Taunton via Weston - super - Mare , and there are similar workings in the other direction . Most trains from Avonmouth to Temple Meads call at all stations , but some services omit Lawrence Hill . Trains making the journey to and from Severn Beach call at St Andrews Road alternately on the outward or return leg . The typical journey time to Bristol Temple Meads is roughly 30 minutes , and 12 minutes to Severn Beach . In 2012 , the single fare to Clifton Down or Severn Beach was £ 1 . 50 , and £ 3 return for the whole line . History Construction and early operations The railways first came to Avonmouth in 1865 , when services began on the Bristol Port Railway and Pier ( BPRP ) , a self - contained railway which ran along the north bank of the River Avon to a deep water pier on the Severn Estuary . The BPRP line ran through the site of the current station and 1 mile 72 chains ( 3 . 1 km ) beyond to a terminus at the first Avonmouth station . The BPRP ran into trouble by 1871 when the terminal pier at Avonmouth became difficult to use due to a build - up of silt . With no prospect of a proper dock being funded without a connection to the national rail network , the Clifton Extension Railway ( CER ) was approved . This was a joint venture by the BPRP , Great Western Railway ( GWR ) and Midland Railway ( MR ) which ran from Sneyd Park Junction , south of Sea Mills , via Clifton Down , to join up with the national network at Narroways Hill Junction . The link opened in 1877 , but initially only for goods trains . The route from Sneyd Park Junction to Clifton Down was subsequently cleared for passenger use on 3 August 1878 , but the Midland and Great Western Railways did not think the BPRP track was in a suitable condition and so refused to run any passenger trains beyond Clifton Down . The station , originally known as Avonmouth Dock , was opened in 1877 , shortly after the opening of the Avonmouth Docks in February that year . It was built on , or very near to , the site of a halt built in 1868 for the Docks ' construction workers . The local area was still mostly rural – there were a few buildings around the station area , as well as the docks , with the closest extent of the Bristol conurbation 1 mile ( 1 . 6 km ) away at Shirehampton . The station cost £ 275 to build , and was merely a platform on the south side of the single track , served by eight trains per day between Hotwells and the BPRP 's Avonmouth terminus , increasing to ten per day from 1887 . The Great Western and Midland Railways considered the station inadequate for the passenger numbers expected , and so purchased additional land to enhance the station with extra tracks . The new station comprised a wide island platform – the northern face on the original through line , the southern face being for a new terminal line . The station , now known as Avonmouth Dock Joint , was constructed using mainly wood and corrugated iron . It was opened on 1 September 1885 , coinciding with the beginning of passenger services beyond Clifton Down . The Great Western initially offered six trains per day each direction between Avonmouth Dock and Bristol Temple Meads . Fearing competition , the BPRP did not allow passengers to use GWR services between its stations . The Midland Railway did not run any passenger services beyond Clifton Down , apart from a one - month trial service in September 1885 . Despite the increased traffic the BPRP suffered financially , and was taken over by the CER in 1890 . The BPRP 's Avonmouth terminus closed to the public in 1902 , after which all trains terminated at Avonmouth Dock . Early twentieth century The station went through numerous enhancements in the first part of the twentieth century . A new platform canopy and urinal were provided in 1900 at a cost of £ 250 . Further improvements followed in 1902 at a cost of £ 80 ; and in August 1904 significant enhancements to the station buildings and an extension of the platform cost a total of £ 1 , 570 . A 60 feet ( 18 m ) turntable was constructed in December 1903 , with a signal box , known as Avonmouth Dock Passenger , installed at the end of the platform . Dedicated goods staff were employed from the start of 1904 , with that year also seeing the installation of a run - around loop for the terminal platform . A small engine shed was added in January 1905 . In 1910 , some passenger trains once again began to run beyond Avonmouth Dock , continuing towards Henbury on the newly opened Henbury Loop Line , which allowed goods trains to the docks to avoid the steep Clifton Down Tunnel . Other trains arrived from London via the loop , connecting with steamer services to Canada and Jamaica . At this point there were 17 trains from Bristol to Avonmouth Dock and 15 back each day ; increasing to 21 and 19 respectively by 1920 . The station was well - staffed , with 25 station staff and 47 goods staff in 1913 . Positions included stationmaster ; booking clerks ; posters ; and outdoor porters , who took goods to ships in the docks . During the First World War , an Army Remount Service depot was located near Shirehampton . Over the course of the war , Avonmouth Dock Joint handled 35 , 000 animals , mainly horses and mules , en route to the depot . July 1917 saw the introduction of platform tickets , to capitalise on people using the station to bid farewell to friends heading overseas , or to welcome those returning . The platform was lengthened to 330 feet ( 100 m ) in December 1917 . A second through track was added in 1918 , and so a new cinder - covered platform was built on the north side of the line . The two platforms were linked by a footbridge and a level crossing . The cost of the new platform and the lengthening works was £ 7 , 420 . After the war , construction of the Bristol Portway along the Avon Gorge necessitated the closure of the line from Sneyd Park Junction to Hotwells , with trains along it ceasing on 3 July 1922 . By this point there were nine trains per day from Hotwells , and eight return . To compensate for the loss of service , the Great Western provided an additional four trains daily from Avonmouth Dock to Bristol and six return . In 