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Public Web Sites with Free Referrals - No Registration Required
www.optometrists.org - www.children-special-needs.org - www.visiontherapy.org
Choosing An Eye Doctor
by Patricia S. Lemer, M.Ed., NCC
Executive Director, Developmental Delay Resources
...Pediatric Developmental Optometrist or Pediatric Ophthalmologist?
A parent recently asked why I recommend that her child be examined by a pediatric optometrist rather than a pediatric ophthalmologist. The answer comes from my understanding of these two types of eye doctors and my personal experience.
Both types of eye doctors examine and prescribe glasses, diagnose and treat eye disease, and can evaluate how well a person uses the eyes together. However, each profession is unique.
Ophthalmologists are trained to do surgery. I credit one with saving the eyesight of my daughter, who at age five sustained an eye injury. Optometrists are schooled in the developmental (behavioral, functional or environmental) aspects of vision. Optometrists are more apt to use lenses, prisms and Vision Therapy to enhance and improve visual function. These interventions often improve children's academic and other abilities.
Making the Right Choice
Scientific evidence indicates that interventions such as Vision Therapy, used by behavioral optometrists, work. If your child has developmental delays of any kind, choose to have all aspects of vision evaluated. The Find Pediatric Eye Doctor
can help you locate eye care professionals qualified to evaluate even the most difficult, non-verbal children.
The American Optometric Association publishes a monograph, The Efficacy of Optometric Vision Therapy, containing 238 references; it is available free of charge from the Developmental Delay Resources
End of this excerpted quote by Patricia S. Lemer, M.Ed., NCC
Excerpts from the book:
Buzzards to Bluebirds: Improve Your Child's Learning and Behavior in Six Weeks
by Educators, Allen and Virginia Crane
Pediatric Optometrist or Pediatric Ophthalmologist?
"The emphasis of ophthalmology is eye disease and eye surgery; this is their domain, their area of expertise. Dr. Malcolm L. Mazow, an opthalmologist, wrote in the discussion section of his paper "Acute Accommodative and Convergence Insufficiency,"1
"My impression is that many ophthalmologists handle this disorder poorly and many of the patients end up under the care of optometrists." Another opthalmologist, Dr. David L. Guyton, in the same article said, "I agree with Dr. Mazow
we have probably abdicated the study of accommodation and convergence to the optometric profession. A perusal of the literature will reveal that most of the advances in this area are being made in the optometric institutions by vision scientists who use definitions and terms with which we are not even familiar."
All optometrists are thoroughly trained to detect eye disease, examine binocular vision and convergence, and perform refraction (the fitting of eye glasses and contact lenses). Beyond that, in postdoctoral study, optometrists learn one or more specialites. Some specialize in contact lenses, some in geriatrics, some in functional vision, some in sports vision. Specialists in behavioral optometry or developmental optometry treat individuals with developmental or functional vision problems. Specialists in neuro-optometric Vision Therapy or rehabilitation work with individuals who have visual disturbances with neurological causes, (i.e., birth trauma, brain damage, head trauma).
When unable to detect a vision problem quickly, the non-functional vision specialists may suggest that your child be referred to a psychologist or psychiatrist to explain your child's symptoms. Remember that if your child develops symptoms during reading, this indicates a vision problem. Your child does not require a psychologist or psychiatrist.
Be sure to screen vision specialists to find an optometrist who will do the comprehensive testing you require and will be able to give the assistance you need to correct any vision problems. Free and immediate referrals to specialists in behavioral optometry or developmental optometry can be obtained by filling out a form at the Find Pediatric Eye Doctor
End of excerpt: Buzzards to Bluebirds: Improve Your Child's Learning and Behavior in Six Weeks
Additional excerpted writings:
Patricia S. Lemer, M.Ed., NCC
Executive Director, Developmental Delay Resources
Eyesight vs. Vision
Eyesight and vision are not synonymous. Eyesight is the sharpness of the image seen by the eye. Vision is the ability to focus on and comprehend that which is seen. Research has shown that while most children with special needs do not have eyesight problems, many have visual dysfunction. If a child has motor delays, vestibular difficulties, or health problems, vision is often compromised.
The American Optometric Association (AOA) recommends that children have vision examinations by six months. A good eye doctor can test many aspects of function at this young age and quickly effect changes with intervention.
Most school vision screenings check only eyesight, and only at twenty feet, not at reading distance. They rarely tell us whether a child has a clear image at nearpoint or how the eyes work together. The only information they provide is whether a child can see the blackboard. Many vision problems thus go undetected when parents have false security and brag, "My kid's eyes are 20/20!"
Vision is Learned
Vision, like reading, mathematics, and language, is learned. Giving meaning to what is seen begins at birth. In the developmental hierarchy, infants move without purpose, while their eyes learn how to work as a team, to sustain focus. Toddlers use movement to drive vision, such as shaking a rattle for its sound before looking at it. Finally, children can visualize without movement. Thus, for children to be successful in school, vision must purposefully direct their actions.
Vision Lays the Foundation for Language & Relationships
Vision plays a major role in language and social-emotional development. Children with language delays, attention deficits, pervasive developmental disorders and autism all have inefficient visual systems. If a toddler is not speaking or relating to others, a vision evaluation is essential.
A developmental optometrist can prescribe therapeutic and pleasurable activities to be done at home, during floor time, occupational and language therapy, or at day care. Combining the visual system with touch, movement, audition and social experiences benefits all areas. Begin Where They Are, a workbook designed by vision therapists and available through the DDR, has good ideas for pre-verbal children and toddlers.
The Developmental Delay Resources is a not-for-profit organization whose mission is to educate parents and professionals supporting children with developmental delays about healthy options for treating the whole child.
End of excerpt: Patricia S. Lemer, M.Ed., NCC
Additional excerpted writings: Buzzards to Bluebirds: Improve Your Child's Learning and Behavior in Six Weeks
by Educators, Allen and Virginia Crane
Hypophoria, Hypertropia, Hyper, Vertical Misalignment
The authors, Allen and Virginia Crane, believe that the most overlooked problem in vision is vertical misalignment: wherein one eye aims higher than the other (sometimes one eye is actually placed physically higher than the other in the child's face); technically termed hypophoria or hypertropia or simply "hyper." The established allowable norm used by many eye doctors is two diopters (a unit that expresses the power of a lens).2
This means that one eye may normally aim about 1/4 inch lower at reading distance than the other eye. This is a large amount. In comparison, behavioral optometrists use 1/2 diopter as the allowable norm.
Sample of the difference 1/2 diopter can make.
In some cases, 1/4 of a diopter can prevent a child from learning the alphabet and reading properly because of all the extra effort required to keep a clear image. The child can do this for only a short period of time and comprehension can be poor. The eyes can keep good alignment only for a short time and then must be rested. This can explain why many children are labeled as having a short attention span, being hyperactive or having attention deficit hyperactive disorder (ad/hd, adhd, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder). Actually, many are resting their eyes, an involuntary physical need. A vertical alignment problem is easier to correct than to diagnose. During our research, we found that only behavioral optometrists diagnosed and corrected vertical problems directly.
In our experience, directly training vertical alignment at the beginning of vision training activities shortens the total time required to eliminate visual symptoms.
Note that a behavioral optometrist may correct vertical alignment problems by including the proper amount of prism in glasses to compensate for the problem (prismatic lenses or prism lenses). These doctors use several methods to determine the prism correction necessary. One technique is patching one eye for up to forty-eight hours, then remeasuring the vertical alignment. A second technique is a fixation disparity test which takes special equipment and about twenty minutes.3
A series of prisms is used and a vertical alignment curve plotted to determine the amount of prism needed.4
In order to locate an eye doctor who has the competence and knowledge to help you, search through the Referral Directory: Find a Pediatric Eye Doctor
. These eye doctors have passed extensive written and oral examinations by certifications boards in behavioral optometry. If there is no eye doctor listed in your community, contact the nearest Fellow listed in the Directory and ask for more information regarding a qualified person in your area.
Malzow, M.L.; France, T.D.; Finkleman, S.; Frank, P.; Jenkins, P. "Acute Accommodative and Convergence Insufficiency," Tr. Amer. Opth. Soc., Vol LXXXVIII, 1989.
Boorish, I.M. Clinical Refraction, 3rd edition, Chicago, IL: The Professional Press, Inc., 1970. p. 869.
Scheinman, M.; Wick, B.,
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The Bangladesh War of 1971—in which up to 3 million people were killed, and hundreds of thousands of women raped—seemingly has its roots in strange cartography. As University of Chicago professor Rochona Majumdar puts it, the 1947 Partition between India and Pakistan was geographically “very weird,” with the nation of Pakistan split into two noncontiguous land masses. Mapped to the west of India was West Pakistan, the largest ethnic group of which comprised Punjabis (mostly in the western part of the now divided Punjab, the eastern part of which lay in India), but also Pakhtuni-, Balochi-, and Sindhi-speaking peoples, who largely spoke and/or understood Urdu, a language rooted in India’s United Provinces (now Uttar Pradesh). The eastern “wing” of the country, East Pakistan—later Bangladesh—was on the other side of India, largely Bengali-speaking with ties to India’s Bengal. As the BBC points out, the provinces were separated by “more than 1,500 km of Indian territory,” or 932 miles. From the beginning, the state was carved into separate sociolinguistic regions.
Adding to the strain was the fact that the Pakistani army was drawn largely from the Punjabis and Pukhtoons of West Pakistan. Although statistically there were more Bengali than Urdu speakers in the nation, Bengali speakers from the East were poorly represented. This became especially divisive during early periods of military rule.
Just two years after the creation of Pakistan, a group called the Awami League was formed in an effort to petition for East Pakistan’s autonomy. At the end of 1970, the League won in a landslide election in East Pakistan—the first election in Pakistan’s history in which voters could directly choose members of the National Assembly. Though the victory meant the League would control the government, the government in West Pakistan refused to acknowledge the results. Rioting ensued.
In 1971, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman (called Mujib), leader of the Awami League, declared independence and renamed East Pakistan “Bangladesh.” Talks between leaders failed to bring reconciliation; on March 23, 1971, East Pakistan, at the direction of Mujib, celebrated “Resistance Day” instead of the national “Republic Day.” Mujib was later arrested and moved to West Pakistan. Soon after, Pakistan began Operation Searchlight, its violent crackdown on Bangladesh. The fighting lasted nine months. India, which took in up to 10 million refugees from East Pakistan/Bangladesh, aided the rebels in their fight against Pakistan.
In December of 1971, Bangladeshi “freedom fighters,” with the help of Indian military forces, defeated Pakistan’s soldiers.
Human Rights Watch estimated that Pakistani forces killed up to 3 million people, though the Pakistani government sets that number much lower, at about 26,000. Hundreds of thousands of women and young girls were raped, though estimates on sexualized violence vary greatly as well. However, as Yasmin Saikia, chair of Peace Studies at Arizona State University's Center for the Study of Religion and Conflict and author of several books about the Indian subcontinent, explains, the 1971 war must be viewed in the context of longer-term conflict in the region. Present-day India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh, she says, all committed profound acts of violence between the late 1940s and early 1970s.
How Sexualized Violence Is Used as a Weapon of War
To break up families and communities: Many families did not accept women and young girls after they returned home from rape camps and other sites of abuse. Children of rape were rarely accepted, either. As a result of being rejected, many women committed suicide. As Bangladesh’s Daily Star reports, others “fled to Pakistan with their Pakistani captors rather than face what awaited them in Bangladeshi society.” It’s likely that the military had this effect in mind when systematically attacking women and girls. (See also “Witness.”)
To wield power: Food rations were withheld from women and young girls in rape camps until they acquiesced each day to repeated sexual assault.
To humiliate: Rape survivors, though called “war heroines” by the government, were stigmatized and made to feel ashamed of their ordeals. One survivor says she and others stayed with the soldiers who’d hurt them because of how palpable the rejection was by Bangladeshi men. Many women, shunned by their communities, fled to other towns or committed suicide. Again, this was likely no surprise to the military officials who encouraged soldiers to rape. Women and nation were viewed as related concepts, rendering women during nationalist fights prime targets of attack, says Rochona Majumda.
Patterns of Violence
- Rape camps: Thousands of Bengali women were abducted and held by force in barracks, where they were raped night after night for months. According to Susan Brownmiller, author of a groundbreaking 1975 book on rape, captive women and young girls were raped by anywhere from two to 80 men a night. Browmiller writes that Khadiga, a 13-year-old survivor interviewed in an abortion clinic by a female photojournalist, was at first “gagged to keep from screaming during attacks.” But as months passed and “the captives’ spirit was broken, the soldiers devised a simple quid pro quo. They withheld the daily ration of food until the girls had submitted to the full quota.” One survivor Arizona State University professor Yasmin Saikia interviewed stated that when her fellow captives died due to continuous torture, she and the other women were forced to dig graves and bury their peers. Brownmiller relays the words of an Indian reporter who writes that pornographic movies were shown to soldiers “in an obvious attempt to work the men up.”
- Brownmiller reports that women of all ages were sexually assaulted, from young girls to 75-year-old grandmothers.
- Mass rape followed by mass murder: According to interviews with survivors, young girls were “strapped to green banana trees and repeatedly gang-raped. A few weeks later, they were strapped to the same trees and hacked to death.” Women were often left in mass graves.
- Gender-based mutilation: Women’s bodies found in mass graves often had their breasts cut off.
In the span of just nine months, the Bangladeshi government estimates, 200,000 women and girls were raped. Even more staggering numbers have been suggested elsewhere. A 1973 article in the New York Times Magazine quotes the chair of the National Board of Bangladesh Women’s Rehabilitation Program—the organization formed to help survivors: “Dr. [Geoffrey] Davis of the International Planned Parenthood Federation who traveled all over Bangladesh,” the chair reports, “estimates that at least 400,000 women were ravished by the Pakistanis.”
A 2009 Human Rights Watch report states that rape occurred on a “large but undetermined scale (figures of 200,000 to 400,000 victims are often mentioned in the literature, though some scholars claim that these figures are seriously inflated).” Controversial scholarship from Indian scholar Sarmila Bose, who published a journal article that appeared to downplay rape as well as a book about the 1971 war, sparked a backlash from other scholars on Bangladesh.
As always, the incidence of sexualized violence is not easy to calculate. In Bangladesh, however, where stigma and social exclusion for rape survivors was quite brutal following the war, numbers may be especially difficult to determine.
Cultural Gender Attitudes
University of Chicago historian Rochona Majumdar explains that in the Indian subcontinent, there is a deeply held concept of the nation as mother, and women as mothers of the nation. This notion became even stronger during periods of nationalism. Majumdar believes that this is a mindset that especially leads to violence against women—their wombs, breasts, and other symbols of maternity. As recently as 2002, she says, during a riot in the Indian state of Gujarat, “pregnant women’s wombs were pulled out.”
Although women participated somewhat heavily during moments of nationalism in the region’s history, they are still encumbered by gender roles, says Majumdar. “They come out of the house, they are out on the street, but they’re out on the street as wives and sisters and mothers.”
Although women were being educated in large numbers, she adds, marriage and motherhood were still considered the most important goals for women.
Saleha Begum, interviewed for a September 2011 story in Women’s eNews, was part of a group of women that was repeatedly gang raped, and later shot. She described being rescued from a pile of dead bodies by a Bangladeshi “freedom fighter,” only to then endure abuse as a rape survivor:
Begum said her captors—Pakistani Army soldiers known as the “Khans”—had bound the women to green banana trees, and “burned our faces and bodies with cigarettes. My body was swollen, I could barely move," she said. Between being raped, she was given some bread or a few fried vegetables, she said.
Another survivor tells of how the rejection from her community was so strong that she and other captives preferred to stay with their rapists after being rescued, rather than face being shamed:
"We went with them voluntarily because when we were being pulled out from the bunkers by the Indian soldiers, some of us half-clad, others half-dead, the hatred and deceit I saw in the eyes of our countrymen standing by, I could not raise my eyes a second time. They were throwing various dirty words at us ... I did not imagine that we would be subjected to so much hatred
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320,
62895,
304,
279,
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949,
315,
279,
1431,
17779,
59317,
11,
279,
23149,
949,
315,
892,
10962,
304,
6747,
701,
714,
1083,
13358,
426,
15705,
36519,
19420,
4953,
72,
36519,
323,
96681,
6023,
61190,
31438,
11,
879,
13771,
12290,
323,
5144,
15985,
93335,
11,
264,
4128,
40876,
304,
6747,
748,
3639,
1298,
78565,
320,
3328,
85673,
42358,
568,
576,
23149,
1036,
23593,
854,
315,
279,
3146,
11,
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38501,
2293,
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389,
279,
1008,
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315,
6747,
11,
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25250,
7956,
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448,
19818,
311,
6747,
748,
49020,
13,
1634,
279,
18096,
3501,
700,
11,
279,
39921,
1033,
18663,
553,
1036,
6384,
1091,
220,
16,
11,
20,
15,
15,
13136,
315,
7748,
17971,
2419,
476,
220,
24,
18,
17,
8756,
13,
5542,
279,
7167,
11,
279,
1584,
572,
48167,
1119,
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15610,
337,
12810,
4532,
13604,
624,
32308,
311,
279,
25716,
572,
279,
2097,
429,
279,
44452,
13390,
572,
14764,
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504,
279,
30436,
73,
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323,
393,
3101,
426,
28539,
315,
4312,
16663,
13,
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1052,
1033,
803,
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21326,
304,
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6995,
11,
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7956,
21326,
504,
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30455,
15251,
13,
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5310,
74135,
2337,
4124,
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5912,
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1378,
1635,
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9688,
315,
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264,
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2598,
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17889,
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572,
14122,
304,
458,
5041,
311,
20361,
369,
6326,
16663,
748,
50260,
13,
2411,
279,
835,
315,
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16,
24,
22,
15,
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279,
8953,
2765,
304,
264,
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304,
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21677,
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3840,
304,
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1410,
5961,
5157,
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315,
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5055,
11738,
13,
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12560,
8791,
279,
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2524,
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279,
3033,
304,
4312,
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13,
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624,
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16,
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17889,
10606,
8953,
11,
14275,
23665,
323,
27280,
6326,
16663,
1036,
62819,
34121,
1987,
80447,
1948,
6036,
4641,
311,
4446,
57655,
26,
389,
5470,
220,
17,
18,
11,
220,
16,
24,
22,
16,
11,
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11,
518,
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11,
27185,
1036,
88077,
6059,
854,
4518,
315,
279,
5313,
1036,
38863,
6059,
1987,
57236,
579,
572,
2937,
12517,
323,
7726,
311,
4312,
16663,
13,
31762,
1283,
11,
16663,
6009,
16730,
7542,
4145,
11,
1181,
16401,
58133,
389,
38501,
13,
576,
10805,
35413,
11627,
3951,
13,
6747,
11,
892,
3867,
304,
705,
311,
220,
16,
15,
3526,
21728,
504,
6326,
16663,
16276,
524,
34121,
11,
62857,
279,
35623,
304,
862,
4367,
2348,
16663,
624,
641,
6652,
315,
220,
16,
24,
22,
16,
11,
16914,
75,
3452,
6023,
1036,
24716,
8769,
23202,
2419,
448,
279,
1492,
315,
7748,
6277,
8437,
11,
23283,
16663,
748,
14856,
624,
33975,
10512,
10357,
12943,
429,
44452,
8437,
7425,
705,
311,
220,
18,
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1251,
11,
3498,
279,
44452,
3033,
7289,
429,
1372,
1753,
4722,
11,
518,
911,
220,
17,
21,
11,
15,
15,
15,
13,
72336,
315,
9037,
315,
3198,
323,
3908,
7571,
1033,
39377,
11,
3498,
17530,
389,
7244,
1506,
9170,
13289,
18875,
438,
1632,
13,
4354,
11,
438,
69928,
1065,
15854,
1579,
685,
11,
10496,
315,
25803,
18720,
518,
16938,
3234,
3822,
594,
5832,
369,
279,
19173,
315,
43093,
323,
58585,
323,
3150,
315,
3807,
6467,
911,
279,
7748,
1186,
74595,
11,
14758,
11,
279,
220,
16,
24,
22,
16,
4116,
1969,
387,
19334,
304,
279,
2266,
315,
5021,
9663,
12055,
304,
279,
5537,
13,
26642,
11228,
6747,
11,
16663,
11,
323,
38501,
11,
1340,
2727,
11,
678,
11163,
27155,
14056,
315,
9170,
1948,
279,
3309,
220,
16,
24,
19,
15,
82,
323,
4124,
220,
16,
24,
22,
15,
82,
624,
4340,
38667,
1506,
46632,
2160,
12199,
438,
264,
27777,
315,
5004,
198,
1249,
1438,
705,
8521,
323,
10744,
25,
8999,
8521,
1521,
537,
4193,
3198,
323,
3908,
7571,
1283,
807,
5927,
2114,
504,
16781,
28035,
323,
1008,
6594,
315,
11480,
13,
15044,
315,
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1033,
18521,
11666,
11,
2987,
13,
1634,
264,
1102,
315,
1660,
17551,
11,
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3198,
11163,
18144,
13,
1634,
38501,
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6682,
11,
3800,
1036,
69,
832,
311,
16663,
448,
862,
44452,
6427,
1087,
4751,
1091,
3579,
1128,
78478,
1105,
304,
16914,
75,
3452,
6023,
8232,
1987,
1084,
748,
4363,
429,
279,
6277,
1030,
419,
2456,
304,
3971,
979,
59726,
22818,
3198,
323,
7571,
13,
320,
9830,
1083,
1036,
98413,
1987,
340,
1249,
41845,
2355,
25,
12098,
435,
804,
1033,
76003,
504,
3198,
323,
3908,
7571,
304,
16781,
28035,
3080,
807,
19274,
550,
1998,
1817,
1899,
311,
11504,
7244,
11703,
624,
1249,
2784,
34850,
25,
52605,
31596,
11,
3498,
2598,
1036,
11455,
11821,
1543,
854,
553,
279,
3033,
11,
1033,
357,
97571,
1506,
323,
1865,
311,
2666,
50875,
315,
862,
476,
450,
1127,
13,
3776,
48648,
2727,
1340,
323,
3800,
19613,
448,
279,
14856,
879,
6925,
12898,
1105,
1576,
315,
1246,
74549,
480,
279,
36901,
572,
553,
16914,
75,
3452,
6023,
2953,
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557,
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553,
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11,
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476,
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13,
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11,
419,
572,
4363,
902,
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311,
279,
6277,
7359,
879,
20548,
14856,
311,
16781,
13,
10973,
323,
6995,
1033,
19334,
438,
5435,
18940,
11,
20898,
3198,
2337,
51894,
27433,
10250,
11550,
315,
3359,
11,
2727,
35869,
6721,
30679,
372,
3235,
624,
57656,
315,
46632,
198,
12,
52605,
28035,
25,
62194,
315,
25250,
7956,
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1033,
83445,
323,
5644,
553,
5344,
304,
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11,
1380,
807,
1033,
39377,
3729,
1283,
3729,
369,
3951,
13,
10548,
311,
29933,
10471,
76,
15252,
11,
3150,
315,
264,
63855,
220,
16,
24,
22,
20,
2311,
389,
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11,
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323,
3908,
7571,
1033,
39377,
553,
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504,
1378,
311,
220,
23,
15,
2953,
264,
3729,
13,
28377,
76,
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13914,
429,
20165,
329,
16551,
11,
264,
220,
16,
18,
4666,
6284,
48648,
29047,
304,
458,
20107,
27813,
553,
264,
8778,
6548,
42518,
380,
11,
572,
518,
1156,
1036,
70,
96476,
311,
2506,
504,
34001,
2337,
8776,
1987,
1988,
438,
3951,
5823,
323,
1036,
1782,
6427,
1886,
527,
8913,
572,
10865,
11,
279,
14856,
68020,
264,
4285,
922,
307,
462,
40508,
13,
2379,
76003,
279,
7298,
65801,
315,
3607,
3080,
279,
7571,
1030,
14634,
311,
279,
2480,
42042,
1987,
3776,
48648,
16938,
3234,
3822,
14227,
69928,
1065,
15854,
1579,
685,
29047,
10982,
429,
979,
1059,
12357,
6427,
1886,
8469,
4152,
311,
19259,
29567,
11,
1340,
323,
279,
1008,
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1033,
9575,
311,
4078,
61181,
323,
55344,
862,
25029,
13,
10471,
76,
15252,
1351,
942,
279,
4244,
315,
458,
7748,
18960,
879,
13914,
429,
3480,
12679,
9508,
1033,
6839,
311,
14856,
1036,
258,
458,
8036,
4774,
311,
975,
279,
2953,
705,
48116,
12,
10471,
76,
15252,
6682,
429,
3198,
315,
678,
16639,
1033,
26583,
45571,
11,
504,
3908,
7571,
311,
220,
22,
20,
4666,
6284,
6662,
6355,
2985,
624,
12,
9167,
16781,
8110,
553,
3072,
9901,
25,
10548,
311,
19344,
448,
31596,
11,
3908,
7571,
1033,
1036,
495,
5677,
311,
6176,
43096,
12408,
323,
18822,
13179,
3795,
10185,
13,
362,
2421,
5555,
2937,
11,
807,
1033,
90024,
311,
279,
1852,
12408,
323,
46839,
311,
4545,
1987,
10973,
1033,
3545,
2115,
304,
3072,
61181,
624,
12,
28217,
5980,
75995,
367,
25,
10973,
748,
12866,
1730,
304,
3072,
61181,
3545,
1030,
862,
36349,
3931,
1007,
624,
641,
279,
9390,
315,
1101,
11627,
3951,
11,
279,
16914,
75,
3452,
6023,
3033,
17530,
11,
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17,
15,
15,
11,
15,
15,
15,
3198,
323,
7571,
1033,
39377,
13,
7418,
803,
54844,
5109,
614,
1012,
11827,
17920,
13,
362,
220,
16,
24,
22,
18,
4549,
304,
279,
1532,
4261,
8523,
21451,
17194,
279,
10496,
315,
279,
5055,
8751,
315,
38501,
10973,
748,
80218,
6687,
21677,
7321,
14122,
311,
1492,
31596,
25,
1036,
8847,
13,
508,
9499,
1847,
8073,
60,
16782,
315,
279,
7179,
46140,
49165,
27232,
879,
30696,
678,
916,
38501,
2419,
279,
10496,
6682,
11,
1036,
477,
47471,
429,
518,
3245,
220,
19,
15,
15,
11,
15,
15,
15,
3198,
1033,
42543,
3304,
553,
279,
16663,
285,
48116,
32,
220,
17,
15,
15,
24,
11097,
10512,
10357,
1895,
5302,
429,
16781,
10017,
389,
264,
1036,
16767,
714,
2030,
46637,
5452,
320,
98027,
315,
220,
17,
15,
15,
11,
15,
15,
15,
311,
220,
19,
15,
15,
11,
15,
15,
15,
12415,
525,
3545,
9733,
304,
279,
17206,
11,
3498,
1045,
30739,
3717,
429,
1493,
12396,
525,
13919,
69854,
568,
854,
2093,
12563,
530,
33125,
504,
7748,
18145,
328,
2178,
10524,
93458,
11,
879,
4652,
264,
8322,
4549,
429,
9723,
311,
1495,
1363,
16781,
438,
1632,
438,
264,
2311,
911,
279,
220,
16,
24,
22,
16,
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11,
40444,
264,
47056,
504,
1008,
30739,
389,
38501,
624,
2121,
2677,
11,
279,
38675,
315,
7244,
1506,
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374,
537,
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311,
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13,
758,
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11,
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11,
1380,
59281,
323,
3590,
41208,
369,
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31596,
572,
5008,
27760,
2701,
279,
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5109,
1231,
387,
5310,
5000,
311,
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624,
34,
43447,
28217,
7711,
20590,
198,
30172,
315,
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35869,
6721,
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419,
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404,
2358,
1279,
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11,
323,
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1279,
1033,
13238,
700,
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15802,
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30308,
14400,
16916,
2337,
13943,
315,
59433,
304,
279,
5537,
748,
3840,
11,
807,
525,
2058,
3209,
890,
291,
553,
9825,
12783,
11,
2727,
30679,
372,
34123,
13,
1036,
6865,
2525,
700,
315,
279,
3753,
11,
807,
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700,
389,
279,
8592,
11,
714,
807,
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700,
389,
279,
8592,
438,
38620,
323,
29293,
323,
26600,
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1033,
1660,
32042,
304,
3460,
5109,
11,
1340,
11367,
11,
10866,
323,
6554,
5694,
1033,
2058,
6509,
279,
1429,
2989,
8845,
369,
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624,
44800,
4223,
43693,
372,
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29047,
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264,
6122,
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16,
16,
3364,
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384,
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11,
572,
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315,
264,
1874,
315,
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429,
572,
18822,
13179,
39377,
11,
323,
2937,
6552,
13,
2932,
7481,
1660,
44333,
504,
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26306,
315,
5593,
12866,
553,
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16914,
75,
3452,
6023,
1036,
24716,
8769,
24860,
2419,
1172,
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1221,
45653,
11480,
438,
264,
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510,
33,
791,
372,
1053,
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2293,
47,
585,
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13011,
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3881,
438,
279,
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596,
62650,
31245,
6822,
279,
3198,
311,
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43096,
12408,
11,
323,
1036,
21719,
291,
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[
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| 2.116878
|
Nursing Now campaign, of the State of the World’s Nursing 2020 (SOWN)(11 World Health Organization. State of the World's Nursing 2020: investing in education, jobs and leadership [Internet]. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2020. [cited Apr 28 2020]. Available from: https://www.who.int/publications-detail/nursing-report-2020
https://www.who.int/publications-detail/... ). Then came the unexpected one, the Covid-19 pandemic. Only time will tell the impact of those two events, but we can already identify implications for the education and practice of nurses, the theme of this issue of the Revista Latino-Americana de Enfermagem (RLAE). In 2020, two series of events highlighted the centrality of the role of nurses in the delivery of health services; one was planned, the other not. First, there is the designation by the World Health Assembly of 2020 as the International Year of the Nurse and the Midwife and the publication by World Health Organization (WHO), with the support of the International Council of Nurses and of the
The SOWN is the first global portrait of the nursing profession. It documents and discusses the availability and distribution of nurses worldwide, their roles, their working conditions and the quality of their education. While the overall image of the nursing workforce is positive, the report identifies shortcomings that need the attention of the profession and of policy makers. Two examples are the diversity of what is called a “nurses”, and the variations in the density of nurses by population. The report counted 144 distinct titles of nurses around the world, with differences in competencies requirements, education contents and strategies, and in scopes of practice. In the WHO Region of the Americas, 31 titles were identified, not counting assistants or auxiliaries. Some countries recognize a high degree of autonomy, including prescription rights, to certain categories of nurses, while others still limit the role of nurses to subordination to physicians. A second example is the extreme variations in the density of nurses between regions of the world and between countries of different level of economic development. Among the six WHO regions, the Americas is the Region with the highest density (83.4/10000), higher than Europe (79.3). However, this figure conceals the great differences between countries, ranging from 106 and 111/10000 in Canada and the United State of America (USA) respectively, to less than 4/10000 in Haiti, Honduras and the Dominican Republic with(22 Cassiani SHB, Hoyos MC, Barreto MFC, Sives K, da Silva FAM. Distribución de la fuerza de trabajo en enfermería en la Región de las Américas. Rev Panam Salud Publica. 2018;42:e72. https://doi. org/10.26633/RPSP.2018.72
https://doi. org/10.26633/RPSP.2018.72... ).
As to the health crisis, it has revealed the lack of preparedness of countries, even those with abundant resources, like Canada, the USA and a number of European countries, and the lack of solidarity between countries and sometimes within the same country. The warnings and advices of international health authorities, namely WHO, and of national public health ones, have not always been timely accepted by political decision makers, and were even ignored by some who denied the importance of the epidemics. On the positive side, the crisis showed the dedication of health workers in general and particularly of nurses who are at the forefront of the response to the epidemics, often at the expense of their own health and safety. It highlighted the competencies and the indispensable role of nurses, not only in intensive care as rapidly became evident, but at all levels of service delivery. At the same time, the crisis revealed how demanding the work of nurses is, and how difficult their working conditions are.
These two events show that even though nursing has made great progress in the recent past, major challenges remain to ensure that nurses contribute fully to achieving universal health coverage. In a majority of countries of the world, the main challenge is to increase the nursing workforce to a level that makes health services accessible to everyone. This requires at least three changes in the education pipeline: to increase the capacity of admission in education institutions, to attract more young people to nursing, and to harmonize education programs and quality assurance mechanisms. Regarding practice, challenges include to provide nurses with a safe, supportive and motivating work environment and to develop or strengthen the monitoring and promotion of the quality of work .
In order to respond to these challenges, effective health workforce policies focusing on education are needed. In nursing, this means investing in the capacity of education institutions and in the recruitment of more educators; also in measures to attract more suitable candidates, including men, to nursing studies, and to prevent attrition during studies so that most admitted students actually graduate. However, more does not mean more of the same: nurses must be equipped with the right competencies, in alignment with the needs of health services and with those of the population(33 Frenk J, Chen L, Bhutta ZA, Cohen J, Crisp N, Evans T, et al. Health professionals for a new century: transforming education to strengthen health systems in an interdependent world. Lancet. 2010 Dec 4;376(9756):1923-58. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(10)61854-5.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(10)61... -44 Cassiani SHDB, Wilson LL, Mikael SSE, Morán-Peña L, Zarate-Grajales R, McCreary LL, et al. The situation of nursing education in Latin America and the Caribbean towards universal health. Rev. Latino-Am. Enfermagem. 2017;25:e2913. doi: https://doi.org/10.1590/1518-8345.2232.2913
https://doi.org/10.1590/1518-8345.2232.2... ) including in areas that tend to be less valued, such as mental health, geriatrics or primary care. Then all nurses should have the opportunity to adapt and improve their competencies all along their career. The harmonization of programs and of their quality can be realized through the accreditation, by independent bodies, of schools, whether public or private, and of pre-service, clinical training, and long-life programs(55 World Health Organization. Global Strategy on HRH: Workforce 2030 [Internet]. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2016. [cited Apr 28 2020]. Available from: https://www.who.int/hrh/resources/globstrathrh-2030/en/
https://www.who.int/hrh/resources/globst... ). This would facilitate the harmonization of titles, including of specialties, though, in the context of a globalized health labour market, countries must offer employment and working conditions that encourage retention and limit emigration of the nurses they train.
Scaling-up the status of nurses will enable them to contribute more fully to the availability and quality of health services, in roles that are complementary to that of other health professionals. This is challenging in an environment in which numerous actors with competing interests and objectives interact. For-profit private schools may resist regulation, or medical organizations may oppose the expansion of the role of nurses. Advocacy and recommendations by international agencies like WHO and the Pan American Health Organization (PAHO), and by international and regional professional associations, can help mobilize the political support needed for change to happen. Research is also important to inform policy decisions, and, in that respect, nursing schools and faculties play a critical role in producing the evidence that can convince political decision makers to invest in nursing education and in the development of the profession.
This thematic issue of the RLAE is therefore more than opportune, as it stimulates the dissemination of research results and of innovative actions within the profession. It will show that nursing can move from roles of subordination to ones of complementarity, and make a difference to the benefit of everyone. The next step is to translate this message in a language that speaks to policy makers and to the population, who will be the ultimate beneficiary of a stronger and better performing nursing workforce.
The publication of this article in the Thematic Series “Human Resources in Health and Nursing” is part of Activity 2.2 of Reference Term 2 of the PAHO/WHO Collaborating Centre for Nursing Research Development, Brazil.
1World Health Organization. State of the World's Nursing 2020: investing in education, jobs and leadership [Internet]. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2020. [cited Apr 28 2020]. Available from: https://www.who.int/publications-detail/nursing-report-2020
2Cassiani SHB, Hoyos MC, Barreto MFC, Sives K, da Silva FAM. Distribución de la fuerza de trabajo en enfermería en la Región de las Américas. Rev Panam Salud Publica. 2018;42:e72. https://doi. org/
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Sunday, July 23, 2017
1 Samuel 1: 1-28
The story of Hannah is a familiar one. A devout woman and a faithful wife, Hannah yearns and yearns for a child and at the very moment that she gives up hope entirely, God intervenes and blesses her with a pregnancy. It’s such a familiar story that we can easily lose sight of the particulars of Hannah’s experience.
Hannah is one of two wives married to a man named Elkanah. The “other” wife – and that’s exactly how this wife is introduced in the story, as “other” – is named Penninah and she has given Elkanah children, making Hannah subservient to her in the household. This conflict is the very first thing that we learn about Hannah’s life and is meant to recall earlier stories of infertility and domestic conflict.
The story of Hannah echoes the stories of the three Jewish matriarchs that preceded her: Sarah, Rebecca, and Rachel. We’ve told the stories of their sons these past few weeks – Sarah is the mother of Isaac, Rebecca is the mother to the rival twins Jacob and Esau, and Rachel is wife of Jacob and mother to Joseph and Benjamin. We tell the story of the founding of Israel through the perspectives and experiences of the Patriarchs and their stories have common themes: honor, betrayal, division, reconciliation, and restoration. But, we can also tell this story – our story – through the experience of childlessness and the ways in which the narrative of the Matriarchs, in the words of Lillian Klein “takes a woman’s pain and places it in her personal failure and draws it out in a communal context.”
At the start of Hannah’s story, the one it most closely resembles is that of Sarah, who becomes pregnant with Isaac at the age of ninety (Abraham is 100). Sarah also has a woman rival in her household – Hagar, her Egyptian maidservant, who has a son Ishmael with Abraham. Hagar is banished by Sarah after the birth of Isaac. The relationship between Hannah and Penninah is meant to recall that of Sarah and Hagar. In both stories, it’s the birth of a son that raises the status of one woman over another. When Sarah gives birth to Isaac she acquires power over Hagar and wields it with brutality. Entire fields of study within Christian ethics are dedicated to telling the story of Israel from the perspective of Hagar and women like her, the “other” women populating the margins of the Matriarch’s stories.
Often, women’s very bodies become a site of conflict between the expectations of culture and the most intimate desires of the heart. No matriarch better exemplifies this than Sarah’s daughter-in-law Rebecca, who spends twenty years praying for a child with Isaac. Unlike Sarah and Hannah, Rebecca is not locked in conflict with another wife. Rather, as soon as she becomes pregnant, her very body becomes the site of conflict between her twin sons: Jacob and Esau. According to Midrash, during this difficult pregnancy, whenever Rebecca would walk past a house of Torah, Jacob would struggle to come out. When she walked past a house of idolatry, Esau would struggle to come out. This makes for a terrifying experience for Rebecca who initially believes herself to be pregnant with one very disturbed child, as opposed to two sons so alive they’re practically killing her. Sick with worry and exhausted from the grueling experience of her pregnancy Rebecca goes into temple and asks the Lord, “If it is to be this way, why do I live?”
And the Lord says to her, “Two nations are in your womb, and two peoples born of you shall be divided; the one shall be stronger than the other, the elder shall serve the younger.”
The twins are born and their struggle continues well into adulthood. When Isaac decides that it is time to give the blessing of the first born to Esau. Rebecca helps to disguise Jacob so that he can steal the blessing meant for his brother. Later, Rebecca sends Jacob to her brother Laban where he falls in love with his daughter Rachel and eventually marries both Rachel and her sister Leah. And the familiar story begins again, this time taking to even greater extremes the hostilities that erupt between women in households where worthiness is determined by how many sons they bear.
Rachel finally becomes pregnant and gives birth to Joseph, Jacob’s favorite child. A fact that will wreak great havoc and calamity in a family already deeply fractured by the grief of women. Rachel’s story isn’t a happy one. She becomes pregnant a second time, again after a long period of prayerful devotion, and dies giving birth to Benjamin.
According to many Biblical scholars, the infertility of the Matriarchs – Sarah, Rebecca, and Rachel – is meant to heighten the drama surrounding the eventual birth of their sons, setting Isaac, Jacob and Joseph apart as special in the history of Israel. It also teaches that pregnancy is an act of God. The story of Hannah is important because it simultaneously echoes the stories of the Jewish Matriarchs while also pointing toward the stories of Mary and Elizabeth in the New Testament, for whom motherhood is an act of devastating sacrifice. Like the Matriarchs, Hannah years for a child. And like Elizabeth, Hannah’s experience of motherhood is inseparable from the sacrifice of the much yearned for child.
The story of Hannah occupies a meeting place between Judaism and early Protestantism. In both traditions, Hannah exemplifies the importance of private, personal prayer with God. In Judaism, the Song of Hannah, the prayer she sings when she gives her son Samuel over to God, is the haftarah reading on Rosh Hashanah, the Jewish New Year. And in Christianity, if you google “Hannah children’s sermon” you’ll gain some painful insight into how Hannah’s story has been distilled over time in our teaching. There are hundreds of results with titles like God Gives Hannah a Baby. It starts early, even in children’s sermon titles, our Christian teaching that if a woman just prays hard enough, God will give her a baby. The church has been hurting women for millennia with teachings like that, adding shame to the feelings of personal failure that accompany many people’s experience of childlessness. I want to say that that is not the God I know, nor is it the church that I know we can be.
Each of the women in the stories I’ve told today lived in deep, dissonant conflict with a culture that tied their status and worthiness to motherhood. Hannah exemplifies this tension, she wants motherhood so terribly that she decides the path to motherhood for her will mean giving away the very child her heart desires. Hannah’s story resonates across millennia because women continue to live in the tension between cultural expectations and personal desires. Nowhere has this become more apparent to me than in my work at Planned Parenthood where I volunteer as an abortion doula.
An abortion doula provides emotional support to patients immediately before, during, and after an abortion procedure. On a typical two and a half hour shift, this means that I walk into the procedure room a few minutes before the doctor and introduce myself and let the patient know that I’m there to support them during the procedure. Whether they’d like a hand to hold, distracting chit chat, or simply quiet, I am there to hold space for them.
That’s what we call what we try to do for patients at Planned Parenthood, and what we can all strive to do in our relationships. We hold space for a person whenever we are willing to be present with them without judgment, without trying to “fix” something (or someone), but by opening our hearts and offering support in a way that allows people space to trust themselves and their own intuition. Holding space is a type of compassionate care that recognizes that people know their own truth best.
That’s a radical notion for those of us who live in the tension between our culture’s expectations of us and the most intimate desires of our hearts. Sometimes, not always, but sometimes in the moments after a procedure, when I’m alone again with a patient, words will start tumbling out of her mouth. We’ve held hands. I’ve looked into her eyes and wiped her tears. And now, as I’m helping her to put herself back together, she starts to tell a story. Sometimes telling me their story is an intimate act of catharsis, of letting go of the hoped-for and being present in the messiness of the everyday. In those moments, the procedure room at Planned Parenthood becomes the holiest of holy ground. But, often, the stories I hear, I’m only privy to because even in the midst of their grief and sadness, a patient thinks that they have to explain their decision to me. No amount of absolutely amazing space holding can un-teach a woman a lifetime of being told that they must justify their most personal decisions to strangers.
Over the past half-century, American Christianity has become more and more obsessed with the individual over and against the communal. Our theology has come to emphasize personal and private decisions rather than the cultural contexts in which those decisions are made. Nowhere is this more apparent than in the way we treat people seeking abortion care in the United States. Every time I walk into the clinic at Planned Parenthood I walk past posters that the state require be posted in the waiting room: It is against the law in Tennessee to coerce a woman against her will into an abortion, they declare in bold type.
Yet, everyday women in Tennessee and across the United States end dearly wanted pregnancies out of fears for their family’s financial security. Capitalism, the ultimate religion of the individual, often forces people into decisions that otherwise go against their most intimate hopes and dreams. That is a sin of social structure and institutional oppression. I said earlier that the most important part of being an abortion doula is being a non-judgmental presence. I work hard to be that
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]
] |
[
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] |
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| 2.894493
|
It is a long page. First the color systems, and then the details of RGB below.
There are other color systems, but two of the basic color systems are:
This article is about RGB color, which is universally used in our digital cameras and scanners, almost all photo image files, computers, video monitors, cell phones, television and computer screens, stage lighting, and about anything else working with light (and our human eyes are a RGB system too). We view light transmitted directly from the source. Raw files are not yet exactly RGB yet, but raw files are also not viewable images yet, not until the RGB conversion that we can view. See more RGB specifics below.
Painting (art or painted things, etc.) and printing (commercial prepress, etc.) and pigments and ink and dye and photo prints use the CMYK system that we see as reflected from the colored surface. Our home printers also use CMYK ink, but they are designed to expect to receive and convert RGB images (such as JPG files), since that's what we have to print.
Both RGB and CMYK are “device dependent” color, meaning any final result somewhat depends on how the specific device is able to show it, like depending on just how red can the chosen ink or phosphorus actually make it? Different devices might show it a little different. There is another system called CIELAB or Lab Color (Wikipedia) that tries to define a specific color independent of how various devices might be able to reproduce it.
RGB color: Red, Green, and Blue are the RGB primary colors of light. The light from our monitor screen's RGB elements is seen directly by our eye. We look directly at the transmitted light itself. The RGB primaries mixed together will ADD (gets brighter) to possibly combine into White if bright enough. This is called Additive Color (mixing all RGB colors gets brighter, the sum of more light is brighter). Sunlight is white, a mix of all colors adding to white (around 5500°K) Sunlight mixes to what we call White, basically meaning bright and with no color cast. White does not mean no color, it means equal RGB colors, balanced (all equal), so no color tints appear. Neutral gray and even black is also a balanced color, meaning equal RGB components (no pinkish or bluish tints in the gray). Less intense RGB colors trend darker, toward black (if no light, no color). So White is balanced and bright enough to lighten Gray to White. The format of RGB nomenclature is RGB(255,255,255) is White (255 is the Maximum of 8-bit RGB), and RGB(0,0,0) is Black, which specifies the value of the combined Red, Green, and Blue components of the color.
However, printers print with CMYK ink, because what we see is reflected light that was not absorbed by the printed ink, which becomes a different inverse principle. The difference is that RGB is about a direct beam of light transmitted into our eyes (Additive Color) vs. CMY is about the light reflected from color pigments on physical objects (Subtractive Color).
CMY color: The complements of RGB primaries are Cyan, Magenta, and Yellow, which are the CMY primary colors of pigments, of paint, ink, dye, etc, called the Subtractive system, which are viewed by reflected light (seen reflected from the inks or pigments printed on paper or canvas for example). The CMY inks absorb light, subtracting the complement color of the light, so subtraction of the reflected complement mix gets darker, due to absorption of more colors). Less intense thinner CMY ink trends brighter, toward white, as reflected light when printed. The blank white paper is white when we can see it through sparse ink. For example, the light (for example white sunlight) hits printed Yellow ink, which absorbs the Blue complement, but reflects the other colors of the white light, and those red and green components are seen as Yellow (with little or no Blue present).
RYB color is something else (red, yellow, blue): Past centuries history of artists seeking to make colors by mixing primaries of pigments did assume RYB as primaries. Artists mixing pigments used this centuries older view about primaries, but it was ultimately discovered that RYB is not actually correct. Artists found RYB couldn't make all painted colors without using additional paint colors (like green), but they adapted to deal with it by typically using many paint colors (instead of three primaries). The imperfect pigments caused even more issues for the artists, so the situation was not clear back then. RYB is still taught in elementary school, since students don’t yet know about Cyan and Magenta colors. But paint or ink pigments do not actually use red or blue as primaries, so the correct way to think of primary pigments is CMY (Cyan, Magenta, Yellow). The exact CMY primaries of reflected painting were not known until well into the 20th century. It is said that the Eagle Printing Company, New York (later ultimately becoming part of prior history of Sun Chemical), did the first CMYK printing in 1906, discovering it could create about any color on paper. RYB cannot. (see internet Eagle Printing and also that site's main page). But CMYK printing did not become the standard mainsteam procedure until maybe about 1950.
RYB does have its very long history, and is still widely used in art education, and still has some fans used to it, but which we've finally learned is not the technically correct physics of color. You will still commonly find RYB color wheels to buy (possibly called Traditional), which was the early theory, but is not actual precise reality, so now you should specifically instead look for modern RGB color wheels, which also apply to CMY work, meaning Yellow is between Red and Green either way, but red and green are not Subtractive primaries (reflections from pigments). Tradition may still remember RYB, but modern science uses RGB for video, TV for example, and CMYK for printing (K including black ink). CMY are the fundamental primaries for modern printing and painting and color photo prints.
There are also other printing methods, and simpler graphics work using say only three specific ink colors (called Spot Printing), say maybe black and purple and orange, will use actual black and purple and orange inks, making the three passes over the paper. But work like magazines and books use CMYK ink for photo images. And all of our home color printers use CMYK ink or toner for color work.
FWIW, in CMY, the red-purple Magenta is the same as the color called Fuchsia (both colors are RGB(255, 0, 255)). And the blue-green Cyan is the same as the color often called Aqua (both colors are RGB(0, 255, 255)). Those may approximate red and blue, but Magenta and Cyan are the precise Subtractive primaries.
Added colors move brighter, towards White, and Subtracted colors move darker, towards Black. These Primary colors are the three colors from which all the other colors can be made by mixing proportions of these three. Light is mixed with RGB color, and paint pigments or dyes are mixed with CMY color. RGB and CMY are complements of each other (one inverted is the other, see inversion below), and both RGB and CMYK systems use the same RGB color wheel, next below.
RGB - Today, cameras, scanners, projectors and video monitors (computers and television) show light directly, which is seen as light, and mixing colors of light uses RGB primaries. In RGB, mixing more colors of light gets brighter, the sum is brighter than the brightest. More light becomes white. Sunlight is called white, a mix of all colors adding to white. Or no light at all is black, same as in your closet. So RGB is called Additive Color. In photography, overexposure is simply more light, so darker colors become lighter colors (red to pink, etc), and light colors become white. In extremes, even black can become white.
CMY - In color printing or painting, mixing pigments (paint or ink or dye) is seen as light reflected from the pigments. Specifically, seen as the reflected light that was NOT absorbed by the pigments. Yellow ink looks yellow because its pigment absorbs the compliment blue. In CMY, mixing more colors absorbs more colors of reflected light, so is seen darker, so CMY is called Subtractive Color. In CMY pigments, adding more mixed pigment colors absorbs more colors absorbs more and reflects less, so becoming darker (theoretically towards black, but typically becoming a muddy brown instead of pure black, only because the pigments are not perfect absorbers.) So in water colors, we see that mixing too many colors becomes dark and muddy. Therefore for printed color systems to show dark colors and black better, they also add black pigment, the four inks then called CMYK, K for Key, typically meaning black). No pigment at all is seen as the white paper showing through, so printing on colored paper gets complicated.
CMYK: Printed or painted color technically and ideally would need only the three CMY inks, but which is less precise than RGB because the pigments are not perfect in their light absorption and reflection properties (and we see what is reflected instead of absorbed). Ideally equal mixes of the three CMY primaries would absorb all light, reflecting none, which should be Black, but since the inks don’t absorb perfectly, the mixed result is typically more a more muddy color. So black ink is added as a helper, so the system is CMY, but the four inks are CM
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1789, one of the most pivotal events in history took place in the kingdom of France. The French Revolution affected many aspects of political and social life throughout all of western Europe, and its repercussions would be felt for generations to come. Several British authors in the nineteenth century wrote fictional works with the revolution as a setting. One of the most prolific writers of the period, Baroness Emmuska Orczy, wrote a series of books about the revolution, the most popular of which was The Scarlet Pimpernel. Many authors in the nineteenth century wrote books dealing with this historical event, but Baroness Orczy's novels are the most historically accurate.
All of the Pimpernel novels have a characteristic beginning. Each starts with a summary of the events that have so far taken place in the revolution, and the current events which will have some impact on the plot of the novel. These introductions contain many historical facts. And, appropriately, the main villains in her novels are the main leaders of the Revolution, especially Maximillian Robespierre, Collot d'Herbois, and Chauvelin.
The Scarlet Pimpernel, written in 1905, is the story of a young French actress, Marguerite St. Just, who marries a wealthy English nobleman, Sir Percival Blakeney. She becomes quickly estranged from her husband, as he begins to appear more and more foppish and distant. An agent of the French Revolutionary government, Chauvelin, comes to England to enlist Marguerite's aid in helping him find the Scarlet Pimpernel, an unidentified Englishman who rescues condemned French aristocrats from the guillotine. Unsuspected by Marguerite, the elusive hero turns out to be her husband, Sir Percy. After several adventures in France to rescue Marguerite's brother, Armand St. Just, the Blakeneys return safely to England and are reconciled.
This novel, originally written as a play, was so successful that a series of books based on the adventures of Sir Percy followed. The stories take place between 1792 and 1795, and include many historical events and people. One of the most interesting aspects of all the Pimpernel books is the accuracy of the characters portrayed. Unlike Charles Dicken's Tale of Two Cities which does not use any historical people as main characters, the majority of characters in the Pimpernel books are recorded in history. In particular, the relationship of the main character, Marguerite, to the real revolutionary, Louis-Antoine St. Just is fascinating. Throughout the novels, Baroness Orczy depicts Marguerite as the cousin of Louis-Antoine. In fact, Louis-Antoine St. Just was a young lawyer, only twenty-six, and a close adherent of Maximillian Robespierre (Rudé 97). A fanatical Jacobin, he believed in punishing not only "traitors" but also those who were "indifferent" and not enthusiastic revolutionaries (Hibbert 225). In The Triumph of the Scarlet Pimpernel, Orczy depicts a scene in which St. Just, Robespierre, and other revolutionary leaders meet. St. Just is depicted as young, enthusiastic, and eloquent in speech, all virtues which the real St. Just is recorded to have had. He was considered to be the most effective orator in the revolutionary party (Popkin 67).
Also depicted in this novel was Jean Lambert Tallien, a revolutionary leader who did not support Robespierre. While commissioned in Bordeaux, he fell in love with Theresa Cabbarrus, formerly the Comtesse de Fontenay, who was a prisoner. He was accused of having come under her influences, and losing his zeal for the revolution (Hibbert 260). At this time, Robespierre and St. Just had been writing up a list of other revolutionary leaders who were to be condemned as traitors. In August of 1794, as St. Just was preparing to speak to the Convention about the list of condemned traitors, Tallien interrupted him and placed the blame of all the nation's problems on Robespierre and St. Just (Hibbert 262). Many joined him in this, and Robespierre was outnumbered and forced to surrender his power. He, St. Just, and many other important leaders were sent to a violent death on the guillotine (Hibbert 262).
Baroness Orczy, in The Triumph of the Scarlet Pimpernel, uses these facts about Tallien and the Comtesse de Fontenay in her plot. She introduces the Comtesse de Fontenay as Tallien's fiancee. By having the Comtesse arrested, the Scarlet Pimpernel was able to urge Tallien to rise against Robespierre, whom everyone feared, in order to save her life. This inevitably led to the execution of the main enemies in the story. And history records that the Comtesse de Fontenay, after marrying Tallien, later divorced him and remarried two more times (Hibbert 317).
Eldorado, written in 1906, relates to many historical personages and events. In this novel, the Scarlet Pimpernel attempts a daring rescue of the Dauphin of France. Baroness Orczy describes a gruesome scene in the Temple Prison, in which the young prince is given spirits to drink, is forced to wear the revolutionary cap, sing the revolutionary "Ca Ira!" and trample the royal flag. He was then taught by Simon, the shoemaker who was put in charge of him, to curse his parents and accuse them of many atrocities (Ocrzy, Eldorado 46-47). This scene, however, is very accurate to recorded history. The Dauphin's older sister, who had been incarcerated with him, later wrote:
...and her [Marie Antoinette] misery was increased when she knew that the shoemaker Simon was in charge of him...We often went up into the tower. My brother went by every day and the only pleasure my mother had was to watch him pass by through a little window. Sometimes she waited there for hours to get a glimpse of her beloved child. . . Every day we heard him and Simon singing the Carmagnole, the Marseillaise and many other horrid songs. Simon made him wear a red bonnet and a carmagnole jacket and forced him to sing at the windows so as to be heard by the guard and to blaspheme God and curse his family and the aristocrats (Hibbert 221).
It was also recorded that after the Terror, the "Ca Ira!" was sung by revolutionaries (Hibbert 320). Also in this novel, a main character is the Baron de Batz, who works for the Austrian government, and is involved with many plots to save the royal family and other aristocrats. These schemes have also been recorded as historical fact (Doyle 267). But, as in the novel, most of his plots failed and only helped to irritate the revolutionary leaders and to bring about the arrest of many royalist supporters (Doyle 277). Also, Hébert, a known revolutionary Jacobin, was suspected by Robespierre of supporting de Batz and possibly the Prime Minister of England, Pitt (Doyle 267). Baroness Orczy includes this idea, and depicts a sort of cooperation between de Batz and Hébert.
One of the most memorable events of the Revolution occurred on July 13, 1793 when Charlotte Corday assassinated the infamous Marat (Popkin 71). Jean-Paul Marat was a journalist who founded the paper known as L'Ami du peuple. Often in trouble with the authorities, he hid for some time in the cellars and sewers of Paris, where he contracted prurigo, a painful and gruesome looking skin disease (Hibbert 142). Charlotte Corday, after several attempts to hold audience with Marat, was finally admitted under the pretense that she had a list of traitors who needed to be dealt with. She proceeded to reveal the names of the traitors to him, which he began to take down in order to have them executed. She then pulled a sharpened dinner knife from her bodice and punctured his left lung (Hibbert 213). And this is the setting for the short story "Sir Percy Explains" in The League of the Scarlet Pimpernel.
The Elusive Pimpernel is also an excellent example of Baroness Orczy's accurate depiction of historical events. On June 8, 1794 Robespierre conducted in Boulogne a festival in worship of a Supreme Being. Earlier, the revolutionaries had tried to dechristianize France by forbidding any sort of worship. This failed, and the festival of the Supreme Being was a means of trying to reverse the damage. Robespierre declared their belief in immorality and the existence of some superior being (Doyle 276). In the novel, Désirée Candeille, a young French actress, is commissioned by the revolutionary leaders to help them lure the Scarlet Pimpernel over to France. Later in Boulogne, she is made the "Goddess of Reason" in a festival issued by Robespierre, very like the Supreme Being of history.
Also, besides the French characters which really existed, many of the characters from England are recorded in history. The most relevant of these is George IV, Prince of Wales at this time. He is supposedly a very good friend of Sir Percy's in the novels. Also, many government
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1997,
1999,
2000,
2001,
2002,
2003,
2004,
2006,
2005,
2007,
2008,
2009,
2010,
2011,
2012,
2013,
2015,
2014,
2016,
2017,
2018,
2019,
2021,
2020,
2022,
2023,
2024,
2025,
2027,
2026,
2028,
2029,
2030,
2031,
2032,
2035,
2033,
2034,
2036,
2037,
2038,
2039,
2040,
2041,
2042,
2043,
2044,
2045,
2046,
2047
] |
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[
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2,048
| 2.998446
|
BATTLES OF EMUCKFAU, ENITACHOPCA AND CALBEC
Since the battle of Talladega, Jackson had encountered innumerable difficulties and mortifications, owing to the failure of contractors and the mutiny of his troops, who were finally reduced to one hundred men by the expiration of their time of service. He was now compelled to employ Cherokees to garrison Fort Armstrong, upon the Coosahatchie, and protect the stores at Ross's. Almost alone, in a savage land, he yet constantly rode between Fort Strother and Ditto's Landing to hasten supplies for the new army, which he had employed Governor Blount to raise for him. At last two regiments, one of them commanded by Colonel Perkins and the other by Colonel Higgins, numbering together eight hundred and fifty men, who had only enlisted for sixty days, reached Fort Strother. Jan. 14 1814: Well understanding the character of minute men like these, who must be constantly employed, Jackson immediately marched them across the Coosa to the late battle ground of Talladega, where he was joined by two hundred Cherokees and Creeks, who evinced great alarm at the weakness which the command presented. Jan. 16: Continuing the march towards the Tallapoosa, the army encamped at Enitachopco, a Hillabee village, and the next day fell into many fresh beaten trails, indicating the proximity of a large force. Jan. 21 1814: Here Jackson determined to halt for the purpose of reconnoitre. Before dark his encampment was formed, his army thrown into a hollow square, his pickets and spies sent out, his sentinels doubled, and his fires lighted some distance outside of the lines. About ten o'clock at night one of the pickets firing upon three of the enemy succeeded in killing one, and at the hour of eleven the spies reported a large encampment three miles distant, where the savages were whooping and dancing, and, being apprised of the approach of the Americans, were sending off their women and children.
Jan. 22: About six o?clock in the morning the Indians suddenly fell upon Jackson's flank, and upon the left of his rear, maintaining a vigorous attack for a half hour. General Coffee, AdjutantGeneral Sitler, and Inspector-General Carroll rode rapidly to the scene of action as soon as the firing commenced, animating the men, who firmly kept the assailants at bay. Morning shed its light upon the exciting scene, enabling Captain Terrill's infantry to reinforce the left flank, when the whole line was led to the charge by General Coffee, supported by Colonels Higgins and Carroll and the friendly Indians, which forced the savages to abandon the ground in a rapid manner. They were pursued with slaughter for two miles. Coffee being then ordered, with four hundred men and the friendly Indians, to burn up their encampment, advanced, and, finding it strongly fortified, returned for the artillery. Shortly afterwards, a body of the enemy boldly advanced and attacked the right wing of Jackson's encampment. Coffee again charged, but, through mistake, only forty-five men followed him, composing his own company of volunteer officers; but the friendly Indians were sent by Jackson to his support. Dismounting his men, he now pursued the "Red Sticks" to the swamp of a creek.*
* The Indian war-party were often called the "Red Sticks," because their war-clubs were invariably painted red.
Jackson had ordered his left flank to remain firm, and now the Indians came rushing with yells against it. Repairing to that point, and ordering up Captain Terrill to his support, the whole line received the enemy with intrepidity, and, after a few fires, advanced to the charge under the impetuous Carroll. Again the Red Sticks fled before the bayonet, the Americans pursuing some distance, and marking their trails with blood. In the meantime, Coffee kept the enemy, who had now returned upon him from the swamp, at bay until Jackson strengthened him with a reinforcement of a hundred friendly warriors, at the head of whom was Jim Fife. Coffee again charged, when the Red Sticks once more gave way, and the pursuit was continued for three miles, with the loss of forty-five savages.
The brave Creeks had now been repulsed in every attempt, but they exhibited a ferocity and courage which commanded the serious consideration of Jackson, whose force was weaker than he desired. The horses had been without cane and without corn for two days, and but few rations remained for the men. The wounded were numerous, and the enemy would doubtless soon be reinforced. Jackson determined to return to Fort Strother with all possible despatch. The remainder of the day was employed in collecting and burying the dead, dressing the wounded and fortifying the camp; but the morning dawned without another attack.*
* The battle of Emuckfau was fought near a creek of that name, which runs south into the Tallapoosa river, in Tallapoosa county, Alabama.
The army began the retrograde march about ten o?clock a.m., bearing the wounded, among whom was Coffee, in litters, constructed of the hides of the slain horses. Jan. 23 1814: Jackson reached Enitachopco before night without molestation, and fortified himself at a place a quarter of a mile from the creek, around which the Red Sticks prowled, but refrained from attack. Dreading an onset at the ford of the creek, by which his army had passed a few days before, and which afforded great facilities for Indian ambuscades, the commander despatched spies in search of a less exposed crossing place. Jan 24: Six hundred yards lower down was selected, and thither he advanced his troops in the morning. Carroll commended the rear guard, Colonel Perkins the right column, and Colonel Stump the left. In case of attack, Carroll was to face about, display and maintain his position, while the other two colonels were to face outward, wheel back on their pivots, and attack the Red Sticks on both flanks.
The wounded and the front guard had passed the creek, and as Jackson was upon the eastern bank, superintending the crossing of the army, an alarm gun was heard, which was succeeded by a fierce attack of the savages upon the rearguard of Captain Russell's spies. Colonel Carroll ordered the rear-guard to halt and form, when the right and left columns, seized by a sudden panic, fled without firing a gun, drawing after them most of the centre, with their officers foremost in the flight, at the head of whom was Colonel Stump, who came plunging down the bank, near the exasperated commander-inchief, who made an unsuccessful effort to cut him down with his sword. With only twenty-five men, under Captain Quarles, Carroll gallantly checked the advance of the Red Sticks. The artillery was under the command of Lieutenant Armstrong, in the absence of Captain Deadrick, who now ordered his company, armed with muskets, to advance to the top of the hill, while he, with Constantine Perkins and a few others, dragged up the six-pounder from the middle of the creek. Instantly in their position, they maintained it against ten times their number, until Armstrong reached them with his piece. Jan. 24 1814: Discovering that, in the hurry of separating the gun from the limbers, the rammer and pricker had been left tied to the latter, with wonderful presence of mind, and while Indian bullets rattled like hail around them, Constantine Perkins and Craven Jackson, two of the gunners, supplied the deficiency. Perkins took off his bayonet, and rammed the cartridge home with his musket, and Jackson, drawing his ramrod, employed it as a pricker, priming with a musket cartridge.* The six-pounder was thus twice charged, pouring grape among the savages, then only a few yards distant. Several comrades of these men fell around them, and, after the second fire, the little artillery company furiously charged on the assailants, who became more cautious in their approaches. Captain Gordon's spies, in front of the army when the alarm was given, made a circuit and attacked the left flank of the Indians. At the same time, a number of the rear-guard and flankers, rallied by Jackson, re-crossed the creek and joined in the fight. The savages, finding that the whole army was now brought against them, fled, throwing away their packs and leaving upon the field the bodies of twenty-six warriors.
* Constantine Perkins was born in Knox county, Tennessee the 17th August, 1792 He graduated at Cumberland College in 1813, and was with Jackson at the battle of Talladega in Carroll's Advance guard, where he greatly distinguished himself. Refusing to abandon Jackson in a hostile land, he remained with the small number who adhered to him In the two battles at Emuckfau, he fought side by side with the bravest. When the Creek war was at an end, he studied law at Nashville. He was elected solicitor of one of the Tennessee circuits but, removing to Alabama in 1819, was elected solicitor of the third circuit, which office he held until 1826, when he was elected attorney-general In 1834, the people of Tuscaloosa county placed him in the State Senate of which he was a member until the 17th September, 1836, when he died.
One hundred and eighty-nine bodies of the enemy were counted upon the fields of Emuckfau and Enitachopco. The
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Howard Gardner, professor of education and psychology at Harvard University, is one of the great minds of our time. He is best known for his theory of “multiple intelligences,” the idea that there is not one thing that can be measured and defined as intelligence but many different things – one dimension of the dignity of difference. He has also written many books on leadership and creativity, including one in particular, Leading Minds, that is important in understanding this week’s parsha.
Gardner’s argument is that what makes a leader is the ability to tell a particular kind of story – one that explains ourselves to ourselves and gives power and resonance to a collective vision. So Churchill told the story of Britain’s indomitable courage in the fight for freedom. Gandhi spoke about the dignity of India and non-violent protest. Margaret Thatcher talked about the importance of the individual against an ever-encroaching State. Martin Luther King told of how a great nation is colour-blind. Stories give the group a shared identity and sense of purpose.
Philosopher Alasdair MacIntyre has also emphasised the importance of narrative to the moral life. “Man,” he writes, “is in his actions and practice as well as in his fictions, essentially a story-telling animal.” It is through narratives that we begin to learn who we are and how we are called on to behave. “Deprive children of stories and you leave them unscripted, anxious stutterers in their actions as in their words.” To know who we are is in large part to understand of which story or stories we are a part.
The great questions – “Who are we?” “Why are we here?” “What is our task?” – are best answered by telling a story. As Barbara Hardy put it: “We dream in narrative, daydream in narrative, remember, anticipate, hope, despair, believe, doubt, plan, revise, criticise, construct, gossip, learn, hate and love by narrative.” This is fundamental to understanding why Torah is the kind of book it is: not a theological treatise or a metaphysical system but a series of interlinked stories extended over time, from Abraham and Sarah’s journey from Mesopotamia to Moses’ and the Israelites’ wanderings in the desert. Judaism is less about truth as system than about truth as story. And we are part of that story. That is what it is to be a Jew.
A large part of what Moses is doing in the book of Devarim is retelling that story to the next generation, reminding them of what God had done for their parents and of some of the mistakes their parents had made. Moses, as well as being the great liberator, is the supreme storyteller. Yet what he does in parshat Ki Tavo extends way beyond this.
He tells the people that when they enter, conquer and settle the land, they must bring the first ripened fruits to the central sanctuary, the Temple, as a way of giving thanks to God. A Mishnah in Bikkurim describes the joyous scene as people converged on Jerusalem from across the country, bringing their first-fruits to the accompaniment of music and celebration. Merely bringing the fruits, though, was not enough. Each person had to make a declaration. That declaration become one of the best known passages in the Torah because, though it was originally said on Shavuot, the festival of first-fruits, in post-biblical times it became a central element of the Haggadah on seder night:
My father was a wandering Aramean, and he went down into Egypt and lived there, few in number, there becoming a great nation, powerful and numerous. But the Egyptians ill-treated us and made us suffer, subjecting us to harsh labour. Then we cried out to the Lord, the God of our ancestors, and the Lord heard our voice and saw our misery, toil and oppression. So the Lord brought us out of Egypt with a mighty hand and an outstretched arm, with great terror and with signs and wonders. (Deut. 26:5-8)
Here for the first time the retelling of the nation’s history becomes an obligation for every citizen of the nation. In this act, known as vidui bikkurim, “the confession made over first-fruits,” Jews were commanded, as it were, to become a nation of storytellers.
This is a remarkable development. Yosef Hayim Yerushalmi tells us that, “Only in Israel and nowhere else is the injunction to remember felt as a religious imperative to an entire people.” Time and again throughout Devarim comes the command to remember: “Remember that you were a slave in Egypt.” “Remember what Amalek did to you.” “Remember what God did to Miriam.” “Remember the days of old; consider the generations long past. Ask your father and he will tell you, your elders, and they will explain to you.”
The vidui bikkurim is more than this. It is, compressed into the shortest possible space, the entire history of the nation in summary form. In a few short sentences we have here “the patriarchal origins in Mesopotamia, the emergence of the Hebrew nation in the midst of history rather than in mythic prehistory, slavery in Egypt and liberation therefrom, the climactic acquisition of the land of Israel, and throughout – the acknowledgement of God as lord of history.”
We should note here an important nuance. Jews were the first people to find God in history. They were the first to think in historical terms – of time as an arena of change as opposed to cyclical time in which the seasons rotate, people are born and die, but nothing really changes. Jews were the first people to write history – many centuries before Herodotus and Thucydides, often wrongly described as the first historians. Yet biblical Hebrew has no word that means “history” (the closest equivalent is divrei hayamim, “chronicles”). Instead it uses the root zachor, meaning “memory.”
There is a fundamental difference between history and memory. History is “his story,” an account of events that happened sometime else to someone else. Memory is “my story.” It is the past internalised and made part of my identity. That is what the Mishnah in Pesachim means when it says, “Each person must see themselves as if he (or she) personally went out of Egypt.”
Throughout Devarim Moses warns the people – no less than fourteen times – not to forget. If they forget the past they will lose their identity and sense of direction and disaster will follow. Moreover, not only are the people commanded to remember, they are also commanded to hand that memory on to their children.
This entire phenomenon represents a remarkable cluster of ideas: about identity as a matter of collective memory; about the ritual retelling of the nation’s story; above all about the fact that every one of us is a guardian of that story and memory. It is not the leader alone, or some elite, who are trained to recall the past, but every one of us. This too is an aspect of the devolution and democratisation of leadership that we find throughout Judaism as a way of life. The great leaders tell the story of the group, but the greatest of leaders, Moses, taught the group to become a nation of storytellers.
You can still see the power of this idea today. As I point out in my book The Home We Build Together, if you visit the Presidential memorials in Washington you will see that each one carries an inscription taken from their words: Jefferson’s ‘We hold these truths to be self-evident . . .’, Roosevelt’s ‘The only thing we have to fear, is fear itself’, Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address and his second Inaugural, ‘With malice toward none; with charity for all . . .’ Each memorial tells a story.
London has no equivalent. It contains many memorials and statues, each with a brief inscription stating who it represents, but there are no speeches or quotations. There is no story. Even the memorial to Churchill, whose speeches rivalled Lincoln’s in power, carries only one word: Churchill.
America has a national story because it is a society based on the idea of covenant. Narrative is at the heart of covenantal politics because it locates national identity in a set of historic events. The memory of those events evokes the values for which those who came before us fought and of which we are the guardians.
A covenantal narrative is always inclusive, the property of all its citizens, newcomers as well as the home-born. It says to everyone, regardless of class or creed: this is who we are. It creates a sense of common identity that transcends other identities. That is why, for example, Martin Luther King was able to use it to such effect in some of his greatest speeches. He was telling his fellow African Americans to see themselves as an equal part of the nation. At the same time, he was telling white Americans to honour their commitment to the Declaration of Independence and its statement that ‘all men are created equal’.
England does not have the same kind of national narrative because it is based not on covenant but on hierarchy and tradition. England, writes Roger Scruton, “was not a nation or a creed or a language or a state but a home. Things at home don’t need an explanation. They are there because they are there.” England, historically, was a class-based society in which there were ruling elites who governed on behalf of the nation as a whole. America, founded by Puritans who saw themselves as a new Israel bound by covenant, was not a society of rulers and ruled, but rather one of collective responsibility. Hence the phrase, central to American politics but never used in English politics: “We, the people.”
By making the Israelites a nation of storytellers, Moses helped turn them into a
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1926,
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1930,
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1933,
1932,
1934,
1935,
1936,
1937,
1938,
1939,
1940,
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1942,
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1944,
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1947,
1948,
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1950,
1954,
1953,
1952,
1955,
1957,
1958,
1956,
1959,
1960,
1961,
1962,
1963,
1964,
1965,
1967,
1966,
1968,
1969,
1970,
1971,
1972,
1974,
1973,
1975,
1976,
1977,
1979,
1978,
1982,
1981,
1980,
1983,
1984,
1985,
1986,
1987,
1988,
1989,
1990,
1991,
1992,
1993,
1994,
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1997,
1998,
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2000,
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2028,
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[
2048
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2,048
| 2.713004
|
Relief with Enthroned Ruler
- Chakalte' (Guatemalan or Mexican, active ca. A.D. 750–800)
- late 8th century
- Guatemala or Mexico, La Pasadita
- Limestone, paint
- H. 35 x W. 34 1/2 x D. 2 3/4 in. (88.9 x 87.6 x 7 cm)
- Credit Line:
- The Michael C. Rockefeller Memorial Collection, Bequest of Nelson A. Rockefeller, 1979
- Accession Number:
This Maya landmark was likely the carved lintel of a doorway from the site of La Pasadita in northwestern Guatemala carved in the early A.D. 770s. The relief panel would have been installed parallel to the floor of the entrance of a temple at La Pasadita. Visitors to the building were thus forced to look upward to view the monument, and perhaps even had to light the surface with raking torchlight in order to read the image and the text. The Metropolitan lintel is striking for the amount of pigment preserved on the surface. A variety of red, yellow-orange, and blue-green pigment remains to give clues about the original brightly colored appearance of the lintels. The jade jewels of the main characters and the details on the ruler’s throne glisten in blue-green, a color that symbolized the ‘first/newest’ and most precious materials.
In the 8th century, the small hilltop site La Pasadita was caught between the power struggles of the self-proclaimed divine kings of the river kingdoms of Yaxchilan (modern-day Chiapas, Mexico), and Piedras Negras (Guatemala). During the Classic Maya period (ca. A.D. 250-900), the two major royal courts vied for power, paid tribute to one another, intermarried, and engaged in conflict with subsidiary local lords. Loyalties sometimes shifted, boundaries between the two city-states were often fortified, and artistic programs sponsored by the lords and ladies served as propaganda to stake claims on the contested landscape.
The Yaxchilan kings and queens favored elaborate sculpted doorway lintels at the royal capital, and they made sure their local allies marked their palaces in the same way. At least a dozen related lintel reliefs are known from subsidiary sites around Yaxchilan. Likely commissioned by the Yaxchilan rulers themselves, most show the ruler from Yaxchilan in the company of the local lord in a supporting role in some ritual, making an overt statement of political sovereignty.
The Met’s lintel depicts three protagonists: the figure seated on the right is faced by two standing ones to the left. The main figure offering an elaborate headdress to the seated leader is the La Pasadita ruler named Tiloom (ti-lo-ma), who ruled from approximately A.D. 750s-770s, using the title of sajal, a title for subsidiary regional governors. Tiloom is represented on at least three other known doorway sculptures: one in the Ethnologisches Museum in Berlin (IV Ca 45530), one in the collection of the Museum of Ethnology in Leiden (3939-1), and one in an unknown private collection. The Berlin lintel dates to A.D. 759, and the Leiden monument dates to A.D. 766; the private collection lintel dates to A.D. 771. Based on the known sculptures of Tiloom, the Metropolitan lintel is contemporaneous with the private collection lintel, probably carved between 769 and the early 780s.
Tiloom was a loyal provincial ruler to the final two major kings of Yaxchilan, the father and son rulers of Bird Jaguar IV and Shield Jaguar IV. Bird Jaguar IV ruled from A.D. 752-768, and Shield Jaguar IV from 769 to around the turn of the 9th century. Bird Jaguar IV dominates the Berlin and Leiden lintels, in which Tiloom assists in a captive presentation and a scattering of incense, respectively. The ‘Sun Lord’ captive depicted in the Berlin Lintel is likely from Piedras Negras, and is the final portrayal of the many war victories of Bird Jaguar IV, who referred to himself as ‘he of 20 captives.’ In the Leiden panel, commemorating an event that occurred seven years after the Berlin captive presentation scene, Tiloom assists Bird Jaguar IV with a ‘scattering’ ritual in which the king drops blood or incense into a basket. The lintel from 771 in which Tiloom dances in a bird costume alone perhaps signals a shift in authority from one overlord to the other; Tiloom celebrated his own right to rule rather than his supporting role to the Yaxchilan king.
The Metropolitan Lintel also dates from the early 770s; in fact, the same sculptor carved the two lintels, an individual by the name of Chakalte’. Sculptors’ signatures are relatively rare in Maya art, though many are known from the area around Yaxchilan and Piedras Negras. Chakalte’ was probably a sculptor who worked under the patronage of Shield Jaguar IV. That leader was known to send out sculptors to the other provincial lords, such as the rulers of the well-known site of Bonampak. Sculptors were sometimes important members of the royal courts; at Piedras Negras it seems that a master sculptor oversaw an atelier of apprentices who all signed the same works. Many hands thus crafted these royal portraits.
Chakalte’ composed the Met’s lintel scene so that the visitor would be first greeted by the enthroned ruler, Shield Jaguar IV, facing the interior of the structure. The king leans forward towards his visitors, wearing an elaborate feathered hair ornament, a feathered nose plug, and a beaded jade necklace with bar pendant. Tiloom then stands proudly presenting the Yaxchilan holy lord with a headdress and what could be packets of incense or a plate of tamales. Tiloom wears a jaded headband and human head pectoral, with an elaborate woven skirt with a geometric pattern. A third personage stands behind Tiloom in a similar outfit but with a type of sombrero associated in other scenes with travelers or merchants. The text names the Yaxchilan "divine" lord with his pre-accession name of Chel Te’ Chan K’inich, which he changed to Shield Jaguar early in his reign because it was a namesake of ancestral rulers of the kingdom. The text naming Tiloom as the sajal, provincial lord, is squeezed in next to the ruler’s arm and the offertory headdress, almost as if Chakalte’ had not originally planned to include it. A bowl of sliced fruit with seeds visible sits under the throne, presumably part of the offering brought to the seated ruler.
La Pasadita was visited in the 1970s by renowned explorer and monument recorder Ian Graham, but subsequently became dangerous for scholarly visits because of border conflicts during the decades-long civil conflict in Guatemala. Land mines and security problems prevented archaeological work until 1998, when Charles Golden and colleagues performed reconnaissance in the area. Even today the site lies within a troubled zone suffering the effects of narcotrafficking and illegal settlements within the national parks in the Usumacinta River drainage.
The Metropolitan lintel provides key information for the understanding of Classic Maya politics on the eve of institutional collapse at the end of the 8th century. It shows the final major Yaxchilan lord receiving tribute in the form of food and regalia from a lord loyal to his warlord father, known as "he of 20 captives." But by the beginning of the 9th century, the dynasty at Yaxchilan ceased to build temples or commission monuments, silencing the voices of La Pasadita lord Tiloom and his sculptor of choice, Chakalte’.
James Doyle, 2015
Resources and Additional Reading
Bussel, G. W., and T. J. J. Leyenaar. 1991. Maya of Mexico. Leiden, The National Museum of Ethnology.
Freidel, David, and Linda Schele 1990. Forest of Kings: The Untold Story of the Ancient Maya. New York, William Morrow.
Golden, Charles, Andrew K. Scherer, A. René Muñoz, and Rosaura Vásquez. 2008. Piedras Negras and Yaxchilan: Divergent Political Trajectories in Adjacent Maya Polities. Latin American Antiquity 19(3): 249-274.
Golden, Charles, and Andrew K. Scherer. 2013. Territory, Trust, Growth, and Collapse in Classic Period Maya Kingdoms. Current Anthropology 54(4): 397-435.
"Border problems: recent archaeological research along the Usumacinta River." PARI Journal 7(2):1–16.
Golden, Charles W. 2010. Frayed at the edges: the re-creation of histories and memories on the frontiers of Classic period Maya polities. Ancient Mesoamerica 21(2): 373–384.
"The politics of warfare in the Usumacinta Basin: La Pasadita and the realm of Bird Jaguar." In Ancient Mesoamerican Warfare. M. Kathryn Brown and Travis W. Stanton, eds. pp. 31–48. Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira.
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]
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[
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This article is based on a talk given by Vardi at the Ada Lovelace Symposium, which took place at the University of Oxford in December 2015. You can watch the full talk here!
In March this year the Go champion Lee Sedol lost to the computer AlphaGo. Sedol is the highest-ranking Go player so far to be defeated by artificial intelligence, and the win counts as a significant advance in AI.
But will the rise of intelligent machines benefit humankind in the long run, or is it more likely to do harm? In this article we'll explore this question — not by focussing on deep philosophical questions, but by looking at the world of work and hard economic data.
The great decoupling
The world is just coming out of the deepest recession since the great depression in the 1930s. Out of all the recessions after WWII, the current one saw the most dramatic job losses.
Chart from calculatedrisk.com.
To understand the long-term future of jobs, let's look at what economists call the great coupling. What drives economic growth overall is economic productivity. Since 1953 labour productivity in the US has consistently increased (see the chart below), producing benefits for everyone: GDP grew and with that growth jobs were created and incomes increased. These four indicators — GDP, labour productivity, income and employment — increased in harmony for such a long period of time that people have come to believe their coupling to be an economic law.
US productivity (blue), GDP (grey), employment (red) and income (green) from 1953 to 1983. Figure reproduced from a chart on Andrew Mc Afee's blog.
But it turns out this isn't the case. Since the 1980s we have seen a great decoupling. As the chart below shows, it's possible for productivity and GDP to grow without the benefits spreading uniformly. Private employment and median household income have flattened. Economists used to believe that the rising tides lifts all boats, but now it seems that the tides and the boats have parted company (to quote the US journalist Harold Meyerson).
US productivity (blue), GDP (grey), employment (red) and income (green) from 1953 to 2011. Figure reproduced from a chart on Andrew Mc Afee's blog.
What is causing this?
A group of people who call themselves the neo-Luddites blame technology. Machines have become so smart, they argue, they no longer need unskilled labour to operate. Machines are taking away our jobs.
On the other side there are neoclassical economists, who disagree. "Since the dawn of the industrial age, a recurrent fear has been that technological change will spawn mass unemployment," writes economist (and chess Grandmaster) Kenneth Rogoff. "Neoclassical economists predicted that this would not happen, because people would find other jobs, albeit possibly after a long period of adjustment. By and large, that prediction has proven to be true."
Who is right? To find out, let's go back to basics.
The robots are coming
In 1950 the famous computing pioneer Alan Turing gave a compelling philosophical analysis for the feasibility of intelligence machines. "I believe that at the end of the century the use of words and general educated opinion will have altered so much that one will be able to speak of machines thinking without expecting to be contradicted," he wrote.
The military robot BigDog.
Over 65 years later we still haven't fully cracked the problem of artificial intelligence. But from the 1990s onwards there have been a number of breakthroughs. In 1997 IBM's computer Deep Blue beat the reigning chess world champion Garry Kasparov, regarded by many as the best chess player of all time. In 2005 and 2007, as part of the DARPA Grand Challenge, autonomous vehicles successfully negotiated unrehearsed desert trails and urban environments, respectively, avoiding hazards and obeying rules, just as humans would. In 2011 IBM's computer Watson defeated the two greatest Jeopardy! Champions. The video on the right shows the military robot BigDog mastering tricky territory, even righting itself when kicked. And of course there is the recent development in Go. In both brainpower and physical dexterity, robots are on the rise.
More generally, it's hard to argue that intelligent machines are impossible — after all, we ourselves are intelligent biological machines. The universities of Oxford and Cambridge seem to be worried about this: both study the potential danger of AI (at the Future of Humanity Institute and the Centre for the Study of Existential Risk, respectively). And people including Stephen Hawking and Bill Gates have recently deemed artificial intelligence an existential risk for humanity. But our focus here is on jobs.
Are they taking our jobs?
Robots are indeed taking over human jobs, from deboning chicken to performing pharmacy duties, and from tending bars to guarding prisons. A quick internet search will reveal hundreds of recent news stories covering robots performing routine tasks hitherto done by humans.
So let's look at some hard economic data. The chart below shows US manufacturing output (in blue) from 1950 to 2010, compared to manufacturing employment (in red). The general trend for output has been going up, but employment has gone down since around 1980.
Chart by Mark Perry, Carpe Diem blog.
This isn't because all the jobs have gone to countries like China: Chinese data shows a similar decline in manufacturing jobs, albeit a more recent one.
Manufacturing employment and output in China, 1990 - 2008. Figure reproduced from chart shown on Digital Community.
Another hot political topic is inequality. The charts below show that only the top 10% have made gains over recent decades, be it in average income or in share of income.
Charts originally printed in Mother Jones, September/October 2011.
Something similar holds when you zoom in on the top 10% earners. The bottom 90% of those top 10% just flatline, and it's only really the top 0.01% that have profited. Even in this exclusive income bracket, the bottom 90% can complain about the top 1% of the top 1% doing better than them!
The next chart shows who has benefited from periods of economic expansion: in earlier years most benefits went to the bottom 90%, but now they go to the top 10%.
Tcherneva, Pavlina R. Reorienting Fiscal Policy: A Bottom-up Approach, Journal of Post Keynesian Economics, Fall 2014, 37 (1): 43-66. See here for a brief note on inequality by Tcherneva and here for a longer one.
You might say, well this is class war. Why should you care about the rich getting richer? But it turns out that inequality is tied to all sorts of problems in society. It goes hand in hand with a lack of social mobility and also leads to a slow in economic growth, as shown by the following two charts:
This graph is named after the famous novel by Scott Fitzgerald. The horizontal axis measures income inequality and the vertical axis measures social immobility (the likelihood that someone will inherit their parents' income level). You can see that higher inequality correlates to higher immobility. You can find out more about the Gatsby curve here. Image: BoogaLouie, CC BY-SA 3.0.
The chart shows that higher inequality correlates to shorter growth spells. Figure reproduced from a chart in the IMF Discussion Note by Andrew G. Berg and Jonathan D. Ostry.
There are also other economic indicators that tell us that something went wrong in the economy in the last thirty years.
Will it be different this time?
It's been suggested that these phenomena are due to technology. But since the beginning of the industrial revolution technological change has not only destroyed jobs — it's also created them. Why should it be any different this time around?
The job market for horses has collapsed drastically in the last 100 years due to technological advances. At least there's niche employment for some of them.
What is different is that we are now working to build machines that will be able to outcompete us in almost everything! Right now artificial intelligence is still a challenge: we cannot yet emulate the physical dexterity or situational awareness of people or even animals. Neither can machines achieve the high-level cognition that is required in many jobs. But there are many jobs that don't require such high-level physical dexterity or cognition. That's why more and more jobs are being automated.
There is some evidence suggesting that things will indeed be different this time. A recent study has found that in 2010 only 0.5% of the US labour force was employed in industries that did not exist in 2000. Compared to major corporations of the early computer revolution, the companies leading the digital revolution have created few employment opportunities. Facebook, for example, has under 13,000 employees. New technologies are not creating the jobs we need them to create to keep the economy humming.
As an analogy, imagine a conversation between two horses somewhere around the beginning of the 20th century. One horse, having seen driverless carriages and early cars, is worried about the future of horse jobs. The other believes the new advances will create new jobs. As it turns out, 1915 was the year of peak employment for horses. Today most horses in the Western world exist as pets. Horses have found a niche employment, but their numbers have decreased drastically.
What does all of this mean for our future?
The most common answer is that a future with intelligent machines is a wonderful thing: we won't have
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1875,
1877,
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View Full Version : Latter Day Saints in the Civil War?
03-13-2004, 04:52 PM
My research thus far has produced few results as I attempt to find whether or not there any Latter Day Saints that fought for the North during the war. Specifically, I am wondeirng if any reformed Mormons (RLDS) from Wisconsin and Iowa served. Has anybody come across anything applicable to this during their studies? The Utah Mormons effectively stayed out of the war, but what of the Saints that did not follow B. Young's Mormons westward?
03-13-2004, 05:04 PM
Tad - that's an interesting question. It's true that there were some Mormons in various isolated communities throughout the Midwest that did not make the trek West. Whether they served (1861-`865) or not is a question I've never seen posed. I suspect they didn't due to their particular beliefs... and certainly on the heels of the Utah War, one would think Mormons wouldn't be too friendly with the U.S. Army. Pologamy was a pretty hot issue at the time... so they may have sought to have kept their religious identities "close to the vest."
I wonder if there are some Mormon genealogical boards where this question might be posted. Obviously Mormons are big into genealogy. Perhaps there are some references out there to Mormons who may have served.
I think it would have been pretty isolated - certainly no "Mormon regiments", etc.
03-13-2004, 05:12 PM
Tad - Was thinking on this further ... we do know that the US Army raised a battalion of Mormons 1846-1847 to fight in the war against Mexico. So I guess it wasn't unheard of for the Mormons to bear arms on behalf of the Federal Government.
Although, one might be led to believe this would only have made the Mormons increasingly anti-war because they were strong-armed into forming the battalion.
03-13-2004, 05:13 PM
Many of the reformed were anti-polygamist...hence the bad blood between the Utah Mormons and themselves. Your suggestion to post on some Mormon geneology sites is a good one, but I've been down the path to no avail. I will keep trying, however :)
Will keep you all posted as I learn more.
03-13-2004, 06:18 PM
Although I know you asked specifically about Latter Day Saints in the Union Army, a reference you might wish to check into is The Civil War Reminiscenses and Diary of Pvt. Levi Lamoni Wight. He was the son of Lyman Wight, an early Church leader who led a small colony of Saints to Texas after the death of Joseph Smith in 1844. The elder Wight died in 1858, but his son Levi enlisted in the 1st Texas Cavalry and saw extensive service in the Trans-Mississippi Theater, fighting at Mansfield and Pleasant Hill, among other places. Wight survived the War and lived until 1918 as a member of the Reorganized LDS Church, today called the Community of Christ.
A while back I did some digging to attempt to locate any Mormons who served in the Federal Army during the War, and came up with zilch. A couple of years ago I read in a book about the history of the Church that there may have been as many as 50 Saints to serve in the Union Army, but unfortunately don't remember the title of the work, or where the author may have obtained that figure.
Given the hostility between the Federal government and LDS leaders in Utah Territory (then known as "Deseret" to the Saints), there was not much inclination among LDS men to fight for the Union. The so-called "Mormon War" of 1857-1858 has rightly received a good deal of recognition as having served as a training ground for a number of men who later obtained prominence in both the Confederate and Federal Armies (A.S. Johnston, Fitz-John Porter, E.P. Alexander, among others...), but feuding between Brigham Young and other Church leaders on one side and the Federal authorities on the other continued throughout much of the Civil War itself. Fortunately, the hostilities never descended into actual warfare. (Of course, there was little if any real belligerence during the "Mormon War", either.) The attitude of many of the local Federal authorities in the West was exemplified by Colonel Patrick Connor, who wrote to General George Wright in San Francisco that "it will be impossible for me to describe what I saw and heard in Salt Lake, so as to make you realize the enormity of Mormonism; suffice it, that I found them a community of traitors, murderers, fanatics, and whores." (Alvin Josephy, The Civil War in the American West, pg. 253). Apparently attempting to pick a fight, in late October, 1862, Connor took 750 volunteers, primarily from the 3rd California Infantry, crossed the Jordan River, and marched into Salt Lake City. He established a permanent camp on a bluff three miles east of the city, which he named Camp Douglas after the late Senator Steven A. Douglas, who had once referred to the Mormons as a "pestiferous, disgusting cancer." Connor then launched an expedition to wipe out a band of Shoshone Indians under the leadership of a Chief named Bear Hunter. On Jan. 29, 1863, his forces caught up with the Shoshones at the Bear River, and wiped out Bear Hunter and his band. Bear Hunter himself was captured after being wounded, and then brutally dispatched by having a red-hot bayonet driven through into his ear and through his head.
Open conflict between Connor and Mormon leaders was avoided when Lincoln appointed James Doty, a former Indian superintendent, as Governor of Utah Territory in mid-1863. Doty was an able diplomat, and maintained friendly relations with Brigham Young and other LDS leaders. However, Connor continued to attempt to create trouble with the Saints. He financed a weekly newspaper at Camp Douglas, called the Union Vedette, in which he wrote inflammatory anti-Mormon editorials which served to keep his Californian soldiers stirred up against the locals. He also encouraged his troops to prospect for gold and silver in the surrounding Utah mountains. In a letter to Gen. Wright in San Francisco in September, 1863, he declared that the solution to "the Mormon question" was to flood Utah with non-Mormon settlers, and he hoped that a large-scale discovery of precious metals would bring this about.
Finally, in summer, 1864, General Irvin McDowell, who had relieved Gen. Wright as departmental commander in San Francisco, ordered Connor to cease and desist from attempting to provoke the Mormons into a fight. McDowell stated that war with the Mormons would "...prove fatal to the Uinon cause in this department" and that "it is the course of true patriotism for you not to embark on any hostilities" against them. (Josephy, page 263) So the Mormons and the Federal government continued to maintain an uneasy peace throughout the Civil War, and for decades afterwards, until Church Pres. Wilford Woodruff formally abolished the practice of polygamy in 1890.
Anyway, I know your original inquiry was related to Saints residing in the mid-West during the War, not Utah, but hopefully this might be of some benefit to you.
Please keep us informed of the results of your research. I would be fascinated to know of any Mormons that served in the Federal Army.
03-14-2004, 12:35 PM
Thanks for the excellent information, Chad.
I will keep you posted with more information as it comes. As a direct decendant of Joseph Smith Jr., and dedicated Civil War enthusiast, such stories hit close to home. I was raised in the RLDS in Wisconsin as a child.
03-14-2004, 11:35 PM
There is a couple of books that you might look into. One probably more specific than the other.
"A Concise History of the Mormon Battalion inf the Mexican War: 1846-1848"
By: Sgt. Daniel Tyler
I picked this book up on Alibris under the "hard to find"
The second book:
"The Saints and the Union - Utah Territory during the Civil War"
By: E.B. Long
I believe that I got this on Amazon or some other internet site, not as difficult to find as the Mormon Battalion book.
Also, I had read in James McPherson's "Battle Cry of Freedom" that the Utah Territory had "recognized" themselves as a slave state. While there were not many slaves in the State, in the area of 20-30, the Utah Territory was "in line" to be a slave holding State.
While it is my complete speculation, but there may be more recognition with what Chad posted regarding more sympathy to the South.
As I grew up in the Beehive State, I would be interested to know what you are able to find out.
03-15-2004, 12:25 AM
Some years ago I was told by a fellow who was fairly well-versed in LDS history that the Confederate government sent emissaries to Brigham Young in an attempt to encourage the Saints to secede from the Union and declare Deseret to be an independent nation. The story goes that President Young became furious at their suggestion and threw them out.
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What is Chitas
/khi-tas (Ashkenazic)/ khitat (Sefardic)/
(pronounced chee-tass; the “ch” sound is guttural, as in the Yiddish chutzpah)
1. a Hebrew acronym formed by the three letters ches (ח), tav (ת), tav (ת), the initials of Chumash (the Five Books of Moses), Tehillim (book of Psalms), and Tanya (the “bible” of Chabad Chassidic thought authored by the first Rebbe of the Chabad movement, Rabbi Shneur Zalman of Liadi.)
To understand the Ashkenazic pronunciation of Chitas, despite the “T” of Tanya, see scriptural reference quoted below, entry 4.
2. the daily study cycles of the three books.
3. a single volume entitled Sefer Chitas but commonly called “a Chitas,” which contains the Five Books of Moses, Psalms, and Tanya in that precise order. A Chitas often includes a supplemental Siddur Tehillas/t Hashem prayer book and HaYom Yom, a calendar with daily insights and Chabad customs.
4. fear (Heb., literal translation), as in the verse, va-yehi chitas Elokim al he-arim, “And the fear of Hashem was upon the cities that were around them, so that they did not pursue Yaakov’s sons” (Bereishis 32:5).
For more on Chumash Study Click Here
For more on the reciting of Tehillim Click Here
For more on Tanya Study Click Here
A story about the about the power of Chitas: Click Here
The Chitas Initiative
3 Books in 3 Stages
It can be said that the development of Chitas is as long as the history of Chabad itself, stretching from its first Rebbe, the Ba’al HaTanya (1745-1812), all the way to its seventh leader – our Rebbe.