1923 , grouping resulted in the Midland Railway being absorbed into the London , Midland and Scottish Railway ( LMS ) , and the line continued in a joint arrangement between the Great Western and the LMS . The engine shed was closed in 1924 . By the mid - 1920s , the station was proving inadequate for the passenger numbers , and so work began on a comprehensive rebuild in 1926 . The new buildings were made of brick ; with a large , four - <unk> building containing most of the facilities ; as well as a separate parcels office . The northern platform had a wooden awning built , which is still in place today . From 1928 many services to Avonmouth Dock were extended to Severn Beach . By 1947 , just before the railways were nationalised , there were 33 services each direction between Avonmouth Dock and Temple Meads , with 18 on Sundays . Some trains made circular trips to and from Temple Meads via Clifton Down and Henbury or Pilning . British Rail and privatisation When the railways were nationalised in 1948 , services at Avonmouth Dock came under the aegis of the Western Region of British Railways . By 1955 , service levels had decreased slightly to 28 trains per day from Bristol and 29 return , but the services were at regular intervals . Passenger numbers however dropped sharply in 1961 as the result of a fare increase , and so in 1962 a new reduced timetable was enacted , which lost more passengers . A year later in 1963 , the Beeching report suggested the complete withdrawal of services along the line , but ultimately only those beyond Severn Beach or via Henbury were withdrawn . Goods services from the station ended on 20 June 1966 , the same day that the station was renamed " Avonmouth " . The bay platform was taken out of use and the land later taken for industrial buildings . From 17 July 1967 all staffing was withdrawn from stations along the line , including Avonmouth , with tickets issued by the train guard . The station buildings on the island platform survived into the 1970s , as did the footbridge , but with the exception of the parcels office , all were later demolished . The parcels office was in use in 2006 as a hairdressing salon . The signal box was closed in January 1969 , and in September 1973 the wooden level crossing gates were replaced by automatic lifting barriers . By 1974 , service had reduced to 19 trains per day in each direction , with no Sunday services to Severn Beach . British Rail was split into business - led sectors in the 1980s , at which time operations at Avonmouth passed to Regional Railways . At this time , all trains ran to Severn Beach , but the service pattern was irregular . This changed in 1995 when an hourly timetable was introduced for peak times , but northbound services were terminated at Avonmouth . When the railway was privatised in 1997 , local services were franchised to Wales & West , which was succeeded by Wessex Trains , an arm of National Express , in 2001 . Following action by Friends of Severn Beach Railway and a string of protests , services had increased to 10 per day in each direction by 2005 , with Bristol City Council providing a subsidy to Wessex Trains . The Wessex franchise was amalgamated with the Great Western franchise into the Greater Western franchise from 2006 , and responsibility passed to First Great Western , a subsidiary company of FirstGroup , subsequently rebranded as Great Western Railway in 2015 . A minimum service requirement was written into the franchise agreement , ensuring an hourly service along the line , and this has since been increased to three trains every two hours ( 25 trains per day ) . Sunday services to Severn Beach were restored in 2010 . Future The last remaining station building , the old parcels office , is threatened with demolition by Network Rail , which owns the station . Network Rail states that the building is beyond economic repair , but local rail campaigners , including Friends of Suburban Bristol Railways and MP Charlotte Leslie , have petitioned to prevent the demolition . First Great Western declined a contractual option to continue the Greater Western passenger franchise ( of which services at Avonmouth are a part ) beyond 2013 , citing a desire for a longer - term contract due to the impending upgrade to the Great Western Main Line . The franchise was put out to tender , but the process was halted and later scrapped due to the fallout from the collapse of the InterCity West Coast franchise competition . A two - year franchise extension until September 2015 was agreed in October 2013 , and subsequently extended until March 2019 . With the coming upgrade to the Great Western Main Line , the main line from London to Bristol is due to be electrified by 2016 . However , the electrification will not extend beyond the main lines , so Avonmouth will continue to be served by diesel trains , with the current " Sprinter " units expected to be replaced by Class 165 and 166 " Networker Turbo " units . Stephen Williams , MP for Bristol West ; and the group Friends of Suburban Bristol Railways support the electrification being extended to the Severn Beach Line . Improved services at Avonmouth are called for as part of the Greater Bristol Metro scheme , a rail transport plan which aims to enhance transport capacity in the Bristol area . There is an aspiration for half - hourly services , with trains towards Bristol terminating alternately at Portishead and Bath Spa , however due to the large sections of the Severn Beach Line which are single - track , and to the congested main line from Temple Meads , such frequency is not currently feasible . The enhancement scheme was given the go - ahead in July 2012 as part of the City Deal , whereby local councils would be given greater control over money by the government . There are also calls for the reopening of the Henbury Loop Line , which could allow a direct service from Avonmouth to Bristol Parkway . Plans for a loop were rejected by the West of England Joint Transport Board , however Bristol City Councillors voted to send the decision back to the board for further discussion .
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