Not long after Rabbi Shneur Zalman of Liadi published his book of Tanya, did his followers adopt the practice of studying one of its illuminative chapters each week, and many Chassidim studied a chapter a day, as a means of readying themselves for sincere service of the heart – the legendary contemplative morning prayers for which Chassidim are famed.
In his wonderfully descriptive style, the sixth Chabad Rebbe, Rabbi Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn (1880-1950), portrays the centuries-old commitment to studying a daily portion of Tanya and the spiritual rewards it conveys:
The book of Tanya is the Written Torah of Chassidic thought … The early Chassidim would read from it every week, every day of the week, one chapter, as if they were reading a portion of the Torah … The book of Tanya removes all spiritual calamities, removes all challenges and concealments; it transforms a curse into a blessing. With it the Jews will greet Moshiach. A chapter of Tanya brings an abundance of blessings and success.
Igros Kodesh Rayatz, vol. 4, p. 269
Nevertheless, this practice did not involve a specific division or study cycle of Tanya for the purpose of daily study. Most critically, this was an informal custom of Chassidim, not the formal enactment of a Rebbe.
Stage One: Chumash
By contrast, the concept of studying the daily portion of Chumash – in tandem with the Torah reading of each Shabbos – along with its corresponding commentary of Rashi, was indeed introduced to Chabad Chasidim by the Ba’al HaTanya (the “Alter Rebbe”) himself:
Chabad Chassidim have a tradition that was passed down the generations and was originally instituted by the Alter Rebbe, to study a daily portion of the weekly sedra (Torah portion) of Chumash with Rashi. This was also done by the [Chabad] Rebbes.
HaYom Yom, entry for Teves 19
In 1890, the fifth Chabad Rebbe, Rabbi Shalom DovBer Schneersohn, explained that the intention of the Ba’al HaTanya in introducing a daily Chumash-and-Rashi study was far more than a dry intellectual exercise:
In the early years of his leadership, the Alter Rebbe declared publicly, “One must live with the times.” From his brother, Rabbi Yehudah Leib, the elder Chassidim learned that the Rebbe meant that one must live with the sedra (Torah portion) of the week and the particular portion of the day. One should not merely study the weekly portion each day, but live with it.
HaYom Yom, entry for Cheshvan
Thus the daily Chumash study – the first of the three study cycles contained in Chitas – was established by the founder of Chabad Chassidism soon after the birth of the movement.
Stage Two: Tehillim
It was not until approximately a century and a half later that the second stage of Chitas was born. That occurred in the midst of a perilous period for Chabad and indeed, for much of Jewry. The Soviet establishment launched an oppressive campaign in all the territories under its vast dominion with the design of suffocating every last vestige of the Jewish soul – Torah education, belief in G-d, and the practical observance of the mitzvos. Despite the far reach of their secret police and the sheer terror of their ruthless methods, the Communists discovered that a lone citizen was successful in consistently and methodically unwinding their evil designs on a massive scale.
That man was Rabbi Yosef Yitzchok Schneersohn, who formed and personally directed a breathtaking labyrinth of underground Torah schools, synagogues, mikvehs, and the like. He sent overt and covert emissaries, teachers and instructors who were willing to risk their lives to keep the flame of Torah and mitzvos alight in every region of the USSR. He also founded branches of his Torah schools outside the USSR, in Poland, Uzbekistan and in America.
Rabbi Yosef Yitzchok was hounded mercilessly by the Soviets, but he ignored their intimidation. In 5687 (1926), however, he sensed that the enemy was poised to strike a deadly blow. In response, he requested that the book of Tehillim as it is divided into daily portions to be completed in the course of a month, be recited in all synagogues.
Listen, Chassidim, and all Jews who await the coming of Moshiach! Repeat in my name to all Chassidim in the world that I have instructed them to recite a portion of Tehillim as divided by the days of the month in all Chassidic synagogues after morning prayers each day, including Shabbos.
Excerpt of 1927 handwritten directive discovered on his desk on the day of his arrest.
Rabbi Yosef Yitzchok was arrested and suffered a brutal incarceration. The Soviets swiftly sentenced the Rebbe to death – a decree that was miraculously reversed, with the help of enormous international outcry. So complete was the reversal that the Soviets were subsequently compelled to escort Rabbi Yosef Yitzchok with his family and his possessions out of the USSR’s iron borders to freedom.
An account by the Rebbe’s close confidant and devoted follower, Rabbi Eliyahu Chaim Althaus, immortalizes Rabbi Yosef Yitzchok’s reflection on the effectiveness of reciting the daily Tehillim:
These were his exact words: “Before 5687 (1927) I was greatly afraid. I did not speculate what my own fate would be, for I never imagined what I would have to endure. Rather, my fear was for the Chassidim. Before I instructed them to begin saying Tehillim, it was really difficult for me.”
Excerpt of a letter from Rabbi Althaus to his fellow Chassidim
After the Rebbe’s release from prison, this instruction to recite Tehillim was not reversed. In fact, the Rebbe directed that it be spread to all Jewry to their lasting benefit and protection.
Stage Three: Tanya
Sixteen years and another continent later, Rabbi Yosef Yitzchok – then living in New York – completed the arduous task of apportioning the Tanya so that it could be studied in an annual cycle. This occurred in 1943, just seven years prior to his passing and the transfer of leadership to his son-in-law, Rabbi Menachem Mendel Schneerson – the seventh Chabad Rebbe.
This division of Tanya was undertaken in concert with a unique project with which Rabbi Yosef Yitzchok charged his son-in-law: the creation of a booklet entitled HaYom Yom – a spiritual calendar for Chabad Chassidim that would record various Chabad customs, teachings, and anecdotes – one per day.
Most critically, the calendar created by the seventh Chabad Rebbe would introduce the Chassidim to a newly-minted enactment – the institution of the daily Chitas:
You should specifically include a set schedule of daily study that is appropriate for every person – in addition to the Torah study that each person pursues according to their individual ability – that includes: 1. Chumash with Rashi’s explanation. 2. Tehillim, after morning prayers, as it is divided according to the days of the month. 3
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Understanding why do babies cry?
Your baby’s cries all have a purpose. This is their only way at this time to communicate with you that they need you. Dr. Sears deciphers why do babies cry and what they mean.
The basic answer to why do babies cry is that it is an automatic reaction. A perfect signal is automatic. A newborn cries by reflex. The infant senses a need, which triggers a sudden inspiration of air followed by a forceful expelling of that air through vocal cords, which vibrate to produce the sound we call a cry. In the early months, the tiny infant does not think, “What kind of cry will get me fed?” He just automatically cries. Also, the cry is easily generated. Once his lungs are full of air, the infant can initiate crying with very little effort.
You Are Supposed to Notice
The cry is appropriately disturbing: ear-piercing enough to get the caregiver’s attention and make him or her try to stop the cry, but not so disturbing as to make the listener want to avoid the sound altogether.
Not All Cries Are The Same
Looking further into why do babies cry you learn that the cry can be modified as both the sender and the listener learn ways to make the signal more precise. Each baby’s signal is unique. A baby’s cry is a baby’s language, and each baby cries differently. Voice researchers call these unique sounds cry prints, which are as unique for babies as their fingerprints are.
Responding to baby’s cries is biologically correct. A mother is biologically programmed to give a nurturing response to her newborn’s cries and not to restrain herself. Fascinating biological changes take place in a mother’s body in response to her infant’s cry. Upon hearing her baby cry, the blood flow to a mother’s breasts increases, accompanied by a biological urge to “pick up and nurse.” The act of breastfeeding itself causes a surge in prolactin , a hormone that we feel forms the biological basis of the term “mother’s intuition.” Oxytocin, the hormone that causes a mother’s milk to letdown, brings feelings of relaxation and pleasure; a pleasant release from the tension built up by the baby’s cry. These feelings help you love your baby. Mothers, listen to the biological cues of your body when your baby cries rather than to advisors who tell you to turn a deaf ear. These biological happenings explain why it’s easy for those advisors to say such a thing. They are not biologically connected to your baby. Nothing happens to their hormones when your baby cries.
Ignore or Respond to the Cry Signal?
Once you appreciate the special signal value of your baby’s cry, the important thing is what you do about it. You have two basic options, ignore or respond. Ignoring your baby’s cry is usually a lose-lose situation. A more compliant baby gives up and stops signaling, becomes withdrawn, eventually realizes that crying is not worthwhile, and concludes that he is not worthwhile. The baby loses the motivation to communicate with his parents, and the parents miss out on opportunities to get to know their baby. Everyone loses. A baby with a more persistent personality— most high-need babies—does not give up so easily. Instead, he cries louder and keeps escalating his signal, making it more and more disturbing. You could ignore this persistent signal in several ways. You could wait it out until he stops crying and then pick him up, so that he won’t think it was his crying that got your attention. This is actually a type of power struggle; you teach the baby that you’re in control, but you also teach him that he has no power to communicate. This shuts down parent-child communication, and in the long run everybody loses.You could desensitize yourself completely so that you’re not “bothered” at all by the cry; this way you can teach baby he only gets responded to when it’s “time.” This is another lose-lose situation; baby doesn’t get what he needs and parents remain stuck in a mindset where they can’t enjoy their baby’s unique personality. Or, you could pick baby up to calm him but then put him right back down because “it’s not time to feed him yet.” He has to learn, after all, to be happy “on his own.” Lose-lose again; he will start to cry again and you will feel angry. He will learn that his communication cues, though heard, are not responded to, which can lead him to distrust his own perceptions: “Maybe they’re right. Maybe I’m not hungry.”
Your other option is to give a prompt and nurturing response. This is the win-win way for baby and mother to work out a communication system that helps them both. The mother responds promptly and sensitively so that baby will feel less frantic the next time he needs something. The baby learns to “cry better,” in a less disturbing way since he knows mother will come. Mother structures baby’s environment so that there is less need for him to cry; she keeps him close to her if she knows he’s tired and ready to sleep. Mother also heightens her sensitivity to the cry so that she gives just the right response. A quick response when baby is young and falls apart easily or when the cry makes it clear there is real danger; a slower response when the baby is older and begins to learn how to settle disturbances on his own.
Responding appropriately to your baby’s cry is the first and one of the most difficult, communication challenges you will face as a mother. You will master the system only after rehearsing thousands of cue-responses in the early months. If you initially regard your baby’s cry as a signal to be responded to and evaluated rather than as an unfortunate habit to be broken, you will open yourself up to becoming an expert in your baby’s signals, which will carry over into becoming an expert on everything about your baby. Each mother-baby signal system is unique. That’s why it is so shortsighted for “cry trainers” to prescribe canned cry-response formulas, such as “leave her to cry for five minutes the first night, ten minutes the second,” and so on.
It’s Not Your Fault Baby Cries
Parents, take heart! Many parents when wondering why do babies cry think it is their fault. If you are responsive to your baby and try to keep him feeling secure in his new world, you need not feel that it’s your fault if your baby cries a lot. Nor is it up to you to stop your baby’s crying. Of course, you stay open to learning new things to help your baby (like a change in your diet or a new way of wearing baby), and you get your doctor involved if you suspect a physical cause behind the crying. But there will be times when you won’t know why your baby is crying—you’ll wonder if baby even knows why he’s crying. There may be times when baby simply needs to cry, and you needn’t feel desperate to make him stop after trying all the usual things.
It’s a fact of new parent life that although babies cry to express a need, the style in which they do so is the result of their own temperament. Don’t take baby’s cries personally. Your job is to create a supportive environment that lessens baby’s need to cry, to offer a set of caring and relaxed arms so that baby does not need to cry alone, and to do as much detective work as you can to figure out why your baby is crying and how you can help. The rest is up to baby.
“When I was confused about my mothering, I asked a seasoned calm, impartial mother to observe how I handled my baby on a typical day in my home. Although I know I’m the expert on my own baby, sometimes it’s hard to be objective, and a voice of experience can be helpful.”
What Cry Research Tells Us
Researchers Sylvia Bell and Mary Ainsworth performed studies on why do babies cry in the 1970’s that should have put the spoiling theory on the shelf to spoil forever. (It is interesting that up to that time and even to this day, the infant development writers that preached the cry-it-out advice were nearly always male. It took female researchers to begin to set things straight.) These researchers studied two groups of mother-infant pairs. Group 1 mothers gave a prompt and nurturant response to their infant’s cries. Group 2 mothers were more restrained in their response. They found that children in Group 1 whose mothers had given an early and more nurturant response were less likely to use crying as a means of communication at one year of age. These children seemed more securely attached to their mothers and had developed better communicative skills, becoming less whiny and manipulative.
Up until that time parents had been led to believe that if they picked up their baby every time she cried she would never learn to settle herself and would become more demanding. Bell and Ainsworth’s research showed the opposite. Babies who developed a secure attachment and had their cues responded to in a prompt and nurturing way became less clingy and demanding. More studies were done to shoot down the spoiling theory, showing that babies whose cries were not promptly responded to begin to cry more, longer, and in a more disturbing way. In one study comparing two groups of crying babies, one group of infants received an immediate, nurturant response to their cries, while the other group was left to cry-it-out. The babies whose cries were sensitively attended to cried seventy percent less. The babies in the cry-it-out group, on the other hand, did not decrease their crying. In essence, crying research has shown that babies whose cries were listened and responded to learned to “cry better;” the infants who were the product of a more restrained style of parenting learned to “cry harder.” It is interesting that the studies revealed differences not only in how the babies communicated with the parents based on the response they got to their cries, but there were also differences in the mothers, too. Studies showed that mothers who gave
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]
] |
[
2048
] |
2,048
| 2.598796
|
Published on 27/12/2011
Environment and health
The definitions of “environment” are subject to variations. They can cover anything that is not genetic, therefore including social factors and behaviours. The field of environmental health, which pertains to the relationship between all the aspects of health and all these factors, is therefore quite large. In addition to this specific aspect related to the scale of the field in question, environmental health has some unique features that make it more difficult to study:
- Medical conditions in which environmental exposures play a role are frequently multifactorial;
- Exposures can be multiproduct, multichannel and multi-risk;
- Exposures are often weak but chronic and often affect a large portion of the population, if not the entire population;
- The latency between exposure and health effects is significant;
- The relative risks analyzed are low and difficult to highlight, but the portion attributable to the environment of many medical conditions can be high due to the exposure’s high prevalence.
- Look up InVS publications on this topic
Air pollution and health
In France as in other countries atmospheric pollution is a public health concern, despite the adoption of guideline values and more stringent emission standards, better surveillance of air quality and a (sometimes significant) drop in the levels of certain pollutants.
In 1997 the Air and Health Surveillance Program (PSAS) was implemented in nine major French cities (Bordeaux, Le Havre, Lille, Lyon, Marseille, Paris, Rouen, Strasbourg and Toulouse). The program is part of the legislation on air and the rational use of energy (LAURE) promulgated on 30 December 1996, which stipulates under Section 3 that “… the State shall ensure… air quality surveillance and… its effects on health.” The law also provides for Regional Plans for Air Quality (PRQA), whose purpose is to lay down guidelines aimed at “preventing, reducing or attenuating the effects of atmospheric pollution”, as well as Plans for the Protection of the Atmosphere (PPA) in cities of more than 250,000 inhabitants. To achieve this, they need to rely on an assessment of the effects of atmospheric pollution on health and therefore require adequate epidemiological tools.
In this respect, the French Institute for Public Health Surveillance is required to maintain and coordinate nationwide activities on the epidemiological surveillance of the health impact of urban atmospheric pollution in the short and long run, and coordinate those activities with European mechanisms. As a result, the Air and Health Surveillance Program is part of InVS’s Department of Environmental Health.
In particular, quantifying long-term effects in France is still based on the results of a small number of US studies, in other terms the question remains regarding the validity of extrapolating these risks to European countries. As there appears to be appreciably more long-term effects than short-term risks, connections between exposure and long-term risks in France must therefore be developed.
In preparing the European Environment and Health Action Plan, human biosurveillance was defined as “surveillance of humans using biological indicators called “biomarkers”, capable of revealing environmental exposures, diseases and/or disorders or any genetic predisposition, and the study of any connections that might exist between them.” The term “biomarkers” includes exposure, effect and susceptibility biomarkers.
For example, a biomarker might be defined as a chemical or the chemical’s resulting products present in the human body (exposure biomarkers). Describing the concentrations of a given biomarker in the organism is usually referred to as “uptakes”. A biomarker can also be the sign of a biological response to the chemical in question (effect biomarker).
Biosurveillance helps to monitor the presence and effects of chemicals on the organism, such as environmental pollutants. In practice, the idea is to measure biomarkers in the body’s fluids and tissues (blood, urine, hair, saliva, breast milk) that might indicate exposure to substances that are toxic for human health or their effects on the human body.
In other terms, biosurveillance is an important tool in evaluating the level of exposure to chemicals in the environment. It improves knowledge on exposures thanks to a direct assessment of total exposure of humans to environmental pollutants. This assessment includes the various sources and routes of exposure. Biosurveillance also takes account of individual physiological differences (respiration, metabolism, etc.) as well as behavioural factors and the activities of each and every individual (microenvironments, hygiene, use of consumer products). This tool provides the knowledge needed to better evaluate and manage health risks posed by chemicals.
Carbon monoxide poisoning
Implementation of the surveillance system for carbon monoxide poisoning, coordinated by the InVS, was the result of a “brainstorming” initiated in the 2000s by health authorities to combat carbon monoxide poisoning. The carbon monoxide poisoning surveillance system was extended to the entire territory in 2005.
Cold temperatures and health
Cold temperatures affect health at various levels: directly by causing hypothermia for example, or indirectly in cases such as carbon monoxide poisoning. Unlike heat which has rapid effects on the organism, cold weather can have either rapid effects (hypothermia, cold air-induced asthma, etc.) or more or less delayed effects (strokes, respiratory infections, etc.). Furthermore, flu epidemics and other infectious outbreaks as well as behaviour-related risk factors can also increase mortality and interfere with the cold. In other terms, it is difficult to identify how much of the risk is connected to cold temperatures when dealing with winter ailments.
Also, even though climate models show a pattern of warming the climate is expected to become more variable within the next few decades, and the occurrence of major cold spells cannot be excluded.
Together with Météo-France the French Institute for Public Health Surveillance monitors the health impact of cold spells on a daily basis using its syndromic surveillance system SurSaUD®. In cases of bad weather forecasts or any observed health impact the health authorities are informed so they can issue suitable communication on what to do. However, long-term preventive measures such as fighting against fuel poverty are recognized by many countries as being the most efficient measures.
What does a newborn's future depend on? Answering this question requires taking into account all the elements of the environment likely to interfere with a child's development: family, social, economic, school, relationship and health factors.
In the late 1990s several public institutions and governmental agencies identified the need to carry out longitudinal studies in France, in particular to follow up children's future, and had started to develop a project along those lines. At the same time, the new National Environmental Health Plan (PNSE) was recommending the implementation of a cohort-type epidemiological study of children in order to better understand environmental and society determinants on health.
The project aimed at setting up a French cohort of 20,000 children was therefore initiated to meet those needs. Children are monitored from birth into adulthood in a multidisciplinary approach with several objectives: motor and cognitive development, education, family and social environment, etc. The cohort was called ELFE (from the French initials meaning Longitudinal Study of Children): https://www.elfe-france.fr/.
Health impacts caused by climate changes
Adapting to climate change – i.e. measures taken to deal with expected changes and limit potential damage - is now considered a public health priority. There is a broader range of potential impacts on health caused by climate changes: emergence or re-emergence of infectious diseases, extreme events becoming more frequent and more intense, significant changes to the environment, water quality, air quality, etc.
The French Institute for Public Health Surveillance strives to identify major risks for France and to suggest possible types of adaptive measures for surveillance and research. Although most risks are currently being monitored from an environmental and health point of view and do not require the development of new systems, climate changes pose new questions in terms of surveillance.
Health consequences of the AZF – Toulouse disaster
On Friday, 21 September 2001 at 10:17 a.m. an explosion occurred in the “AZF” factory near Toulouse. The violent force of the blast, equivalent to an earthquake of approximately 3.4 on the Richter scale, resulted in the death of 30 people and caused several thousand casualties.
Due to the scale of the disaster the French Institute for Public Health Surveillance (InVS) set up an epidemiological monitoring mechanism in the following days to monitor health consequences; many scientific and institutional partners were involved.
The purpose of the mechanism was to very quickly identify the risks for the population due to chemicals released in the environment so as to take (and adapt if necessary) specific surveillance and prevention measures, to assess screening requirements and the health and care to be provided to the population in the short and medium term, and to assess the scale of physical, mental and social sequelae among affected populations in the short and medium term. Three series of crosscutting surveys were carried out among affected populations, particularly among children, the general population, workers and rescuers.
Furthermore, monitoring of a cohort of 3,000 voluntary workers and rescuers was set up in order to assess the health, social and occupational consequences over a period of five years.
Heat and health
The heat wave of August 2003 resulted in an excess mortality of nearly 15,000 deaths, serving as a stark reminder of how vulnerable societies are to extreme climatic events.
As early as 2004 the French Institute for Public Health Surveillance set up several studies to improve knowledge on heat waves and to guide prevention. In cooperation with Météo-France it also implemented a Heat Wave and Health Alert System (Sacs) that is integrated in the National Heat Wave Plan (PNC), the purpose of which is to prevent heat from having major impacts on health.
Since 2003 the only intensive and sustained heat wave occurred in the summer of 2
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[
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From approximately 200 to 1100 C.E., Tiwanaku, near Lake Titicaca in present-day western Bolivia, was the center of a civilization whose influence spread as far as southern coastal Peru and northern Chile.
At its height, the site was home to up to 40,000 people and was centered around a ceremonial center featuring several monumental stone structures, including the Semi-subterranean Court, which is the oldest of these structures, and used for over 1,000 years before the decline of the Tiwanaku civilization.
The experience of entering this court is a bit like entering an architectural time capsule. All its various features are visual representations of the ways the site’s inhabitants drew on older local cultures, adopted those from afar, and created their own variations to establish a unique culture. It is a fascinating window into the worldview and religion of the inhabitants through the centuries.
Like most large cities, Tiwanaku had a central “downtown” area where the largest and most important buildings and structures are located. It is most often referred to as the ceremonial core due to its placement at the center of the site and the identification of most of the buildings as sites for important religious and political ceremonies. These buildings were constructed over the course of the site’s history, and some which were not in current use were even partially taken apart so the stones could be used in newer ones.
By the time Tiwanaku began to decline as a state, the ceremonial core had numerous buildings, platforms, and courtyards, the largest and most important being the Semi-subterranean Court, the Kalasasaya and Putuni Complex (a combination of raised platforms and courtyards), the Akapana (a complicated mound structure believed to be a recreation of the Quimsachata mountains), and a later temple complex, the Pumapunku.
Structure and design
The Semi-subterranean Court is a square courtyard approximately ninety-one feet long and eighty-five feet wide, completely open to the sky. Its four stone walls were built approximately six feet down into the earth rather than upwards. Entered via a flight of steps worn down by centuries of use, the space gives the sense of standing at the boundary between the earth and the sky. This feeling is enhanced by fifty-seven large vertical stones extending out of the sunken space and serving as a bridge between the earth and the sky.
Mapping the sky
The central stones on three of the walls (north, east, and west) provide more than a physical connection to the sky above. They mark viewing points for various astronomical events such as solstice and equinox sunrises and sunsets, the rising and setting of important stars, and even point the way to the Celestial South Pole, the pivot of the southern hemisphere. The movements of the sun, moon, and stars across the sky regulated the rhythm of life in all Andean societies—used to determine when to plant and harvest crops and conduct religious rituals. As this court has been identified by archaeologists as a gathering place for these rituals, these stones would have helped participants properly orient themselves for the appropriate celestial event.
Connecting past and present
The Semi-subterranean Court served as a way in which the people of Tiwanaku could express their connections to past cultures while creating their own unique architectural and sculptural styles. Completed between 300–400 C.E., it is estimated to be the earliest monumental stone building constructed in the central ceremonial area.
The innovation of the Semi-subterranean Court begins with its size. The sunken court style of building is found in many of the archaeological sites which pre-date the founding of Tiwanaku in the regions surrounding Lake Titicaca such as Pucara and Chiripa, but the Semi-subterranean Court is the largest found to date. Its increased size was likely a statement of growing political power by the emerging Tiwanaku polity.
The second, more striking change to the older sunken court style is the addition of the tenon heads (sculptures of heads which are set into a wall, anchored by a post called a tenon, but extend out from the surface) to all four walls in a pattern of repeating triangles between the large vertical stones.
The heads in the best condition display a wide range of variations on two basic compositions. The first and most common is a face with a wide band around the forehead, large deep-set eyes, a T-shaped rectangular nose, and an oval mouth with thick lips. The second, of which few uneroded examples remain, is a face without the forehead band, a more oval-shaped nose, and much smaller eyes. No two heads carved in either style are exactly alike: noses range from broad to narrow, the eyes can be circular or square, some mouths are wide open with clearly defined lips while others are tightly closed.
These are believed to represent the range of ethnicities or communities who were governed by the Tiwanaku polity and attended the ceremonies held in the court. It is still unknown if they were contributed by the groups they represent willingly or by force.
Sculpture and religion through time
Archaeological excavations from the mid-twentieth century uncovered several freestanding sculptures, two of which have compositions that provide a striking visual representation of the cultural changes which occurred in Tiwanaku society through the centuries.
Stela 15 is a four-sided rectangular stone shaft with simple low relief carving on all four sides. The narrower sides contain vertical patterns of snake-like figures running up towards several small mammals with long tails. Although both wider sides were each carved with the image of a large humanoid figure, erosion has virtually erased the carving on one. The other shows a standing figure with a large face containing the T-shaped nose, deep-set circular eyes, and oval mouth seen in some of the tenon heads. A beard-like band encircles the lower face, indicating that it is a male figure. The arm on the viewer’s left is placed diagonally above the one on the right, both raised above a band showing two opposing feline figures.
This imagery is associated with the Yayamama religious tradition that was practiced across the Lake Titicaca region beginning in 800 B.C.E. and declining around 300 C.E. The placement of Stela 15 in the Semi-subterranean Court indicates that, like the other sunken courtyards in considerably older Lake Titicaca sites, this structure was initially used for Yayamama ceremonies. The imagery of better-preserved stelae at other Yayamama sites suggest that some of these ceremonies centered around celebrating the fertility forces of the female-male duality (represented by deified ancestors) as well as those found throughout nature, represented by various animals and a navel-like image thought to represent the center of the cosmos.
The wealth of realistic detail and iconography of the Bennett Monolith, built several centuries later, are the result of a dramatic change both in artistic styles and religious traditions. Here, the male figure (a towering twenty-four feet tall) is carved in the round and shown wearing elaborate clothing carved with extreme attention to detail. The figure’s torso and arms are covered with images of running bird-headed figures holding staffs and llamas sprouting sacred cacti. On the back there is also a rendition of the frontal-facing deity shown on the Sun Gate, identified by its large square face surrounded by rays ending in animal heads and circular shapes. Instead of holding two staffs, this version of the deity holds a flowering cactus plant in each hand.
In contrast to Stela 15, the figure depicted in the Bennett Monolith holds both arms against its sides with the hands facing forward rather than placed on top of each other. Like the deity of the Sun Gate, each hand holds an object, the left a cup similar in shape to a kero and the right a snuff tray used to ingest trance-inducing substances during ceremonies.
The Bennett Monolith, with its references to Chavín de Huantar iconography, suggests that Tiwanaku gradually moved away from the Yayamama religious practices to those imported afar. Its presence in the Semi-subterranean Court, where it was originally placed near older sculptures like Stela 15, perfectly demonstrates how the inhabitants maintained ties with the past traditions of the Lake Titicaca region while continuing to innovate and adopt new ideas.
Overall, the Semi-Subterranean Court marks the rise of Tiwanaku’s importance as a regional center. Its large size, innovative architectural sculpture, and changing free-standing monuments demonstrate the inhabitants’ desire to create a unique version of the older regional culture and those from abroad to express their power and influence.
Margaret Young-Sánchez, Tiwanaku: Ancestors of the Inca (Denver Art Museum, 2004)
Alexei Vranich, “Monumental Perceptions of the Tiwanaku Landscape,” in Political Landscapes of Capital Cities, edited by Jelena Bogdanović, Eulogio Guzmán, and Jessica Joyce Christie (Boulder, CO: University of Colorado Press, 2016) pp. 181-211
Alexei Vranich and Scott C. Smith, “Nighttime Sky and Early Urbanism in the High Andes: Architecture and Ritual in the Southern Lake Titicaca Basin during the Formative and Tiwanaku Periods,” in Archaeology of the Night: Life After Dark in the Ancient World, edited by Nancy Gonlin and April Nowell (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2017), pp. 121-138
John Wayne Janusek, Ancient Tiwanaku (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008).
Michael A. Malpass, Ancient People of the Andes (Ithaca, NY and London: Cornell University Press, 2016)
Sergio Chávez and Karen L. Mohr Ch
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]
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The very title of this blog might comes as a surprise to some. I myself was raised in a church tradition that honored Daniel as one of the great prophets. His personal conduct was exemplary, a perfect model for any younger soul, and the subsequent favor of God gave him clear and detailed prophetic insight. His dreams and visions formed the broad structure of our understanding of salvation history, proving the accuracy of Scripture and demonstrating among other things that Jesus was Messiah and that he was to die. Daniel was a prophet of the first order.
It might come as a surprise, then, to learn that in the Hebrew Scriptures the Book of Daniel is found not among the Prophets but among the Writings. This is not a matter of canonization: the book that bears his name is cherished in the Hebrew Scriptures and Judaism celebrates him as a champion of the Hebrew faith. Yet in the canonical lists of the Talmud, in which the Scriptures are divided into three parts – Torah, Prophets, and Writings – the book of Daniel is placed among the latter, also known as the Hagiographa.1
When did this happen and why? Neither question has a clear answer. We do have material from Qumran on Daniel (4Q174) in which he is specifically called a prophet: "This is the time of which it is written in the book of Daniel, the prophet."2 The New Testament, in texts written somewhere around 70 CE, refers to him as a prophet as well in the parallel passages of Matthew 24:15 and Mark 13:14. The Jewish historian Josephus, writing a couple decades later, also calls Daniel a prophet: "Darius . . . took Daniel the prophet, and carried him with him into Media."3 The famous chronology Seder Olam Rabbah, dating probably from the 2nd century AD, places Daniel with the prophets in the sixth century, with Baruch and Seraiah, followed by the prophets Mordecai, Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi. He is considered a “son of man” along with the prophet Ezekiel.4
Thus, it is somewhat surprising that in the subsequent centuries he is not placed with the prophets. In the Talmud, in an extended discussion of the Megillah and the Targumim, an interesting comment is made on Daniel 10:7. Daniel has been given a vision, and though he is with a group of men, he alone sees that vision. The rest of the men are filled with dread and flee the scene.
Who were these men [who were with Daniel]? Rabbi Yirmiyah answered, and some say it was Rabbi Chiya bar Abba, “They were Haggai, Zechariah and Malachi. They were superior to him, and he was superior to them. They were superior, because they were prophets and he was not. He was superior, because he saw the vision and they did not.”
The Rabbis assume Daniel is not a prophet. Yet they do not want to deny honor to Daniel. Daniel 10:7 allows them to put Daniel on a par with the last three prophets listed in the division of the Prophets – Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi. They are superior in that they are “prophets,” yet Daniel is superior in having vision, putting all four of them on equal footing, as it were. They do not deny the historicity of Daniel, nor do they deny that Daniel is worthy of honor. Yet he is not a prophet.5
Later scholars have wrestled with this assumption that Daniel is not a prophet, each in their own way. The great medieval physician and philosopher, Moses Maimonides (who is called reverently “Rambam”), looked for a philosophical solution to the problem. After exploring in depth the different types of prophetic utterance, he lays out varying degrees of prophecy, putting Isaiah with Jeremiah, Nathan and Elijah among those in the first degree. Daniel he places with David and Solomon in his second degree of prophecy, using this nuanced philosophical argument to explain Daniel's place among the Writings.6 Look for philosophy from a philosopher.
Modern historians may be forgiven if they look for historical answers. Rambam had no problem whatsover with the miraculous, with prophecy revealed from Heaven, with a world in which the divine is active and moving. Many modern scholars struggle with such a worldview. Marshalling an array of linguistic, cultural, and exegetical arguments, they conclude that Daniel's amazingly accurate account of Persian and Greek history was due not to divine inspiration, but to the authorship of the book of Daniel in the second century BCE “after the fact.”
The modern argument is common. Since Daniel is not quoted in the Wisdom of Sirach (c. 200 BCE), and since Sirach quotes much of the rest of the Old Testament, it was probably unknown to that author and must have been written after Sirach. It is honored and studied at Qumran, however, and is quoted in a section of the Sibylline Oracles that is commonly dated to the 2nd century BCE. Thus, it must have been composed right around the Maccabean Revolt. Since Daniel 11 contains a very accurate account of the last actions of Antiochus Epiphanes during the revolt, confirmed by outside historical sources, but has an account of his death that has no outside confirmation, it is concluded that Daniel was finished between 167 and 164 BCE. Daniel 11 is accurate because it is recounting past history; it becomes inaccurate when it loses knowledge of past history and attempts to be truly prophetic and predict the death of Antiochus. Thus, we can suggest that Daniel is not in the Prophets because it was not in existence when the Prophetic section of the canon was closed around 200 BCE.7 Our historians have found an historic answer.
I love literature and philosophy by nature, which means I would rather read Maimonides than many modern historians. As a pastor I have also developed a high regard for the amazing, surprising, often baffling complexity of human life, which means I have low view of how much we can know about much of anything in the past apart from clear sources. Some historians find it more likely that Daniel was written in the 2nd century BCE because it is unmentioned in Sirach, included in the Writings of the Hebrew Bible, and unverified in its account of Antiochus' fall. I personally find it much harder to believe that Daniel would be included in the Hebrew Scriptures at all written that late – how did a book as unique as Daniel manage to become so holy in such a short time that it made it into the Septuagint, the life of Qumran, and the Sibylline Oracles?8
I find more likely a literary solution, far closer in kind to Maimonides. He works with brilliance and depth on the definition of prophecy itself. On a much more modest level, I might point out simply that Daniel is a unique work in the Hebrew Scriptures. He never claims to be a prophet – he is a statesman. The book does not start like a prophetic work, with the vision or word or burden of the Lord coming upon Daniel, and it has very little poetry. Ezekiel is the closest work to Daniel, and Zechariah has parts that come close to Daniel's apocalyptic style. But what other prophetic work combines in such fashion third person narratives with first person recollections and sweeping apocalyptic visions – and a royal letter from Nebuchadnezzar for good measure? Daniel might be orbiting the same Sun as the rest of the Hebrew Scriptures, but it has its own wobble and trajectory.
It could have been a lively debate on where to put Daniel in the canon. We still debate today what to do with Daniel as literature. And one need not resort to chronology to find reason for debate.
It might be helpful to return to the Talmud at this point and reflect on the brilliance of the rabbinic discussion. There is no doubt that Daniel is revered and honored as Scripture. Yet it is found in the Writings, and this might cause it to be regarded less than the Prophets. How do we affirm the tradition in its decision to place Daniel in the Writings, and yet maintain and even heighten its honor?
Daniel 10:7 provides an elegant solution. Daniel is honored in that he saw the vision when others did not. Who were those others? The last three of the minor prophets. Those three are exalted over him by their prophetic office; Daniel is exalted over them because he saw the vision. The two are thus put on even ground. If anything, Daniel might be a bit ahead of the others, because just as the sages, he was given deeper insight than the prophets.9
Or, we could follow our Lord's words in Matthew 24:15, and call Daniel a prophet.
1 Bava Batra, 14b.
2 4Q174, 2.4.
3 The Antiquities of the Jews, 10.11.4. See also Antiquities, 10:11.7, where Daniel's unique revelations were given to him as to “one of the greatest of the prophets.”
4 Seder Olam Rabbah, ch. 20.
5 Megillah, 3a. It is accepted by the sages that 48 men prophesied to Israel and seven women. But while the women are enumerated, the men are not. On this see Megillah, 14a, and Rashi's commentary on that section. See also Rashi;s earlier
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[
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After making Rashomon in 1950, Akira Kurosawa set his eyes on making a film based on William Shakespeare’s ‘Macbeth.’ Since Orson Welles’ version was announced somewhere around that time, he decided to put it on hold, switched his attention to other projects and returned to the idea in the second half of the decade. In 1957, he finally made Throne of Blood, a film mostly ignored by the Western audiences at the time, but a marvelous piece of filmmaking that would soon acquire the reputation of one of the all-time best film adaptations of the world’s most celebrated poet’s work. Interestingly enough, Kurosawa wrote the screenplay with the intention of hiring another director to actually make the film, while he would take on the producer’s role. When Toho Studios realized the potential expenses of making such a film, they asked Kurosawa to shoot it himself. Keeping the same core of the original play, which is sometimes simply called The Scottish Play due to the superstition surrounding its cursed status, Kurosawa took a lot of liberties with the material, and this turned out to be one of the film’s greatest assets. By transferring Shakespeare’s work to 16th century Japan, Kurosawa created a unique and mesmerizing mix of Western and Japanese cultures. To be more precise, Throne of Blood could be called the mixture of two distinct aesthetics: the aesthetics of the Western and that of the traditional Japanese Noh Theatre. Noh or Nogaku is a form of classical Japanese musical drama performed since the 14th century and is considered the oldest major theater art still performed these days, and is distinguished by the use of stylized masks functioning as the primary visual means for conveying emotions. The same approach was used by Kurosawa, as the faces of his characters heavily echo this practice. While in ‘Macbeth’ it’s open to interpretation to what degree free will influences the course of an individual’s life, as opposed to some kind of divine will, Kurosawa settled for a less ambiguous interpretation. Describing himself as an ordinary man observing both the history of Japan and the contemporary society he was a part of, Kurosawa chose to explore the theme of greed, corruption and ambition, the never-ceasing and ultimately self-destructing hunger for power he felt functioned in a cyclical form, constantly repeating itself along with all of it destructive consequences over and over again. He finds the fault not in the sky: his protagonist isn’t just an actor, a pawn performing the lines written in the stars. His ultimate demise is the direct consequence of his inner self, his nature and the classic cautionary tale of the ancient wisdom that says that when we strive to prevent something from happening with all our energy and power, it’s our actions that usually make the wretched thing happen. Kurosawa’s Macbeth is called Taketoki Washizu (played by the brilliant Toshirô Mifune, the filmmaker’s greatest and most reliable acting collaborator), a skilled general who starts believing in a prophecy he would become the ruler and following his ambitious, manipulative wife Asaji’s (the great Isuzu Yamada) advice and urging. Both Washizu and Asaji slowly get consumed by the psychological consequences of their gruesome actions, with her descent into madness and his inevitable demise in one of the best death scenes in the history of film.
Throne of Blood seems cold, distant, presenting characters we’re not supposed to sympathize with. Kurosawa shot the film as something the audience should look at and absorb a lesson, not become a part of the story by entering the minds of the persons whose life paths they witness. Because of this, it’s easy to say Throne of Blood is a cautionary tale, but such a classification is used without any ounce of intention of belittling its quality and greatness. It’s a visual spectacle, with the castle exteriors built high up on the slopes of Mount Fuji, where heavy fog and black volcanic dirt were practically regular inhabitants. The film was shot by cinematographer Asakazu Nakai, with whom Kurosawa worked on Seven Samurai and would later reunite for Ran, another one of his great Shakespeare adaptations. Throne of Blood was shot in black-and-white, with the contrasts, omnipresent fog, expressionless faces and visual symbolism creating the feeling that what you’re actually watching is someone’s own personal nightmare. Yoshiro Muraki, the production designer, explained the design of the castle was based on ancient Japanese scrolls, with the color black chosen for the walls and armor added to complement the general visual style of the film. The screenplay was co-written by Kurosawa, Shinobu Hashimoto, Hideo Oguni and Ryûzô Kikushima, with Toho Studios regular and Kurosawa’s favorite composer Masaru Satô delivering the score, while the director himself edited the picture.
Kurosawa’s film was hailed by a number of prominent film and literary critics from all corners of the world. The American literary critic Harold Bloom called it the most successful film version of ‘Macbeth,’ the poet T. S. Elliot stated it was his favorite film, Time magazine cited it as the most brilliant and original attempt ever made to put Shakespeare in pictures, while the critics universally appreciated its values. Throne of Blood is definitely one of the most haunting, beautiful and original adaptations we’ve seen, and even if Orson Welles, Roman Polanski or Justin Kurzel’s variants of this story are closer to what you believe to be a perfect version of ‘Macbeth’ on film, it’s impossible to shake off the value of Kurosawa’s grandiose effort. Throne of Blood is a moody, intense, poetically shot movie that history will remember as one of the Japanese master’s best.
The DVD/Blu-ray of the film is available from the Criterion Collection and other online retailers. Absolutely our highest recommendation.
In October 1957, Akira Kurosawa made his first trip abroad for a screening of Throne of Blood at the opening of London’s National Film Theatre (NFT, now BFI Southbank). There he met the likes of René Clair, Vittorio De Sica, Laurence Olivier, Gina Lollobrigida, and one of his greatest inspirations as a filmmaker, John Ford. Kurosawa’s longtime assistant and collaborator, Teruyo Nogami, describes the event as recounted to her many times by Kurosawa.
It was the day of the award presentation at NFT. In his anteroom, Kurosawa waited nervously. One reason for his nervousness was his getup—for the first time in his life he was wearing formal Japanese attire: crested kimono, baggy pleated trousers known as hakama, zori sandals. What added to his nervousness was that no interpreters were allowed in the room… John Ford came up, thumped him on the back, said, “John Ford,” and shook hands, then jerked his thumb as if to say, come this way. In broken Japanese, Ford invited Kurosawa to have a drink. Before the award ceremony, Ford made gestures to indicate his heart was pounding with nervousness, and then did warm-up stretches until De Sica teasingly threw a handkerchief at him from the side. Thanks to Ford, Kurosawa was able to relax a bit even though he knew no English… The following day he went to call on Ford, who was then filming Gideon’s Day in the MGM studios. On stage, Ford seated Kurosawa in a chair that he had brought out and placed next to the camera. When the take was finished, he told Kurosawa “Arigato” (Thank You) and bowed. Then he turned to the cast and crew and introduced Kurosawa in a loud voice. Everyone saw him off with thunderous applause. Kurosawa told us that the tribute had moved him to tears.
Kurosawa himself recalled the meeting in a 1991 interview.
Ford treated me with affection; he used to call me Akira. I first met him decades ago when I was in Britain to receive an award for Throne of Blood at the London International Film Festival. Ford was in England shooting a picture, and I went to see him on location. He saw me, and straight off he said, in heavily accented Japanese, ‘I need a drink!’ Ford could speak a little Japanese… Once when I was having a quiet drink, he came up to me and asked what the heck I was drinking. ‘Wine,’ I told him, to which he said, ‘No, no! You’ve got to drink scotch!’ and brought me a bottle. Seriously, though, he was really good to me.
“Kurosawa does not like to talk about his films, nor is he fond of discussing film theory. Once, when I ask him about the meaning of one of his pictures, he said: ‘If I could have said it in words, I would have—than I wouldn’t have needed to make the picture.’ Recently, however, Kurosawa expressed an interest in looking back over the body of his work, and these are the results. I have deleted nothing and have only added to the material when it seemed relevant.” —Donald Richie, Kurosawa on Kurosawa, Sight and Sound
Kurosawa did not intend this film for himself. “Originally, I wanted merely to produce the picture and let someone younger direct it. But when the script was finished and Toho saw how expensive it would be, they asked me to direct it. So I did. My contract expired after these next three films anyway.” Perhaps if he had written the script with himself in mind he might have written it differently. He has said that the scripts he does for others are usually much richer in visuals than those he does for himself—and The Throne of Blood is visually extremely rich. But what occurred, he says, is that
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566,
2727,
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374,
429
]
] |
[
2048
] |
2,048
| 2.106332
|
Complete Recycling and Utilization of Waste Concrete Through Geopolymerization
By Lianyang Zhang
A full version of this article, which includes a complete description of the laboratory process used to gain these findings, will be in a future issue of Construction and Building Materials Journal.
Decades of underfunding and inattention has left the U.S. infrastructure at great risk. According to the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) 2009 Report Card for America’s Infrastructure, our nation’s infrastructure receives an overall grade of “D”.1 Repairing and upgrading the deteriorating infrastructure will use a large quantity of new concrete and in the meantime generate a significant amount of waste concrete. Ordinary Portland cement (OPC) is commonly used as the binder in the production of concrete. It is well known that the manufacture of OPC not only consumes a significant amount of natural resources and energy but also releases a substantial quantity of greenhouse gases.2-4 Production of concrete also uses sand and aggregate from quarrying operations that are energy intensive and may release high level of waste materials. Furthermore, the shortage of natural construction materials in many regions has led to long-distance haulage and significantly increased costs.5-7 Growing environmental awareness, the need to ensure sustainability of construction materials, and public concern to safeguard the countryside limit the use of quarrying sites and encourage the construction industry to look for alternative materials.7-11
On the other hand, it is a great challenge to handle the significant amount of waste concrete to be generated from repairing and upgrading the deteriorating infrastructure systems.12-15 In the United States, concrete waste occupies one third of the volume of waste materials in landfills.15 Finding areas suitable for new landfilling is getting harder and disposing is getting more expensive. The recycling of waste concrete is encouraged by different agencies and sought by various institutions. Although extensive research has been conducted,16-23 current recycling of waste concrete is still predominately limited to the use of concrete aggregates in low-specification applications such as base course and non-structural fill with the remainder still being landfilled.24,25 The old cement paste/mortar attached to the stone particles is the main reason for the lower quality of the concrete aggregate than the natural aggregate. Compared to natural aggregates, the concrete aggregate has increased water absorption, decreased bulk density, decreased specific gravity, increased abrasion loss, increased crushability, and increased quantity of dust particles. The low quality of the concrete aggregate generally leads to new OPC concrete with inferior strength, durability and shrinkage properties. The utilization of concrete aggregates in structural concrete is very limited. In cases that the concrete aggregate is used together with natural aggregate for production of structural concrete, a limit of 30% of concrete aggregate is usually recommended.24,26 Aggregate refining methods such as “heating and rubbing”27 and “mechanical grinding”28 have been developed for refining the quality of concrete aggregates by removing the attached paste/mortar, but these methods are energy intensive and produce additional fines which need to be disposed of. It is also noted that utilization of concrete aggregates as base course and non-structural fill may cause environmental problems such as contaminant leaching and pH changes in the surrounding soil and water.29-31
Obviously, an ideal solution to address the significant amount of waste concrete is complete recycling and utilization of it in production of new structural concrete. Few researchers have investigated complete recycling of waste concrete.32,33 These complete recycling methods, however, need to re-clinker the hydrated cement using the standard cement kiln procedures and thus consume significant amount of energy and release a large quantity of CO2. To completely recycle and use waste concrete in a sustainable and environmentally friendly way, a method that does not need re-clinkering at high temperature should be used.
The researchers at the University of Arizona have embarked on a multi-year research program on complete recycling and utilization of waste concrete through geopolymerization. Geopolymerization is a relatively new technology that transforms aluminosilicate materials into geopolymer. Geopolymerization involves a chemical reaction between solid aluminosilicate oxides and an alkaline activation solution at ambient or slightly elevated temperatures, yielding an amorphous to semi-crystalline polymeric structure with Si–O–Al and Si–O–Si bonds.2,34-37 Geopolymer not only provides performance comparable to OPC in many applications, but has additional advantages, including abundant raw material resources, simple production method, rapid development of mechanical strength, no/low alkali-silica reaction (ASR) related expansion, excellent durability, high fire resistance, superior resistance to chemical attack, and the ability to immobilize toxic and hazardous wastes. These characteristics have made geopolymer of great research interest as “an ideal material for sustainable development.” 2,34-37,38-42 The following briefly describes the research approach and the accomplishments to date.
To recycle and use waste concrete, it is first crushed and separated it into aggregates (coarse and fine) and fines. For complete recycling, both the aggregates and the fines need to be used. Our research is guided by the following two hypotheses:
- The fines of crushed waste concrete can be used together with Class F fly ash as the source material to produce high performance geopolymer binder. Depending on the chemical composition, mainly calcium, silica and alumina, and their chemical forms, of the fines, the relative amount of the fines and the fly ash can be adjusted to obtain the desired properties.
- The recycled aggregates with original “porous” cement paste/mortar adhering to them can be (partially) geopolymerized to generate a good bond between the aggregate and the geopolymer binder and thus a good performance geopolymer concrete can be produced from completely recycled waste concrete.
The research takes a multi-scale and multi-disciplinary approach and consists of systematically designed experiments to investigate the effect of different factors on the properties of geopolymer binder and concrete produced from waste concrete. The experiments include uniaxial compression and split tensile tests to evaluate the unconfined compressive strength (UCS), deformability and tensile strength of geopolymer binder and concrete, four-point bending tests to investigate the bonding between the recycled concrete aggregate and the geopolymer binder, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) imaging to investigate the development of micro/nano-structure, energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX) analysis to study the change of surface elemental composition, X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis to quantify the phases (crystalline and amorphous) taking part in geopolymerization, and Fourier Transform Infra Red (FTIR) analysis to study the change of chemical bonds. By linking the macro-scale behavior and the macro/nano-scale properties, the underlying mechanism for geopolymerization of waste concrete can be better understood and geopolymer concrete with desired properties can be produced from waste concrete.
So far the research has focused on production of geopolymer binder using the waste concrete fines (WCF) together with Class F fly ash (FA). Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and sodium silicate (SS) solution was used as the alkaline activator. The geopolymer binder samples were produced by first mixing WCF with FA at different proportions and then mixing the alkaline solution with the WCF/FA mixture. The resulted paste was placed in cylindrical Plexiglas molds with the mold being shaken by a vibrator during the casting to release the trapped air bubbles. The mold was capped and left in room temperature for curing. The specimens were de-molded after 24 hours and then placed in a plastic bag for six more days’ curing before tested. The geopolymer binder samples were prepared and tested at different NaOH concentrations, SS to NaOH ratios (SS/N), and WCF contents. Key observations from the study include:
- Utilization of WCF helps improve the UCS of geopolymer binder up to a certain WCF content and further increase of WCF content leads to decrease of UCS. In the current study, 50% was found as the optimum WCF content at 5 and 10 M NaOH and with SS/N =1 and 2.
- The presence of calcium compounds in WCF improves the mechanical properties of the WCF/FA geopolymer binder due to the coexistence of the geopolymer gel and the calcium silicate hydrate (CSH) gel. The optimum initial Ca/Si ratio (the Ca/Si ratio at the highest UCS) is low (0.15 to 0.25) for the WCF/FA geopolymer binder, which suggests formation of low-Ca CSH gel in the geopolymer system.
- The SEM/EDX, XRD and FTIR analyses confirm the Ca in WCF enhances the strength mainly due to the formation of low Ca semi-crystalline CSH gel which coexists with the geopolymer gel and the incorporation of Ca+ into the geopolymer network as charge balancing cation.
- Increased NaOH concentration results in higher UCS, especially at WCF content less than 50%. Addition of SS also improves UCS due to provision of additional SiO2 and delayed setting. The optimum initial Si/Al (the Si/Al ratio at the highest UCS) for the WCF/FA geopolymer binder is around 3.38.
- The geopolymer in the WCF/FA geopolymer binder is close to poly(sialate-disiloxo) and stronger than the geopolymer in the pure FA geopolymer binder which is close to poly(sialate-siloxo).
With more infrastructure systems to be repaired and upgraded, larger amounts of waste concrete (WC) will be produced. For sustainable development, it is urgent to completely recycle and reuse the WC in a cost-effective and environmentally-friendly way
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[
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Our Earth teems with billions of human beings, all working, thinking, playing and plotting their way through the maze-like distractions of daily living. Amid the chaos, some of us remain focused and disciplined enough to forge entirely new ways of approaching life, the universe and the meaning of it all. And some of those people win Nobel Prizes.
Nobel Prizes aren't your run-of-the-mill, sticky-backed, gold-star award. Established in 1895 by the will of Swedish inventor and philanthropist Alfred Nobel, the prizes recognize advances in scientific and cultural fields -- literature, peace, economics, chemistry, physics and medicine.
The recipients, called laureates, receive a diploma, a gold medal and a cash prize that, these days, generally exceeds $1 million. All prizes must go to individuals, with the exception of the Peace Prize, which can be awarded to an organization. Sometimes, the prizes are awarded to multiple people, but rules stipulate that each prize can be shared by no more than three.
First awarded in 1901, the Nobel prizes have since been given out 573 times to 900 people and organizations. Some people have received the awards more than once. Typically, each prize is awarded every year, but in years where there are no exceptional accomplishments befitting a Nobel, a prize may sit idle.
The prizes are, shall we say, a big deal. But more important is the work that they recognize. Laureates are the thinking person's thinkers, people who dedicate their lives to unveiling the secrets of our existence. In doing so, they help propel humankind's collective intelligence higher. In this article, we'll introduce you to 10 of these game-changing individuals.
Let's review some of the circumstances of our first laureate. Oppressive, violent regime? Check. Indefinite political imprisonment? Check. That's just a day in the life of Aung San Suu Kyi, perhaps one of the most persistent political dissidents ever and the winner of the 1991 Peace Prize.
She wasn't allowed to leave Burma (also known as Myanmar) to receive her prize, however, until 2012, or two decades after winning. In the meantime, she'd been detained by Burma's militaristic regime, which saw her work for democracy and human rights as a threat to the established power structure.
Aung San Suu Kyi actually won the country's general election in 1990. But even before all of the votes were counted, she was placed under house arrest and would remain so intermittently until 2010. To ward off loneliness and despair, she meditated, she planned and she persisted.
Upon her final release from house arrest, she jumped immediately into politics again. The party she heads, National League for Democracy, won by a landslide in a 2015 election, although she is barred from becoming president because of her sons' foreign citizenship.
For every technological advance, there are trade-offs and potential side effects. Thanks to the work of Hermann Muller, who won the 1946 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine, people realized the importance of tempering our knowledge with safety and care.
Muller won his prize for proving that X-rays cause mutations (called X-ray mutagenesis) in the human body. In the mid-1920s, he'd gathered significant evidence that exposing Drosophila flies to X-rays caused genetic mutations that shortened their lifespans. He was certain that the same kind of damage would occur in humans.
Although he'd been trying to publicize his work for around 20 years, it took the World-War II atomic bombings of Japan to underscore the dangers of radiation, X-rays and nuclear fallout. It was then that the Nobel committee finally recognized his research.
Muller's discoveries, as well as his anti-nuclear weapons politics, made him an invaluable counterweight to the world-changing technological advances of the Atomic Age.
These days, we almost take for granted the facts of DNA and its fundamental role as a building block of life as we know it. But DNA was a mystery until Francis Crick, James Watson and Maurice Wilkins began unraveling these minute, double-helix structures.
For their work, the three won the 1962 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine. In discovering the molecular structure of nucleic acids, as well as conveying its importance in relaying information throughout a living organism, the three helped blaze a trail for all sorts of new genetic advances.
This prize did come with a notable asterisk. Before Crick and company made their discoveries, biophysicist Rosalind Franklin found a way to photograph DNA. Crick's group used those images as a turning point for their research. However, her insights were overshadowed somewhat by her male counterparts', and she died before she could address the matter with the Nobel committee, which has strict rules against honoring people posthumously.
He had a dream, and he didn't write it off as a fanciful midnight vision. Instead, Martin Luther King, Jr. pursued his dream in full daylight and in the face of scorn and cynicism. He paid for it with his life.
In a country riven by racial discrimination and a legacy of slavery, King promoted equality and freedom for everyone. Furthermore, he pressed his agenda without a call for arms. Instead, he touted non-violent demonstrations and activism.
It all began with a famous flashpoint. In 1955, Rosa Parks refused to give up her bus seat to a white person in Montgomery, Ala. This incident led to a successful 382-day bus boycott led by King, and it cemented his role as a leader for blacks in the United States.
After the boycott, and in the face of government and cultural intimidation, he hit the road to spread his message, speaking more than 2,500 times and traveling more than 6 million miles. Eventually, his means subverted a deeply rooted culture of discrimination. In doing so, he won the 1964 Nobel Peace Prize and was the youngest winner ever at the tender age of 35.
King was assassinated in 1968, but his legacy has inspired freedom-loving people all over the world.
Ivan Pavlov may be best known by memorable sound bites, such as "Pavlov's dogs" or the "Pavlovian response." But his sprawling impact on science can't be reduced to such concise phrases.
Pavlov won the 1904 Nobel in physiology. He's best known for his research on conditioned reflexes. In his most famous experiments, he would ring a bell every time he gave food to dogs. After repeating this process over and over again, the dogs would eventually begin salivating simply at the sound of the bell. It wasn't long before people realized that humans weren't all that different from dogs. We're all conditioned to respond certain ways -- both good and bad -- to various stimuli.
Pavlov's insights opened new doors in psychology and behaviorism, and they altered the way people perceive their own behaviors. He was so well-regarded in the Soviet Union and around the world that the Soviet government couldn't muzzle his outspoken condemnation of Communism. By the time he won the Nobel, he was already one of the most renowned scientists in the world, and his discoveries still reverberate today.
She's a virtual brand name when it comes to charity. Mother Teresa won the 1979 Nobel Peace Prize for her unending work with some of the world's most impoverished people.
In 1950, Mother Teresa launched a Catholic organization called the Missionaries of Charity, which began its work in India, helping to ease the suffering of poor, sick and orphaned people. In time, the charity grew to care for AIDS sufferers and people displaced by war, famine and other catastrophes, both natural and human-caused.
She remained committed to the charity for more than 40 years. She died in 1997, but many carry on her mission. Her organization is still active in more than 130 countries, with thousands of sisters tending to those in need. In doing so, they maintain a humanitarian presence in communities where no one else has the means or will to help.
Humankind doesn't advance without, well, humans. That's why medical advances are so critical to each and every one of us. Sir Alexander Fleming, along with Sir Ernst Boris Chain and Sir Howard Florey, made one of the most important medical discoveries ever and, as a result, won the 1945 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine.
In his rather unclean research lab, and by accident, Fleming realized that a mold growing in a petri dish had killed adjacent Staphylococci bacteria. Thus began his experiments with the mold, called Penicillium notatum, which eventually resulted in penicillin-based antibiotics.
These drugs were effective against all sorts of diseases that had ravaged humans for centuries, including tuberculosis, gangrene, syphilis and many other bacterial infections. As a result, untold lives were improved or spared.
Founded in Geneva, Switzerland, in 1863, the Red Cross is committed to aiding wounded and sick people, regardless of nationality, in times of war. The Red Cross doesn't help only military personnel; it also seeks to alleviate the suffering of civilians caught up in the strife of violent conflicts.
During the World Wars, the Red Cross monitored adherence to the Geneva Convention and documented any violations. Its volunteers also visited prisoner-of-war camps to ensure humane treatment of captives, and they even arranged for prisoner exchanges.
The Red Cross tracked POWs, delivered mail to prison camps and generally served as a vital link between families and soldiers during war. As war spread across the globe, the Red Cross proved that the better side of humanity could persist in the face
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]
] |
[
2048
] |
2,048
| 2.405355
|
Over the course of a mere fifteen years preceding the outbreak of the Civil War, C. F. Martin Sr., America’s first major guitar maker and the founder of C. F. Martin & Co., transformed the European guitar into a new instrument. The guitar he invented during this remarkably short period of time had all of the design and construction features that would define the iconic American flat-top guitar.
Martin emigrated to New York from his native Germany in 1833, where he began crafting elegant guitars based on the model of his Viennese mentor, Johann Georg Stauffer. But within a few years, Martin came under the influence of Spanish guitarists who were all the rage in concert halls, and started to bring Spanish elements into his own guitars. By 1843 Martin had designed the revolutionary X-bracing method of bracing the soundboard of his guitars that set the stage for the emergence of a distinctly American guitar.
In December of 2017, Vintage Instruments in Philadelphia mounted an exhibit of 35 Martin Guitars made in New York and Nazareth from c.1834 until c.1867, including several of the earliest known C. F. Martin instruments. We are now offering for sale a selection of these fine guitars which includes fine examples from each stage of Martin’s development – the original Austro-German Style of guitars he produced upon his arrival in America, his intermediate Spanish Style, and finally the earliest examples of the modern X-braced flat-top guitar. This may be one of the best opportunities to acquire well documented and very scarce early guitars.
A Spanish Guitar by Agustin Caro c.1826; Granada, Spain
This Spanish guitar by Agustin Caro exhibits the elongated tapered headstock favored by Spanish makers. Additionally, the body is more elongated and deeper than those of contemporary Austro-German makers. While the neck is made of multiple pieces of wood joined together, the sculpted heel design is quite a departure from the cone model. This heel style has become what we now call the “Spanish” heel. The guitar is engineered around 3 fan braces, as well as a straight brace one above the soundhole and another below the soundhole supported on corner blocks.
Dimensions: Total length: 940 mm
Length of back: 458 mm
Lower bout: 268 mm
Middle bout: 167 mm
Upper bout: 215 mm
Scale: 652mm (25-5/8″)
A Guitar by Johann Georg Stauffer, Vienna c.1831
This example of Stauffer’s work survives with its dated label, and is an interesting and unusual combination of Viennese design features and historical ideas. The sloping shoulders of this instrument suggests a relationship with Renaissance guitars, wald zithers and citterns. Martin utilized this body style again for some models made later in the 1850s. Stauffer used various headstock designs, including this figure-eight pattern, but he is especially remembered for his flattened scroll headstock shapes. The neck has a cone heel with a clock-key adjustment mechanism, a device used on higher high grade instruments. The pin bridge with a slight central functional section and elongated mustache extension is a Stauffer hallmark. The top bracing is minimal, with one straight brace below the soundhole and one diagonal brace just above the bridge plate.
Dimensions: Total length: 903 mm
Length of back: 432 mm
Lower bout: 298 mm
Middle bout: 168 mm
Upper bout: 237 mm
Scale: 605 mm, 23.61″
A Guitar by C. F. Martin & Schatz c.1835-37; New York
One of the very few extant and well documented C. F. Martin Sr. guitars from his early New York period: 1834-1838. The label of this guitar documents his partnership with Heinrich (Henry) Schatz, another former pupil of Georg Stauffer. The influence of their master is evident here in the Stauffer style scroll with complex and well decorated machine tuners, mustache style pin bridge, and cone heel with adjustment mechanism. Note the decorative pearl inlays around the soundhole and on the bridge, which are typical of Martin guitars of this period. The bracing of this guitar is comprised of one diagonal brace below the bridge plate, one straight brace below the soundhole, and two straight braces above the soundhole.
Total length: 916 mm
Length of back: 436 mm
Lower bout: 294 mm
Middle bout: 171 mm
Upper bout: 232 mm
Scale: 613 mm (24.13″)
A Guitar by Martin & Coupa c.1845; Cherry Hill, PA
This very fancy custom grade guitar is one of very few documented Martins with an ivory fingerboard, of which there are likely fewer than ten. It was made during the business partnership between C.F. Martin and John Coupa, a teacher who was Martin’s agent in New York City. The ivory tied bridge is a feature inherited from Spanish guitars, but disappeared from Martin’s repertoire by the 1850s. The heel is stepped back from the plane of the back, a departure from Spanish design. Fancy Terz guitars like this were likely destined for performers and making such as small body have a generous sound would have been a challenge. This Terz has a novel version of X-bracing that was likely a response to this problem.
Dimensions: Total length: 838 mm
Length of back: 410 mm
Lower bout: 288 mm
Middle bout: 177 mm
A Guitar by C. F. Martin, c.1846; Cherry Hill, PA
C.F. Martin’s adoption of Spanish guitar design during the 1840s is especially evident in this guitar. Here, these include:
• A deeper body with a broad center bout and elongation of the lower bout
• A lightweight but strong cedar neck with a solid tapered headstock and Spanish heel-a stylized version of a violin neck
• An internal Spanish foot from the neck block down the back
• Long, narrow, rectangular ebony pyramid pin bridge, as opposed a short narrow bridge
• Heel cap on the same plane with the back
• Brazilian rosewood body with divided sides
At the same time, this guitar was built with an X-brace, very much an engineering innovation from C.F. Martin. The nickel-silver nut, an idea first implemented in the 1840s, was a luxury feature. Remarkably, family documentation shows us that the original owner of this guitar was Colonel John Darragh Wilkins, who served in the Union Army.
Dimensions: Total length: 953
Length of back: 476
Lower bout: 330
Middle bout: 203
Upper bout: 237
Scale: 628, 24-3/4″
A Guitar by C. F. Martin & Co, c. 1877, Model 2-40; Nazareth, PA
C.F. Martin incorporated his business in 1867 with his son and nephew. This guitar, made in the Nazareth workshop has both the early C.F. Martin/New York, and C.F. Martin & Co. New York brands. Having passed through decades of work establishing the family in America, the success of the business, and the pattens and engineering of his guitars, this guitar represents the full evolution of C.F. Martin’s distinctive design. This includes the tapered headstock pattern combined with a Spanish heel, X-brace top support, and his own body style. Decorative guitars such as this focus the eye on the high degree of craftsmanship exercised in the Martin workshop, although the same level of work is equally evident in every element of its construction and was the standard for every guitar they made.
Dimensions: Total length: 937 mm
Length of back: 467 mm
Lower bout: 306 mm
Middle bout: 178 mm
Upper bout: 215 mm
Scale: 624 mm, 24-5/8″
A Guitar by C. F. Martin, c.1834-5; Austro-German; New York
An Important Martin Guitar: one of very few extant and well documented C. F. Martin Sr. guitars from his early New York period: 1834-1838. The early guitars made by C.F. Martin in America reflect the designs and engineering he studied as an apprentice. This guitar has the body proportions of the Austro-German genre of instruments, as well as a mustache bridge, and an ebonized neck with cone heel and clock key adjustment mechanism. The back has a decorative birdseye maple veneer over slab cut maple. Also typical is the combination of straight braces under the top. The label in this guitar celebrates its Viennese roots:
C. FREDERICK MARTIN,
from Vienna, Pupil of the celebrated STAUFFER
GUITAR & VIOLIN MANUFACTURER
196 HUDSON STREET / NEW YORK
Dimensions: Total length: 911 mm
Length of back: 438 mm
Lower bout: 291 mm
Middle bout: 173 mm
Upper bout: 233 mm
Scale: 606 mm (23.88″)
A Guitar by C. F. Martin
|
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] |
[
2048
] |
2,048
| 1.495431
|
Menstrual cramps (dysmenorrhea) are throbbing or cramping pains in the lower abdomen. Many women experience menstrual cramps just before and during their menstrual periods.
For some women, the discomfort is merely annoying. For others, menstrual cramps can be severe enough to interfere with everyday activities for a few days every month.
Menstrual cramps may be caused by identifiable problems, such as endometriosis or uterine fibroids. Treating any underlying cause is key to reducing the pain. Menstrual cramps that aren't caused by an underlying condition tend to lessen with age and often improve once a woman has given birth.
Symptoms of menstrual cramps include:
- Throbbing or cramping pain in your lower abdomen that may be intense
- Dull, constant ache
- Pain that radiates to your lower back and thighs
Some women also experience:
- Loose stools
When to see a doctor
If you've started menstruating within the past few years and have menstrual cramps, chances are your menstrual pain isn't a cause for concern. However, if menstrual cramps disrupt your life every month, if your symptoms progressively worsen, or if you're older than 25 and just started having severe menstrual cramps, see your doctor.
During your menstrual period, your uterus contracts to help expel its lining. Hormone-like substances (prostaglandins) involved in pain and inflammation trigger the uterine muscle contractions. Higher levels of prostaglandins are associated with more-severe menstrual cramps.
Severe contractions may constrict the blood vessels feeding the uterus. The resulting pain can be compared to the chest pain that occurs when blocked blood vessels starve portions of the heart of food and oxygen.
Menstrual cramps may also be caused by:
- Endometriosis. In this painful condition, the tissue that lines your uterus becomes implanted outside your uterus, most commonly on your fallopian tubes, ovaries or the tissue lining your pelvis.
- Uterine fibroids. These noncancerous growths in the wall of the uterus may be the cause of pain.
- Adenomyosis. In this condition, the tissue that lines your uterus begins to grow into the muscular walls of the uterus.
- Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID). This infection of the female reproductive organs is usually caused by sexually transmitted bacteria.
- Cervical stenosis. In some women, the opening of the cervix may be so small that it impedes menstrual flow, causing a painful increase of pressure within the uterus.
You may be at greater risk of menstrual cramps if:
- You're younger than age 30
- You started puberty early, at age 11 or younger
- You have heavy bleeding during periods (menorrhagia)
- You have irregular menstrual bleeding (metrorrhagia)
- You've never given birth
- You have a family history of dysmenorrhea
- You're a smoker
Menstrual cramps don't cause any other medical complications, but they can interfere with school, work and social activities.
Certain conditions associated with menstrual cramps may have complications, though. For example, endometriosis can cause fertility problems. Pelvic inflammatory disease can scar your fallopian tubes, increasing the risk of a fertilized egg implanting outside of your uterus (ectopic pregnancy).
For menstrual cramps, you may start by seeing your primary physician or a doctor who specializes in the female reproductive system (gynecologist). Here's some information to help you get ready for your appointment, and what to expect from your doctor.
What you can do
You may want to make note of:
- How severe your symptoms are and when your cramps first started
- The dates when your last two menstrual periods began
- Information about medical problems you've had
- Information about the medical problems of your parents or siblings
- All the medications and dietary supplements you take
- Questions to ask your doctor
Preparing a list of questions ahead of time can help you make the most of your time with your doctor. For menstrual cramps, some basic questions to ask include:
- What's the most likely cause of my symptoms?
- Are my symptoms likely to change over time?
- Do I need any tests?
- What treatments or home remedies might help?
- Are there any brochures or other printed material that I can take with me? What websites do you recommend?
Don't hesitate to ask additional questions that occur to you during your appointment.
What to expect from your doctor
Your doctor is likely to ask you a number of questions, such as:
- How old were you when you first began menstruating?
- How far apart are your menstrual periods, and how long do they typically last?
- How heavy is your menstrual bleeding? Do you ever bleed between periods?
- Where are your cramps located?
- Do you have any other symptoms, such as nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, back pain, dizziness or headache?
- Do your symptoms typically occur along with your period? Or at other times?
- Do your symptoms cause you to limit your activities, stay home from work or school, or avoid exercise?
- If you're sexually active, do you experience pain with intercourse?
- What treatments have you tried so far, if any? Has anything helped?
- Do any of the women in your family have a history of similar symptoms?
What you can do in the meantime
You may find relief from menstrual cramps by taking a warm bath or applying a heating pad, hot water bottle or heat patch to your abdomen. Over-the-counter pain relievers, such as ibuprofen, also may help.
Your doctor will review your medical history and perform a physical exam, including a pelvic exam. During the pelvic exam, your doctor will check for any abnormalities in your reproductive organs and look for signs of infection.
If your doctor suspects that your menstrual cramps are being caused by an underlying disorder, he or she may recommend other tests, such as:
- Ultrasound. This test uses sound waves to create an image of your uterus, cervix, fallopian tubes and ovaries.
Other imaging tests. A CT scan or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) provides more detail than an ultrasound and can help your doctor diagnose underlying conditions. A CT scan combines X-ray images taken from many angles to produce cross-sectional images of bones, organs and other soft tissues inside your body.
MRI uses radio waves and a powerful magnetic field to produce detailed images of internal structures. Both tests are noninvasive and painless.
- Laparoscopy. Laparoscopy usually isn't necessary for the diagnosis of menstrual cramps, but it can help detect an underlying condition, such as endometriosis, adhesions, fibroids, ovarian cysts and ectopic pregnancy. During this outpatient surgery, your doctor views your abdominal cavity and reproductive organs by making tiny incisions in your abdomen and inserting a fiber-optic tube with a small camera lens.
Menstrual cramps are treatable. Your doctor may recommend:
Pain relievers. Your doctor may suggest taking over-the-counter pain relievers, such as ibuprofen (Advil, Motrin IB, others) or naproxen sodium (Aleve), at regular doses starting the day before you expect your period to begin. Prescription nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), such as mefenamic acid (Ponstel), also are available. If you can't take NSAIDs, acetaminophen (Tylenol, others) may lessen your pain.
Start taking the pain reliever at the beginning of your period, or as soon as you feel symptoms, and continue taking the medicine as directed for two to three days, or until your symptoms have gone away.
- Hormonal birth control. Oral birth control pills contain hormones that prevent ovulation and reduce the severity of menstrual cramps. These hormones can also be delivered in several other forms: an injection, a patch you wear on your skin, an implant placed under the skin of your arm, a flexible ring that you insert into your vagina, or an intrauterine device (IUD).
- Surgery. If your menstrual cramps are caused by an underlying disorder, such as endometriosis or fibroids, surgery to correct the problem may help reduce your symptoms. Surgical removal of the uterus also may be an option if you're not planning to have children.
Things you may want to try at home include:
- Exercise. Studies have found that physical activity may ease the pain of menstrual cramps.
- Heat. Soaking in a hot bath or using a heating pad, hot water bottle or heat patch on your lower abdomen may ease menstrual cramps. Applying heat may be just as effective as over-the-counter pain medication for relieving menstrual cramps.
- Dietary supplements. A number of studies have indicated that vitamin E, omega-3 fatty acids, vitamin B-1 (thiamine), vitamin B-6 and magnesium supplements may effectively reduce menstrual cramps.
- Avoiding alcohol and tobacco. These substances can make menstrual cramps worse.
- Reducing stress. Psychological stress may increase your risk of menstrual cramps and their severity.
Most alternative therapies haven't been well-studied for treating menstrual cramps and need further study before experts can clearly recommend one treatment or another. However, some alternative treatments may help with menstrual cramps, including:
- Acupuncture. Acupuncture involves inserting extremely thin needles through your skin at strategic points on your body. Some studies have found that acupuncture helps relieve menstrual cramps.
Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS). A TENS device connects to the skin using adhesive patches with electrodes in them. The electrodes deliver a varying level of electric current to stimulate nerves.
TENS may work by raising the threshold for pain signals and stimulating the release of endorphins, your body's natural painkillers. In studies, TENS was more effective than a placebo in relieving menstrual cr
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]
] |
[
2048
] |
2,048
| 2.611325
|
Public and Private Entities Join Forces to Re-Invigorate Space Travel
By DIANE SEARS
When SpaceX launched its new Falcon Heavy rocket into solar orbit in February carrying a red Tesla Roadster car with a mannequin named Starman behind the wheel, the mission touched off a new era in space exploration. Not because it was taking us where no mannequin has ever gone before. But because it was taking mankind into space again, and this time the ultimate destination is Mars.
The crowds that gathered around Kennedy Space Center and Cape Canaveral clapped, cheered and even wept as they watched the launch and then the unprecedented descent of two of the three booster rockets that had carried Falcon Heavy into the sky. The boosters landed back at the launch site upright, side by side, in perfect timing like synchronized swimmers, leaving everyone saying, “How did they do that?”
This question is precisely why the space program is alive and thriving today, bringing more than 17,000 aerospace-related companies, 130,000 industry jobs, and $19 billion in annual revenues to Florida’s economy, according to Space Florida, which acts as an airport authority for the state’s aerospace industry. The activity is centered in a cluster surrounding KSC and Cape Canaveral Air Force Station, which both host launch activities.
The wonder of aeronautics keeps today’s space program soaring at a pace that is expected to reach a launch cadence of as many as 50 missions a year from the Cape by 2020. The difference between today’s program and that of the 1960s — when the Air Force, the Navy and NASA launched the first rockets from the Cape — is that government is playing a supporting role while private industry steers the ship.
“As an agency, NASA has been around since 1958,” says Janet Petro, the deputy center director at KSC. “We’ve always been strong at transferring our capabilities and our knowledge to the private sector. Recently we’ve been taking advantage of partnerships much more so than ever before. … We’re going to continue to do that as we make our way back out to the moon and then out to Mars. The idea of partnering is what it’s going to take for us as a nation to go
further to those destinations.”
Ask most people involved, and the goal is to get humans to Mars sometime in the 2030s. Former President Obama predicted a manned mission will orbit the red planet by the mid 2030s and return safely to Earth. President Trump committed to the mission with a directive signed in December to partner with the private sector to get people on the moon for the first time since 1972 to establish a foundation there for eventual missions to Mars and beyond.
Elon Musk, the founder and CEO of SpaceX, has a different plan. In March, he told an audience at the South by Southwest festival in Austin, Texas, that a new SpaceX rocket will be ready for trips to Mars by sometime next year, according to a March 11 article in the New York Post. He had announced last year that SpaceX will send at least two cargo vehicles to Mars by 2022.
Musk’s ultimate goal is to set up a colony of more than 1 million people on Mars to ensure the human race survives a world war or another kind of catastrophe on Earth. A May 22 article on CNBC.com called him “the world’s most disruptive space pioneer” and placed California-based SpaceX as the No. 1 company on the 2018 CNBC Disruptor 50 list.
“The visionary entrepreneur is bent on building giant low-cost reusable rockets and spaceships that can be used to colonize humans on Mars,” the article read. “In the process, he is helping to catalyze a private space exploration industry in the United States while outmaneuvering mammoth aerospace companies like Boeing.”
In September 2017, during the 68th Astronautical Congress in Adelaide, Australia, Musk outlined plans for the largest space vehicle ever launched from Earth, a fully reusable ship that has not been named but is referred to as BFR. His speech is posted in its entirety on a 43-minute video on the SpaceX website, and in it he outlines “how we become a multiplanet species.”
“If humanity is to become multi-planetary, the fundamental breakthrough that needs to occur in rocketry is a rapidly and completely reusable rocket… achieving it would be on a par with what the Wright brothers did. It’s the fundamental thing that’s necessary for humanity to become a space-faring civilization. America would never have been colonized if ships weren’t reusable.”
– Elon Musk
The BFR vehicle, which is under construction today, will have the capability of carrying 150 tons into low earth orbit, compared with 30 tons by Falcon Heavy. It will stand at 32 stories tall, towering over the Falcon Heavy, which is 21 stories.
Musk mentioned in his September speech that he wants takeoffs and landings to be as commonplace as they are today for airplanes. The precision is getting better, he said, and he believes the SpaceX rocket boosters will eventually land without the retractable legs that supported them in the February Falcon Heavy mission. He’d like to see numerous launches and landings a day.
SpaceX, which has signed a 20-year lease with KSC, is planning a reported 30 launches this year. Add to that the launches other companies are planning in the coming years, and the schedule looks pretty ambitious — and completely realistic, industry watchers say.
“When you drive around Kennedy today, it’s a very different spaceport than it was back in the day when I first started,” says Petro, who joined NASA at KSC in 2007. “Today there is a robust commercial market and a partnership that can make that journey to Mars happen.”
When the space shuttle program was coming to an end in 2011, NASA had already started considering how KSC could become a multi-user spaceport, Petro says. In a targeted initiative, the team looked at the space center’s operations and facilities to determine which ones were no longer needed, which ones would have to be refurbished, and which ones could be available for private aerospace companies.
NASA has outlined four milestones that will get the space program to Mars, Petro says:
1) Low earth orbit – Today the agency is transitioning into turning over low earth orbit exploration to private companies. Instead of developing and launching vehicles and payloads itself, NASA is contracting with the private firms to carry cargo and humans.
2) Lunar orbit – Through the 2020s, exploration will extend to spaceflight orbiting the moon with the goal of enabling long-term robotic exploration on the lunar surface.
3) Lunar exploration – Through the 2030s, human exploration on the moon’s surface will serve as preparation for missions to Mars and other parts of the solar system.
4) Gateway to Mars — The timing has not been firmed up for NASA’s planned lunar orbital platform gateway, which will take activities beyond the moon. Partnerships will not only be between government and commercial entities, but also international. Russia, China, France and India are all operating space programs today.
“What NASA, and KSC, do through their leadership role is create the opportunities and competition among entrepreneurs and companies,” Petro said. “We provide them that opportunity, not just in terms of facilities and assets and supportive processes, but they tap into us for our expertise.”
Building An Ecosystem
There is a flurry of activity in Central Florida in aerospace manufacturing. “We’re seeing tremendous change in that regard,” says Bill Dymond, the CEO and president of Lowndes, Drosdick, Doster, Kantor & Reed law firm in Orlando, who serves as chair of the board of directors of Space Florida. “In a short period of time, we are seeing a great deal of manufacturing occur, and we’re positioned for growth in the future.”
Several private companies, including SpaceX, are leading the way back into space at KSC. They form a nucleus of activity that includes scores of other private companies supporting the space program. Many of them are hiring this year to expand their operations. They include:
• Boeing, based in Chicago, is building the crew capsule CST-100 Starliner in collaboration with Bigelow Aerospace. The vehicle is designed to carry seven passengers into low- Earth orbit, including NASA service missions to the International Space Station, according to Boeing’s website.
• Blue Origin out of the Seattle area is getting a lot of media buzz because its billionaire owner, Amazon founder and CEO Jeff Bezos, is seen as an interesting competitor to SpaceX. The company’s New Shepard capsule provided the first-ever vertical landing in the space industry, before the synchronized SpaceX booster landings.
• OneWeb, headquartered in the UK, has set up a facility just outside KSC for building satellites.
It all adds up to what Dymond calls a tremendous economic engine. “As we begin to build an ecosystem where there are multiple manufacturers, you build a supply chain around that,” he said. This will include smaller manufacturers and service providers, and then ripple out from there into the surrounding community. People need places to live, eat and play, and the ecosystem snowballs to accommodate them.
Space Florida, a special district created by state statute, has been a “dot connector” for the spaceport, pulling together partnerships and funding from multiple parties, including the state of Florida, the state Department of Transportation, the Air Force, the Navy, the Federal Aviation Administration and NASA.
“Space Florida can help foster and fuel that private sector development,” Dymond says. “We’re helping government invest in infrastructure, which makes it possible for private companies to do what they do best. … The private sector moves more quickly, and now there is competition in the mix
|
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Ethical Thinking Yesterday and Today "I'm a spiritual person, just not religious." In North America today, while the mainline churches continue to decline in membership, spirituality, the impulse to seek communion with the Divine, is thriving. More people now ask how they may experience God in their lives rather than how much they should know about God. If they feel God within them then the important question is settled and the rest are details. People are seeking a religion that empowers them rather than a god who commands them.1
Among Eastern religions, such an endeavor to feel a god within is not a new phenomenon. For example, Zen Buddhism, which does not require followers to forsake the world to live in seclusion as original Buddhism did, teaches that one should live as if he were already a Buddha rather than make an effort to become a Buddha through rigorous self-disciplines. In the process, the emphasis lies on the empowerment of one's heart.2
In Luther's sixteenth century battles, he faced three fronts that asserted that man has some effective role to play before God: works, mysticism, and reason, which he met in Rome, Karlstadt, and the Swiss.3 Adolf Köberle, in his analysis of the history of religion, similarly observed the trio of moralism/conduct (Stoics, Confucianism, Buddhism, Pharisees, Kant, Fichte, Ritschl, Roman Catholics, pietism), mysticism/emotions (Karlstadt, Münzer, Schleiermacher, Romanticism, Taoism, Neoplatonism, Schwenkfeld, Zinzendorf), and speculation/reason (rationalism, Thomism, German Idealism, Hegel, Kant) to be the options in man's quest for holiness before God.4 Oswald Bayer has assessed the three ways of modern theology as moral/ethical (ethics/doing, represented by the Kantian tradition), existential/motivational (religion/feeling, represented by the followers of Schleiermacher), and theoretical/conceptual (metaphysics/knowing, as represented by the followers of Hegel).5 What is in common among the trios identified by Luther, Köberle, and Bayer is their point of departure: they all begin with something in us, which is the same accent found in modern spirituality and Eastern religions.
Already before 1520, Luther had begun to attack Aristotle's ethical system because it offered the idea that people become good by doing good and acquiring skill, habits, and virtue.6 Medieval scholastics built on this foundation by including grace as the energy to empower such ethics. On the other hand, during the second half of the 1520s, Luther saw Greek thought behind the teachings of Rome, Karlstadt, and the Swiss; namely, that there are two opposing realms: an earthly/external one and a spiritual/internal one. They held that, since man is trapped in earthly and material things, he is to find salvation by rising above this material realm into the inward spiritual sphere. Such upward movement required spiritual exercises that were heavily emotional, for the upward movement was none other than the inward movement. The Sacramentarians had made Christ's presence spiritualistic and remote with their aberrant view of the Lord's Supper, but in Luther's Large Confession (1528), he responded to such thought by crying, "Jesus is not far, but near."
In any theological system built upon Aristotle's ethics or a Neoplatonic dichotomy, man will be said to contribute somehow to his own salvation and Christian life. This tends to isolate ethics to the Third Article in combination with human strength; the quest for holiness is seen primarily as an activity of the Holy Spirit in cooperation with man's efforts. For example, when the Baptist Rick Warren says, "God's ultimate goal for your life on earth is not comfort, but character development," he encourages readers to cultivate an inward spiritual life.7 Warren writes that a Christ-like character in a believer is "the Holy Spirit's job to produce," which takes place in daily life "through the choices we make" when "we choose to do the right thing in situations and then trust God's Spirit to give us His power, love, faith, and wisdom to do it."8 If Warren is representative of modern North American Christian spirituality, this indicates a continuation of or return to the old system of Aristotelian ethics that Luther diagnosed and rejected in medieval Roman Catholicism. The combination of a positive view of man's spiritual ability with the assistance of the free-floating Holy Spirit is still present today.
Luther's Second Article Confession of Ethics in His Large Confession (1528)
By contrast, Luther's approach to ethics is refreshing. Unlike the many who locate ethics primarily under the First or Third Articles, in his Large Confession (1528), Luther places ethics within the Second Article (WA 26: 499-509; AE 37: 360-72).
It may appear that such a placement is rather accidental. One could argue that Luther discusses Christian vocation within the Second Article only because he was speaking against the abuses of monasteries and religious foundations that had departed from their original purposes of teaching young people to serve in the church, family, and the government. The monastic orders Luther was criticizing had long obscured Christ's atonement by their emphasis on works righteousness (WA 26: 503, 35-505, 28; AE 37: 363-65).
However, a further examination of the third section of the Large Confession indicates that Luther intentionally located ethics under the Second Article. For several reasons, it is clear that he wrote and organized his thought very carefully in this Large Confession. He was writing this confession coram Deo and coram mundo (WA 26: 499, 19-21; AE 37: 360). It was his theological legacy (WA 26: 499, 21-23; AE 37: 360). He put his life into it and considered it a confession to die with. He says that he has "most diligently traced all these articles through the Scriptures" and "examined them again and again in the light thereof" (WA 26: 499, 26-500, 20; AE 37: 360). This he did in full awareness that Satan is at work in the errors of enthusiasts concerning baptism and the Lord's Supper (WA 26: 499, 15-19; AE 37: 360).
Further support for the thesis that Luther intentionally located ethics under the Second Article is found in the fact that, for Luther, Jesus always occupied the central place of his confession. The Large Confession is not an exception, as the structure of its third part indicates. While Luther devotes about the same amount of space to confessing the divine majesty and the Holy Spirit, he uses ten times more to confess Jesus (WA 26: 500, 33-505, 28; AE 37: 361-65). Luther presents three subtopics under the Second Article: free will, original sin, and the holy orders of the church, family, and civil government.
In the Large Confession, after having briefly confessed the majesty of God in the Holy Trinity (WA 26: 500, 27-32; AE 37: 361), Luther moves from Jesus as a man to Jesus as God; then onto his passion, death, and burial for our redemption from sin, death, and the eternal wrath of God; and to his resurrection, ascension, and session to be our Lord and Bishop (WA 26: 500, 33-502, 34; AE 37: 361-62). The confession of the Holy Spirit follows, but it is as brief as the confession of the Holy Trinity. In short, the Holy Spirit gives us faith, resurrects our bodies, frees us from sin, and bestows a joyful heart and a sure conscience (WA 26: 505, 29-37; AE 37: 365-66).
After confessing the divine majesty of the Holy Trinity, the office and works of the Son, and the service of the Holy Spirit, Luther gives a summary of the works of the Triune God in terms of His giving:
The Father gives Himself to us, with heaven and earth and all the creatures, in order that they may serve us and benefit us...The Son Himself subsequently gave Himself and bestowed all His works, sufferings, wisdom, and righteousness...The Holy Spirit comes and gives Himself to us also, wholly and completely. He teaches us to understand this deed of Christ...He does this both inwardly and outwardly-inwardly through faith and other spiritual gifts, outwardly, however, through the Gospel, through baptism and the sacrament of the altar, through which as through three means or ways he comes to us and inculcates the sufferings of Christ to bring the benefit of salvation. (WA 26: 505, 38-506, 12; AE 37: 366; modified translation and emphasis mine)
[NI]His confession of baptism, the Lord's Supper, the church, holy absolution, etc. follows (WA 26: 506, 13-509, 2
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A LITTLE GUN HISTORY In 1929, the Soviet Union established gun control. From 1929 to 1953, about 20 million dissidents, unable to defend themselves, were rounded up and exterminated. ------------------------------ In 1911, Turkey established gun control. From 1915 to 1917, 1.5 million Armenians, unable to defend themselves, were rounded up and exterminated. ------------------------------ Germany established gun control in 1938 and from 1939 to 1945, a total of 13 million Jews and others who were unable to defend themselves were rounded up and exterminated. ------------------------------ China established gun control in 1935. From 1948 to 1952, 20 million political dissidents, unable to defend themselves, were rounded up and exterminated. ------------------------------ Guatemala established gun control in 1964. From 1964 to 1981, 100,000 Mayan Indians, unable to defend themselves, were rounded up and exterminated. ---- ------------- ------------- Uganda established gun cont
9 Agrees | 3 Disagrees | Report Abuse »
Uganda established gun control in 1970. From 1971 to 1979, 300,000 Christians, unable to defend themselves, were rounded up and exterminated. ------------------------------ Cambodia established gun control in 1956. From 1975 to 1977, one million educated people, unable to defend themselves, were rounded up and exterminated. ----------------------------- Defenseless people rounded up and exterminated in the 20th Century because of gun control: 56 million. ------------------------------ You won't see this data on the US evening news, or hear politicians disseminating this information.
*Taken from a 'Lee M' because I'm too lazy to type all that out*
11 Agrees | 2 Disagrees | Report Abuse »
Point is, I own a weapon and hope that I never have to use it. The 2nd is a deterrent from government having too much power and keeping society free.
9 Agrees | 4 Disagrees | Report Abuse »
And TOT...if you really expect the same here...you should leave the country
4 Agrees | 10 Disagrees | Report Abuse »
If you are a law biding citizen you don't have to worry about anything, but if you are a criminal, yes you do.
2 Agrees | 11 Disagrees | Report Abuse »
PGAC, I am sure none of those citizens expected any of those events to happen to them either. I do not expect any of that to happen at this time. What guarantees do any of us have that such events could never occur here? What happened to the Japanese Americans? Answer:
8 Agrees | 2 Disagrees | Report Abuse »
A historical fact that is not really "common knowledge" is the fact that, during World War II, over 100,000 Japanese-American individuals, the vast majority of which were actually American citizens, were rounded up and shipped eventually to internment camps. These consisted of poorly-constructed barracks surrounded by barbed wire, sentry posts and armed guards.
They were put in these camps, not because they had been tried and found guilty of something, but because either they or their parents or ancestors were from Japan and, as such, they were deemed a "threat" to national security. They were also easily identifiable due to their race. There was no similar large-scale roundups of German or Italian-Americans, even though we were also fighting them during World War II.
9 Agrees | 1 Disagrees | Report Abuse »
I feel that a big part of this issue is the fact that this country is WAY too lenient with criminals. There should be a point where criminals lose their rights as human beings - specifically when they commit first degree murder or rape a child. Once all the evidence is in and they're convicted, they need to be put to sleep forever immediately. That would be quite a deterrant for other criminals. The Colorado killer and others like him will sit in jail forever or be let back out into the community to commit more crimes. We're getting too over-populated for this nonsense. Is he worth all those taxpayers dollars? We have "rights" as Americans, but what are the expectations for the behavior of each individual. If every household has guns, we would become a "shoot 'em up" society - just like in the movies, on the video games, and in the Middle East. Do you think children and teenagers won't be able to find those magazines that the parents have hidden away. The Japanese-
9 Agrees | 2 Disagrees | Report Abuse »
The Japanese-American roundup in the 1940s was a BIG mistake by FDR, but these people weren't exterminated.
7 Agrees | 1 Disagrees | Report Abuse »
Agreed, a BIG mistake and still very wrong! Realized as a mistake after the fact. I am not much of a gun owner. Only have one. What I am concerned about is loss of liberty! Things start small and tend to grow until it is too late. Then everyone looks back and wishes they did something. We as a people have become complacent and take our freedoms for granted.
10 Agrees | 1 Disagrees | Report Abuse »
Today is a sad day for New Yorkers, it is the first day that I am truly ashamed of the decisions that are thrust on us that are not constitutional therefore not legally binding. As far as getaclues comment WHAT THE HECK ARE YOU TALKING ABOUT? You have got to be on drugs arguing with me before I even post! This topic isn't over as far as I can tell it hasn't begun till they shoot the first owner of a legally owned gun in defense of this law, then it has started.
12 Agrees | 10 Disagrees | Report Abuse »
PleaseGetAClue, the people that should leave this country are not the people that respect the laws, follow the constitution and love our country... It is the people that want us to change the USA to conform to a new constitution and want to destroy what America is about that should be deported.
peaceful; If you don't think this could happen here,wait and see what KING Obama is going to try and do.First using executive order to avoid congress.Our military are taking orders from NATO and UN not congress like it suppose to be. allowing bankers to steal money from the american people for their debt, Obama head of the UN security council against the constitution Sec. 1 article 9, (conflict of interest). Starting wars without permission of congress by using executive orders. We have drones flying over the united states spying on us. Legalizing illegal aliens through executive orders.Patriot act. the list goes on and on. So don't think it can't happen here it already started.
9 Agrees | 9 Disagrees | Report Abuse »
sorry peaceful I I was referring to please get a clue
1 Agrees | 0 Disagrees | Report Abuse »
In order to take away guns from the people they would have to enlist the military to do so. Police departments and federal agencies do not have the capability (although at the rate the IRS is going ...). The US military will not stand for this. We have an all volunteer Military and they are the ones screaming louder than all the rest. They fight for our rights and watch as they are stripped day by day, more and more, by fear mongering. It's hard to recognize our even be proud to be an American if this is what we've become. We depend on government to solve all of our problems and take no responsibility for our own actions. We invent fake diseases to explain behavior of criminals. This is a sad, sad day in NYS. Vets and those who died protecting your rights are roling in their graves.
11 Agrees | 3 Disagrees | Report Abuse »
TiredOfTax you're off your rocker. Exactly what is so 'unconstitutional' about this law? It was was a bipartisan effort. And the constitutionality of a law is up to the courts to decide, not you. You have an issue with it? File a suit and challenge it.
9 Agrees | 11 Disagrees | Report Abuse »
I just read an article that states "WASHINGTON (AP) -- Treasury Secretary Timothy Geithner says the government has begun borrowing from the federal employee pension fund to keep operating without surpassing its debt limit."
PeacefulWorld- I'm impressed
swizzer- is there a part of the Second Amendment that you do not understand ????? "the right of the people to keep and bear Arms, shall not be infringed." seems pretty plain to me.
11 Agrees | 4 Disagrees | Report Abuse »
If you disarm the public, even one single gun or the ability to fire it because of the number of bullets it can hold, do YOU then accept the responsibility if anything at all harms them? YOU SHOULD BE HELD RESPONSIBLE! You should be made to pay, and not with taxpayer dollars.
9 Agrees | 8 Disagrees | Report Abuse »
Gun Laws that are in effect already in other states an cities don't seem to working...In the five borrows they have strict gun laws um criminals are still killing people with them so whats gonna change? Whats gonna change is that law abiding citizens will not have the means to protect themselves! Shame on you!
Taxed.. I agree with you.. our whole society has become complacent...
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[
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Guitar vs Violin – Which one do you choose? Well, it all depends on the person, but generally, it is a good idea to go with the one that interests you the most. Many people do start off with one and then as time goes on, they decide to switch for a number of different reasons. Some people say that it is more difficult to play the guitar, but then at the same time, you can play almost any type of music on a guitar, while what you can play on a violin is a bit more limited.
What is a Guitar?
A guitar is a type of string instrument that is played by the plucking of the strings. The fretboard, the strings, the body, and the headstock are the four main parts. Plastic and wood are the most common materials used to make them, and their strings are usually made from nylon or steel.
The strings are plucked by using fingers and fingernails with a pick. Either the right or left hand can be used, the other hand is used to hold the neck of the instrument. Different notes are made by different finger positions on the fretboard.
People have been using similar instruments for many years, and they have just become more popular over the years. They are light to carry, easier to learn how to play than other string instruments, and can be used to produce a variety of music. There are a variety, made in different ways, which determines what type of music they are for. All of the traditional options are hollow, which is what makes the strings louder. This is what is known as an acoustic guitar. Only from the 1930s did people start using electricity and amplifiers. Electric guitars do not need to be hollow, as they do not need acoustics.
What is a Violin?
The Violin is a four-stringed instrument, which is played by using a bow. Usually, the strings will be tuned to A, G, E, and D notes. It is held between the chin and the collar bone and different notes are made by pressing on the strings (fingering) with the left hand. The right hand is used to hold the bow. It also does not have any frets or markers like a guitar has.
It is the highest-pitched and smallest string instrument that is used in western music. The person playing the instrument is called a violinist and the person who fixes them is called a luthier.
This is important in Arabian and European music. It is the most popular of all instruments in the whole of Europe. There are no modern options that are older than about 400 years, but similar types of instruments have been around for about 1000 years. It was almost fully created by the time modern orchestras started forming in the 17th century. Almost half of the instruments that are used in an orchestra are violins, which are divided into two parts – the first and the second. They are used in solo music performances, folk music, chamber music, orchestral music, and jazz.
Sometimes people refer to them as a “fiddle”, which is kind of a nickname. The main part of the violin is the body, which is made of wood. The body is what makes the vibrations of the strings sound louder. The front is called the “belly”, the sides are called the “ribs”, and the back is simply known as the back. The strings go from the neck, down the fingerboard, and on to the tailpiece.
How Each Of These Are Tuned
Tuning a Guitar
When you tune a guitar, you have to adjust all 6 of the strings. When you are doing a standard tune-up, you start from the lowest-pitched, thickest string (the 6th string), and you start at the top of the neck. The E string is the thinnest and the highest-pitched at the bottom of the neck. The E string is the 1st string and all the others follow afterward. The order in which you tune is E, A, D, G, B, E.
Tuning a Violin
As you become more experienced, you will be able to trust your hearing more, but until that time, it is a good idea to buy a digital, chromatic tuner if you wish to make sure all the strings are tuned correctly. The strings are tuned at 5th intervals in music.
Work from the A string, then the D string, then G, and lastly E. You will need to bow the string many times and listen carefully to get the pitch that you desire. Listen is important, even when using the digital chromatic because you want to get used to what it should sound like once it is correctly tuned. The last thing that you will do is to tune the tuning peg.
Differences In The Neck And Fingerboards
A violin has a fingerboard, which does not have frets and a guitar has a fretted fingerboard. A guitar needs frets because of the very limited ability to pluck the strings. Frets make it easier to place the fingers on the strings, without having to as precise as you have to be when playing the violin. Frets are not that easy to fit or maintain, according to inexperienced guitar makers.
The necks of both these instruments are prone to bending and warping. The neck of the violin is basically only there to guide the player where to place their hands. With a guitar, the player needs to apply more pressure to fret the notes, especially when playing chords. If the neck of the guitar is too thin, a player can find their hand will start to cramp.
The fact that people need the necks to be as light as possible does tend to cause issues with the necks bending, which is why “truss rods” are used to control how much it bends.
Differences In The Strings
The order of the strings are played are very different. When you play the guitar, strings are strung from the low E to the A, then D, then G, then B, and lastly to the high E. There is a perfect fourth between each note.
When playing the violin, the strings are strung low to high, so from G, to D, then A, and lastly E, with a perfect fifth. So, it is exactly the opposite order that the guitar is played.
When it comes to instruments, the response time to the pressure refers to how fast the particular instruments produce a sound when being strung, hit, or pressed.
The violin has a quicker response time to pressure than a guitar has. The strings are very thin and sensitive and do not require much pressure to produce a lovely sound and music.
Guitars are often more difficult for beginners because of their thicker strings, which make it more difficult to press down on and produce the sound they are looking for. Many new guitar players complain that their fingers hurt due to this. Players who first start out with a violin could find that they get more used to pressing on the guitar strings after building up endurance while playing.
Difficulty to Learn Each
When you are trying to decide on which of these string instruments to choose to learn how to play, there are a number of differences that you need to take into consideration, but the main thing to remember is that it is what you find more interesting, and have a passion for that counts.
Not every person who wants to play either one is passionate about the particular instrument. If you find this to be you, here are some differences that may help you choose between the two.
Has frets Has none
Can be plucked or strum Uses a bow
Easy playing posture More difficult posture
Abundant resources Not as many resources
Easier to master Takes more practice
Harder to press strings Easier to press strings
Very versatile Limited music genres
Easier to multitask with More difficult to multitask with
Differences In Pricing Of The Two
Both vary in price, just like with any other product on the market. Some are very costly, while others can go for as little as $100, depending on the make and what your needs are. If you are a beginner, you should not make your budget much higher than $200. You do not want to buy a cheap product either, as you will end up spending loads more on keeping it in tip-top shape.
With the guitar, it is basically the same principle. Beginners can get away with as little as $100 for their instrument, but as time goes on and your skill increases, the instrument that you need could end up being a few thousand. The cost of the guitar or violin depends on the make and many other factors.
Choosing Which One To Learn To Play
Both are wonderful instruments to learn to play. Beginners may however find that the guitar is slightly easier to learn, which is mainly because of the fact that they have frets. Being able to draw the bow across the strings may produce a much better sound, but it can take weeks, even months of practice to master the art. With that said, learning to play the violin first will give the player more endurance and the ability to tune in to the sound of their instrument quicker, making guitar playing at a later stage a bit easier.
Whichever instrument you decide to try first, the decision should be yours alone. You need to see for yourself which of the two suits your needs better. Ask yourself which one appeals to you more and rather give both a try before rushing out and buying an expensive instrument that you may not enjoy playing music after all.
Which one should you choose to play? Well, with all the information that you are now equipped with, you should be able to take all the aspects into consideration before making an informed decision. If after reading all of the above, you still find yourself wondering which one of the two instruments you should look into learning, it is advisable that you visit your nearest and most trusted music expert. You may find that they have practice
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NESSOS (Nessus) was one of Thessalian Kentauroi (Centaurs). He fled his homeland after the Lapith war and made his way to the Aitolian river Euenos (Evenus) where he set himself up as a ferryman. When Herakles arrived with his new bride Deianeira, Nessos carried her across the river on his back. The sight of the beautiful woman, however, inflamed him with passion and he attempted to violate her. Herakles heard her cries and slew Nessos with a poisoned arrow. As he was dying the kentauros persuaded Deianeira to take some of his poisoned blood as a love charm should Herakles ever prove unfaithful. This dupe worked and eventually resulted in the hero's death.
Nessos' name probably means "the duck"--a fitting title for a ferryman who carries passengers across a river on his back.
FAMILY OF NESSUS
NESSUS (Nessos). A centaur, who carried Deianeira across the river Evenus, but, wishing to run away with her, ie was slot by Heracles with a poisoned arrow, which afterwards became the cause of Heracles' own death. (Soph. Trach. 558; Apollod. ii. 7. § 4; comp. Heracles.) Heracles had been married to Deianeira for nearly three years, when, at a repast in the house of Oeneus, he killed, by an accident, the boy Eunomus, the son of Architeles. Heracles, in accordance with the law, went into exile with his wife Deianeira. On their road they came to the river Euenus, across which the centaur Nessus used to carry travellers for a small sum of money. Heracles himself forded the river, and gave Deianeira to Nessus to carry her across. Nessus attempted to outrage her: Heracles heard her screaming, and as the centaur brought her to the other side, Heracles shot an arrow into his heart. The dying centaur called out to Deianeira to take his blood with her, as it was a sure means for preserving the love of her husband. (Apollod. ii. 7. § 6; Diod. iv. 36; Soph. Trach. 555, &c.; Ov. Met. ix. 201, &c.; Senec. Herc. Oct. 496, &c.; Paus. x. 38. § 1.)
Source: Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology.
CLASSICAL LITERATURE QUOTES
Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheca 2. 83 - 87 (trans. Aldrich) (Greek mythographer C2nd A.D.) :
"Herakles (Heracles) asked for wine, but [the Kentauros (Centaur)] Pholos said that he was afraid to open the cask which was owned jointly be the Kentauroi (Centaurs). But Herakles told him not to worry, and opened the cask himself. Shortly thereafter, picking up the smell of the wine, the Kentauroi appeared at Pholos' cave, armed with rocks and clubs of silver fir. The first two who ventured in, by name Ankhios and Agrios, Herakles turned back with a volley of fire-brands; he sent arrows after the others . . . The remaining Kentauroi fled this way and that, some to Mount Malea, Eurytion to Pholoe, Nessos (Nessus) to the Euenos (Evenus) river."
Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheca 2. 151 :
"With Deianeira (Deianira) he [Herakles] made his way to the Euenos (Evenus) river, where Nessos (Nessus) the Kentauros (Centaur) had set up business ferrying travellers for a fee, maintaining that he had received the franchise from the gods because of his moral rectitude. Herakles crossed the river on his own, but when Nessos demanded payment even so, he let him conduct Deianeira across. En route he tried to rape her. Herakles heard her scream, and shot Nessos in the heart with an arrow when he had landed. As Nessos was dying, he called Deianeira to him and told her that if she wanted a love-potion to use on Herakles, she should mix the semen which he had spilled on the ground with the blood that was flowing from the wound made by the arrowhead. She did this, and kept the potion with her."
Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheca 2. 157 :
"In fear lest Herakles desire Iole more than herself [Deianeira], and in her belief that the blood of Nessos was truly a love-potion, she doused the robe with it. Herakles put it on and started the sacrifice, but soon the robe grew warm as the Hydra's venom began to cook his flesh."
Diodorus Siculus, Library of History 4. 36. 3 (trans. Oldfather) (Greek historian C1st B.C.) :
"[Herakles] when in his journeying he arrived at the Euenos (Evenus) river he found there the Kentauros (Centaur) Nessos who was conveying travellers across the river for a fee. Nessos carried Deianeira across first, and becoming enamoured of her because of her beauty he tried to assault her. But when she called to her husband for help Herakles shot the Kentauros with an arrow, and Nesos, struck even while he was having intercourse with her and because of the sharpness of the blow being at once on the point of death, told Deianeira that he would give her a love-charm to the end that Herakles would never desire to approach any other woman. He urged her, accordingly, to take the seed which had fallen from him and, mixing it with olive oil and the blood which was dripping from the barb of the arrow, to anoint with this the shirt of Herakles. This counsel, then, Nessos gave Deianeira and at once breathed his last. And she put the seed, as Nessos had enjoined upon her, into a jar and dipped in it the barb of the arrow and kept it all unknown to Herakles."
Diodorus Siculus, Library of History 4. 38. 1 :
"At Kenaion (Cenaeum) Herakles, wishing to perform a sacrifice, dispatched his attendant Likhas (Lichas) to Deianeira his wife, commanding him to ask her for the shirt and robe which he customarily wore in the celebration of sacrifices. But when Deianeira learned from Likhas of the love which Herakles had for Iole, she wished him to have a greater affection for herself and so anointed the shirt with the love-charm which had been given her by the Kentauros (Centaur) [Nessos], whose intention was to bring about the death of Herakles. Likhas, then, in ignorance of these matters, brought back the garments for the sacrifice; and Herakles put on the shirt which had been anointed, and as the strength of the toxic drug began slowly to work he met with the most terrible calamity. For the arrow's barb had carried the poison of the adder, and when the shirt for this reason, as it became heated, attacked the flesh of the body."
Strabo, Geography 10. 2. 5 (trans. Jones) (Greek geographer C1st B.C. to C1st A.D.) :
"In earlier times it [the River Euenos (Evenus)] was called Lykormas (Lycormas). And there Nessos, it is said, who had been appointed ferryman, was killed by Herakles because he tried to violate Deïaneira when he was ferrying her across the river."
Strabo, Geography 9. 4. 8 :
"Here [in Ozolian Lokris], also, is Khalkis (Chalcis) . . . Here, also, is the hill Taphiassos, on which are the tombs of Nessos and the other Kentauroi (Centaurs), from whose putrefied bodies, they say, flows forth at the base of the hill the water which is malodorous and clotted; and it is on this account, they add, that the tribe is also called Ozolian. [I.e. from ozein meaning ‘to smell’.]"
Pausanias, Description of Greece 10. 38. 1 (trans. Jones) (Greek travelogue C2nd A.D.) :
"Nessos, ferrying on the Euenos (Evenus), was wounded by Herakles, but not killed on the spot, making his escape to this country [Ozolian Lokris]; when he died his body rotted unburied, imparting a foul stench to the atmosphere of the place."
Pausanias, Description of Greece 3. 18. 10 - 16 :
"[Among the scenes depicted on the throne of Apollon at Amyklai (Amyclae) near Sparta :] There is wrought . . . Herakles avenging himself . . . upon Nessos at the river Euenos (Evenus) ."
Quintus Smyrnaeus, Fall of Troy 6.
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[
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Enlisting tobacco in the fight against Anthrax.
Since the 1960s American microbiologists have produced a vaccine for anthrax from the very microbe itself, Bacillus anthracis. The microbe's toxin is made up of three key parts: edema factor (EF), lethal factor (LF), and protective antigen (PA). EF causes fluid to build up in the area of infection, while LF kills cells or prevents them from working. However, both of these factors require PA to create a passageway into the cells--the PA bonds to protein receptors, creating a new complex to which the other two factors attach.
According to Stephen Leppla, a senior researcher at the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID), anthrax bacteria that don't have PA cannot cause an infection. "In essence," he says, "they are inactivated and become much less virulent." The current anthrax vaccine works on this very principle by introducing nonvirulent PA into the body so antibodies are created. PA introduced in the event of a future anthrax exposure would be inactivated by these antibodies, stopping the infection in its tracks.
In Pursuit of PA
But obtaining large quantities of PA has been a problem. Only one company--BioPort of Lansing, Michigan--is licensed by the FDA to produce the vaccine in the United States, and it can produce only 8 million doses each year through a fermentation process, according to BioPort spokeswoman Kimberly Brenne Root. That's enough to fill the company's contracts with the Department of Defense (DOD) and the Department of Health and Human Services, which stockpile the vaccine and administer it to military personnel, but not enough to vaccinate a large civilian population in the event of a widespread attack.
In 2004, in an attempt to procure more doses of vaccine, the U.S. government awarded an $877.5-million contract to VaxGen of Brisbane, California, to produce 75 million doses by the end of 2006. Setbacks have resulted in major delays, however; on 10 May 2006, company officials confirmed that the first shipments of the vaccine won't be delivered before late 2007 at the very soonest.
As well, there have been concerns that the vaccine produced by BioPort was not safe. Several Gulf War service members reported health problems after being vaccinated. Anecdotal reports suggest the vaccine may contribute to heart problems, cardiovascular illness, seizures, Gulf War syndrome, even death. Documented side effects include pain and swelling at the injection site, inflammation, flu-like symptoms, malaise, rash, joint pain, and headache. The BioPort vaccine can be contaminated with small amounts of LF and EF, which may contribute to the adverse effects associated with it.
To overcome these problems, Henry Daniell, a professor of molecular biology and microbiology at the University of Central Florida, has been on the hunt for a way to produce large quantities of "clean" PA, free of EF and LF. Now he thinks he has finally found it.
Turning Over a New Leaf
Daniell and his team began by isolating the gene for PA from B. anthracis. Then they inserted the gene into tobacco plants. "There are a lot of advantages to tobacco plants," says Daniell. "They produce a lot of biomass.... Also, we didn't want to produce a vaccine in a food crop in case there was cross-contamination or some package got mixed up on some truck somewhere." (Although tobacco shipments also could get mixed up, burning the tobacco in the course of smoking would destroy the PA it contained.) Furthermore, Daniell says, "[Tobaccco plants] are very easy to genetically manipulate."
Daniell's team chose to insert the gene into the chloroplast rather than the cell nucleus since they could get far more copies of the PA protein that way. After harvesting the tobacco plants, Daniell's team found that each plant produced about 150 milligrams of anthrax PA. That adds up to 360 million doses' worth of PA from one acre of tobacco plants. And because only PA is produced, the resulting vaccine will be cleaner than one produced through fermentation.
When the PA was introduced into mice, the rodents responded by producing very high levels of anti-PA antibodies. The immunized mice were sent to the NIAID, where they underwent anthrax toxin challenge. There, Leppla injected the mice with 150 micrograms of anthrax toxin, 1.5 times the amount needed to kill a mouse. Yet, the mice survived, proving that the new technique could produce an effective vaccine. These findings were published in the December 2005 issue of Infection and Immunity.
Rakesh Bhatnagar, chairman of the Centre for Biotechnology at Jawaharlal Nehru University in New Delhi, India, has researched plant-based anthrax vaccines, and has signed a commercial agreement to produce larger quantities of anthrax PA than BioPort while still using a fermentation system. He believes Daniell's research is significant because it shows that PA produced in plants can protect animals from anthrax. Yet he also believes plant-based vaccines still belong to the future.
"At this point in the road [plant-based vaccine researchers] have only expressed the protein in a few plants and only tested on small animals," says Bhatnagar. "Plant vaccines are a long way off, because industry wants higher levels of productivity to be successful. Plus, everything requires approval from government regulators, so it all takes time. But, if I had to estimate, it might be ten years down the road."
Daniell disagrees with this assessment, however. He says that vaccines against agents of bioterrorism are now on fast-track approval, and approval should come much sooner than 10 years.
A DOD spokesperson, who asked to remain anonymous, says that a plant-based anthrax vaccine would be of interest but that such a vaccine would have to be approved by the FDA. Also, says the spokesperson, "At present, the DOD has sufficient FDA-licensed anthrax vaccine to fulfill its policy. If the supply of anthrax vaccine was suddenly expanded, it might be that civilian purchasers of the vaccine would be less constrained than at present."
A Growth Industry?
Meanwhile, Daniell and his team aren't content with producing 360 million doses of anthrax vaccine. Rather, they consider this a preliminary step towards an even greater goal: vaccines that are actually grown in and consumed along with a piece of fruit.
The idea of putting vaccines in plants or fruits was pioneered in 1992 by Charles Arntzen, currently codirector of the Center for Infectious Disease and Vaccinology at Arizona State University, after he observed a mother feeding her child a banana during a research trip to Thailand. Arntzen's idea was simple: what if we could cut through the obstacles to vaccination by simply growing vaccines in fruit?
Many vaccines are hard to produce because of expensive fermenters, hard to ship because they often need to be kept refrigerated, and hard to distribute widely because it can take a trained health professional to administer the vaccine. All these factors make it particularly difficult to vaccinate populations in developing countries. Arntzen and his colleagues have continued exploring this line of thinking, and in the 1 March 2005 issue of Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, they conclude that a plant-based oral vaccine against hepatitis B, as delivered via potato, "should be considered as a viable component of a global immunization program."
However, before we can eat bananas or potatoes for our booster shots, researchers need to figure out a few key problems.
First, there needs to be a way to standardize the vaccine's dose. "Other vaccines are very exact on the dosages," says Bhatnagar, "but with plant-based vaccines, what are you going to say? In the plant, levels might vary widely."
The other major problem is that it takes months for a crop to grow, even a quick-growing one like tobacco, whereas the bacteria used in a fermentation system take only days or even hours. On the other hand, a crop system could be cheaper and produce more vaccine, compared to a fermentation system.
Despite the remaining hurdles, Daniell believes that his developments in tobacco plants will lead to an anthrax vaccine someday in the future. His team is also working on growing vaccine antigens against other diseases such as cholera, amebiasis, plague, and hepatitis C in tobacco plants.
"If a vaccine was produced in a plant cell, dried cells could be put in a capsule and delivered because the plant cell wall protects the protein already," says Daniell. "Different delivery methods still need approval, but the cost of vaccines could drop from [up to] a hundred dollars to a few cents since basically all you are doing is powdering the plant and putting it in a capsule. For that reason, it is worth every regulatory hurdle, because it will pay off big time."
Joellenbeck LM, Zwanziger LL, Durch JS, Strom BL, eds. 2002. The Anthrax Vaccine: Is It Safe? Does It Work? Committee to Assess the Safety and Efficacy of the Anthrax Vaccine, Medical Follow-Up Agency. Washington, DC: National Academies Press. Available: http://darwin.nap.edu/books/0309083095/html/.
Koya V, Moayeri M, Leppla SH, Daniell H. 2005. Plant-based vaccine: mice immunized with chloroplast-derived anthrax protective antigen survive anthrax lethal toxin challenge. Infect Immun 73:8266-8274.
Leppla SH, Robbins JB, Schneerson R, Shiloach J. 2002. Development of an improved vaccine for anthrax. J Clin Investig 110:
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1994,
1993,
1995,
1996,
1997,
1998,
1999,
2000,
2003,
2002,
2001,
2006,
2004,
2007,
2005,
2008,
2009,
2010,
2011,
2015,
2014,
2013,
2012,
2019,
2017,
2016,
2018,
2023,
2020,
2021,
2022,
2024,
2025,
2026,
2027,
2030,
2028,
2029,
2031,
2032,
2034,
2033,
2035,
2036,
2037,
2038,
2039,
2040,
2041,
2042,
2043,
2044,
2045,
2046,
2047
] |
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[
2048
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2,048
| 2.811653
|
A new state law establishing a native plants program hopes to bring ‘Jersey Fresh’-style branding and marketing to encourage the broader use and conservation of species originating in the Garden State.
By Matt Skoufalos | March 1, 2022
In January, Governor Phil Murphy signed into law a bill establishing the “Jersey Native Plants Program” within the state Department of Agriculture.
The law mandates that the department develop a program to:
- encourage and promote the sale of New Jersey native plants at retail garden centers and nurseries
- increase consumer awareness of the important role of native plants in the ecosystem through advertising campaigns and marketing programs
- provide for the dissemination of information about the variety and availability of New Jersey native plants
- create a labeling program to identify native plants as “Jersey natives” similar to the Jersey Fresh and Jersey Grown programs.
Among the 2,100 or so native plant species in the state are 19 “globally rare plants” and nine that do not live anywhere else on Earth, the language of the bill noted.
While also providing habitat and food for native wildlife, the preserved acreage in which many of these native plants live provide “ecosystem services” valued at $20 billion annually, including the production of natural resources, cleaning air and water, nutrient cycling, and more.
“Studies have shown that New Jersey is rapidly losing its native plants, with roughly one-third of those plants designated as endangered or of special concern by the State’s Natural Heritage Program,” the bill reads.
“Threats to native plants include habitat destruction caused by development and urbanization, pollution, and harmful invasive plant species.”
A spokesperson for the Department of Agriculture said the agency will work with the state natural lands management program through the Division of Environmental Protection, the Rutgers University Cooperative Extension program, and non-governmental conservation groups “to filter through the listing of all native species to those that could be marketable and usable in the trade.
“Educational materials need to be developed as well as a branding system to identify what species are native to the state as well as their habitat needs,” the department told NJ Pen.
“This material should be provided to consumers at the point of sale to help them decide to use natives or nonnatives in their plantings.”
By encouraging New Jerseyans to more thoughtfully preserve, propagate, and utilize its native species, the law is intended to support the state environment as well as its economy for years to come.
But before they come to the point of purchase, helping residents understand why native plant species are so important—including which species they are, and how to cultivate them—remains an ongoing challenge.
‘A chance to help people make better choices’
Conservationist Keara Giannotti, a Collingswood resident who runs Camp Creek Run in Marlton, laments what she described as a fading collective awareness of environmental knowledge, which she believes prior generations commanded more readily.
“The dilemma is that people have lost their cultural awareness of basic things,” Giannotti said.
“We don’t have a certain level of nature knowledge that people should just have,” she said.
“There are things in our local environment that should be part of our conscience, and they’re not.”
Giannotti believes that “nature needs a really good PR person” to bridge that information gap among those lacking outdoorsmanship skill, and to capture their interest in a productive way.
Beyond simply educating people about the wildlife with which they share their community, she argues that general knowledge about the natural world is important for its protection, specifically amid the influx of invasive species that threaten to crowd out New Jersey natives.
One of the primary contributing factors to the spread of invasive species is a phenomenon known as habitat fragmentation, which occurs when man-made or other processes disrupt or divide the ecosystem in which plants and animals make their homes. These can create edge habitats, where generalist, invasive species flourish, and native specialists may not.
When invasive species, which typically lack natural predators in the system to which they’re introduced, can then out-compete native ones, the result is a lack of biodiversity and a loss of local wildlife. At Camp Creek Run, Giannotti said it’s constant work to clean up invasive species at the edges of its 50-acre wildnerness preserve.
“What practically every invasive species in our neck of the woods does is come up really fast in the spring before other plants have a chance, and turns into a ground cover, and starts flowering and shading out all this other native flora,” Giannotti said.
“We have to be careful about which plants we’re planting and in which habitats.”
New Jersey is an incredibly biodiverse state, with varied ecosystems from the pine barrens and cedar bogs all the way to the mountains and ocean shorelines.
Some species only exist in specific regions of the state that create the conditions favorable to their survival.
Timber rattlesnakes, for example, live in both the mountainous northern regions of the state and its southeastern pinelands.
They are endangered animals whose survival is threatened largely by human behavior.
Even beyond capturing them for resale or killing them out of fear, Conserve Wildlife Foundation of New Jersey notes that humans disrupt their habitats with redevelopment projects that can cause the snakes to abandon areas where they once gathered and previously flourished.
Although plenty of people may not mourn the loss of a venomous wild animal, the rattlesnake has a role to play in its ecosystem. In addition to controlling the population of small mammals that frequently hole up in human homes, research has shown that rattlesnakes can help spread seeds that those rodents consume, and which survive the snake’s digestive process.
It’s a microcosmic example of the complicated interactions among even the smallest living things in nature, and an illustration of the “ecosystem services” that humans receive from a healthy, functioning natural environment.
Giannotti described the decline in European honeybees, which help pollinate crops through their instinctive behavior, as an example of an ecosystem servicer that is threatened by the spread of habitat destruction. Alternative solutions to remedy their collapse are costly; moreover, native, smaller New Jersey bees that perform the same task of wildflower pollination are frequently harmed by the indiscriminate use of pesticides.
“There’s some plants that, without bees, we’d have to hand-pollinate, and that’s very expensive,” she said. “There are a lot of native, smaller bees, that live individually, in holes in the sand. They’re never going to sting anybody because they’re not defending a whole hive. There’s so many species of them, and those are doing all the work of pollinating our native plants.”
By doing the work “to raise everyone’s level of environmental literacy,” Giannotti hopes public education like the native plants law will help curb harmful, incurious human behavior, and provide economic incentive to support local natural habitat conservation. Starting at the neighborhood garden center as people begin to consider their spring planting is as good a place as any, she said.
“Beauty is important; that’s how people connect to nature, that’s why people are buying [plants],” Giannotti said. “But there are things we can buy that are just as beautiful, and they’re native. Butterfly bush has been cultivated so it grows different-colored flowers, but we have Joe Pye weed, which attracts just as many butterflies, and is native.
“Protecting native plants has a ripple effect in the whole ecosystem,” she said. “It’s a chance to help people make better choices.”
‘Start making relationships with the plants in your life’
Arborist Sherrilyn Billger is a Ph.D.-level economist who operates Eating for the Ecosystem, a landscaping and horticulture business that works to help people more closely connect with their natural and cultivated environments.
Billger believes that by fostering a more intentional relationship with local plant and animal life, the broader ecosystem can be strengthened for all its inhabitants through positive human interactions.
“We know there are so many benefits to having greenspace, and by just having a little more care with the plants we use, it’s good for our physical and mental well-being,” she said.
“If we include native plants with that, we’re just doing right by the world.
“The point is to really bring together research, education, and practice in plant healthcare,” Billger said; “too often, they operate separately. We don’t have a lot of hands-on educational experiences for professionals who are doing plant healthcare work.
“The research that’s happening takes a long time to get into practice in homeowners,” she said,” and there’s so much information to sift through, it’s hard to know what is going to be safe for the environment and how this actually works.”
Billger foresees challenges in not only educating New Jersey residents about the native species in their environments, but also in guiding what they do with the information. Despite passing the native plants bill into law in January, the state Department of Agriculture hasn’t yet determined much of the scope of its effect, including which species and habitats it will define as native, and which among those are suitable for cultivation and trade.
“There are some things that complicate trying to get more people to use native plants; one is that there isn’t a standard definition of what native is,” Billger said. “There are a lot of ornamental plants that we use in this area that are cultivars of something [because] the straight species isn’t available, and some people would argue that the cultivars aren’t doing everything that the straight species is doing.
“It just depends on how they are defining the plants that will be able to get this labeling if they really are doing the good things for the ecosystem and environment that they are supposed to be,” she said.
Billger also noted that although there’s been increased demand for native plants from both retail and wholesale gardening centers, natives are in short supply.
She’s hopeful that the new law will encourage growers to include more native plants in their inventory, not least of all to discourage what she described as a “pretty
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A window is a (usually) rectangular portion of the display on a computer monitor that presents its contents (e.g., the contents of a directory, a text file or an image) seemingly independently of the rest of the screen. Windows are one of the elements that comprise a graphical user interface (GUI).
A GUI is a type of human-computer interface (i.e., a system for people to interact with a computer) that uses windows, icons, pull-down menus and a pointer and that can be manipulated by a mouse (and usually to some extent by a keyboard as well). An icon is a small picture or symbol that represents a program (or command), file, directory (also called a folder) or device (such as a hard disk or floppy disk).
The GUI represents a major advance over the command line interface (CLI) of the console, which displays only text (i.e., no images) and is accessed solely by a keyboard. It has made computers much easier to learn and work with, and it has also led to the development of major new applications for them, including desktop publishing and CAD (computer-aided design).
The words window and windows are generic terms and should not be confused with Microsoft Windows (although they sometimes are). The latter is the trade name that Microsoft selected for its series of operating systems that employ a GUI. (The originally intended name was Interface Manager, but Microsoft's marketing expert Rowland Hanson convinced co-founder Bill Gates that Microsoft Windows was preferable).
Flexibility of Windows
A major feature of windows is the ability to be manipulated easily and intuitively (i.e., with little or no instruction) even by inexperienced users. The ways in which they can be manipulated usually include (1) opening (such as by clicking on an icon and starting an application program) and closing, (2) moving to any area of the screen by dragging (i.e., moving by placing the pointer over the window and moving the mouse with a button held down), (3) repositioning so that they appear to be behind or in front of other windows or objects on the screen, (4) adjusting size (i.e., horizontal and/or vertical dimensions) and (5) scrolling to any section of the window contents (by using scroll bars along the bottom and right edges, the mouse wheel or keyboard commands).
The size of most windows can be adjusted over a wide range including full screen, a fraction of the screen and more than the full screen. In the latter case, the desired section of the window can be viewed by moving the window to expose it. Windows can also be minimized, which results in their being replaced by an icon and/or their name, usually in a strip along the bottom of the screen, without actually closing the underlying application program.
This flexibility is made possible by the various parts which can constitute a window. They include frames, vertical and horizontal scrollbars, drag strips (usually along the top for dragging the entire window and along the other edges and lower corners for changing window size), buttons (for closing, maximizing and minimizing) and tabs (for moving among pages in a window).
Another major feature of windows is the ability for multiple windows to be open simultaneously. This is particularly valuable in a multitasking environment, i.e., an operating system in which multiple programs can run seemingly simultaneously and without interfering with each other. Each window can display a different application, or it can display different files that have been opened or created with a single application (e.g., text, image or spreadsheet files).
Moreover, there is a great deal of flexibility with regard to how multiple open windows can be arranged with respect to each other. They can be arranged so that they are contiguous and do not overlap (tiled windows) or so they do overlap (overlaid windows). Overlaid windows resemble a stack of documents lying on top of one another (part of the desktop metaphor that characterizes most GUIs at present), and only the upper-most window is displayed in full. Any window can be moved to the top of the stack and made the active window (i.e., ready for receiving user input) by positioning the pointer in any portion of it that is visible and clicking a mouse button.
When most GUI programs are launched, they open in a single window. There are a number of exceptions, among them The GIMP (an open source image manipulation program comparable to Adobe PhotoShop), which opens in multiple windows, each for a different set of tools or options.
The main limitations on the numbers of windows that can be open simultaneously are system memory and user convenience. Rarely do users find it advantageous to keep open as many windows as the system memory will allow.
There are various type of windows, and their functions and appearances can vary substantially. For example, a browser is a specialized type of window that has additional functionality, including the ability for the user to move forward or backward through a sequence of documents (i.e., web pages). The more advanced browsers (e.g., Mozilla and Opera) have also incorporated the tabbed concept that had earlier been developed for windows for other applications.
Other types of windows have reduced functionality. For example, terminal windows emulate a console and thus contain only text. They offer all of the advantages of the console to users of a CLI together with some of the advantages of conventional windows, including the ability to be used while the GUI is in operation and the ability for multiple terminal windows to be open simultaneously.
Child windows are windows that are opened either automatically or as a result of some user activity when using a parent window. They can range in functionality from the very simple to the full complement of controls. Some annoying pop-up windows that appear when visiting some websites purposely lack buttons for closing them.
Message windows, also referred to as dialog boxes or pop-up messages are a type of child window. A dialog box is usually a small and very basic window that is opened by a program or by the operating system to provide information to the user and/or obtain information (or at least a response) from the user, including setting options or issuing commands. They usually lack most of the functionality of the more general types of windows (e.g., the ability to scroll) and in some cases have buttons that must be pushed before other computer functions or programs can be resumed.
Difference Between a Window and an Icon
As icons have attained photograph-like resolution and the ability to display a miniature image of the contents of the files they represent (e.g., a picture in the case of a graphic file or the first few words of text in the case of a text file), the question arises as to whether they should be considered to be miniature windows.
There is still a major difference. Although icons generally can be moved by dragging as can windows, they lack most of the functions and components of windows. An icon is analogous to a button: clicking it starts a program or function, which usually opens a window. The simplest possible window, i.e., a dialog box, can contain buttons but, unlike an icon, the window itself is not a button. A window could, at least theoretically, be minimized to the size of an icon, but it is still not an icon because it is not a clickable single button.
It is possible, however, that windows and icons could become more closely integrated in the future. For example, icons could be redesigned so that they could be resized to the size and functionality of a window by dragging them, and windows could be redesigned so that they could be dragged down to the size of an icon.
Origin of Windows
Windows were originally developed by Douglas Engelbart at Stanford Research Institute (SRI) as part of his invention of the computer mouse. He produced his first prototype mouse in 1964 for use with a GUI which contained a window. The first public presentation of windows was a 90 minute demonstration in 1968 of a networked computer system that was held at Engelbart's Augmentation Research Center in SRI, which included a mouse, hypermedia (i.e., hyperlinked text, images and sound) and video conferencing.
In 1970 Engelbart received a patent for a mouse made from a wooden shell with two metal wheels, which he described in the patent application as an "X-Y position indicator for a display system." However, his version of a window was not considered patentable because software patents were not being issued.
Further work was carried out on windows at Xerox Palo Alto Research Center (PARC), which was established in 1970 by Xerox Corporation in Silicon Valley near SRI. Among PARC's many breakthroughs were the GUI and the first desktop computer, the Alto, which was also the first computer to use a GUI (including primitive windows).
The first commercial use of windows was on the Macintosh personal computer, which was introduced in 1984. This came about as a result of a now famous 1979 visit by Steve Jobs, Apple's co-founder, to PARC where he was highly impressed by the numerous (about 150) Altos in use there. In addition to overlapping windows, the Macintosh's GUI also featured icons, pull-down menus and a mouse.
Microsoft announced that it was developing a GUI personal computer in November, 1983. The initial version, dubbed Microsoft Windows 1.0 and released in November 1985, made use of windows, although they were not overlapping and there were no icons. The much-improved Windows 2.0, which was released two years later, incorporated icons and had windows that could overlap. Today windows are used by most computer operating systems, not just the Macintosh and Microsoft Windows.
Another GUI system, the X Window System, was developed in the early 1980s at MIT as Project Athena. Its original purpose was to allow users of the newly emerging graphic terminals to access remote graphics workstations without regard to the workstation's operating system or hardware. Due to its excellent performance and open source nature, the X Window System has become the standard windowing system for virtually
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[
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REAL AMERICAN HEROES
The Story of George F. Johnson
BY CHRIS TEMPLE
(We live in an age today when sports figures, Hollywood stars--and even assorted degenerates in the "entertainment" industry--are held up to America as heroes and role models. In this series, we choose instead to honor truly Great Americans--many of them long since forgotten--who in my view are Real American Heroes.)
The Endicott-Johnson Shoe Company, headquartered in the Southern Tier of Upstate New York, was for decades the largest shoe manufacturer in America. Almost single-handedly, in fact, this former industrial giant equipped the U.S. armed forces in both World War I and World War 2. Its workers were well paid and well cared for even in the Great Depression. In fact, the thousands of workers employed by "E-J" were so well-treated--and the companys owner and patriarch, George F. Johnson, was so well-loved by all--that company employees repeatedly rebuffed outside attempts to unionize them, even in the tough 1930's.
For over half a century, until George F. Johnsons dream and his company were tragically destroyed by the crime of "free trade" and internationalism, the Endicott-Johnson Corporation (E-J) served as the model in how a major company should treat its workers: as equals of its owners, yet prosperous at the same time.
Today, empty E-J factories are scattered across a rolling area stretching roughly from Binghamton and Johnson City on the east, to Owego in the west. The facilities that once employed an entire sprawling community are mere ghosts.
But for a time in this part of America, one man created an economic juggernaut that provided an opportunity for three generations to live the American Dream.
JOHNSON COMES TO NEW YORK
George F. Johnson, having already worked for some 10 years in shoe and boot-making factories in his home state of Massachusetts, came to the Susquehanna Valley of New York in 1881. At the age of 24, Johnson became a boss of a treeing room in the old Lester Brothers shoe factory in Binghamton. Though the company fell on hard times due to previous mismanagement and its aging ownership, young Johnson stood out not only as a talent at what he did, but as a visionary who wanted to build the ideal company.
The hard times of the 1890's caused Lester Brothers to borrow heavily from a man named Henry B. Endicott of Boston, an industrialist and investor. Endicott saw the need to come to Binghamton personally to more closely supervise his investment.
He immediately saw in the younger Johnson an energetic, honest, forward- looking man who would one day not only put the company back on its feet, but make it prosperous. Johnson eventually worked--and then purchased--his way to being a co-owner of what became Endicott-Johnson Shoe Company. Such was Johnsons success in building perhaps the greatest, and certainly the most noble, company in American history, that Endicott even financed Johnsons entire purchase himself.
Years later, in recounting this time and his vision to author William Inglis for his 1935 book, George F. Johnson And His Industrial Democracy, Johnson said: "From the time I was 20 years old--yes, from the time I was 18--my picture of a real factory was the shop out in the open country, with the homes around it in a little village. Then the men and their families could have gardens, could get fresh air and the sun, and bring up their children decently, away from the crowded city."
|A monument to George F. Johnson overlooks the fields of Binghamton's Recreation Park. Two of Johnson's trademark principles are inscribed on each side: "Have Faith in the People," and "Labor is Honorable." The center carries the inscription, "GEORGE F. JOHNSON---Erected by an Appreciative Community to the Nobility of his Character and his Great Benefactions to the People---1923.||Your Home Library--located on Main Street in Johnson City, NY--is one of many built for the community by George F. Johnson. The first floor contains a small museum for the Endicott-Johnson Company.|
Over the years, Johnson built his dream into a reality--but not without the help, labor and undying gratitude and loyalty of tens of thousands of workers. He thought of and treated his laborers as his friends--and his equals. Johnson abhorred the practice of treating labor as merely a commodity. He himself owned a modest home among those of his workers, many of which were built by the corporation and sold to them quite often at a loss to the company.
Johnson, and later his son and nephew who worked their way up to management positions, socialized as equals with the workers. In fact, it is a proud part of this writers own family history that a favorite rendezvous place of "George F." as he was known, and of many of the E-J workers during Prohibition, was the basement still of my Great-Uncle "Mickey." His sister--my paternal grandmother--also worked as a nurse in one of the area hospitals built by George F. Johnson. Long before Hillary Rodham Clinton was a gleam in her fathers eye, in fact, Johnson gave free health care to his grateful employees and their families.
Johnson built a virtual paradise for those in the Southern Tier of New York. Workers also came from outlying areas, even northern Pennsylvania, to be part of an "Industrial Democracy" unmatched in American history. Over an area of six hundred square miles grew a system of comfortable homes, factories, hospitals, libraries, playgrounds, parks, golf courses, concert halls, and more.
This system was the realized vision of a man unique in industrial history; a man who donated unknown millions of his own dollars to make life happy for his workers. In 1919, E-J became one of the first companies in America to create a profit-sharing plan for its employees. One of the many items donated by Johnson was a tract of land on the west side of Binghamton which became "Recreation Park," complete with a carousel, tennis courts, pool, bath house and more. This writer spent almost every summer day at this park.
|Unlike the row houses built by companies in other factory towns, the Endicott-Johnson Company built for its employees beautiful homes fit for a family, usually complete with yards and garden plots. E-J workers were able to buy these homes from the company.||Two "Workers' Arches" stand as living testimony to a time when labor and captial lived in harmony and prospered. One reads, "Home of the Squard Deal," a tribute to George F. Johnson's desire to give a square deal to his employees, who saved pennies and nickels from their pay to build these and other area monuments to Johnson.|
A FAIR PARTNERSHIP WITH LABOR
While the mid-1930's saw labor unrest explode throughout America, E-J prospered because Johnson realized an important principle: shareholders of his corporation would not receive a dime in dividends without the labor of workers. Johnson constantly preached publicly, and in many of his regular letters and postings to the employees, his undying belief that stockholders benefited more by treating laborers fairly than by trying to simply squeeze as much profit as the workers would tolerate without a mutiny.
"My mind goes back to the time when labor was a commodity," Johnson wrote to his workers on February 22, 1937, "and capital bought it in the lowest market, as if it were hides, leather or raw cotton. It was not what labor was honestly worth. It was what labor could be purchased for.
"We would say in contradiction to [Henry] Fords statement: quoting Labor should never join a labor organization-(that) labor should join an organization that has for its objective the improvement of conditions for labor when and if capital grows too greedy and makes it impossible for labor to get their fair share of what really belongs to them--the common results of harmonious relations between labor and capital.
"We feel we are justified," Johnson continued, "in saying that Endicott-Johnson has established a true union--a union of interests. . .We like our union the best; feeling that both interests, stockholders and workers, best protect themselves by the E-J methods... What we want is a square deal all around. Having received it, we should be glad and happy to return it."
E-J workers knew that if any among them fell on hard times, was disabled, had a medical crisis or other calamity befall them, they would draw a check or have their needs met. In addition, they received wages 30 percent higher than what was available in other shoe factories, and received annual profit-sharing distributions which, in many of the better years, amounted to 50 percent of each workers annual pay.
Unfortunately for stockholders and workers, the government wasnt included in this union. Eventually, the government--prodded by big corporations--made it advantageous for large shoe makers to move their manufacturing base out of this country to foreign sites where labor is cheap and government-mandated health and safety requirements are non-existent. This brand of "free trade" has since resulted not only in the death of the Endicott-Johnson Company, but of other once-great American companies whose loyalty to their workers is deemed by "the market" today as archaic.
At its zenith, The Endicott-Johnson Company was the largest manufacturer of footwear in the United States, employing 24,000 workers, and selling its products through retail outlets in 30 states. 175,0
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]
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[
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2,048
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The tight barrier between brain and blood vessels guards the brain from harm, but it also frustrates scientists trying to deliver therapeutic molecules to the central nervous system (CNS). In the May 25 Science Translational Medicine, researchers at Genentech, South San Francisco, California, part of the Roche Group of pharmaceutical companies, describe a new way to hijack the brain’s own transport system to ferry antibodies across this barricade. Led by Ryan Watts and Mark Dennis, the team made use of transferrin receptors, which import iron-containing molecules by way of endocytosis, and are expressed in the cells of the blood-brain barrier. Antibodies to this receptor can get across the barrier but usually travel no further, ending up stuck in the vasculature. The Genentech team found that by lowering the antibodies’ affinity for the transferrin receptor, the antibodies were more readily released into the brain.
The researchers wanted to test the potential of this method to deliver treatments for CNS disorders such as Alzheimer’s disease. In a companion paper, the scientists detail the development of an antibody against BACE1, the β-secretase that begins the process of cleaving APP into Aβ. They then engineered a “bispecific” antibody, which has one arm that recognizes the low-affinity transferrin receptor epitope, and the other binding the BACE1 epitope. In wild-type mice, the bispecific antibody penetrated the brain more easily than did mono-specific anti-BACE1, reaching up to 10-fold higher concentrations and dramatically lowering endogenous Aβ40 levels. The results suggest that this strategy can work to deliver active therapeutic antibodies across the blood-brain barrier, and might be broadly applicable to numerous CNS disorders. This is important because antibodies currently in trials for Alzheimer’s disease tend to enter the brain poorly, necessitating fairly high doses.
The method has generated excitement among those in the field. “It is a brilliant approach,” said Robert Vassar at Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois. He noted that more work needs to be done before this technique would be ready for clinical trials. Michael Agadjanyan at the Institute for Molecular Medicine, Huntington Beach, California, agreed: “If the method proves to be safe, this will be a beautiful technique for getting antibodies into the brain.”
BACE1’s key role in AD pathology has made it an enticing target for pharmaceutical companies, but the secretase has also been elusive. Many companies are developing small-molecule BACE1 inhibitors, although after a decade of research, none has yet emerged as a viable therapy (see, e.g., ARF related news story). One problem with such inhibitors is that they can block the action of the related proteases BACE2 and cathepsin D, leading to side effects, Watts said. To get around this, Watts and colleagues chose instead to target BACE1 with an antibody, which can be more selective than small molecules and also lasts longer in the body. Their first paper describes the development of this mono-specific antibody. First author Jasvinder Atwal characterized a library of human synthetic antibodies for their ability to recognize and inhibit human BACE1. The screen turned up an anti-BACE1 that selectively blocked this enzyme but had no effect on BACE2 or cathepsin D. Crystallographic analysis revealed that this was because the antibody does not bind the enzyme’s active site. Instead, it latches on at a region of low homology, namely loops C, D, and F of BACE1, causing slight shape changes in the enzyme that seem to affect the behavior of the active site. Other scientists in academia and industry are on the same trail. In the March 11 Journal of Biological Chemistry, researchers led by Bart De Strooper at VIB, Leuven, Belgium, with coauthors at Lilly and Johnson and Johnson, describe an anti-BACE1 antibody, mAb 1A11, with a very similar mode of action. Their antibody also binds loops D and F, and blocks BACE1 activity both in vitro and in vivo. Lacking the anti-transferrin mechanism, De Strooper’s group stereotactically injected mAb 1A11 into the hippocampus of APP-transgenic mice, where it decreased Aβ production.
One concern about BACE1 antibodies as therapeutics is whether they can get into endosomes, where the enzyme normally processes APP. Atwal and colleagues showed in cell culture that their mono-specific anti-BACE1 gets internalized into these intracellular compartments, perhaps through binding to BACE1 on the cell surface. In neuronal cultures, the antibody lowered levels of soluble Aβ40 by up to 70 percent. Moving to in vivo tests, Atwal and colleagues first examined BACE1 knockout mice. Complete absence of the enzyme lowers plasma Aβ40 levels by about half, and brain Aβ40 by around 80 percent. Having established these maximal reductions, the authors then gave varying doses of intravenous mono-specific anti-BACE1 to wild-type mice. At 3 mg/kg, the antibody lowered plasma Aβ40 to near-maximal levels, but had no effect on brain Aβ. The authors attributed this to the fact that only about 0.1 percent of antibodies are estimated to cross the blood-brain barrier. When Atwal and colleagues administered multiple injections of 100 mg/kg anti-BACE1, they got brain antibody concentrations of around 20 nM, and saw about 40 percent reduction in brain Aβ40. Such high doses would be impractical for human therapy. Aβ42 levels were not detectible in wild-type mice with current assays, Watts told ARF. Injections in wild-type monkeys produced similar results to those in mice.
The researchers wanted to examine the antibody’s effect in an AD model mouse in order to see if treatment can reduce oligomers and plaque deposition and improve cognition. When they gave mono-specific anti-BACE1 to Tg2576 mice, which carry human APP with the Swedish mutation, however, they saw minimal effects on brain Aβ even at high doses. Swedish mutation APP is processed primarily in the secretory pathway, not in endosomes (see Haass et al., 1995; Yamakawa et al., 2010), placing the reaction out of reach for antibodies. The Genentech team is searching for a more suitable AD mouse model, Watts said. He added that, because most people with AD have wild-type APP, this antibody limitation should not affect therapy of the large majority of AD cases.
In the second paper, the researchers set out to solve the problem of poor brain penetrance by antibodies. They knew that antibodies against the transferrin receptor get taken up by brain, but remain stuck in the vasculature. Dennis, an antibody expert, hypothesized that lower-affinity antibodies would be better able to let go of the receptor and get released into the brain. Co-first author Yin Zhang mutated the binding site to develop several anti-transferrin receptor antibodies with varying affinities. When they administered these molecules to wild-type mice at the trace dosing levels normally used in such experiments, the low-affinity antibodies had trouble binding the receptor, and entered the brain more poorly than high-affinity antibodies. Clinicians routinely administer much higher antibody doses, however. At these therapeutic dosing levels, the transferrin receptor becomes saturated. Under these conditions, even low-affinity antibodies easily dock at the receptor and get ferried across the blood-brain barrier, where they disembark more easily than high-affinity antibodies. Indeed, under therapeutic dosing conditions, lead first author Y. Joy Yu found that the lowest-affinity antibodies entered the brain the best, reaching fivefold higher concentrations than their high-affinity cousins. Staining revealed that low-affinity antibodies spread out through brain tissue instead of remaining tethered to blood vessels.
To test whether this strategy could be used to deliver a therapeutic antibody, the authors built an antibody with two different arms, one containing the anti-BACE1 epitope and the other the low-affinity anti-transferrin receptor epitope. This bispecific antibody penetrated the brain at five- to 10-fold the concentration of mono-specific anti-BACE1. A single dose of 25 mg/kg resulted in brain concentrations around 25 nM, which Watts noted is in the therapeutic range. The bispecific antibody also produced correspondingly better reductions in Aβ40 than anti-BACE1 did. At 50 mg/kg, the dual antibody lowered Aβ40 levels by about half. This may be close to the maximum reduction achievable with antibody treatment, since some Aβ is produced in the secretory pathway and is not accessible to antibodies, Watts told ARF. In comparison, a new antibody trial just gearing up is examining doses from 0.1 to 15 mg/kg (see ARF related conference story).
Many steps remain before this anti-BACE1 approach could enter clinical trials. Vassar noted that the authors will need to look at the effect of chronic antibody dosing, as well as perform various safety studies. BACE1 knockout mice have several subtle defects, suggesting that inhibiting this enzyme too strongly could have side effects. For example, BACE1 cuts neuregulin, a transmembrane protein believed to play a role at synapses and as a myelin regulator (see ARF conference story). In the May 16 Journal of Biological Chemistry, researchers led by Riqiang Yan at the Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic Foundation, Ohio, report that inhibiting BACE1 in vitro disrupts myelination. It is also possible that targeting the transferrin receptor could have adverse effects on iron homeostasis, although the authors point out that their low-affinity antibodies do not compete with the binding of transferrin to its receptor. These safety studies are on his agenda
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. Neil Young Ways in which visual images of artists c.1400-1900 reflect artistic aspirations regarding status? The conventional portrayal of the artist as creative and solitary genius as exemplified in the aura that surrounds artists like Van Gogh today is, as Barker, Webb and Woods note in the Historical Introduction (Book 2, pp.723), indeed a 'myth' that has taken hold of the general consciousness. But it is to some extent a myth based on historical reality (Ibid. p.9). As art history evolves over time it is evident that, in a similar manner, the identity of the artists also evolves. In this essay I will be looking at a selection of images c.1400 - c.1900 that provide primary evidence of how a variety of identities are represented, or aspired to, that together culminate into the general construction of this myth. In my analysis of these images I shall consider only qualities, or values, that relate directly to the question of artistic status, and concentrate largely on examples by Dürer. Towards the end of the nineteenth century we can see in a painting by Courbet, entitled The Painter's Studio (1855) (Beckett, p. 530), a reference to the myth of the artist as an isolated but exemplary member of society. Courbet's realism depicts the artist himself in his studio painting a realistic landscape surrounded by, as he claims, 'all the people who served my cause' (Ibid.). In
Martin Jay contrasts Renaissance and Baroque approaches to visuality in his article 'Scopic regimes of modernity'. Identify the central characteristics of both systems, and discuss how they apply to 2 or 3 prescribed paintings.
VSA1000: Introduction to Visual Culture First Essay Martin Jay contrasts Renaissance and Baroque approaches to visuality in his article 'Scopic regimes of modernity'. Identify the central characteristics of both systems, and discuss how they apply to 2 or 3 prescribed paintings. Tutor: John Gregory Time: Monday 4pm Centuries of studying visuality has given birth to several methods of visual analysis. These "scopic regimes" as defined by Jay are quite simply systems for organizing vision. This essay will focus on the two main systems discussed by Jay: Renaissance and Baroque. Both systems arose during similar time frames, and consequently contain some similarities. Yet, each approach is clearly different. Renaissance's central themes of order, reason and Cartesian space are clearly in contrast to the themes of the Baroque system, which is far more spectacular and sensational. Images from each regime will be used to illustrate the differences between Renaissance and Baroque. The Renaissance period lasting between the 14th and 16th centuries was a stark cultural shift from the preceding Middle Ages. Born out of European culture - notably Italian - "Renaissance" means "rebirth", which suggests how radical this period was for its time (Web Museum, 2004). The Renaissance denoted the rise of individual and social values, and strong growth in scientific exploration (Web
How we consume signs, compare the Coca-Colas advertisements and graphic design of two countries; one is UK, the other is Taiwan
AA2621 Contextual and Critical Studies: Mini Programme 3 Consuming Signs Tutor: Lesley Scott / Andrea Peach Yeuk-kei Chan (Gillian) 0407009 Design for Digital Media Stage 2 20 July 2005 How we 'consume signs', compare the Coca-Cola's advertisements and graphic design of two countries; one is UK, the other is Taiwan. How we 'consume signs', compare the Coca-Cola's advertisements and graphic design of two countries; one is UK, the other is Taiwan. In this essay I will compare how the Coca-Cola Company produces the same goods using different graphic design in two separate countries. These two countries "UK" and "Taiwan" have companies that make the same popular beverages. The reason I choose these two countries is that Taiwan is where I grew up, and the UK is where I currently study. I found their graphic design styles have wealth variety. In the book "Media Semiotics an Introduction" Jonathan Bignell said: "The signs in ads very rarely just denote something. The signs in ads also have connotations, meanings which come from our culture, some if which we can easily recognise consciously, and others which are unconsciously recognised and only become clear once we look for them."1 Bignell points out an important idea in that strongly attractive advertisements or signs may make customers interested in looking at products even if they are from a different culture. This
To begin with, the first thing we can observe from the photo advertisement shown above is the linguistic message included in the ad. The word “Lancôme”, depicted at the top of the image, is the name of one of the world’s leading beauty company, located in Paris, France. The location of this beauty brand can also be understood due to the mentioned word “Paris”, which can be seen right under the organization name, on the top of the advert. Moreover, the name of the new Lancôme perfume fragrance “Idôle” is written in large and well prominent letters, right in the middle of the photo advertisement. “Idôle” is a confidence, courage, and steadfastness, which are on the verge of sensuality, daydreaming, and femininity. The tagline “I can, we will” can be seen right under the perfume’s name. Idôle is a perfume for a generation that dreams of the unattainable. This is a fragrance for strong and outspoken women, who will become the leaders of tomorrow. As per denoted message in this ad, we can see a breathtaking woman, an American actress, singer, and model Zendaya Maree Stoermer Coleman. Sitting on the white horse, Zendaya wears a peach-colored dress which is blowing in the wind. The color of her gown is perfectly matching the luxury aesthetic of the image itself, as well as the golden rose palette of the Idôle bottle, which can be found on the right side
The way in which the human form is depicted in different cultures can vary greatly on which values that culture holds in highest esteem, whether it be the importance of fertility, authority or family.
Art is a means of communicating human experiences and cultural values. Different cultures portray the human body in different ways which is meaningful and evocative to that particular culture. The way in which the human form is depicted in different cultures can vary greatly on which values that culture holds in highest esteem, whether it be the importance of fertility, authority or family. In Japan, there is one popular archetype we see presented time and time again, that of the divine boy. Whilst it is important to note that depictions of the divine child are seen across the world, most notably perhaps the depictions of Christ as a child, Japan is one culture that we see hold this archetype above many others in importance. This highly spiritual culture is heavily influenced by its dominant religions, Buddhism and Shinto, and this spirituality has affected its representations in art heavily. In order to analyse why the archetype of the divine boy is so influential on Japanese art we first must look at some of the most popular examples. Images of Chigo Daishi, a Japanese cultural hero who was in his later years a high priest, as a boy are incredibly popular. (Guth. 1987. p2 ) In one of the most well known depictions Kobo Daishi (Kukai) as a Boy (Chigo Daishi) (fig.1) the child is depicted as youthful and innocent, his hands held together in prayer. This pose shows his
One of my favorite earliest filmmakers would have to be Georges Melies. The first time I saw A Trip to the Moon I was completely awe-struck. The way Melies, within that film, practically created the genre of science-fiction is utterly brilliant. Arguably considered the father of science-fiction, Melies forever changed the cinema timeline with his own innovations. Originally a magician, Melies used technologies within film to enhance his career not as a filmmaker, but as a magician. Working at the Theatre Robert-Houdin as a magician, it was after observing the Lumieres' camera that prompted his interest in film. It was then in 1897 that Melies decided to open his own studio. He then went to direct films where the actors would stand in front of painted sets that he created and were inspired by his love for magic. The story of Melies' learned love for special effects is indeed one to be told. While he was shooting one of his many films in a city street one day, the camera jammed. While the camera was originally rolling, a carriage was passing through the frame. But only after the camera had jammed and then been repaired, as soon as the camera started rolling again, a hearse was now in the exact same place as the carriage had been placed previously. This gave the effect that the carriage was instantly changed into a hearse, and thus, special effects were born.
De Mesa Bettina De Mesa (Page 1) Holmes Art History 100 6 November 2012 Coronation of the Virgin Altarpiece Preceding the illustrious masters of the Renaissance, Guariento di Arpo demonstrated his adroitness as a painter by forming a grandiose version of the Coronation of the Virgin. Chronicling the experimental era of art in the 1300s, the altarpiece’s 86 by 104-3/8 inch stature certainly awed the religious figures who commissioned this ornament for their church. Created in an era where most citizens were illiterate, the altarpiece probably served as a visual narrative for the church attendees who were deprived of the knowledge needed to read. Painted on numerous panels, this poly
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]
] |
[
2048
] |
2,048
| 2.571391
|
According to Vagbhat, "Prana vaha srotas chief organs are hridaya (the heart) and mahasrotas (alimentary tract), it gets vitiated by dryness and depletion, suppression of thirst, hunger and other urges. Respiration being increased, decreased, difficult or interrupted, accompanied by pain or sound, are the chief signs of vitiation" (1). Nowadays the respiratory tract is seen as synonymous with the marga or pathway of pranavahasrotas, its root being in the left side of the heart, which receives oxygenated blood from the lungs.
Conditions of prana vaha srotas may occur in either the upper or respiratory tract and may be either easily curable, curable with difficulty, chronic incurable (yapya) or fatal.
Easily curable conditions of prana vaha srotas
Easily curable conditions of prana vaha Srotas include the common cold, hay fever, pharyngitis and laryngitis as well as many forms of influenza. Essentially these conditions fall into the category of abhaisaja sadhya or curable without medicine, since they are typically self-limiting viral infections which resolve within a few days to three weeks to allergies which dissipate when the allergen is absent. However, it is advisable to treat these conditions for two reasons; firstly, to help them resolve more quickly since they cause discomfort and inconvenience and secondly, to prevent complications. Easily curable conditions of prana vaha srotas may invade into deeper dhatus, as when rhinosinusitis localizes into asthi dhatu to create sinusitis proper. They may also move from the upper to the lower respiratory tract to cause conditions such as bronchitis. And they may progress through the stages of samprapti all the way to bheda, to create a dangerous condition such as a lung abscess.
Easily curable conditions of prana vaha srotas can often be managed with the use of home remedies, localized treatments and simple Ayurvedic medicines. Provide your patients with a checklist of products they should have on hand and ways to use them.
(If you are pregnant, diabetic, have high blood pressure or are taking blood thinners, please consult your practitioner before using these remedies)
- Nasal Rinse Cup: use for colds, sinus infections and allergies
- Neem Soap: Use for hand washing especially during flu season
- Natural mineral salt:
- Use in tub to relieve coughs and colds
- Use in neti pot for sinus conditions and allergies
- Use with turmeric as gargle
- Use in steam for coughs
- Use with hot water and salt as gargle for sore throats
- Mix with honey and eat for allergies
- Use with ginger and tulsi as a tea for coughs, colds and flus
- Tulsi: Use with ginger and turmeric as tea for coughs, colds and flus
- Use with turmeric and tulsi as a tea for coughs, colds and flus
- Use with baking soda in tub to promote sweating and relieve aches
- Licorice: Use as tea for sore throat
- Sitopaladi: Use for coughs, colds and flus, half a teaspoon three times daily.
- Chyavanprash: Take to aid recovery after colds and flus; or as a preventative to support immunity
Conditions of Prana vaha srotas curable with difficulty
Many acute conditions of prana vaha srotas fall into the bhaisaja sadhya (curable with medicine) category. They can be cured completely but require the intervention of a practitioner to avoid serious complications or even the onset of life-threatening situations. One example is tonsillitis. Once the upper respiratory infection localizes in the tonsils, it may progress rapidly to the vyakti stage, with visibly enlarged and inflamed tonsils. The tonsils and tonsillar fauces (the passage from the mouth to the pharynx) may show either vesicles or yellow spots. Typically vesicles indicate a viral tonsillitis, which usually resolves harmlessly, whereas a high fever, thickly coated tongue and yellow dots may point to a streptococcal throat infection (colloquially known as strep throat). Strep throat may have serious complications at the bheda level ranging from abscessed tonsils to septicemia, organ failure and death. Long-term complications of untreated streptococcal infections may include rheumatic fever (ama vata), rheumatic heart disease and renal disease (glomerulo-nephritis). Use a surgical mask when examining the throat with a tongue depressor. Tonsillitis should be referred to the primary care physician for a throat swab to determine whether there is a streptococcal infection. If so, antibiotics will be prescribed and Ayurvedic herbal therapies can be resumed after completion of the course of antibiotics. Ayurvedic herbs that are active against streptococcus include turmeric (2), ginger (3), and tulsi (4), rendering "Trinity Tea" -turmeric, tulsi and ginger--a good combination for strep throat as well as for viral tonsillitis. For added effectiveness, neem can also be used (5). Mahasudarshan will help clear Ama from the system, as will triphala. After the langhana phase of clearing toxins, Chyavanprash can be used to rejuvenate prana vaha srotas.
Another condition of prana vaha srotas classified as difficult to treat is pneumonia. Suspect pneumonia if a patient comes to you complaining of cough, fever, fatigue, malaise and difficulty breathing. Take careful notes of the respiratory rate. If it is elevated above the normal rate of 15 breaths per minute (in adults), pneumonia may be suspected and a medical referral made. Atypical pneumonia or walking pneumonia may be more difficult to detect since its onset is insidious. I t should be suspected in a patient with malaise and a worsening non-productive cough. In general, pneumonia will initially be managed with Western medical treatments such as antibiotics and may possibly even require a hospital stay to manage respiratory distress. The work of the Ayurvedic practitioner will begin after the patient has been discharged and antibiotics have been discontinued.
To give an example: Patient A is a sixty one year old pitta-kapha woman (V1 P3 K3) with a previous history of smoking, who was admitted to hospital with pneumonia following an overseas vacation where she was exposed to a lot of second hand smoke. She spent 24 hours in intensive care for respiratory distress and three additional days in hospital. After discharge and cessation of antibiotics she sought out Ayurvedic support as she was still fatigued and coughing. She was given a formula that included punarnava as dosha pratyanika (against the dosha) for kapha, tulsi and pippali as vyadhi pratyanika (against the disease) for cough and cinnamon as an adjuvant for kindling prana vaha sroto-agni. She was placed on a kapha soothing and langhana regime but was encouraged to eat easily digestible soups, stews and kitcheris to soothe her provoked vata. After her cough resolved she was till feeling fatigued and drained and at this point was placed on a more rejuvenative regime for prana vaha srotas including twice daily Chyavanprash. As the weather was warming, her formula was changed to include shatavari as a strengthening and building herb as well as punarnava and licorice as lung strengtheners. She was also given an ojas drink which included raisins, well known as lung rejuvenatives.
Non-dairy Ojas drink
- 10 raw almonds
- 2 cups pure water
- 20 raisins
- 1 tsp ghee (rejuvenative)
- 1/32 tsp saffron (increases digestion and rejuvenative)
- 1/8 tsp ground cardamom (increases digestion)
- pinch of black pepper (helps control the Kapha)
- Soak almonds in 1 cup of water overnight, and soak raisins in 1 cup of water either overnight or for several hours
- In the morning, drain off the almond water and rub the skins off the almonds
- In a blender, add the raisins AND their soaking water with the drained and peeled almonds
- Add ghee, saffron, cardamom, black pepper
- Blend until smooth
Drink 3-4 times a week as directed.
Following this period of more intensive rejuvenation she took Lung Formula regularly for some months to continue to strengthen her lungs.
As we have seen, Ayurvedic therapies and home remedies are valuable in easily curable upper respiratory conditions to help speed recovery and return to normal life as well as to prevent complications. In conditions like tonsillitis and pneumonia that are curable with difficulty, Ayurvedic management can be used following the recommended Western medical treatments, to help ensure optimal recovery. Following a serious lung infection requiring hospitalization, some months of treatment may be required to help the patient feel like themselves again. Next month, we will consider chronic conditions of prana vaha srotas and will also consider how to notice and refer potentially fatal respiratory conditions.
1. KR Srikantha Murthy, tr, Asthanga hridayam vol 1 pg 403 Chowkhamba Krishnadas Academy, Varanasi 2004 edition. (Excerpt from Asthanga Sangraha quoted in translator's notes)
2. Nadia Gul ; Talat Y. Mujahid ; Nayyar Jehan ; Samia Ahmad Studies on the Antibacterial Effect of Different
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Name: Joseph McDowell 1
Reference Number: 1364
Birth: 26 FEB 1758 2
Death: 07 MAR 1795
ALIA: Pleasant Gardens
Joseph McDowell (1758-1795)
(for larger image, click on photograph)
Also known as Colonel Joseph McDowell of Pleasant Gardens to distinguish him from his second cousin and brother-in-law Joseph McDowell of Quaker Meadows. The two married sisters, Margaret and Mary Moffett (surname also seen as Moffitt).
McDowell County, North Carolina, named for him.
Colonel Joseph McDowell was a Revolutionary War hero who fought at the Battle of Kings Mountain. His house is the last standing home place in North Carolina for which a county was named. In addition to recruiting troops for the Battle at Kings Mountain, Colonel McDowell served in the 3rd U.S. Congress of 1793-95. He served as a North Carolina state legislator in the House of Commons from what was then Burke County, serving in 1787,1788, 1791 and 1792.
Col McDowell was the son of "Hunting John McDowell, who received a Royal Land Grant from Governor Tryon on December 22, 1767 for 640 acres on the Catawba River a portion of which is the building site for this home. The McDowell House was identified in the 1982 Comprehensive Management Plan for the Overmountain Victory National HistoricTrail as one of only 34 non-federal historical resources directly or indirectly related to the Trail. As such it is eligible for Official certification as a designed site associated with the 330-mile long resource. The Overmountain Victory National Historic Trail was authorized by Congreee in September of 1980 and commemorates the Campaign of 1780 that led to American Patriot victory at Kings Mountain, South Carolina.
Ephram McDowell came to America with two nephews, John and Joseph McDowell. John, known as "Hunting John," was the father of Joseph, of the Revolution, who married Mary Moffett. Hunting John McDowell settled at Pleasant Gardens, and his brother, Joseph, settled at Quaker Meadows, and was the father of General Charles McDowell, who was the brother of Colonel Joseph, of the Revolution, known as "Major Joe, of Pleasant Gardens." Colonel Joseph of Quaker Meadows was married to Margaret Moffett, a sister of Mary, who married Major Joe, of Pleasant Gardens.
Source: N.C. Genealogy-McDowell (Pack Memorial Library, Asheville, North Carolina).
"Such North Carolina soldiers as Major Joseph McDowell, General Griffith Rutherford, William Davie, and General William Lee Davidson along with their Patriots became both hated and feared by Cornwallis and his British. For months their small bands carried out numerous surprise attacks on English units, upsetting British plans and hampering British movements, often preventing British regiments from getting supplies and from foraging about the countryside. These soldiers of the 'back country' did much to put the fear of the Americans into the Tories in that region, and using methods learned from the Indians, they succeeded in being, if not an actual threat, at least a continuous nuisance to the advancing British forces."
Source: Western North Carolina: Its Mountains and Its People to 1880, Ora Blackmun (1977) at 115 and 119.
Joseph "Pleasant Gardens" McDowell (February 25, 1758 - March 7, 1799) was an American lawyer, soldier, and statesman from Morganton, North Carolina.
His estate was named "Pleasant Gardens", and he was nicknamed "Pleasant Gardens Joe" to distinguish him from his cousin, Joseph "Quaker Meadows" McDowell. The two men are not always clearly distinguished in historical records: both were at the 1780 Battle of Kings Mountain, one as a major leading the Burke County militia, and the other in a subordinate role as a captain. Although "Quaker Meadows" Joe is usually hailed as the Major McDowell who was the hero of the battle, some descendants of "Pleasant Gardens Joe" maintain that it was their ancestor who led the Burke County militia, a claim which, according to the Dictionary of American Biography, is contradicted by contemporary evidence.
According to the Biographical Directory of the United States Congress, "Pleasant Gardens" McDowell was later appointed a North Carolina militia general, and served in the 3rd United States Congress from 1793 to 1795. However, these accomplishments are sometimes credited to Joseph "Quaker Meadows" McDowell, although the Dictionary of American Biography notes that the Congressional directory may be correct.
McDowell died on March 7, 1799 on his estate in what was Burke County, North Carolina but is now part of McDowell County, North Carolina.
Source: Joseph (Pleasant Gardens) McDowellWikipedia Article.
McDowell, Joseph, (cousin of Joseph McDowell [1756-1801]), a Representative from North Carolina; born at ?Pleasant Gardens,? near Morganton, Burke (now McDowell) County, N.C., February 25, 1758; attended schools at Winchester, Va.; served in the Revolutionary Army and was commissioned a major; was subsequently general of militia; studied law; was admitted to the bar in 1791 and practiced in Burke, Rowan, and Rutherford Counties, N.C.; member of the state house of commons 1785-1792; elected as an Anti-Administration candidate to the Third Congress (March 4, 1793-March 3, 1795); renominated but declined to be a candidate for reelection in 1794; resumed the practice of law and engaged in agricultural pursuits; member of the commission appointed to settle the boundary line between North Carolina and Tennessee in 1796; died on his estate, ?Pleasant Gardens,? near Morganton, N.C., March 7, 1799; interment at Round Hill on his estate.
McDowell County was annexed from the Rutherford and Burke Counties two decades before the start of the Civil War. Named in honor of Colonel Joseph McDowell who served in the Revolutionary War and led a company during the Battle of King?s Mountain, the county's communities include Marion (the seat of government), Ashford, Glenwood, Sugar Hill, Nebo, Old Fort, and Little Switzerland. The county seat was established in 1844, and it is named in honor of Francis Marion, the famed ?Swamp Fox? hero. Marion was known for his guerilla war tactics in South Carolina during the Revolutionary War.
The land on which the house known as Pleasant Gardens was built was purchased in 1768 by ?Hunting John? McDowell. Pleasant Gardens, originally in Rowan County, is now in McDowell County. The county, in fact, when formed in 1842, was named in honor of Joseph McDowell, son of Hunting John and builder of Pleasant Gardens. Joseph McDowell built the federal-style Pleasant Gardens in the late 1780s. The property remained in the McDowell family until 1848. The house is now in disrepair, an ill fit amidst development and a parking lot in Marion. Joseph McDowell, born in 1758, enlisted at age 18 in a militia unit commanded by his cousin Charles McDowell. Also in the unit Charles?s brother Joseph. To distinguish themselves, the cousins used ?of Quaker Meadows? (or simply ?QM?) or ?of Pleasant Gardens? (or ?PG?). McDowell served in Griffith Rutherford?s 1776 campaign against the Cherokee and various Revolutionary engagements. His most significant action was at the Battle of Kings Mountain, where he commanded a company. After the war McDowell studied law and medicine and was admitted to the bar in 1791. He served in the General Assembly, was a delegate to the constitutional conventions, and served on the Board of Trustees of the University of North Carolina. McDowell died in 1795 and was buried at Round Hill near his father?s original log cabin on the family property.
Source: North Carolina Highway Historical Marker Program.
William Brittain: Born February 7, 1762 in Orange County, NC. Enlisted there under Col. McCauley as 2nd Sergeant and was at the capture of Hillsborough and the taking of Gov. Burke by the Tories. He removed to Burke County, NC and enlisted there under Col. Joseph McDowell and went into the battle of Cowpens and served a three month tour at the upper Fort near the head of the Catawba River in Burke County under Captain Daniel Smith and Samuel Patton was in this tour with him. He lived in Burke County until about 1789 then moved to Buncombe County, NC. In 1832, age 72 years. His pension papers were witnessed by Nathan Harrison (clergyman), Samuel Davidson, Samuel Patton, William Kimsey (clergyman), and James M. Smith. He is buried near Dula Springs, north of Weaverville, NC.
Source: Revolutionary War Pensions.
The Joseph McDowell House is a historic house and museum located in Marion, North Carolina. It was the home of Colonel Joseph McDowell, the founder and namesake of McDowell County. It is currently undergoing extensive renovations, and is closed to the public.
The
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]
] |
[
2048
] |
2,048
| 2.94466
|
For further information on the critical and stage history of Henry VIII, see SC, Volumes 2 and 24.
Frequently—and perhaps erroneously—regarded as an inferior example of Shakespeare's chronicle history plays, Henry VIII has until recently been neglected by many critics, except for those engaged in the at times heated debate over the true nature of its authorship. Included in the First Folio of the dramatist's works, Henry VIII is often seen as the product of two individuals: Shakespeare and John Fletcher, his sometime collaborator (notably on The Two Noble Kinsmen) and successor as chief dramatist for the King's Men. In the latter half of the twentieth century, a number of scholars have endeavored to move beyond this subject of authorship in order to focus on thematic, stylistic, generic, or dramaturgical issues in relation to Henry VIII. Still, contention over the specifics of the play's disputed writing remains a perennial interest.
The earliest claim of dual authorship in the modern era is generally attributed to James Spedding (although the idea itself is said to have originated with Lord Tennyson). Spedding's exploration of the subject in 1850 set the tone of Henry VIII scholarship for the next century, with many critics using the authorship debate as a launching point for discussions of the work as aesthetically flawed, episodic, and lacking in thematic unity. Faced with a dearth of external documentation that would settle the question, proponents of the two-author theory have nonetheless offered a considerable amount of stylistic evidence that would appear to indicate Shakespeare's collaboration with Fletcher on the work. Many have also divided the play into two parts, attributing between one-third and one-half or more of the text to Fletcher. Marco Mincoff (1961) has used both metrical and thematic evidence to support the claim of Fletcher's co-authorship. Members of the opposing camp have often taken a structural, comparative, or thematic approach to the problem. H. M. Richmond (1968) has observed numerous affinities of style, theme, and characterization between Shakespeare's late romances and Henry VIII that would suggest Shakespeare's primacy in writing the history. Paul Bertram (1962) has opted for a somewhat different approach, arguing that those critics who have embraced Spedding's dual author theory have failed to adequately demonstrate their point, and have only succeeded in contriving unpersuasive textual evidence to support an erroneous hypothesis. Because none of these arguments have proved adequate to settle the question of Henry VIII's authorship, critics have most recently decided to acknowledge the debate, but for the time being put this material aside in favor of other, longneglected issues. Among these, the subjects of aesthetic unity and generic variety have gained increasing interest. Responding to critics who see the play as episodic and fragmented, John Margeson (1990) and Peter L. Rudnytsky (1991) have argued for the work's thematic unity, with the former seeing it as a sustained "exposure and celebration of royal power" and the latter as a dramatization of the relativity of historical truth. Edward I. Berry (1979) represents another faction of scholars who have studied the complex question of genre in Henry VIII. Written near the end of Shakespeare's career, at a time when the dramatist was primarily concerned with the so-called late romances—including The Winter's Tale, The Tempest, and others—Henry VIII appears to Berry as a blend of dramatic and generic conventions: chronicle history, tragedy, court masque, and romance. Seen as an amalgamation of dramatic forms, Henry VIII has also elicited interest—both as a literary/historical text and in performance—for its emphasis on visual spectacle and imagery. The play itself is punctuated by several scenes of grandiose, aristocratic pageantry, a fact that some critics note has contributed to its viability on stage despite such flaws as weak characterization and lack of a sympathetic hero. Moving beyond such dismissive assessments, F. Schreiber-McGee (1988) has focused on the cultural implications of spectacle in Henry VIII by arguing that the shift of aristocratic pageantry from the royal court to the public stage offered a direct challenge to long-accepted notions of political authority. Others, such as Linda McJ. Micheli (1987), have concentrated on the queens Katherine of Aragon and Anne Boleyn—who many commentators feel are Henry VIII's only compelling characters—and the complex visual imagery with which they are portrayed.
Edward I. Berry (essay date 1979)
SOURCE: "Henry VIII and the Dynamics of Spectacle," in Shakespeare Studies: An Annual Gathering of Research, Criticism, and Reviews, Vol. XII, 1979, pp. 229-46.
[In the following essay, Berry evaluates Henry VIII as a blend of dramatic modes, including history, tragedy, and masque. ]
Although admittedly a modest play by Shakespearean standards, Henry VIII has been subjected to criticism which seems to me undeservedly severe. Its structure has been condemned as episodic, its characterization as sentimental and stereotyped, its pageantry as meaningless, its language as inflated, its treatment of history as evasive and propagandistc1 Much of this criticism reflects, I think, a failure to take the play on its own terms, to understand its distinctive dramatic mode. Like the other late plays, Henry VIII is boldly original in form and assimilates a wide variety of traditions into a complex whole. Its dramatic vocabulary includes disparate, even conflicting elements: de casibus tragedy, the history play, the masque, tragicomedy, romance. The unfamiliarity of the blend puts unusual (though not un-Shakespearean) demands upon an audience; the combinations force reevaluations not only of the conventions but of the views of reality they imply. Henry VIII is a history play that redefines truth, a de casibus play that moves beyond tragedy, a masque that questions the value of spectacle.
As Frank Kermode has observed, the play is constructed upon a familiar de casibus pattern, a series of interlocking falls from high estate—Buckingham's, Wolsey's, Katherine's; in a variation upon the pattern a fourth fall, Cranmer's, is happily averted.2 Although Kermode describes accurately the play's basic structure, critics have not been content with the implications of his description. Howard Felperin, for example, protests that the tragedies in the play are not retributive, as in the Mirror tradition, and lead to redemption rather than suffering: "The falls . . . are all romantically, rather than tragically, conceived."3 Robert Ornstein objects that Kermode does not explain why Shakespeare "regresses" in Henry VIII "to a more primitive dramatic form than that used in Henry VI Part I."4 Both of these objections are valid, I think, not because Kermode has misidentified the play's conventions, but because he, like his critics, has taken them at face value. The play, however, is self-consciously primitive and invokes de casibus conventions only to redefine them.
The prologue, for example, even more than in Henry V, is a device whereby the play becomes self-reflexive. Though he is not without dignity, the speaker introduces the play with a suspiciously moralistic and sententious air, as if he were kin to Sidney's historian, the "tyrant in table talke" who denies "that any man for teaching of vertue, and vertuous actions, is comparable to him."5 We are not to expect laughter or bawdiness from this play but sorrow—"Such noble scenes as draw the eye to flow" (1. 4)6—and truth. The play is true, he assures us—three times. The coupling of tragedy and truth evokes not only the de casibus tradition in general but the specialized form it took when adapted to English history, as in the Mirror for Magistrates and its numerous progeny, both narrative and dramatic. As defined in the preface to the original edition of the Mirror (1569), history is a "myrrour for al men as well noble as others, to shewe the slyppery deceytes of the waveryng lady [Fortune] and the due rewarde of all kinde of vices."7 When the speaker concludes, he does so, significantly, in the old-fashioned alliterative style so characteristic of the Mirror:
. . . think you see them great,
And follow'd with the general throng, and sweat
Of thousand friends; then, in a moment, see
How soon this mightiness meets misery:
And if you can be merry then, I'll say
A man may weep upon his wedding day.
And yet before the play is finished, we will have experienced feelings of joy as well as grief and perceived truths beyond history.
The use of the prologue, in other words, is artfully naive, deliberately archaic, its evocation of a distinctly old-fashioned genre reminiscent of Gower's introduction to Pericles—"To sing a song that old was sung / From ashes ancient Gower is come"—or of the moment in The Winter's Tale when Mamillius sits down to tell a sad tale for winter. Like Mamillius' "sad tale," the Prologue's "mightiness meets misery" tells us only half the story, for both plays, although they contain tragedy, move beyond it. The Prologue may even hint at this movement in its final lines: it does not take a cynic, after all, to know that men have wept upon their wedding days. If so, the reality principle itself licenses romance, for our skepticism about marriages opens us to the potential for joy in tragedy. The
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]
] |
[
2048
] |
2,048
| 1.753266
|
Wnt Proteins: Wnt proteins are a large family of secreted glycoproteins that play essential roles in EMBRYONIC AND FETAL DEVELOPMENT, and tissue maintenance. They bind to FRIZZLED RECEPTORS and act as PARACRINE PROTEIN FACTORS to initiate a variety of SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION PATHWAYS. The canonical Wnt signaling pathway stabilizes the transcriptional coactivator BETA CATENIN.Wnt Signaling Pathway: A complex signaling pathway whose name is derived from the DROSOPHILA Wg gene, which when mutated results in the wingless phenotype, and the vertebrate INT gene, which is located near integration sites of MOUSE MAMMARY TUMOR VIRUS. The signaling pathway is initiated by the binding of WNT PROTEINS to cells surface WNT RECEPTORS which interact with the AXIN SIGNALING COMPLEX and an array of second messengers that influence the actions of BETA CATENIN.Wnt3 Protein: A Wnt protein subtype that plays a role in cell-cell signaling during EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT and the morphogenesis of the developing NEURAL TUBE. Defects in Wnt3 protein are associated with autosomal recessive tetra-AMELIA in humans.Wnt3A Protein: A Wnt protein subtype that plays a role in cell-cell signaling during EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT and the morphogenesis of the developing NEURAL TUBE.Wnt1 Protein: A proto-oncogene protein and member of the Wnt family of proteins. It is expressed in the caudal MIDBRAIN and is essential for proper development of the entire mid-/hindbrain region.Wnt4 Protein: A Wnt protein that is involved in regulating multiple developmental processes such as the formation of the KIDNEY; ADRENAL GLANDS; MAMMARY GLANDS; the PITUITARY GLAND; and the female reproductive system. Defects in WNT4 are a cause of ROKITANSKY KUSTER HAUSER SYNDROME.Wnt2 Protein: A proto-oncogene protein and member of the Wnt family of proteins. It is frequently up-regulated in human GASTRIC CANCER and is a tumor marker (BIOMARKERS, TUMOR) of gastric and COLORECTAL CANCER.Frizzled Receptors: A family of seven-pass transmembrane cell-surface proteins that combines with LOW DENSITY LIPROTEIN RECEPTOR-RELATED PROTEIN-5 or LOW DENSITY LIPROTEIN RECEPTOR-RELATED PROTEIN-5 to form receptors for WNT PROTEINS. Frizzled receptors often couple with HETEROTRIMERIC G PROTEINS and regulate the WNT SIGNALING PATHWAY.Low Density Lipoprotein Receptor-Related Protein-6: An LDL-receptor related protein that combines with cell surface FRIZZLED RECEPTORS to form WNT PROTEIN-binding receptors. The protein plays an important role in the WNT SIGNALING PATHWAY during EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT and in regulation of vascular cell proliferation.Zebrafish Proteins: Proteins obtained from the ZEBRAFISH. Many of the proteins in this species have been the subject of studies involving basic embryological development (EMBRYOLOGY).Low Density Lipoprotein Receptor-Related Protein-5: LDL-receptor related protein that combines with FRIZZLED RECEPTORS at the cell surface to form receptors that bind WNT PROTEINS. The protein plays an important role in the WNT SIGNALING PATHWAY in OSTEOBLASTS and during EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT.Signal Transduction: The intracellular transfer of information (biological activation/inhibition) through a signal pathway. In each signal transduction system, an activation/inhibition signal from a biologically active molecule (hormone, neurotransmitter) is mediated via the coupling of a receptor/enzyme to a second messenger system or to an ion channel. Signal transduction plays an important role in activating cellular functions, cell differentiation, and cell proliferation. Examples of signal transduction systems are the GAMMA-AMINOBUTYRIC ACID-postsynaptic receptor-calcium ion channel system, the receptor-mediated T-cell activation pathway, and the receptor-mediated activation of phospholipases. Those coupled to membrane depolarization or intracellular release of calcium include the receptor-mediated activation of cytotoxic functions in granulocytes and the synaptic potentiation of protein kinase activation. Some signal transduction pathways may be part of larger signal transduction pathways; for example, protein kinase activation is part of the platelet activation signal pathway.LDL-Receptor Related Proteins: A family of proteins that share sequence similarity with the low density lipoprotein receptor (RECEPTORS, LDL).beta Catenin: A multi-functional catenin that participates in CELL ADHESION and nuclear signaling. Beta catenin binds CADHERINS and helps link their cytoplasmic tails to the ACTIN in the CYTOSKELETON via ALPHA CATENIN. It also serves as a transcriptional co-activator and downstream component of WNT PROTEIN-mediated SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION PATHWAYS.Receptors, Wnt: Cell-surface receptors that specifically bind to WNT PROTEINS and activate the WNT SIGNALING PATHWAY.Axin Protein: A scaffolding protein that is a critical component of the axin signaling complex which binds to ADENOMATOUS POLYPOSIS COLI PROTEIN; GLYCOGEN SYNTHASE KINASE 3; and CASEIN KINASE I.Proto-Oncogene Proteins: Products of proto-oncogenes. Normally they do not have oncogenic or transforming properties, but are involved in the regulation or differentiation of cell growth. They often have protein kinase activity.Porcupines: Common name for large, quilled rodents (RODENTIA) comprised of two families: Old World porcupines (Hystricidae) and New World porcupines (Erethizontidae).Focal Dermal Hypoplasia: A genetic skin disease characterized by hypoplasia of the dermis, herniations of fat, and hand anomalies. It is found exclusively in females and transmitted as an X-linked dominant trait.Gene Expression Regulation, Developmental: Any of the processes by which nuclear, cytoplasmic, or intercellular factors influence the differential control of gene action during the developmental stages of an organism.Receptors, G-Protein-Coupled: The largest family of cell surface receptors involved in SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION. They share a common structure and signal through HETEROTRIMERIC G-PROTEINS.Intercellular Signaling Peptides and Proteins: Regulatory proteins and peptides that are signaling molecules involved in the process of PARACRINE COMMUNICATION. They are generally considered factors that are expressed by one cell and are responded to by receptors on another nearby cell. They are distinguished from HORMONES in that their actions are local rather than distal.TCF Transcription Factors: A family of DNA-binding proteins that are primarily expressed in T-LYMPHOCYTES. They interact with BETA CATENIN and serve as transcriptional activators and repressors in a variety of developmental processes.Xenopus Proteins: Proteins obtained from various species of Xenopus. Included here are proteins from the African clawed frog (XENOPUS LAEVIS). Many of these proteins have been the subject of scientific investigations in the area of MORPHOGENESIS and development.Cytoskeletal Proteins: Major constituent of the cytoskeleton found in the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells. They form a flexible framework for the cell, provide attachment points for organelles and formed bodies, and make communication between parts of the cell possible.Body Patterning: The processes occurring in early development that direct morphogenesis. They specify the body plan ensuring that cells will proceed to differentiate, grow, and diversify in size and shape at the correct relative positions. Included are axial patterning, segmentation, compartment specification, limb position, organ boundary patterning, blood vessel patterning, etc.Embryo, Nonmammalian: The developmental entity of a fertilized egg (ZYGOTE) in animal species other than MAMMALS. For chickens, use CHICK EMBRYO.Cell Differentiation: Progressive restriction of the developmental potential and increasing specialization of function that leads to the formation of specialized cells, tissues, and organs.Trans-Activators: Diffusible gene products that act on homologous or heterologous molecules of viral or cellular DNA to regulate the expression of proteins.Xenopus: An aquatic genus of the family, Pipidae, occurring in Africa and distinguished by having black horny claws on three inner hind toes.Morphogenesis: The development of anatomical structures to create the form of a single- or multi-cell organism. Morphogenesis provides form changes of a part, parts, or the whole organism.In Situ Hybridization: A technique that localizes specific nucleic acid sequences within intact chromosomes, eukaryotic cells, or bacterial cells through the use of specific nucleic acid-labeled probes.Drosophila Proteins: Proteins that originate from insect species belonging to the genus DROSOPHILA. The proteins from the most intensely studied species of Drosophila, DROSOPHILA MELANOGASTER, are the subject of much interest in the area of MORPHOGENESIS and development.Mesoderm: The middle germ layer of an embryo derived from three paired mesenchymal aggregates along the neural tube.Proteins: Linear POLYPEPTIDES that are synthesized on RIBOSOMES and may be further modified, crosslinked, cleaved, or assembled into complex proteins with several subunits. The specific sequence of AMINO AC
|
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[
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Traditionally when we think of type of lymphedema known as elephantiasis, we think of the mosquito spread parasitic infection called lymphatic filariasis that is so common in the tropical world. Here is an interesting collection of abstract about endemic non-filarial elephantiasis cause by exposure to certain alkalic clay soils in Ethiopia and Uganda.
Related Terms: Lymphedema, Pathogenesis, Podoconiosis, Nonfilarial elephantiasis, Lymphology, Attitude, Chronic care model, Stigma, Ethiopia, Tropical Disease
J Dtsch Dermatol Ges. 2010 Jan
Nenoff P, Simon JC, Muylowa GK, Davey G.
Laboratorium für medizinische Mikrobiologie, Mölbis, Germany. firstname.lastname@example.org
Podoconiosis or mossy foot is a form of non-filarial lymphedema. This geochemical elephantiasis is a disabling condition caused by the passage of microparticles of silica and aluminum silicates through the skin of people walking barefoot in areas with a high content of soil of volcanic origin. Podoconiosis is widespread in tropical Africa, Central America and North India, yet it remains a neglected and under-researched condition. The disabling effects of podoconiosis cause great hardship to patients. It adversely affects the economic (reduced productivity and absenteeism), social (marriage, education, etc.) and psychological (social stigma) well-being of those affected. Podoconiosis can be prevented; the main primary preventive measure is protective footwear. Secondary measures include a strict hygiene regimen and compression therapy, which can reverse initial lesions. Tertiary approaches include surgical management, such as shaving operations to reduce hyperplastic and verrucous elephantiasis.
Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 2007 Dec Davey G, Tekola F, Newport MJ. Department of Community Health, Addis Ababa University, P.O. Box 9806, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Keywords: Podoconiosis; Elephantiasis; Geochemical; Non-filarial elephantiasis
Corresponding author. Present address: P.O. Box 26905/1000, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Tel.: +251 911 388835; fax: +251 116 627876.
This article reviews peer-reviewed publications and book chapters on the history, epidemiology, genetics, ecology, pathogenesis, pathology and management of podoconiosis (endemic non-filarial elephantiasis). Podoconiosis is a non-infectious geochemical elephantiasis caused by exposure of bare feet to irritant alkalic clay soils. It is found in at least 10 countries in tropical Africa, Central America and northwest India, where such soils coexist with high altitude, high seasonal rainfall and low income. Podoconiosis develops in men and women working barefoot on irritant soils, with signs becoming apparent in most patients by the third decade of life.
Colloid-sized silicate particles appear to enter through the skin, are taken up into macrophages in the lower limb lymphatics and cause endolymphangitis and obliteration of the lymphatic lumen. Genetic studies provide evidence for high heritability of susceptibility to podoconiosis. The economic burden is significant in affected areas dependent on subsistence farming. Podoconiosis is unique in being an entirely preventable non-communicable disease. Primary prevention entails promoting use of footwear in areas of irritant soil; early stages are reversible given good foot hygiene, but late stages result in considerable economic and social difficulties, and require extended periods of elevation and occasionally nodulectomy.
Geshere Oli G, Tekola Ayele F, Petros B.
Department of Biology, College of Natural Sciences, Jimma University, Jimma, Ethiopia Center for Research on Genomics and Global Health, National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA Microbial, Cellular and Molecular Biology Program Unit, Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Objective To determine whether the elephantiasis in Midakegn district, central Ethiopia, is filarial or non-filarial (podoconiosis) using serological, parasitological and clinical examinations, and to estimate its prevalence. Methods At house-to-house visits in 330 randomly selected households, all household members who had elephantiasis were interviewed and clinically examined at the nearby health centre to confirm the presence of elephantiasis, check the presence of scrotal swelling and rule out the other causes of lymphoedema. A midnight blood sample was obtained from each participant with elephantiasis for microscopic examination of Wuchereria bancrofti microfilaria. A daytime blood sample was obtained from half of the participants for serological confirmation using the immuno-chromatographic test card. Results Consistent with the features of podoconiosis, none of the elephantiasis cases had consistently worn shoes since childhood; 94.3% had bilateral swelling limited below the level of the knees; no individual had thigh or scrotal elephantiasis; parasitological test for microfilariae and serological tests for W. bancrofti antigen were negative in all samples. The prevalence of the disease was 7.4% and it peaked in the third decade of life, the most economically active age. Conclusion Midakegn District has a high prevalence of podoconiosis and no filarial elephantiasis. Prevention, treatment and control of podoconiosis must be among the top priorities of public health programmes.
Ayele FT, Adeyemo A, Finan C, Hailu E, Sinnott P, Burlinson ND, Aseffa A, Rotimi CN, Newport MJ, Davey G.
Source Center for Research on Genomics and Global Health, National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892-5635, USA. email@example.com
BACKGROUND: Podoconiosis is a tropical lymphedema resulting from long-term barefoot exposure to red-clay soil derived from volcanic rock. The World Health Organization recently designated it as a neglected tropical disease. Podoconiosis develops in only a subgroup of exposed people, and studies have shown familial clustering with high heritability (63%).
METHODS: We conducted a genomewide association study of 194 case patients and 203 controls from southern Ethiopia. Findings were validated by means of family-based association testing in 202 family trios and HLA typing in 94 case patients and 94 controls.
RESULTS: We found a genomewide significant association of podoconiosis with the single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) rs17612858, located 5.8 kb from the HLA-DQA1 locus (in the allelic model: odds ratio, 2.44; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.82 to 3.26; P=1.42×10(-9); and in the additive model: odds ratio, 2.19; 95% CI, 1.66 to 2.90; P=3.44×10(-8)), and suggestive associations (P<1.0×10(-5)) with seven other SNPs in or near HLA-DQB1, HLA-DQA1, and HLA-DRB1. We confirmed these associations using family-based association testing. HLA typing showed the alleles HLA-DRB1*0701 (odds ratio, 2.00), DQA1*0201 (odds ratio, 1.91), and DQB1*0202 (odds ratio, 1.79) and the HLA-DRB1*0701-DQB1*0202 haplotype (odds ratio, 1.92) were risk variants for podoconiosis.
CONCLUSIONS: Association between variants in HLA class II loci with podoconiosis (a noncommunicable disease) suggests that the condition may be a T-cell-mediated inflammatory disease and is a model for gene-environment interactions that may be relevant to other complex genetic disorders. (Funded by the Wellcome Trust and others.).
J Dtsch Dermatol Ges. 2009 May
Nenoff P, Simon JC, Muylowa GK, Davey G. Laboratory for Medical Microbiology, Mölbis, Germany.
Correspondence to Prof. Dr. med. Pietro Nenoff Laboratorium für medizinische Mikrobiologie Partnerschaft Dr. rer. nat. Jürgen Herrmann, Prof. Dr. med. Pietro Nenoff & Dr. med. Constanze Krüger Straße des Friedens 8 D-04579 Mölbis Tel.: +49-34347-50-323 / Fax: +49-34347-50-123 E-mail: firstname.lastname@example.org
geochemical tropical disease • Ethiopia • Uganda • secondary lymphoedema • non-filarial elephantiasis • aluminium silicate • volcanic soil
Summary Podoconiosis or mossy foot is a form of non-filarial lymphedema. This geo-chemical elephantiasis is a disabling condition caused by the passage of microparticles of silica and aluminum silicates through the skin of people walking barefoot in areas with a high content of soil of
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Do you notice how often John, in chapter 11 of his Gospel, defines Lazarus by his sickness?
“Sick” or “sickness” appears five times in the first six verses.
v. 1: “ a man named Lazarus was sick”
v. 2: “Mary, whose brother Lazarus now lay sick”
v. 3: “Lord, the one you love is sick.”
v. 4: “This sickness will not end in death.”
v. 6: “he heard that Lazarus was sick”
Add to that: he was from Bethany, a town meaning “house of the the poor” or sick. “Sick” is the main description of Lazarus.
Lazarus: Brother, Beloved
Who else was he? Lazarus was brother to Mary and Martha.
These were sisters John’s audience knew well enough that John could just identify Mary by a single story: “the same one who poured perfume on the Lord and wiped his feet with her hair.”
It was “this Mary, whose brother Lazarus now lay sick.”
Lazarus was a brother. And Lazarus was a beloved. Verse 3 says, “So the sisters sent word to Jesus, “Lord, the one you love is sick.””
Some say the so-called “disciples Jesus loved” is not John but Lazarus… this verse would be evidence for that view. Lazarus was a brother and beloved friend.
As the account progresses, Lazarus becomes defined by his being dead. “He’s that guy who died.”
v. 11: “Our friend Lazarus has fallen asleep”
v. 13: “Jesus had been speaking of his death”
v. 14: “Lazarus is dead”
v. 16: “Let us… die with him”
v. 17: “Lazarus had already been in the tomb for four days”
v. 19: “the loss of their brother”
v. 21: “If you had been here, my brother would not have died”
v. 37: “Could not he who opened the eyes of the blind man have kept this man from dying?”
v. 38: “’But, Lord,’” said Martha, the sister of the dead man”
Even in verse 44 after Jesus has said, “Lazarus, come out,” John doesn’t say: And Lazarus came out… he says, “The dead man came out, his hands and feet wrapped with stops of linen, and a cloth around his face.”
John primarily describes Lazarus as either sick or dead.
And he heightens the pathos of the narrative by noting he is a brother and a loved one.
Lazarus: Locus of God’s Glory
But there’s one more thing that John says about Lazarus—he is the site of the revelation of God’s glory. He is the locus of God’s Son being glorified.
The miracle sets the stage for the rest of the book of John.
It’s the 7th of the 7 Signs of Jesus in John. We’ve seen Jesus turn water into wine, perform three healings, feed the multitudes, walk on water, and now he’s about to raise a man from the dead.
This paves the way for Jesus’ own resurrection from the dead, which John will narrate at the end of the Gospel.
Look at verse 4: “When he heard this, Jesus said, ‘This sickness will not end in death. No, it is for God’s glory so that God’s Son may be glorified through it.’”
Lazarus is the one through whom Jesus reveals himself to be the resurrection and the life. Lazarus’s death is an occasion for Jesus to show everyone more about himself, leading up to his own resurrection.
Remember that—I’ll come back to that in a bit: Lazarus is the one through whom Jesus reveals himself to be the resurrection and the life.
The Story of Lazarus
So that’s Lazarus, as John tells it: Sick… a brother… a beloved friend… then dead… but ultimately the locus of Jesus’ revelation and God’s glory.
Jesus gets news of Lazarus’s sickness, and even though John’s about to describe Lazarus as “the dead man,” Jesus says, “This sickness will NOT end in death.”
But Jesus stays put for two days.
And he hears about it from Mary and Martha. Both sisters, independently of each other, say, “Lord, if you had been here, my brother would not have died!”
God, if you had intervened—and you could have—this man I love would have been healed. Or maybe he wouldn’t have even gotten sick in the first place.
Theodicy: Jesus Mourns with Us
This chapter actually makes an enduring contribution to Christian theodicy, or the practice of trying to justify how an all-powerful God could stop evil but doesn’t.
John doesn’t address the question directly, but he does show a Jesus who comes alongside his loved ones in adversity, and mourns with them.
John 11:35 is the shortest verse in the Bible, and the best one to start with if you want to up your Scripture memory game. It just says, “Jesus wept.” “Jesus wept.”
It’s not the only time in the New Testament that someone cries, but John uses a word for weeping that is only used here in the New Testament. A richer translation is: “Jesus burst into tears.”
He mourns when death seems to have gotten dominion—Jesus is even angry at the injustice of it all. We Christians don’t need to fear death, but it’s awful to lose a friend, a family member, a loved one.
Jesus mourns—bursts into tears, even—right along with us.
The Jewish co-mourners—the ones who were comforting Mary and Martha—are taken aback and say, “See how he loved him!”
Jesus’s weeping was motivated by love.
So that’s a nice sidebar in this story, I think—it doesn’t solve the problem of evil, not at all. But Jesus’s response does remind us that where there is suffering, where there is death, where the unfair and unthinkable happen… in those places, Jesus weeps with us, because he is a loving, compassionate, and empathetic God.
And then the sign comes—verse 43, Jesus says in a loud voice: “Lazarus, come out!”
We don’t even get a response from Lazarus—he walks out like a mummy, all his death clothes still wrapped around him.
And then, you kind of feel bad for the guy…. After Lazarus is resurrected, in chapter 12 the religious leaders would make a decision about him. They decide not only do they want to kill Jesus, they want to kill Lazarus, too! Even after this awesome miracle, he might be dead again soon.
Jesus is like, “Come on! I just… got him out of there.”
Jesus is Resurrection NOW
The Crux of the Passage
As I’ve read and re-read this passage, as I’ve studied and puzzled over it… I keep coming back to verses 21-27.
They are the crux of the passage.
“Lord,” Martha said to Jesus, “if you had been here, my brother would not have died. But I know that even now God will give you whatever you ask.”
Jesus said to her, “Your brother will rise again.”
Martha answered, “I know he will rise again in the resurrection at the last day.”
Jesus said to her, “I am the resurrection and the life. He who believes in me will live, even though he dies; and whoever lives and believes in me will never die. Do you believe this?”
“Yes, Lord,” she told him, “I believe that you are the Christ, the Son of God, who was to come into the world.”
There’s a cosmic interplay in their conversation between present and future, between resurrection later and resurrection now.
Martha says, “I know Lazarus will rise again in the resurrection at the last day.”
This is common Jewish teaching. The Pharisees believed in a resurrection. The Sadducees didn’t—that’s why they’re so sad, you see. Martha’s response is not unexpected.
Especially since Jesus in John 6 said, about a million times, “I will raise them up at the last day.” Anyone who comes to me, who eats this bread of life (that is me, Jesus), will never die, will live forever, and I will raise them up at the last day.
Martha is tracking with the best of Jesus’ students here.
Resurrection at the last day is not only standard Jewish teaching—it is standard Christian teaching. We affirm that we will experience the joy of resurrection, in body and soul, at some future day we call “the last day.”
At Funerals and during Easter are the two times we’re most aware of the promise of resurrection.
Jesus doesn’t argue with Martha, about raising people up at the last day. There’s nothing for him to correct in her future eschatology. Hope in a future resurrection is kind of the anchor for our faith.
But Jesus pushes a step further and says, “I am—RIGHT NOW—the resurrection and the life. Whoever believes in me will live, even though they die, and whoever lives and believes in me will never die.”
“I am—not just tomorrow, not just in the last day, but right now, present tense, in this very moment—I am the resurrection and the life.”
Immediately after saying so, Jesus gives a manifestation—a pretty literal one—as to what it means that Jesus is the resurrection right now for those who believe. He raises Lazarus from the dead.
By a supernatural sign Jesus shows that the power of the resurrection is not just
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2,048
| 2.610172
|
Saturday, April 17, 2010
Friday, April 16, 2010
In 2003, marine biologist Sara Lourie, a member of the University of British Columbia-based Project Seahorse marine conservation team, has identified the world's smallest known species of seahorse. The pygmy seahorse called Hippocampus Denise averages 16 mm (.64 inch) in size, smaller than a fingernail, and lives in coral in the tropical waters of the western Pacific.
In 2009, five new pygmy seahorse species were found in the Red Sea.
Hippocampus satomiae, little bigger than a pea, has been recently found on reefs in Indonesia.
Note : animal names ending in -ae honor women, in this case Satomi Onishi, a diving guide who collected the first specimen.
Little bigger than a pea, the smallest known sea horse, was discovered at a depth of about 15 meters on reefs in Indonesia, from Derawan island off Kalimantan to northern Sulawesi and Borneo.
Like other pygmy sea horses, its size and camouflage make it difficult to spot. This species resembles, in texture and color, the sea fans with which it lives. It has a pouch in which it carries its young, which are only 3mm in length.
The sea horse is displayed at the Quentin Wheeler International Institute for Species Exploration, Arizona State University.
The seahorses are a genus of fishes within the family syngnathidae, which also includes the pipefishes.
There are more than 80 species of seahorse, mainly found in shallow tropical and temperate waters throughout the world.
They prefer to live in sheltered areas such as seagrass beds, coral reefs, or mangroves.
Seahorse populations are said to have been endangered in the recent years due to overfishing and habitat destruction.
Thursday, April 15, 2010
from Kimberly Johnson's article for National Geographic News, June 2008
Rapid changes in the churning movement of Earth's liquid outer core are weakening the magnetic field in some regions of the planet's surface, a new study says.
"What is so surprising is that rapid, almost sudden, changes take place in the Earth's magnetic field," said study co-author Nils Olsen, a geophysicist at the Danish National Space Center in Copenhagen.
The findings suggest similarly quick changes are simultaneously occurring in the liquid metal, 1,900 miles (3,000 kilometers) below the surface, he said.
The swirling flow of molten iron and nickel around Earth's solid center triggers an electrical current, which generates the planet's magnetic field.
The study, published recently in Nature Geoscience, modeled Earth's magnetic field using nine years of highly accurate satellite data.
Fluctuations in the magnetic field have occurred in several far-flung regions of Earth, the researchers found.
In 2003 scientists found pronounced changes in the magnetic field in the Australasian region. In 2004, however, the changes were focused on Southern Africa.
The changes "may suggest the possibility of an upcoming reversal of the geomagnetic field," said study co-author Mioara Mandea, a scientist at the German Research Centre for Geosciences in Potsdam.
Earth's magnetic field has reversed hundreds of times over the past billion years, and the process could take thousands of years to complete.
The decline in the magnetic field also is opening Earth's upper atmosphere to intense charged particle radiation, scientists say.
Satellite data show the geomagnetic field decreasing in the South Atlantic region, Mandea said, adding that an oval-shaped area east of Brazil is significantly weaker than similar latitudes in other parts of the world.
"It is in this region that the shielding effect of the magnetic field is severely reduced, thus allowing high energy particles of the hard radiation belt to penetrate deep into the upper atmosphere to altitudes below a hundred kilometers (62 miles)" Mandea said.
This radiation does not influence temperatures on Earth. The particles, however, do affect technical and radio equipment and can damage electronic equipment on satellites and airplanes, Olsen of the Danish space center said.
The study documents just how rapidly the flow in Earth's core is changing, said Peter Olson, a geophysics professor at Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore, Maryland, who was not involved with the research.
By using satellite imagery, researchers have a nearly continuous measurement of changes, he said." They provide a good rationale to continue this monitoring longer," Olson said.
On a sailing point of view, this will definitively affect the Magnetic declination calculation.
Wednesday, April 14, 2010
Washington Post Staff Writer
March 8, 2010
Red grouper are known for a few key characteristics -- their hue, which can range from pink to bright orange; their tastiness, whether they're grilled or sautéed; and their predation method, in which they ambush fellow sea creatures and swallow them whole.
But their least-known attribute might be the most valuable of all: they operate as underwater architects, transforming the seascape for myriad other forms of underwater life, rather than just residing there. That surprising discovery is forcing scientists and policymakers to recalibrate their approach to preserving the ocean's natural order -- and heightening tensions with those who fish for a living or as a hobby.
A team of scientists, led by Florida State University's Felicia Coleman, recently found that the red grouper off Florida's east and west coasts and throughout the Gulf of Mexico have created entire ocean communities by digging large holes in the sea's sandy bottom. In the same way beavers construct dams, red grouper excavate and maintain distinct holes whose rocky surfaces provide a place for coral, sponges and other marine life to congregate.
The discovery, published in January in the Open Fish Science Journal, highlights the extent to which researchers are just beginning to grasp the complexity of marine creatures' behavior.
"Our view of fish is changing," said Marine Conservation Biology Institute president Elliott Norse, whose group helped fund Coleman's research. "We now see fish as living, breathing entities, not only as meat."
This new understanding is changing the way federal and state authorities manage ocean habitats and is creating a stark new rift with fishermen. "The people who are in control want to prohibit fishing as much as possible," said Bob Jones, executive director of the Southeastern Fisheries Association. He added that the recent revelations about red grouper amount to an "excuse they can use to restrict fishing, commercial or recreational."
But to many researchers, fishery officials and even some fishermen, the fact that fish act as environmental engineers provides a compelling reason to protect them from exploitation.
More about the ‘Frank Lloyd Wright’ of the sea : see Washington Post original article
Tuesday, April 13, 2010
© National Geographic , video from the University of Victoria & Neptune Canada
Nearly 500 miles of data-transmitting cable will make Neptune Canada's new Pacific Ocean observatory the largest of its kind. Underwater cameras will also capture seafloor wildlife.
This week, scientists in British Columbia began collecting data from hundreds of scientific instruments on the seafloor of the Pacific Ocean using the largest and most advanced cabled ocean observatory in the world.
While data collection is its primary goal, underwater cameras add to the allure of this project, so scientists can see the animals living on and near the ocean floor.
Nearly 500 miles of looped cable carries both electricity and fiber optic lines for data transmission in both directions for the project known as Neptune Canada, an acronym for North-East Pacific Time-series Underwater Networked Experiments. The observatory, with 6 sites for data collection, stretches from Vancouver Island, over the Pacific continental shelf, and into deep ocean.
The projects data collection is available to the public- scientists and students can log onto the internet to see the information. Neptune Canada and its sister program Venus (Victoria Experimental Network Under the Sea) intend to enhance scientists abilities to gather ocean data allowing 24/7 collection, rather than data from infrequent voyages and dives.
With Venus and Neptune, the scientific team can be there any time, to see whats happening on the sea floor and making decisions on how to sample, even though the group is scattered between Victoria and St. Johns.
Part of Neptune Canada aims include applications in the areas of climate change, earthquake and tsunami research, ocean productivity, non-renewable marine resources, and marine animal studies.
Neptune Canada has been in the making for a decade, and its expected to provide information about the ocean floor for the next 25 years.
- Ocean view (Innovation Canada)
Monday, April 12, 2010
Turritopsis nutricula may be the world’s only “immortal” creature.
Jellyfish usually die after propagating but Turritopsis reverts to a sexually immature stage after reaching adulthood and is capable of rejuvenating itself.
The 4-5mm diameter creature, technically known as a hydrozoan, is the only known animal that is capable of reverting to its juvenile polyp state.
Theoretically, this cycle can repeat indefinitely, rendering it potentially immortal.
Though solitary, they are predatory creatures and mature asexually from a polyp stage.
The jellyfish and its reversal of the ageing process is now the focus of research by marine biologists and geneticists. It is thought to achieve the feat through the cell development process of transdifferentiation, in which cells transform from one type to another.
The switching of cell roles is usually seen only when parts of an organ regenerate. However, it appears to occur normally in the Turritopsis life cycle.
Marine biologists say the jellyfish numbers are rocketing because they need not die. Dr Maria Miglietta of the Smithsonian
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Charles Bradford Hudson
Blending Art and Science
By Stephanie Guzik, (Volunteer Science Writer)
An article presenting the lifetime work of the artist Charles Bradford Hudson (1865-1939) may seem out of place at the Museum of Natural History. However, a closer look at his many endeavors reveals his role in the field of ichthyology. In a new biography, Drawn to the Sea, by Victor G. Springer and Kristin A. Murphy of Smithsonian's Division of Fishes, and published as a special issue of the journal Marine Fisheries Review, Hudson's life is presented in intricate detail with abundant illustrations. Hudson's activities ranged widely, including authorship and time in the military. But the mainstay of his career was his art, and of particular interest to the Smithsonian are his many illustrations (80 black and white; 78 color) of fishes, the originals of almost all of which are held in the Division of Fishes' illustration files. Most of this large collection of Hudson's paintings and drawings first appeared in scientific publications issued within a few years of their preparation. Several others were first published as many as 44 to 58 years after Hudson died. Hudson's fish illustrations provide a platform for acknowledging the role that art has played in ichthyology.
Charles Bradford Hudson: Author
Hudson penned a wide variety of publications during his lifetime. His political commentaries touting the work and economic benefits of the United States Fisheries Commission (USFC, later known as the United States Bureau of Fisheries) were written to inform the general public of the federal government's attempt to increase fisheries productivity. While studying art in Paris, he published a historically informative social commentary on the Latin Quarter that provided a lively description of its daily life along with many of his own illustrations depicting the architecture and dress of the time period. There were also two, non-illustrated political commentaries, one in the New York Times castigating Germany for its actions during World War I, and the other, in Popular Science Monthly, presciently predicting the rise of Chinese militarism. Hudson published two historical novels, the first, in 1907, titled "The Crimson Conquest," was a love story set in the time of Pizzaro's conquest of the Incas. It included a controversial romance between a Spanish commander and an Incan princess. His second novel, "The Royal Outlaw," was published in 1917 and used the Bible's Old Testament as a backdrop for a story of the conflict between David and King Saul.
Hudson also penned and illustrated a few popular science articles. One of these, titled "Curious Breadwinners of the Deep," investigated the peculiar habits of various fishes, including the archer fish, which "hunts" its non-aquatic prey by shooting it with a squirt of water, and the mudskipper, which can breathe out of water for long periods of time as long as it stays moist.
Charles Bradford Hudson: War Veteran
While Hudson was writing some of his articles and illustrating those of other authors, he was also serving in the military. He originally enlisted as a soldier in the District of Columbia National Guard in 1888 and ultimately rose to the rank of captain. When the Guard was called to duty with the United States Army during the Spanish American War (1899), he served as a 1st Lieutenant, Company K. During his service in Cuba, he contracted yellow fever, the after effects of which would plague him for many years. Even so, he applied for further enlistment in the Army after the war, but his request was denied because, at age 37, he was considered too old. Regardless of his discharge, many of his friends and colleagues called him Captain Hudson for the remainder of his life.
Charles Bradford Hudson: Artist
The most enduring of Hudson's endeavors was his art. In fact, Hudson's artwork (originals and reproductions) continues to be bought and sold today in the fine art marketplace.
Initially, Hudson was hired to illustrate fishing boats for the USFC's exhibit in the 1888 Cincinnati Centennial Exposition under the direction of J.W. Collins, who, in 1886, led the construction of the USFC's research schooner Grampus. Among other boat illustrations, Hudson generated a series of artistic renderings of the Grampus, inside and out, that were used at the Exposition and in several publications after the event. Hudson's artistic talent led to varied contracts, such as for illustrating taxidermy specimens for a book by William Temple Hornaday, first director of the National Zoological Park, flowers and fruits for the famous horticulturist, Luther Burbank, a book of poems by Juan Lewis (which included a poem entitled "Song of the Sea,"), and open requests by Gump's Department Store in San Francisco for his paintings of seascapes and landscapes – one of which still hangs in the Royal Palace in Sweden.
His skill in painting landscapes brought him to the California Academy of Sciences (CAS), where director Barton Warren Evermann hired him to paint the backgrounds of their groundbreaking new form of exhibit, the diorama. These exhibits featured life-like models of animals posed in a setting meant to look like their natural habitat. The backgrounds of these exhibits were murals up to 18 X 25 ft (5.5 X 7.6 m), painted with intricate detail to match the landscape where these animals would occur in nature. Among the range of murals painted by Hudson were a seascape for a seal exhibit, a desert bird exhibit, two savannah settings for African mammals, and a montane background for an exhibit of grizzly bears.
Fishes, in Living Color
Before becoming the director at CAS, Barton Warren Evermann was an ichthyologist with the USFC. In 1900, shortly after the United States acquired Hawaii as a territory, the USFC launched an expedition to examine its potential fisheries. Hudson was hired by Evermann to produce oil paintings of the life color of fishes caught by the expedition. According to a contemporary article in the Honolulu Evening Bulletin newspaper, Hudson took about a week to complete each painting, using living specimens in an aquarium as his models to render the exact color of each fish.
Hudson's depictions of fishes were all done from 1896 to 1912 and were considered to be the best done by any artist, and are still highly regarded. Along with the Hawaiian fishes and those from the High Sierras, Hudson also painted and sketched specimens from across the United States as well as specimens that ichthyologists had collected in Canada, Argentina, and Japan.
Changing times, Relatively Unchanging Strategies
During Hudson's day, scientists in the field would take detailed notes about the physical traits of each specimen that were often used later in published descriptions of the specimen in academic texts and journals. Specimens would be preserved in jars containing formalin or alcohol, which provided a tangible asset to ichthyologists who would study the specimen years later. In fact, the Smithsonian Division of Fishes houses the world's largest collection of fishes, with over 500,000 lots of specimens (on average, each lot is estimated to include 8 specimens). The collection also includes the largest number of primary types, those specimens that have been used as the bases on which new species were described – and one of the major reasons why the Smithsonian Institution is considered a treasure-trove of information for ichthyological research.
Illustrations like Hudson's, both color and black and white, were important additions to the information collected in the field about each specimen. Black and white illustrations provided ample information about the structure, general anatomy and size of each specimen, while colored illustrations also provided a detailed depiction of the life color of the species. Documenting these physical details is essential because most specimens lose their color and shrink or become deformed when they are preserved. In some cases, specific color markings are the best (and sometimes the only) way to identify a species.
Today, parts of the process of documenting ichthyological specimens have changed, while others remain fairly similar to the methods that were used in Hudson's day. Specimens collected in the field and are still analyzed by scientists who take detailed notes about the specimens and associated information like their habitat and the water depth where they were captured. The specimen is then preserved and deposited in a collection for later research or is used as a voucher.
What has changed is the variety of technologies that have enabled scientists to vastly sharpen the scope of their descriptive efforts. The use of digital photography, genetics, microscopy, and imaging technologies like X-rays and CT scanning allow scientists to add detailed information to existing records of specimens. Additionally, technology has allowed scientists to quickly share and access data online when they need to identify a specimen.
But these new technologies do not replace the information provided by earlier descriptive and collection strategies, and no piece of specimen documentation is more useful than the primary type specimen used for the description of a new species. New technologies can only add to the information we know about a previously described species.
As for the visual documentation of a living specimen, digital photography has largely replaced traditional illustrations of the living specimen as the standard method of recording the color and anatomy of the specimen in the field today. During Hudson's career, color photography was not readily available, was very expensive, and was difficult to use in the field. His illustrations (colored and black and white) and those of other artists provided a still-life, detailed depiction of a real-life specimen. Such Illustrations are still considered scientifically important because they can stress fine anatomical features (e.g., tiny pores, small scales) that are often obscured by liquid (think how water covers up fine scratches on glass). Even today, illustrations like Hudson's are referenced in research and, in fact, are sometimes the only physical records of what a now-extinct (or near-extinct) fish looked like in life.
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1985,
1986,
1987,
1990,
1991,
1988,
1989,
1993,
1992,
1994,
1995,
1996,
1997,
1998,
1999,
2000,
2001,
2002,
2003,
2005,
2006,
2004,
2007,
2008,
2009,
2010,
2011,
2012,
2013,
2014,
2015,
2016,
2017,
2018,
2019,
2020,
2021,
2023,
2022,
2024,
2025,
2026,
2027,
2029,
2030,
2031,
2028,
2032,
2035,
2034,
2033,
2036,
2037,
2039,
2038,
2040,
2041,
2042,
2043,
2044,
2045,
2046,
2047
] |
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2385,
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3412,
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323,
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[
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2,048
| 2.874048
|
Friday, December 31, 2010
Indian computer manufacturer iBerry is about to launch a new laptop computer specifically aimed at schoolchildren and students.
The eBerry EdBook contains educational tools and e-learning programmes and even offers an online tutor. But its retail price of approximately € 617 means millions of poor Indian schoolchildren will have no access to the new technology.
Indian computer manufacturer iBerry is about to launch a new laptop computer specifically aimed at schoolchildren and students. The eBerry EdBook contains educational tools and e-learning programmes and even offers an online tutor. But its retail price of approximately € 617 means millions of poor Indian schoolchildren will have no access to the new technology.
iBerry says creating a “virtual classroom” will make knowledge more accessible to students. “It is more fun to learn something from a laptop than from old fashioned books”, a spokesperson for iBerry told RNW. “It can make learning rich, interesting and vibrant. Students can throw their old school books and bag away”.
The concept of an online tutor is, according to iBerry, its strongest point. Students can learn while their online tutor gives them instructions or keeps an online eye on their work. The laptop also prevents its users from straying away on the internet while studying – users can only access special e-learning tools and programs, while general internet content will not be available without entering a password. These passwords will only be given to teachers and parents.
Click here for a demo of the eBerry edBook.
Source: Radio Netherlands Worldwide
Posted by Helge Scherlund at 31.12.10
Call for papers on Open Education: Changing Educational Practices. The purpose of the 23rd issue of eLearning Papers on Open Education is to further our understanding of the way in which open access and open educational resources affect educational practices in organisations and for learners and other stakeholders, both today and in the future. Guest editor: Ulf-Daniel Ehlers, University Duisburg-Essen. Deadline: 22 January 2011.
ELEARNING PAPERS SPECIAL EDITION 2010.
Breaking down the silos,Transforming education through innovation and technology. For this special issue, eLearning Papers focuses on innovation, networks and collaboration. We understand technology as a means to share, build, inspire and transform learning practices in our knowledge society through continuous innovation.
DOSSIER: ELEARNING PROGRAMME 2000-2006: THE LEGACY.
The eLearning Programme was set up for the effective integration of ICT in education and training systems in Europe, contributing to the quality of education and training and to Europe’s move towards a knowledge-based society. The dossier highlights several of its positive achievements, featuring project descriptions, interviews, documents, etc.
PROJECT OF THE MONTH.
e-KNOWNET aims to develop an innovative and viable mechanism enabled by information and communication technologies (ICT), able to facilitate the flow of new scientific knowledge from the research laboratory to larger, non-expert segments of society, in forms suitable for non-formal learning.
LEARNTEC 2011 - International Trade Fair and Convention for Vocational Education, Learning and IT. 1-3 February 2011 (Karlsruhe, Germany).
The LEARNTEC convention is the only one in Germany that offers a look at the future of the e-learning and education industries, presents successful education projects from the world of business and links these to the products and services offered by exhibitors at the trade fair.
THE WORLD OF LEARNING CONFERENCE AND EXHIBITION 2011. 27-28 September 2011 (Birmingham, UK).
The World of Learning Conference and Exhibition is the essential event for all senior learning decision-makers and buyers. Now is the time to ensure you are using the most cost-effective methods and solutions to deliver more successful learning results.
Transnational Report on the "Use of Media Education"
The transnational report is the summary of the previous report: need analysis, use of media in education and focus group, in the all European countries involved in On air project. This report is the...
Study of UK Online Learning
This is a report funded by the Higher Education Funding Council of England and Wales. It is one of the first attempts to measure the extent of online learning in the higher education system of...
L2L handbook for facilitators
a UNIQUE compilation of innovated and tested approaches, tips and methods to foster Learning to Learn competence....
Creative and Innovative Good practices in Compulsory education in Europe
This report presents 10 Good Practices of creative and innovative teaching and learning from European compulsory education. Each good practice embodies a particular aspect of creative learning and...
Posted by Helge Scherlund at 31.12.10
Thursday, December 30, 2010
Please have a look at this issue of eLearning Papers.
Training and Work
Dietmar Albrecht and Tapio Koskinen writes, "According to some estimates, more than 80% of all learning occurs on the job rather than in tertiary and post-tertiary education. In order to stay relevant and contribute to the human capital of future workers, learning will need to be tightly incorporated in work processes and become an integral part of workers’ and managers’ everyday activities. The same applies to (on-the-job) teaching and instructing, which is increasingly becoming an integral part of subject matter experts’ job descriptions in many companies. As a consequence, knowledge workers are not only on the demand side of on-the-job learning scenarios. They participate in the development of content and often in its delivery as well. This brings new challenges to the integration of learning and work."
Promoting the learning mobility of future workers: experiments with virtual placements in university-business arrangements
By Cornelis Adrianus (Kees-Jan) van Dorp, Alfonso Herrero de Egaña Espinosa de los Monteros , Sirje Virkus, Angelique Lansu, Maria Kocsis Baán.
Supportive systems for continuous and online professional development
By Nils Ove Lennart Jobring, Ingemar Svensson.
The pros and cons of e-portfolios in pre-service teacher training
By Sirin Soyoz.
How to promote social media uptake in VET and adult training systems in Europe – practical example of the “SVEA” European project
By Petra Newrly, Tony Toole, Simona Pede.
Download eLearning Papers n° 22. (PDF)
Posted by Helge Scherlund at 30.12.10
Here’s the latest Technology & Learning's eBooks below.
Student response systems help teachers turn classrooms into places where students are engaged, fulfilled, and in control of their learning.
What's Inside the eBook:
Posted by Helge Scherlund at 30.12.10
Friday, December 10, 2010
A competencE increase of 14% in mathematics was recorded after the second phase of mobile phone supplier Nokia’s Mobile Maths project, which ran from October 2009 to December 2010.
A total of 4 000 learners from 30 schools in three provinces had access to Nokia’s Mobile Maths service during this period to practise mathematics, test their skills by competing with other learners in mathematics and collaborate on maths- related problems with their friends.
The project was initiated in October 2008 and received significant positive response from learners, teachers and schools, particularly during the teacher strike earlier this year. Since its inception, the initiative has shown that access to the service outside school hours accounted for 82% of total access and, in 24 weeks, 62 849 mathematics exercises were attempted by these learners.
However, the main aim of the project is to offer the service to learners free. This was made possible by the strategic partners who joined Nokia in the initiative, including the South Africa-Finland Knowledge Partnership on Information and Communication Technologies, the Department of Basic Education, free instant messaging application MXit, school publisher Maskew Miller Longman and cellular network providers Cell C and MTN.
Cell C corporate social investment manager Mercia Maserumule says that the company has always chosen projects that invest in the youth of South Africa. “We believe that mobile technology can play a significant role as a tool for teaching and learning, as well as closing the digital divide. “The mobile maths learning pilot programme is an innovative solution and Cell C is proud to be part of a project that contributes to positive change in the country,” she notes.
Source: Creamer Media's Engineering News
Posted by Helge Scherlund at 10.12.10
The roles being played by communication tools, in particular mobile phones, in imparting learning lessons to communities across the world were highlighted by speakers at a session on “education through mobile devices” held as part of the World Innovation Summit on Education (WISE) yesterday.
|David Prosser speaks at a session on |
"Education through mobile devices."
Photo: Gulf Times
The session moderated by Director of Research and development of the Cambridge Foundation (UK) Dan Buckley featured, among others, former prime minister of Finland and executive vice-president (Corporate Relations and Responsibility) of Nokia Corporation Esko Aho, and head of programmes for Asia of the BBC World Service Trust (UK) David Prosser.
A manager at Nairobi’s iHub, which is acknowledged as Kenya’s Innovation Hub, Colaco said the Mobile Boot camps held in her country helped create an innovative culture among the country’s youth, especially the university students and more than 500 active trainers have emerged as a result of the camps.
M-Pesa, an educational programme launched in 2007, has so far attracted more than 11.5mn people,
|
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Both opponents and proponents of same-sex marriage appeal to the raising of children in their arguments. In recent Western history, it has been considered essentially feminine or essentially masculine to be a good mother or a good father, respectively. Today, our ideal of child-rearing consists less in parents fulfilling duties that are designated by their sex, and more in their collaboratively raising their children regardless of which parent fulfills which roles. Of course, the “needs” of children are also culturally determined, and the increasing precision with which we aim to guide our offspring’s development has rendered the categories of “male parent’s job” and “female parent’s job” antiquated, unnecessary, and perhaps even distracting.
Opponents of same-sex marriage mourn the death of the traditional mother and father figures. While many in this camp are careful to avoid the claim that same-sex relationships are inherently immoral (though many are not so cautious), they argue that a male-female parenting team offers a balance of power and nurture to children that same-sex parents cannot. Proponents of same-sex marriage, however, focus on the harmlessness of same-sex parenting. They cite studies showing that gay couples raise children just as well as straight parents do, or they focus on the oppression of individuals who wish to get married (which are certainly grounds for legal reform). They rarely make a case to satisfy conservatives’ concerns about the American family in general, such as the divorce rate and the number of children born out of wedlock. Developing an idea of what we can gain from this inevitable redefinition of marriage will help us rebuild and fashion it as an effective humanist institution.
Opponents naturally argue that same-sex marriage would actually further deteriorate marriage, which, in a way, is correct. To redefine it as blind to biological sex, they say, is to remove one of the few remaining pillars of a fragile, endangered, yet deeply important cultural tradition. This line of reasoning will not, however, lead to a clear picture of the damage that same-sex marriage would cause; the role of gender in marriage varies so drastically across cultures and time periods that it is impossible to tell what the institution would gain or lose if we allowed same-sex couples to wed. To defend biological sex as a basis for who may get married is to make the obsolete claim that a difference in sex is indispensable to marriage and parenting. The ultimate futility of this position marks ours as the time for same-sex marriage.
Marriage in History and the Status of Women
Gender has always shaped family and political life. Practices of past societies appear in our own, while we also reject many of the gender conceptions of our predecessors. Ancient Egyptian women, for instance, enjoyed far more legal and economic rights than women in early 20th century Europe or America. Starting around the 31st century B.C. Egyptian women could manage, own and sell property, and they could sue their husbands for divorce; of course, rights and privileges at this time differed primarily across social class rather than gender. Similarly in Ancient Sparta, women controlled their own land in marriage and after divorce. Spartan women also participated in sports and underwent much of the same physical training as men. Their role as women, however, centered upon producing and raising male Spartan warriors, thus balancing the role of the men who defended the state. Spartans also admired distinct personality in a woman just as they would in a man, a refreshing contrast to other cultures in which women are or have been generalized as untrustworthy, hysterical, irrational or weak.
While Spartan women played a “feminine” role in motherhood, their culture’s regard for women as robust participants in society (though they did have limited political rights) resembles the attitude we’ve assumed recently through the first and second waves of feminism. In our case, however, women derive their clout not from a particular female function that is balanced by a male function, but from their accepted equality to men. The feminist movement thus helped to prefigure today’s gender fluidity in parenting and marriage.
Same-sex marriage was destined to come after the women’s movement because it requires the dismantling of any rules binding gender expression to biological sex; in furthering the practical rights of women, the feminist movement began the detachment of social gender from anatomy. “Masculine” and “feminine” qualities and behavior are displayed by people of both sexes whether they are heterosexual or not; thanks in part to the women’s movement, the spectrum of gender across sex is perceived as less grotesque today than it was several decades ago. Sexual and romantic attraction toward men had always been considered feminine, and that toward women had always been considered masculine. The undermining of these orientations as designated for females and males respectively portended the social acceptance of homosexuality, the process we are currently experiencing.
Spousal Rape and Sodomy
Same-sex marriage is an uncanny manifestation of how the second wave feminist movement and its heralds excavated the institution of marriage, making it: a partnership between equals or between two parties who are in some way “the same” (“homo”); releasing emphasis on the difference between men and women. Evidence of this reform is the relatively recent legal possibility for a husband to be charged with raping his wife, whereas prior to the feminist movement the marriage contract alone was lasting consent to sex. Spousal rape laws echoed the death of officiated roles of an empowered man and subservient woman. Opponents of same-sex marriage as well would probably not advocate the repeal of these laws that resulted from the era they often cite as a warning not to mess with marriage.
The implementation of spousal rape laws signified an ethical breakthrough that anticipates same-sex marriage as a legitimate partnership. Once there is no code of marital behavior that is defined by biological sex, the importance of biological sex within marriage falls away; the institution becomes one of two consenting adults. Interestingly, the striking down of laws against sodomy in the United States progressed over roughly the same time period as laws against spousal rape were established. In other words, “permissible” sex was being redefined such that ethics took precedence over a particular physical expression; whether both parties consented to sex became more important than whether their sex act was approved.
Gender in Marriage Today
Riding the third wave of feminism, we are no longer in a position to dictate how a woman should be a wife or mother, nor can we dictate how a man should be a husband or father. Neither are we in a position to say exactly how a married couple should treat each other, as long as they behave within the law. Upholding love and commitment as essential to marriage seems like a good place to start, but it is impossible to carve out two specific roles that each spouse should fulfill in order for their marriage to succeed; the details are best left up to the individuals in the relationship, though the high divorce rate suggests that we could use some guidance. Because it is no longer politically plausible for the state to dictate marital behavior, we are unfortunately encouraged to look to various commercial media for lifestyles or people to emulate. For support and counsel, religion would probably be a better place to look, but so many religious people have pitted themselves so loudly and obstinately against same-sex marriage that it can be difficult to take their marital advice seriously; their arguments simply cannot hold up to current, more ethical conceptions of gender. The growing tension between modern gender ethics and religion is part of what has shaken the institution of marriage to its core.
Both the government and we as citizens can, however, articulate gender-neutral ideals for child-rearing, such as a two-parent home. The state has an interest in future generations as well as an obligation to promote favorable conditions for children. Physical health is the bare bones of the state’s (and of course parents’) responsibility to children, with mental health following close behind. On these fronts, the food industry and commercialism are far bigger hazards to the well-being of American children than same-sex marriage. Additional concerns are promiscuity and early sexualization, areas where liberals might try to level with conservatives. Some people fear that same-sex marriage will exacerbate these hazards, but such panic stems from an exaggerated association of queerness with sluttiness; they insist that there is a homosexual agenda against sexual morality instead of assimilating a renewed sexual ethics of physical and mental health.
Opponents of same-sex marriage also claim that children brought up by a gay couple will be “confused” about their own gender identities. Gender itself certainly should not be taboo; rather it should be recognized as fluid across the sexes. The overwhelming majority of children attend school and activities with others who have varying gender expressions and sexual orientations; to push back on same-sex marriage in the name of protecting children only misleads them from a completely safe and interesting aspect of reality that they form part of. Naturally, we should protect children from threats, but we should not lie to them about where we are in history. Same-sex marriage solidifies in a cultural institution the ethical progress we have made through gender equality. Its legalization would show that we hold a couple in a committed, loving relationship in higher esteem than a couple who merely fits an anatomical bill; it would nurture marriage today, and lay solid ground for marriages of the future.
Jackie Colvin is a freelance writer living in Chicago.
The current Mama Grizzly phenomenon, however, smacks of such nostalgia with its gussied up image of an empowered mother -wife as opposed to an empowered female. I suspect they’re onto something with this line of reasoning, but it would have more to do with losing the housewife who cooks dinner (instead of picking it up from McDonald’s or the freezer section) than a problem with sexual morality; food preparation is not inherently feminine, but we don’t seem to prize homemade meals as essential to good parenting.
More precisely, it involves two consenting adults who are not related such that their marriage would be illegal, though the relevant laws differ across jurisdictions.
The first state to strike down laws against sodomy was Illinois in 1962, and by 2
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Page 1: Biography
FitzGerald, James Edward
Journalist, provincial superintendent, politician, public servant
This biography, written by W. David McIntyre, was first published in the Dictionary of New Zealand Biography in 1990.
James Edward FitzGerald is said to have been born in 1818 at Bath, England. He was the youngest son of Gerald FitzGerald, landowner, of Kilminchy, Queen's County, Ireland, and his second wife, Catherine O'Brien. Though FitzGerald cherished his Irish ancestry he was educated in England, at schools in Bath and at Christ's College, Cambridge, where he graduated BA in 1842.
A commission in the Royal Engineers eluded him because of poor eyesight and instead he joined the British Museum in 1844 as a junior assistant in the Department of Antiquities, rising to become, on 17 January 1848, the assistant secretary of the museum. For two years before commencing work, he went on walking tours in Scotland and Ireland, where he observed and sketched the people he met. He became aware of the problem of poverty and began to think of possible solutions.
During the Irish famine, in 1846, he wrote a pamphlet advocating relief committees and also devised a scheme for the systematic colonisation of Vancouver Island, which was to be called 'New Ireland'. His advocacy of the scheme led him to challenge the Hudson's Bay Company claim for proprietary rights to the island by writing pamphlets and letters to the press. This agitation brought him into association with W. E. Gladstone and Lord Lincoln, who led the attack on the company in Parliament. FitzGerald was also associated with Lord Lyttelton, Sir William Molesworth, Charles Adderley, Joseph Hume, Richard Cobden, Baron Wodehouse and others in the Colonial Reform Society, of which he became first secretary in 1850. He also toyed briefly with the idea of fostering colonisation in India. After a meeting with Edward Gibbon Wakefield in 1849 he became secretary of the Canterbury Association and helped to plan a Church of England colony in New Zealand. He drafted the constitution of the Society of Canterbury Colonists and was appointed emigration agent of the association.
FitzGerald's marriage on 22 August 1850 at the church of St George, Bloomsbury, London, to Frances (Fanny) Erskine Draper, 18-year-old daughter of a merchant, had an unfortunate sequel in a bitter personal quarrel with his father-in-law. Soon after, the couple sailed for Canterbury on the Charlotte Jane. When they reached Lyttelton on 16 December 1850, FitzGerald was the first to leap ashore.
On arrival FitzGerald was appointed sub-inspector of police by the colonial government and carried on as emigration agent for the association in New Zealand. He was the founding editor of the Lyttelton Times, which appeared as a weekly on 11 January 1851. He soon acquired a small house high on the hillside overlooking Lyttelton Harbour, but in 1853 moved to the Springs station, west of Christchurch, which he ran as a cattle and dairy farm. A somewhat unsuccessful runholder, dogged by heart disease, FitzGerald nevertheless emerged as a leading figure in early Canterbury.
In the first election for superintendent of the province of Canterbury under the 1852 constitution, FitzGerald, a natural orator, won a convincing victory over his rivals, Colonel James Campbell and Henry Tancred. Consistent with the aims of the Colonial Reform Society he was the first to introduce a form of responsible government into New Zealand. He endeavoured to fill the void between the provincial executive (the superintendent and his administration) and the legislature (the provincial council) by creating an executive council, which included members of the elected council. He intended to make the executive responsible to the legislature, and John Hall accepted this as 'a system of responsible Government adapted to our peculiar circumstances'.
During FitzGerald's superintendency (1853–57) the population doubled, from 3,000 to 6,230; the province assumed the debts of the Canterbury Association in return for such assets as Hagley Park and Christchurch's squares; the price of land was reduced from £3 to £2 per acre; and a road connecting Christchurch and the port of Lyttelton was completed. FitzGerald effected a dramatic opening on 24 August 1857 by driving his wide, big-wheeled dog-cart over the hazardous route, via Sumner, in four hours. The association's aim of a college was fulfilled, largely through Henry Sewell's efforts, but FitzGerald probably bestowed its name, Christ's College, after his Alma Mater.
FitzGerald also played an important if brief role in colonial politics. As MHR for Lyttelton in the first General Assembly in 1854 he was the only provincial superintendent to attend the first session, and moved the address in reply. After Edward Gibbon Wakefield's motion of 2 June 1854 calling for responsible government was passed, Colonel R. H. Wynyard, the acting governor, decided to add three 'unofficials' from the House to the Executive Council. He summoned FitzGerald as leader, with Henry Sewell and Frederick Weld as colleagues. This arrangement was accepted under the misapprehension that full ministerial responsibility would follow. The putative 'ministers' regarded themselves as a cabinet and expected the permanent officials shortly to retire. But the latter had been appointed by royal warrant and Wynyard felt obliged to consult the Colonial Office. FitzGerald was, in effect, leader of government business in the Assembly and merely one of a mixed ministry of officials and unofficials which formed an interim link between executive and legislature.
After seven weeks of frustration the 'unofficials' resigned and FitzGerald's aspirations collapsed amid recriminations. When responsible government was finally tried in April 1856, after Wynyard had secured authority from London, FitzGerald was too ill to attend the opening of the Assembly and Sewell was summoned as first premier. Unable to get a majority he resigned after less than three weeks and another attempt by William Fox also failed. The first effective ministry was led by Edward Stafford with Sewell as colonial treasurer.
FitzGerald attended the House towards the end of the session in spite of frequent attacks of angina, and by July 1856 doctors were telling him to rest for at least a year. He resigned his seat in the Assembly in 1857, declined to stand for re-election as superintendent and returned to England, where he acted as Canterbury's emigration agent for three years. In this role he dispatched 4,000 migrants and promoted construction of or additions to a provincial railway system, Christchurch Cathedral and the infant Christ's College. He was offered the governorships of both British Columbia and Queensland, but declined for health reasons.
Back in New Zealand in 1860 he returned to his Springs station, but could not stay away from politics, representing Akaroa on the Canterbury Provincial Council from June 1861 to December 1863. His chief contribution, at this stage, was vehement but fruitless opposition to the scheme of his successor, W. S. Moorhouse, for a direct rail tunnel linking Lyttelton and Christchurch and costing over £¼ million.
FitzGerald's most forthright attacks appeared as editorials in the Press, which he had founded. The first issue appeared on 25 May 1861. Backed initially by a syndicate of Canterbury runholders, the paper prospered and on St Patrick's Day 1863 became the province's first daily. Although FitzGerald became sole proprietor in 1862, he incurred large debts in his successful development of the paper. By 1868 he had to relinquish control to a company.
FitzGerald returned to colonial politics during the wars of the 1860s. He was MHR for Ellesmere (1862–66) and for Christchurch (1866–67). Motivated by practical as well as idealistic considerations, he was an outspoken advocate of Maori rights, race assimilation and peace. In a pamphlet in 1860 he had called for the transfer of Maori affairs from the governor to the responsible ministry and had opposed Governor Thomas Gore Browne's alternative scheme for placing Maori affairs under an appointed council responsible to the Crown.
On 6 August 1862 he made an eloquent plea for equal civil and political rights for all New Zealanders. He suggested that Maori chiefs should be brought into the administration and into the Legislative Council and that the Maori people should receive one third of the representation in the House of Representatives, subordinate legislative bodies and courts of law. He wanted to recognise the Maori King and let him be 'Superintendent of his own province'. He declared that 'there are only two possible futures before the Maori people. You must be prepared to win their confidence, or you must be prepared to destroy them'. He castigated the land confiscation policy as an 'enormous crime', opposed colonisation by military settlers and called for the withdrawal of British troops.
In 1865 he was minister for native affairs for the last two months of Weld's 'self-reliant ministry'. He introduced measures which were intended to defuse racial tensions but which failed in this purpose. The Native Rights Act, confirming Maori people in the rights of British subjects, was not
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]
] |
[
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] |
2,048
| 2.469313
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Statins and diabetes mellitus are currently widely researched and hotly debated by scientists from around the world. Many studies that used the placebo effect were able to prove that statins significantly reduce the risk of developing a cardiovascular disease.
At the same time, there are a number of observations pointing to the fact that statins in type 2 diabetes can increase the risk of disease. In particular, diabetics have an increase in blood sugar, which means that they have to take Metformin or switch to Sartans.
Meanwhile, many doctors continue to prescribe medications for diabetes. How true are such actions of physicians and whether it is possible for patients with diabetes to take statins?
Cholesterol is a natural chemical compound that is involved in the production of female and male sex hormones, provides a normal level of fluid in the cells of the body.
However, with its overabundance in the body can develop a serious disease – atherosclerosis. This leads to disruption of the normal operation of blood vessels and often causes severe consequences, because of what a person can suffer. The patient usually has hypertension due to the accumulation of cholesterol plaques.
Statins are pharmacological drugs that reduce blood lipids or cholesterol and low-density lipoproteins – the transport form of cholesterol. Drugs of therapy are synthetic, semi-synthetic, natural, depending on their type of origin.
The most pronounced hypolipidemic effect is atorvastatin and rosuvastatin of synthetic origin. Such drugs have the most evidence base.
The first thing statins suppress enzymes that play a major role in the allocation of cholesterol. Since the amount of endogenous lipids at this point is up to 70 percent, the mechanism of drug exposure is considered to be the key in eliminating the problem.
Also, the drug promotes an increase in the number of receptors to the transport form of cholesterol in hepatocytes. These substances can catch lipoproteins that circulate in the blood, and transpose them into the liver cells, where the process of removing the waste products of harmful substances from the blood takes place.
Including statins do not allow fats to be absorbed into the intestines, because of which the level of exogenous cholesterol decreases.
In addition to the basic useful functions, statins have a pleiotropic effect, that is, they can act immediately on several “targets”, improving the general state of a person. In particular, the patient taking the above described drugs experiences the following health improvements:
- Improves the condition of the inner shell of blood vessels;
- The activity of inflammatory processes decreases;
- Prevents formation of blood clots;
- Spasms of the arteries supplying the myocardium with blood are eliminated;
- In the myocardium, the growth of the renewed blood vessels is stimulated;
- Myocardial hypertrophy decreases.
That is, we can safely say that statins have a very positive therapeutic effect. The doctor chooses the most effective dosage, while even the minimal dosage is able to have a therapeutic effect.
The greatest benefit is the smallest number of side effects in the treatment of statins.
Today, many physicians believe that lowering blood cholesterol in type 2 diabetes is an important step towards recovery. Therefore, these drugs, like the Sartans, are prescribed on a par with medicines such as Metformin. Including statins are often used even with normal cholesterol to prevent atherosclerosis.
The drugs of this group are distinguished by their composition, dosage, side effects. The last factor doctors pay special attention, so the therapy is conducted under the supervision of a doctor. Next, several types of drugs for lowering cholesterol in the blood are indicated.
The drug Lovastatin is produced using molds that pass through the fermentation process.
A similar drug is the drug Simvastatin.
Also has a similar composition and action drug Pravastatin.
To fully synthetic drugs include Atorvastatin, Fluvastatin and Rosuvastatin.
The most effective and widely used drug is rosuvastatin. According to statistical data, the cholesterol in the human blood after treatment with such a drug for six weeks is reduced by 45-55 percent. The least effective medicine is Pravastatin, it lowers the cholesterol level by only 20-35 percent.
The cost of the preparations is significantly different from each other, depending on the manufacturer’s firm. If 30 tablets of Simvastatin can be bought at a pharmacy for about $ 50, the price for Rosuvastatin varies from 200 to 600 dollars.
The first treatment effect can be achieved no earlier than a month after regular medication. Following the results of therapy, the production of cholesterol by the liver decreases, the absorption of cholesterol from the received products decreases in the intestines, the already formed cholesterol plaques in the cavity of the blood vessels are eliminated.
Statins are indicated for admission when:
- heart disease, the threat of heart attacks;
- diabetes mellitus, to prevent or reduce complications associated with blood circulation.
Sometimes the appearance of atherosclerotic plaques can be observed even at low cholesterol values.
In this case, the drug can also be recommended for treatment.
Diabetes mellitus and cardiovascular diseases
With diabetes, there is a high risk of negative consequences in the work of the cardiovascular system. In diabetics, the probability of developing heart pathologies is five to ten times higher than in people with normal blood sugar levels. In 70% of such patients, due to complications, a lethal outcome is observed.
As noted by the representatives of the American Heart Association, people with diabetes mellitus and those diagnosed with ischemic disease have an absolutely identical risk of death due to a cardiovascular catastrophe. Thus, diabetes is no less serious than CHD.
According to statistics, coronary heart disease is detected in 80 percent of people with type 2 diabetes. In 55 percent of cases in such people, death occurs due to myocardial infarction and in 30 percent – because of a stroke. The reason for this is the presence of specific risk factors in patients.
To such risk factors in diabetics can be attributed:
- Increased blood sugar;
- The emergence of insulin resistance;
- Increase in the concentration of insulin in the blood of a person;
- Development of proteinuria;
- Increase in the sharp fluctuations in glycemic parameters.
In general, the risk of developing cardiovascular diseases increases with:
- burdened heredity;
- a certain age;
- the presence of bad habits;
- insufficient physical activity;with arterial hypertension;
- diabetes mellitus.
An increase in the concentration of cholesterol in the blood, a change in the number of atherogenic and anti-atherogenic lipids are independent factors that increase the risk of developing cardiovascular diseases. As shown by various scientific studies, after the normalization of these indicators, the probability of the appearance of pathologies is markedly reduced.
If we consider that diabetes affects the blood vessels, then it seems logical to choose as a method of treating statins. But is it really the right way to treat the disease, can patients choose the metformin or statins tested for years?
Statins and diabetes: compatibility and advantage
As recent studies have shown, statins and type 2 diabetes mellitus may be compatible. Such drugs reduce the incidence of not only the incidence, but also the mortality due to cardiovascular diseases among people with diabetics. The drug Metformin, like statins, has a different effect on the body – it lowers the glucose in the blood.
Most often, a drug under the name of atorvastatin is subjected to scientific research. Also today the drug Rosuvastatin has become very popular. Both these drugs are statins and have a synthetic origin. Scientists have carried out several types of research, including CARDS, PLANET and TNT CHD-DM.
The CARDS study was conducted with the participation of diabetics of the second type of disease, whose low-density lipoprotein indices were not higher than 4.14 mmol / liter. Also among patients it was necessary to select those who did not have pathologies in the field of peripheral, cerebral and coronary arteries.
Each person who participated in the study necessarily had at least one risk factor:
- Increased arterial pressure;
- Diabetic retinopathy;
- Smoking of tobacco products.
Each patient took Atorvastatin 10 mg per day. The control group had to take a placebo.
According to the results of the experiment among people who took statins, the risk of stroke decreased by 50 percent, and the likelihood that myocardial infarction would develop, unstable angina, sudden coronary death, decreased by 35 percent. Since positive results were obtained and obvious advantages were revealed, the studies were stopped two years earlier than planned.
During the PLANET study, the nephroprotective capabilities of Atorvastatin and Rosuvastatin have been studied and compared. The first experiment of PLANET I involved patients who diagnosed the first and second type of diabetes mellitus. Participants in the PLANET II experiment are people who have normal blood glucose levels.
Each of their studied patients differed in high cholesterol and moderate proteinuria – the presence of protein in the urine. All participants were randomly split into two groups. The first group took atorvastatin 80 mg every day, and the second group took 40 mg of rosuvastatin. The studies were conducted for 12 months.
As shown by the scientific experiment, in patients with diabetes, who took atorvastatin, the protein values in the urine decreased by 15 percent.
The group taking the second drug, the reduction in protein levels was 20 percent.
In general, proteinuria has not disappeared from Rosuvastatin. At the same time, the glomerular filtration rate of urine slowed, while the data from Atorvastatin appeared to be practically unchanged.
The study PLANET I revealed in 4 percent
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[
2048
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2,048
| 2.616113
|
Knowledge is a critical competitive differentiator when it comes to driving organizational performance. Regardless of industry niche and business offering, employees across any organization possess knowledge worth sharing.
Although many businesses have increasingly realized how important it is to cultivate a work environment that respects and fosters the accumulation and application of knowledge, only 9% of them are willing to address this trend.
As a business owner, you must understand that at the heart of every successful venture lies a well-formulated plan, which requires deep knowledge, technical proficiency, and effective employee collaboration to implement. That’s where knowledge management comes into play.
What is knowledge management?
Knowledge management refers to a set of tools, processes, and practices that help enhance an organization’s productivity.
Knowledge management (KM) is the process of capturing, storing, sharing, and managing knowledge and information for an organization.
It promotes an integrated approach to identifying and capturing knowledge, storing it in the form of assets like documents or software, and facilitating its easy retrieval and dissemination within the business. Knowledge management systems include FAQs, community forums, training programs, tutorials, and how-to guides.
Looking back in time
The quest for consuming information has always been central to human behavior. So it isn’t surprising to know that the concept of ‘knowledge management’ has been around for centuries before gaining prominence in the early/mid-eighties due to business guru Peter Drucker.
Originally, knowledge management meant documenting everything. However, this led to complicated and extensive stores of documents which quickly became outdated and were hard to sift through – frustrating employees to the point where they had to reinvent the wheel each time.
Moreover, knowledge tended to be locked away in team silos with a general resistance to sharing, as it was believed that ‘knowledge was power,’ and to give it away meant losing that power.
It soon became apparent that new approaches were needed to capture and store knowledge for efficient use and to encourage a culture of knowledge sharing, resulting in the concept of knowledge management we know today.
Main areas of knowledge management
There are three main types of knowledge: explicit, tacit, and implicit. While explicit knowledge consists of documented facts, tacit knowledge is more about innate abilities or on-the-job experience and can be challenging to share.
On the other hand, information that isn’t tangible originally but can be transferred into a tangible form, such as dictation of a speech, is implicit knowledge. Knowledge management captures and disseminates all these types of knowledge. There are three main aspects to it you must understand.
This involves identifying all current and potential knowledge sources in your business. While gathering documents and brochures is just one aspect of it, you must also identify subject matter experts whose knowledge can be captured in the form of shareable content.
This is where all of the knowledge content is stored in an easy-to-use retrieval system under suitable categories. For example, in the case of tacit knowledge, the experts in your team can write what they know in the form of case studies, blog posts, or even videos or infographics.
This involves disseminating the knowledge to anyone who needs it and encouraging your employees to use the system regularly. Appointing knowledge management champions and incentivizing learning can help with this.
Understanding the knowledge management process
Most organizations typically follow a four-step process to catalog their knowledge content into an accessible system. Here is what you can take away from them:
This is the first step, where the sources of knowledge are identified and where critical knowledge is currently stored. It requires meticulous attention to detail and a keen understanding of your business, usually conducted by subject matter experts.
You should identify any redundant or incorrect knowledge sources at this stage and decide whether to update them for accuracy or to scrap them as unnecessary.
At this stage, you should chalk out a consistent, comprehensive, and easy-to-use system by which all the collected knowledge is stored and categorized. This step can include scanning documents and using metadata and indexing to ensure that knowledge is appropriately stacked and accessed.
This is where you establish and promote a cultural shift toward knowledge. Finally, all the knowledge gathered and sorted in the previous two steps needs to be disseminated within the organization so that your employees can use it in their daily tasks.
You can appoint ‘knowledge leaders’ who will champion the use of the knowledge management system among their teammates or even develop an internal marketing program to get people excited about the new system.
4. Share and benefit
The most comprehensive knowledge management system in the world can come to naught if employees do not know how to use it. At this step, therefore, you can develop training programs that demonstrate how to use the system. There should also be a provision for your employees to ask for help or make suggestions, as needed.
Benefits of knowledge management for your business
A Deloitte survey states that 80% of professionals agree that sharing knowledge helps them gain a competitive advantage and add real client value by considerably bringing down customer support costs. In fact, 74% of organizations believe that effective investment in knowledge management boosts business productivity by 10–40%.
So while effective knowledge management improves employee productivity and reduces operational costs, it also offers eight key benefits.
1. Faster access to up-to-date knowledge
Knowledge management promotes the centralization of all knowledge content in real-time on a user-friendly system that anyone can access. That means your employees can quickly get the information they need rather than having to ask around about who might have the document in question.
2. Enhanced and clear communication lines
While the paucity of information hinders employees in many ways, and information overload has its problems, a knowledge management system can send personalized RSS feeds to each employee based on their search history and interest areas, giving them valuable inputs without overwhelming them.
3. Greater availability of scarce expertise
Every employee brings a unique set of skills and experiences to the table, many of which can prove invaluable in problem solving and stratification. However, particularly in medium to large organizations, employees often do not know anyone outside their immediate teams.
With a knowledge management system, collaboration becomes easier as your employees can drop a line to relevant stakeholders from any team having the relevant skills and expertise.
Similarly, subject matter experts can be invited to share blog posts or white papers on their topics of expertise or to participate in community discussions or open houses where your employees across the organization ask them questions.
4. Improved decision-making process
Did you know 44% of employees handle knowledge transfer rather poorly? By having easy access to your organization’s repertory of knowledge, decision-making becomes much easier for your employees.
They can pull up case studies or tutorials as and when they need to or use enterprise collaboration tools to quickly connect with teams whose experiences and perspectives could enrich the decisions.
5. Continued professional development
With the help of a knowledge management system, your employees can look up answers to questions that they have and improve their funds of knowledge by studying the content uploaded on the system.
The more an employee becomes knowledgeable about a particular process or product, the greater their chances of contributing to projects related to that area. Knowledge management, allows for the professional development of employees without you having to spend anything extra.
6. Enhanced customer satisfaction
When knowledge access and sharing becomes easier, your customer service team, for instance, can answer customer questions faster and more accurately and also reach out to team members in other departments for clarification.
Speed is a significant differentiator from the competition, as is the accuracy of the response. Better customer resolution means more satisfied customers, which means more wins for your business in the long run.
7. Reduction of redundant efforts
Don’t be surprised when we tell you employees spend 30% of their time, on average, looking for or recreating information that already exists.
Through streamlined processes and consistent knowledge standards, your employees can avoid repeatedly looking up the same things and wasting time. In addition, the reduction of redundant effort improves employee motivation and speeds up operations throughout your organization.
8. Increased focus on fostering innovation
According to Darroch, organizations with well-developed knowledge management practices are more likely to innovate successfully. That’s because knowledge management promotes effective collaboration and knowledge sharing, which can stimulate innovation and brainstorming.
That enables product launches, process upgrades, technological advancements, and other new ventures that can help your organization stay ahead of the curve.
Knowledge management best practices
Knowledge is an asset but managing something intangible or immeasurable requires you to get your basics right. Unfortunately, despite the positives of knowledge management, the majority of businesses are unable to glean most of the concept. Interestingly, a huge reason is the issues that lie with their organizational culture, i.e. how knowledge management is promoted among employees.
In a survey published in Critical Knowledge Transfer, 53% of C-suite respondents said the losses incurred due to poor knowledge transfer among employees fell somewhere between $50–$299K per employee. To avoid finding yourself in a similar situation, you must implement proper knowledge management techniques in your business:
Understand your company culture
The effectiveness of a knowledge management system depends on how people use it, rather than how expensive or elaborate the system is.
It is thus essential for you to understand the current workplace culture and what behaviors your employees display. For instance, if the team is used to learning from visual content, implementing a text-heavy knowledge management system may not yield optimal results.
Implement knowledge management in incremental step
Human beings often tend to view any significant new changes with suspicion, and abruptly implemented changes will lead to them shying away.
Instead, have a step-by-step plan in place to introduce the knowledge management system to your team and let them get used to it. This also provides valuable insights on user adoption at each stage and any glitches that need to be fixed.
Debrief employees after important events
In addition to formal knowledge content like instruction guides or case studies, informal knowledge like debrief or review sessions after essential meetings can also help your employees retain new information better. Even a quick session to summarize the vital points, identify areas of improvement and define the way forward can be beneficial.
Boost system use through rewards and appreciation
An excellent
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]
] |
[
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] |
2,048
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|Latvia||September 23, 2019|
After more than 50 years as part of the Soviet Union, Latvia regained independence in 1991. As a sovereign state, Latvia set out on the road to independent democracy and a market economy. The first free elections for the national parliament, the Saeima, took place in 1993. With only minor reservations, international observers evaluated these and all subsequent elections to date as free and fair.
This report on the status of Latvia’s transformation to democracy and a market economy assesses a period corresponding to the most recent legislative term, from October 1998 to October 2002—a period shaped by the policies of three different governments under prime ministers Vilis Krištopans, Andris Šķēle and Andris Bērziņš. In the past five years, and particularly in the context of the accession negotiations with the European Union, Latvia has achieved successes in a number of the areas examined in this report. In October 2002, the EU set 2004 as the target date for Latvia’s accession.
However, major shortcomings remain in the integration of the Russian minority and in the fight against corruption—areas where Latvia’s transformation management to date has brought only limited success. The new government under Einars Repše, which took office after the October 2002 elections, has promised to continue its predecessors’ reform policies.
2. History and characteristics of transformation
Latvia’s transformation process bears the hallmarks of contemporaneous political and socioeconomic transitions and of the processes of nation building and state formation. At the end of the 1980s, a strong movement for Latvian independence took shape against the backdrop of Mikhail Gorbachev’s reform policy (perestroika) and the cautious liberalization this brought in the USSR. In October 1988, various reform movements joined forces to establish the Latvian Popular Front (LPF). In the 1989 elections for the USSR Congress of People’s Deputies, and again in the 1990 elections to the Supreme Soviet, the LPF won enough seats to force the communists from power in Latvia.
In May 1990, the Latvian parliament voted to restore Latvia’s national independence. The subsequent transition phase, which featured parallel Latvian and Soviet governance structures, ended in 1991 in the aftermath of the Soviet military’s failed attempt to overthrow Gorbachev. The independent Republic of Latvia won international recognition on 21 August 1991. In 1993, Latvia set up its own state institutions by fully restoring the prewar 1922 Constitution, which since has been modernized via numerous amendments.
In addition to this transformation of political institutions, Latvia’s transition from a centrally planned system to a market economy required a complete overhaul of its key economic institutions. The primary goal of the new economic policy was to establish a market economy that was no longer dependent on the Russian economy but was instead oriented to the EU. The establishment of an independent central bank and the currency reform of 1992 introduced a monetary and fiscal policy that succeeded in reducing the rate of inflation from 951 % (1992) to 8 % (1997).
During the first years of the young republic, the government flanked this stability-oriented monetary policy with a largely successful budgetary policy; in 1997, Latvia even achieved a budget surplus for the first time. “Small” privatization proceeded at a brisk pace and was largely completed by 1998. However, the privatization of some key large enterprises in the transportation, energy and communication sectors lagged behind. Apart from a few institutional shortcomings, the fundamental framework for free competition was already in place before 1998. After a drop in economic performance in the first half of the 1990s, the tide turned. Latvia’s GDP rose by 3.3 % in 1996 and by
8.6 % the following year.
3. Examination of criteria for democracy and a market economy
In transforming its political order, Latvia made progress in some areas evaluated during the period under study. Definite shortcomings remain in the areas of state identity (citizenship for the Russian minority) and the rule of law (political corruption and judicial inefficiency). Latvia has not attained full institutional and democratic stability, not least because the party system is not very well established. However, there is no evidence of threats to the stability of the system.
3.1.1 Political regime
(1) State identity: Since regaining independence, Latvia has faced issues of state identity concerning its territorial borders and citizenship requirements. It has managed to resolve the dispute over territorial integrity: Russia, which had already withdrawn most of its military troops from Latvia in 1994, vacated its last remaining outpost (the radar station at Skrunda) at the end of 1999.
The most significant issue in Latvia is the question of which people qualify as citizens of the state. Because the Republic of Latvia considers itself a continuation of the first (interwar) republic, in 1992 citizenship was granted automatically only to people who had lived within Latvia’s borders before 1940 and to their descendants. This excluded approximately 40 % of Latvia’s population, primarily ethnic Russians, who were treated as foreigners. Not until 1995 were naturalization procedures established by law. Even then, these procedures could not be described as democratically fair; consequently, they drew criticism from the Council of Europe, the European Court of Human Rights, the EU and the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE).
A 1998 referendum amended the right to citizenship, liberalizing the naturalization process in two ways. First, the “naturalization window”—which each year had allowed only individuals born in specific years to acquire citizenship by naturalization—was eliminated. Second, children born in Latvia were granted automatic citizenship; this right (ius soli) was extended retroactively to children born to non-Latvian parents after independence was restored in 1991. As a result, the annual number of naturalizations rose from 4,439 (1998) to 9,844 (2002)—still only a modest improvement, considering that more than 500,000 persons (mostly ethnic Russians) remain without citizenship.
Latvia’s administrative systems leave much to be desired, though they have improved as legislation was brought into line with EU jurisprudence in preparation for accession. Shortcomings remain particularly in implementing reforms of and by the administration, mainly because of underfinancing and the lack of professional development for civil service personnel.
Table 2: Naturalization data (1998–2002)
Source: Home page of the Republic of Latvia Naturalization Board: www.np.gov.lv/fakti/statistika.htm.
(2) Political participation: All Latvian citizens have the right to vote and the right to stand for election. According to international organizations (and aside from the restrictions on citizenship), all elections to date have met the general standards of fair elections. In May 2002, the Latvian parliament removed from the election law a clause that had required candidates for public office to demonstrate proficiency in Latvian at the highest level of a six-tiered rating system. In the past, this language requirement had limited the political participation of naturalized ethnic Russians—an infringement that the European Court of Human Rights had noted with disapproval in April 2002. Observers of the autumn 2002 parliamentary elections gave Latvia good marks not only for its removing the language clause, but also for the citizenry’s high level of confidence in the process of administering elections and for greater transparency with regard to the financing of political parties and the media.
They criticized the occasional inspection of identity papers at polling places by the police rather than by the election commissions, as well as the inadequate assurance of privacy in some voting booths and the broadcasting of campaign advertisements on the radio and television even on election day. From the standpoint of democracy and an integrative policy toward minorities, the high proportion of non-citizen residents, and their consequent exclusion from elections, remains particularly problematic. In the 2002 elections, this effectively disenfranchised approximately 22 % of Latvia’s population.
The elected government obeys the principles of an open, competitive election process. No veto powers pose a risk to the political process. Free media provide for open and pluralistic political reporting, but are somewhat restricted. A language quota for commercial television and radio requires most programming (at least 75 %) to be broadcast in Latvian. The adoption of a bill of rights in 1998 gave constitutional status to the right of association, which is also accorded de facto respect. Ethnic Latvian and ethnic Russian citizens alike have extremely low confidence in Latvia’s political parties.
(3) Rule of law: The separation of executive, legislative and judicial powers is anchored in the Latvian constitution. For the most part, the executive respects the independence of the other two branches. There are no apparent efforts to undermine the authority of the constitutional court. Indeed, when a political conflict in 1999 brought demands that the constitutional court be disbanded, that body emerged stronger than before. It arrives at its decisions independently; between 1998 and 2002, it certainly issued rulings that did not reflect the government’s views. In isolated instances, however, there are signs of attempts by the executive branch (especially the Justice Ministry) to exert influence on the courts, which de jure are independent. Institutionally, Latvia still needs to establish clear criteria for judicial
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373,
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375,
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378,
379,
380,
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383,
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384,
385,
387,
386,
389,
388,
390,
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392,
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395,
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398,
399,
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468,
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477,
478,
476,
479,
480,
481,
482,
483,
484,
485,
486,
487,
488,
489,
490,
491,
492,
494,
495,
493,
496,
497,
499,
498,
500,
501,
502,
503,
504,
505,
506,
507,
508,
509,
511,
510,
512,
513,
514,
515,
516,
517,
518,
519,
520,
522,
521,
523,
524,
525,
527,
526,
528,
529,
530,
531,
532,
535,
534,
533,
538,
539,
537,
536,
540,
541,
542,
543,
544,
547,
546,
545,
548,
550,
549,
551,
552,
553,
554,
555,
557,
556,
558,
559,
561,
560,
563,
562,
565,
566,
564,
567,
569,
568,
570,
571,
572,
574,
573,
575,
576,
577,
578,
579,
580,
581,
582,
583,
584,
587,
586,
585,
588,
589,
590,
591,
592,
593,
594,
595,
596,
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599,
598,
600,
601,
602,
603,
606,
607,
605,
604,
608,
609,
611,
610,
612,
614,
615,
613,
619,
618,
616,
617,
620,
621,
623,
622,
624,
625,
626,
627,
629,
628,
631,
630,
632,
633,
634,
635,
636,
637,
639,
638,
640,
643,
642,
641,
645,
646,
647,
644,
649,
648,
651,
650,
653,
654,
655,
652,
656,
657,
658,
659,
660,
661,
662,
663,
665,
664,
666,
667,
668,
669,
670,
671,
672,
673,
674,
675,
677,
678,
676,
679,
681,
682,
683,
680,
685,
686,
687,
684,
691,
690,
689,
688,
693,
692,
695,
694,
696,
697,
699,
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700,
703,
701,
702,
704,
705,
707,
706,
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710,
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713,
712,
714,
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717,
719,
718,
716,
720,
721,
722,
723,
726,
724,
725,
727,
728,
729,
730,
731,
732,
734,
733,
735,
736,
737,
738,
739,
741,
740,
743,
742,
744,
745,
747,
746,
749,
750,
748,
751,
753,
752,
754,
755,
758,
756,
757,
759,
760,
761,
762,
763,
765,
766,
764,
767,
768,
769,
770,
771,
772,
774,
775,
773,
776,
778,
779,
777,
780,
781,
782,
783,
784,
785,
786,
787,
789,
788,
790,
791,
793,
794,
792,
795,
796,
798,
799,
797,
800,
801,
802,
803,
804,
806,
805,
807,
808,
810,
811,
809,
812,
813,
814,
815,
817,
816,
819,
818,
822,
820,
821,
823,
824,
825,
826,
827,
828,
829,
831,
830,
832,
833,
835,
834,
837,
839,
838,
836,
841,
843,
842,
840,
844,
845,
846,
847,
848,
850,
849,
851,
853,
855,
854,
852,
856,
857,
858,
859,
860,
861,
862,
863,
864,
866,
867,
865,
868,
869,
871,
870,
873,
875,
874,
872,
876,
877,
878,
879,
880,
881,
882,
883,
885,
884,
886,
887,
888,
889,
890,
891,
892,
895,
893,
894,
898,
897,
896,
899,
900,
901,
902,
903,
904,
905,
906,
907,
910,
908,
911,
909,
912,
913,
914,
915,
918,
917,
919,
916,
920,
921,
922,
923,
924,
926,
925,
927,
928,
929,
930,
931,
932,
933,
935,
934,
936,
939,
938,
937,
940,
941,
942,
943,
944,
945,
946,
947,
948,
949,
950,
951,
953,
954,
952,
955,
956,
957,
958,
959,
962,
960,
961,
963,
964,
965,
967,
966,
968,
970,
971,
969,
972,
973,
974,
975,
976,
977,
978,
979,
981,
982,
980,
983,
984,
985,
986,
987,
988,
989,
990,
991,
992,
993,
994,
995,
996,
997,
998,
999,
1000,
1001,
1002,
1003,
1004,
1005,
1006,
1007,
1008,
1009,
1010,
1011,
1012,
1014,
1013,
1015,
1019,
1017,
1016,
1018,
1021,
1020,
1023,
1022,
1024,
1026,
1025,
1027,
1028,
1029,
1031,
1030,
1032,
1035,
1033,
1034,
1036,
1037,
1038,
1039,
1040,
1041,
1043,
1042,
1044,
1046,
1045,
1047,
1049,
1048,
1050,
1051,
1052,
1053,
1054,
1055,
1056,
1057,
1058,
1059,
1060,
1061,
1062,
1063,
1065,
1064,
1066,
1067,
1068,
1070,
1069,
1071,
1072,
1073,
1075,
1074,
1076,
1078,
1077,
1079,
1080,
1081,
1083,
1082,
1084,
1085,
1087,
1086,
1088,
1090,
1091,
1089,
1093,
1092,
1094,
1095,
1096,
1097,
1098,
1099,
1100,
1101,
1102,
1103,
1104,
1106,
1105,
1107,
1110,
1108,
1109,
1111,
1114,
1112,
1113,
1115,
1116,
1117,
1118,
1119,
1120,
1121,
1122,
1123,
1124,
1125,
1126,
1127,
1128,
1129,
1130,
1131,
1132,
1133,
1134,
1135,
1136,
1137,
1139,
1138,
1141,
1142,
1140,
1143,
1144,
1146,
1145,
1147,
1149,
1150,
1148,
1151,
1152,
1154,
1153,
1155,
1156,
1157,
1159,
1158,
1160,
1161,
1163,
1162,
1165,
1166,
1167,
1164,
1168,
1169,
1170,
1171,
1172,
1173,
1175,
1174,
1176,
1177,
1178,
1179,
1180,
1181,
1182,
1183,
1184,
1185,
1186,
1187,
1188,
1189,
1190,
1191,
1193,
1194,
1192,
1195,
1196,
1197,
1198,
1199,
1201,
1200,
1202,
1203,
1205,
1206,
1207,
1204,
1208,
1209,
1210,
1211,
1212,
1213,
1214,
1215,
1216,
1217,
1218,
1219,
1221,
1220,
1223,
1222,
1224,
1226,
1225,
1227,
1229,
1228,
1230,
1231,
1232,
1234,
1233,
1235,
1236,
1237,
1239,
1238,
1242,
1241,
1243,
1240,
1244,
1246,
1245,
1247,
1248,
1250,
1251,
1249,
1252,
1253,
1254,
1255,
1256,
1257,
1258,
1259,
1260,
1261,
1263,
1262,
1264,
1265,
1266,
1267,
1268,
1269,
1270,
1271,
1272,
1273,
1275,
1274,
1278,
1279,
1277,
1276,
1280,
1281,
1282,
1283,
1285,
1284,
1286,
1287,
1290,
1288,
1289,
1291,
1292,
1293,
1294,
1295,
1296,
1297,
1298,
1299,
1301,
1300,
1302,
1303,
1304,
1305,
1306,
1307,
1309,
1308,
1311,
1310,
1313,
1314,
1312,
1315,
1317,
1318,
1319,
1316,
1322,
1321,
1320,
1323,
1325,
1326,
1327,
1324,
1328,
1329,
1330,
1331,
1332,
1333,
1334,
1335,
1336,
1337,
1338,
1339,
1340,
1341,
1343,
1342,
1345,
1346,
1347,
1344,
1348,
1349,
1351,
1350,
1353,
1352,
1354,
1355,
1356,
1357,
1358,
1359,
1360,
1361,
1363,
1362,
1364,
1365,
1367,
1366,
1368,
1369,
1370,
1371,
1372,
1373,
1375,
1374,
1376,
1377,
1378,
1379,
1380,
1381,
1382,
1383,
1384,
1385,
1386,
1387,
1388,
1389,
1390,
1391,
1392,
1393,
1394,
1395,
1396,
1398,
1399,
1397,
1400,
1403,
1402,
1401,
1404,
1405,
1406,
1407,
1408,
1409,
1410,
1411,
1412,
1415,
1414,
1413,
1418,
1419,
1417,
1416,
1420,
1421,
1422,
1423,
1424,
1425,
1427,
1426,
1429,
1428,
1430,
1431,
1435,
1433,
1434,
1432,
1436,
1437,
1438,
1439,
1440,
1443,
1442,
1441,
1444,
1445,
1446,
1447,
1448,
1449,
1450,
1451,
1452,
1453,
1454,
1455,
1456,
1457,
1458,
1459,
1460,
1461,
1462,
1463,
1465,
1464,
1466,
1467,
1469,
1470,
1468,
1471,
1472,
1473,
1474,
1475,
1476,
1477,
1478,
1479,
1480,
1481,
1483,
1482,
1484,
1485,
1486,
1487,
1488,
1489,
1490,
1491,
1492,
1494,
1493,
1495,
1496,
1497,
1498,
1499,
1500,
1501,
1502,
1503,
1504,
1506,
1505,
1507,
1509,
1510,
1508,
1511,
1512,
1513,
1515,
1514,
1516,
1519,
1517,
1518,
1521,
1520,
1522,
1523,
1524,
1525,
1526,
1527,
1528,
1529,
1531,
1530,
1532,
1533,
1534,
1535,
1537,
1538,
1536,
1539,
1540,
1541,
1542,
1543,
1544,
1545,
1546,
1547,
1548,
1549,
1551,
1550,
1552,
1553,
1555,
1554,
1557,
1556,
1558,
1559,
1560,
1562,
1561,
1563,
1564,
1565,
1566,
1567,
1568,
1569,
1571,
1570,
1572,
1573,
1574,
1575,
1576,
1577,
1578,
1579,
1580,
1581,
1582,
1583,
1585,
1584,
1586,
1587,
1588,
1589,
1590,
1591,
1592,
1593,
1594,
1595,
1596,
1598,
1597,
1599,
1600,
1602,
1601,
1603,
1604,
1605,
1606,
1607,
1608,
1609,
1610,
1611,
1612,
1613,
1614,
1615,
1616,
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1618,
1619,
1620,
1622,
1621,
1623,
1624,
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1629,
1630,
1628,
1631,
1632,
1633,
1634,
1635,
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1639,
1637,
1640,
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1646,
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1650,
1649,
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1658,
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1662,
1663,
1660,
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1665,
1667,
1668,
1671,
1669,
1670,
1672,
1673,
1674,
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1677,
1676,
1678,
1679,
1680,
1681,
1683,
1682,
1684,
1685,
1686,
1687,
1690,
1688,
1691,
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1693,
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If you don’t see this week’s issue by the end of the week, check http://parshapotpourri.blogspot.com which may be more up-to-date
Back to This Week's Parsha | Previous Issues
Parshas Yisro - Vol. 4,
Compiled by Oizer Alport
Vayishma Yisro (18:1)
After the miracles that Hashem performed for the Jewish people at the Red Sea and in the battle against Amalek, Yisro came to join them and convert. The Torah seems to stress that there was something unique about Yisro hearing about these miracles. What was so significant about Yisro’s hearing?
The Alshich explains that while the entire world heard about the miracles and were filled with fear of the Jews, only Yisro came to convert. Proper hearing doesn’t merely connote the ability to process sound waves. It requires a deeper understanding of the message being conveyed.
Rav Shalom Schwadron compares this to two people walking down the train tracks. When the conductor of an oncoming train sees them, he sounds a shrill warning whistle. Both men hear the whistle, but one is a simple farmer who has never seen a train. He continues walking while enjoying the view and the sounds of the whistle, while the other person understands the warning being conveyed and immediately flees from the oncoming danger. While both men physically “heard” the sound of the whistle, only the latter properly understood the message. Similarly, although the nations of the world heard about Hashem’s miracles, the information failed to change them. Only Yisro internalized the message, understanding what was required of him and acting accordingly.
An inspiring story illustrates this point. During World War I, many of the Jews of war-torn Poland took refuge in Austria. One year on Shabbos Chanuka, Rav Moshe Flesch, a Rav in Vienna, spoke about Yehudis’s determination in the story of Chanuka to stand up for what was right. He continued by noting that although yeshivos had spread throughout Europe and a proper Jewish education was available to boys, there was unfortunately no comparable option for Jewish girls. They were forced to attend public schools and received only a rudimentary religious education at Sunday schools.
Lacking a solid Jewish background, the girls were frequently swept up in the anti-religious movements of the time, often corrupting other family members with them. Rav Flesch stressed the need for a modern-day Yehudis to step forward and establish a system of formal education for Jewish girls. This would ensure that they would remain religious and that the yeshiva students would be able to find G-d-fearing women to marry. Everybody in the packed synagogue heard Rav Flesch’s inspiring words on that fateful day. However, only one of them truly “heard” the message. Her name was Sarah Schenirer. She was inspired by his address to establish the modern Bais Yaakov movement to give Jewish girls the opportunity to receive a proper Jewish education!
Many times in life Hashem sends us messages. Although we hear the information, we often ignore the call to action which is required. At those times, let us “hear” the lesson of Yisro and properly understand the changes that we are required to undertake.
Vayishma Yisro (18:1)
Rashi writes that Yisro was known by seven different names, each of which has a different meaning. One of the names is Yeser, which connotes the fact that he merited having a section added to the Torah as a result of his suggestion to Moshe in our parsha to appoint judges. However, he is universally referred to by the name Yisro, which refers to the fact that by converting to Judaism and accepting the mitzvos upon himself, an additional letter was added to his name. Of all of the 7 names, why is this one specifically the most important? Shouldn’t Yeser, the name which represents the fact that an entire section of the Torah was added as a result of his advice, be considered the most significant?
Rav Shlomo Margolis suggests that the selection of the name Yisro hints that as important as Torah study is and all the more so to add an entire portion to the Torah itself, nevertheless a person’s ultimate purpose in this world is to perfect himself and his character traits. This is reflected by Yisro’s desire to convert and ascend the spiritual ladder.
Rabbeinu Bechaye similarly notes (18:21) that in enumerating the desirable traits that Moshe should seek in judicial candidates, Yisro astoundingly made not a single mention of the importance of wisdom. Rather, he emphasized the importance of honesty and proper character, just as the Torah itself primarily praises Noach, Avrohom, and Yaakov for their righteous character traits.
The following story depicts a contemporary application of this principle. Rav Eliyahu Chaim Meisels was a great Torah scholar who served as the Rav of Lodz in Poland. He was renowned for his concern for the poor and downtrodden, and stories of his compassion on their behalf abound. He was once asked by his friend Rav Chaim Ozer Grodzenski, the Rav of Vilna and leading sage of the generation, why he never published a work of his Talmudic novellae as was common for scholars of his ilk.
Rav Meisels took out an old, tattered notebook and explained that this book, containing a detailed list of all of the charity and interest-free loans he had distributed throughout his lifetime, was the most important book that he could take with him to the next world. Shortly before Rav Chaim Ozer’s death, he commented that although his classic work Achiezer was indeed a masterpiece and worthy of the utmost respect, he now realized that Rav Meisels had been correct. The primary work he looked forward to taking with him to the World to Come wasn’t the book he authored with his pen, but the book he wrote with his deeds of chesed (kindness) for others.
Applying this lesson to ourselves, we realize that the Torah is teaching us a valuable and profound lesson. In our pursuit of personal greatness and maximizing our individual potentials, we certainly recognize the need to study and develop our minds. However, it is important to understand and remember that doing so is only part of a much larger quest to perfect our souls and inner characters.
Vayomer el Moshe ani chosencha Yisro (18:6)
The Arizal writes that Moshe was a gilgul (reincarnation) of Hevel and Yisro was a gilgul of Kayin. His student Rav Chaim Vital notes that this is hinted to by the first letters of the words “Ani chosencha Yisro” – I am your father-in-law Yisro – which spell the word “achi” – my brother.
Part of Yisro’s mission in this world was to atone for Kayin’s sin of killing Hevel, which he did in several ways. He gave his daughter in marriage to a gilgul of Hevel, Moshe, which gave Hevel the descendants that were denied him through his murder (Bereishis 4:10). The sacrifice offered by Kayin did not find favor in Hashem’s eyes (Bereishis 4:5), so Yisro corrected this by bringing proper sacrifices to Hashem (18:12), which were enjoyed not just by him, but also by Aharon and the elders of the generation.
Finally, the Chida writes that while the Torah doesn’t recount the final conversation between Kayin and Hevel prior to the murder, the Targum Yonason ben Uziel (Bereishis 4:8) records that part of it was Kayin’s blasphemous claim that there is no Divine judge or system of justice regarding our actions in this world. His gilgul Yisro rectified this by suggesting to Moshe (18:19-23) the concept of establishing a proper system of courts and judges!
the weekly Points to Ponder are now available!
Parsha Points to Ponder (and sources which discuss them):
1) Yisro blessed Hashem for the miracles that He performed in saving the Jews from the Egyptians (18:10). The Gemora in Berachos (54a) derives from here that a person who sees a place where a miracle was performed for Jews says a blessing. As this blessing is said only when seeing the actual place where the miracle occurred, why did Yisro recite it in the middle of the wilderness? (Sefer HaEshkol, Meiri and Maharsha Berachos 54a, Shaar HaTzion 218:17)
2) In the Pesach Haggadah, we say that if Hashem had brought us to Har Sinai, but not given us the Torah, it would have been enough for us. What would be the benefit of coming there if we didn’t get the Torah? (HaSeder HaAruch Vol. 3 pg. 414-415, Nesivos Rabboseinu)
3) The Gemora in Shabbos (88a) teaches that when the Jews were encamped at the foot of Sinai, Hashem lifted the mountain above them like a barrel and threatened them that if they don’t accept the Torah, “sham t’hei kevuraschem” – there will be your burial place. Wouldn’t it be more grammatically correct to say “poh” – here – you will be buried? (Peninim MiShulchan Gevoha)
4) At what time of the day were the Aseres HaDib
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]
] |
[
2048
] |
2,048
| 2.872876
|
Altcoin is the name of all cryptocurrency except Bitcoin. The first altcoins appeared in 2011. Their aim was to overcome all technical limitations that Bitcoin had. As of the beginning of December 2017, there are over one thousand altcoins existing in the world. The best alt coins have various prices from 0.01 USD till thousands of dollars.
Many of altcoins are built on the basic structure, provided by the Bitcoin block chain, i.e., they are in fact its forks. So, the majority of altcoins are single ranked, include mining process and offer effective and cheap ways to carry out transactions over the Internet.
Coinmarketcap.com portal contains data on more than 900 altcoins traded on exchanges, although according to some estimations, their number exceeds one thousand. Nevertheless, in the total capitalization of the cryptocurrency market in the amount of more than $343,586 billion, Bitcoin still takes the dominant position with a share of 55% (about $191,118 billion).
The PoW algorithm used for mining Bitcoin is SHA2. It was chosen because it is fast to verify and has been critically analyzed. SHA2 has had ASICs developed for it meaning there is a much smaller risk of centralization. The following mining algorithms are being used in different altcoins:
- Scrypt proof of work
- Combination of hashing algorithms in series (e.g. X11)
- Combination of hashing algorithms in parallel (e.g. Myriad algorithm)
The problem with having an algorithm that is "easy to mine with" (referring to the ability to CPU or GPU mine profitably) is that mining should be hard in order to secure the network. When a mining algorithm is difficult to make ASICs for, there is a higher barrier to entry. A high barrier to entry increases the time that the first group to create ASICs will monopolize the market (and the time the network is vulnerable to a 51% attack from a single source). Many argue that the creators or the developers could simply change the mining algorithm when an ASIC is developed, but this defeats the purpose of decentralized consensus by causing centralization.
If these cryptocurrencies do have a healthy number of companies producing ASICs and have avoided centralization, they still are using algorithms that take longer to verify than SHA2. Therefore, at best a cryptocurrencies with merely a hashing algorithm change are as good as an exact clone of Bitcoin and not better (however since Bitcoin already exists, an exact clone of Bitcoin has no innovation or value). If the hashing algorithm is slower, as most altcoin algorithms are, it is a disadvantage because it takes more processing time to validate a block and increases the number of organic re-orgs (makes it easier to double spend).
Proof Of Stake
In Proof of Stake, instead of sacrificing energy to mine a block, a user must prove they own a certain amount of the cryptocurrency to generate a block. The more stake you own, the more likely you are to generate a block. In theory, this should prevent users from creating forks because it will devalue their stake and it should save a lot of energy.
Proof of Stake sounds like a good idea, but ironically, there is the "Nothing at Stake" problem. Because mining Bitcoin is costly, it is not smart to waste your energy on a fork that won't earn you any money, however with Proof of Stake, it is free to mine a fork.
An example of a nothing at stake attack is an attacker buying lots of "old stake" from users inexpensively (inexpensive to users who no longer have stake in the currency). This can be made convenient by offering small payments to users for uploading their wallet.dat. Eventually after accumulating enough "old stake", the user can begin creating blocks and destroying as many or more coin days than the network was at that time. This block generation can be repeated until it catches up to and beats the current main-chain very cheaply.
There are also "stake grinding" attacks which require a trivial amount of currency. In a stake grinding attack, the attacker has a small amount of stake and goes through the history of the blockchain and finds places where their stake wins a block. In order to consecutively win, they modify the next block header until some stake they own wins once again. This attack requires a bit of computation, but definately isn't impractical.
This class of cryptocurrency is either insecure or centralized, however proof of stake (based on a PoW currency) is useful in some systems because gaining stake is costly, but it isn't workable for bootstrapping distributed consensus.
Application Built on Top of a Cryptocurrency
Bitcoin is a lot like HTTP. It is an application layer protocol and tools can be built on it (like websites can be built on HTTP). There is a class of cryptocurrencies that promise features like casino websites and exchanges and anonymity protocols to be built on top of them.
When creating a new website, one doesn't make a new protocol unless it is necessary. For example, HTTPS is an encrypted version of HTTP, therefore it is useful and necessary. When creating an app such as "DarkSend", one doesn't need to make a new protocol such as "Darkcoin". This is synonymous to making an HTTPS alternative (eg. HTTPSX) for your new encrypted chat website and not adding any new security or functionality to HTTPSX.
Because Darkcoin is by far the most popular cryptocurrency of this class, the Darkcoin example will be covered in this section.
The Darkcoin devs created a tool called DarkSend. DarkSend is an implementation of coinjoin (an anonymity feature originally implemented in Bitcoin) which utilizes the Darkcoin network to organize the coinjoins. If DarkSend becomes open source and is useful, it will be ported to Bitcoin with a few small modifications. These changes won't be a hardfork, they will likely involve the masternodes being paid by those they are coinjoining for rather than the block reward, which is already possible and implemented for Bitcoin. Currently one must hold 1000DRK to become a DarkSend masternodes. Masternodes are paid 10% of the block reward. This is a flawed reward scheme because while purchasing 1000DRK is trustlessly verifiable, a user running a DarkSend masternode isn't trustlessly verifiable. It is also costs bandwidth to run a masternode, therefore there is an incentive to buy 1000DRK and get a chance at the 10% block reward masternodes are being paid, but not actually act as a masternode. For this reason, DarkSend would work better if the masternodes were paid by those they were helping coinjoin, or if there wasn't a masternode at all and everyone collaborated in a decentralized fashion. The better implementation not vulnerable to tragedy of the commons is compatible with Bitcoin, therefore, the Darksend protocol serves no purpose.
The best altcoins
The cryptocurrency, created in the Ethereum block chain. Ethereum is second by capitalization after Bitcoin, as well as has been second by the rate price of one coin for a long time. Ethereum was developed in 2015 as a platform for the creation of smart contracts. Today, the major part of all ICOs are conducted on this platform.
A fork of Bitcoin, released on August 1, 2017. Unlike Bitcoin, it has a block with the size of 8 Mb. It showed a rapid growth in November, as of December one coin costs over $1500.
One of the first altcoins, released in 2011. It has no fundamental differences from Bitcoin. At the same time, transactions in block chain go faster.
The cryptocurrency with an additional level of encryption. It is the most popular payment method in the Darknet, which is why it is often criticized, blamed for serving criminal actions
Another altcoin, aimed at anonymity. Has been existed since January 2014.
A platform for payment systems oriented on currency exchange operations. The Ripple protocol, developed by the company of the same name in 2012, is popular in the banking sector.
Altcoin, serving the block chain, which is targeted on serving transactions in the framework of the Internet of Things.
There are many different types of wallets, and choosing the right one can be very difficult. A wallet for cryptocurrencies is similar to a Bank Account. Your coins or tokens are stored in your wallet, and it allows you to send and receive your assets.
There are 3 types of wallets:
Altcoins can be stored on all popular cryptocurrency wallets. The wallet's choice depends on you.
Demographic Based Premined Cryptocurrencies
This is a new class of altcoin that is targeted at a certain demographic.
All of these cryptocurrencies have a large premine intended to be paid to members of that demographic. Ultimately, all of these coins have suffered (or are suffering) their fate of an immediate sell off after the "airdrop" (term for distribution of coins to the target demographic) begins.
Note: These cryptocurrencies aren't government initiatives, but are independently created for that demographic.
Altcoin vs Bitcoin
A cryptocurrency is useful if it accomplishes a task that Bitcoin cannot.
- Acting as a keystore for things like decentralized domain registration.
- Having demmurage or some other economic system that is one of the prohibited changes.
- Allowing creation of and transmission of digital assets.
Disadvantages of Bitcoin
The developers of altcoins primarily solve problems that are present at Bitcoin.
Among such disadvantages there are:
- Long transactions. To speed up the transactionsТ time, other algorithms are used. In addition, the cryptocurrencies with a smaller block volume calculate the necessary operations faster.
- Lack of anonymity. Although the cryptocurrency transactions are considered to be encrypted enough, still, the sender and receiver may be tracked. To avoid it, some altcoins use addition methods of encrypting.
- Difficult
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[
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2,048
| 2.733209
|
Running Head: Social Power, Evolution and Deception
I. Table of contents 2
II. Rationality, consciousness, sincerity 3
A. Unconsciousness and irrationality: the myth of rationality 3
B. Deception: the myth of sincerity 4
C. Hypotheses of this paper: an overview 5
III. Evolutionary theory 6
A. Ultimate reasons 6
B. The survival of the fittest 7
C. Inclusive fitness and altruism: the selfish gene 7
D. Validity of evolutionary theory for humans 10
E. The influence of group living 11
F. War and intergroup violence: group selection revisited 13
G. Learning and culture 15
IV. Deception and impression management 16
A. Deception 16
B. Countermeasures against influence and deception 17
C. Self deception 19
D. The cost of impression management 21
E. The cost of courtship 24
F. Unconsciousness 25
V. Some Aspects of Raven's Power interaction model under an evolutionary point of view 26
A. Motivation: Why social influence 26
B. Coercion and reward 28
C. Referent power 28
D. Expert and informational power of medical doctors 29
a) Weaknesses of expert, informational power and statistics 30
b) Overconfidence in choice of medical treatment 32
c ) Mistrust towards expert power 33
VI. An alternative utopia 35
VII. Summary 36
VIII. References 38
The model of the human as a "naive scientist", a rational decision maker prevailed in Social Psychology for several years after cognitive psychologists had proved it wrong by demonstrating a myriad of biases (Kahnemann, Slovic & Tversky, 1982). The notion that we are basically rational beings still predominates intuitive and popular thinking, in spite of proof to the contrary (Taylor, 1989, Taylor and Brown, 1988, Nisbett and Ross, 1980).
Men tend to value a car more if it is introduced in the presence of an attractive woman, and we all tend to vote for the taller and more attractive political candidate (Cialdini, 1993, p.140), and are fonder of people and things presented to us while eating (Razran, 1938, 1940; cited in Cialdini, 1993, p. 158). In these and similar cases, the targets of influence, full of honest conviction, vehemently deny having been influenced by such irrelevant factors.
In spite of numerous findings to the contrary, the myth of human rationality and consciousness continues to pervade our thinking and our literature. It was difficult for authors like Ury (1993) to overcome these ideas: "Because what I learned at Harvard Law School is that all that counts in life are the facts- who's right and who's wrong. It's taken me twenty-five years to learn that just as important as the facts, if not more important, are people's perception of those facts" (p. 18). He concludes that "humans are reaction machines" (p. 8). Pushing will make them more resistant. Indirect actions are needed. "It requires you to do the opposite of what you naturally feel like doing in difficult situations" (p. 10).
Making the target of social influence falsely believe we are not trying to push him satisfies intuitive as well as formal definitions (see Mitchell, 1986) of deception. Only on rare occasions do authors dare to call manipulative influencing strategies deception: "Many ploys depend on your not knowing what is being done to you. . . . If you don't realize that he is using his partner as a "bad guy", you may agree innocently to the changes" (Ury, 1993, p. 42). But, generally, the myth of human sincerity prevails.
"The more common everyday self-presenter who wants others to perceive, validate, and be influenced by his selfless integrity, even though he might vigorously deny such motivation and, indeed, be unaware of it" (Jones and Pittman, 1982, p. 246). "A tantalizing conspiracy of cognitive avoidance is common to the actor and his target. the actor does not wish to see himself as ingratiating; the target wants also to believe that the ingratiator is sincere" (p. 236).
I believe that self presentational concerns and preoccupation with saving other people's face prevent us from seeing the pervasiveness of deception. Furthermore, our egocentrism provides us with the wrong model of human behavior. Intuitively, we seem to think that human biology and social dispositions made us apt to be rational scholars in a just and free society. Evolutionary theorists point out that our phylogenesis should have provided us with very different dispositions. Their most extreme proponent, R. D. Alexander states that "human society is a network of lies and deception, persisting only because systems of conventions about permissible kinds and extents of lying have arisen" (1975, p. 96). Lazarus (1979, p. 47) notes that there is a "collective illusion that our society is free, moral, and just"
Evolutionary theory can causally explain why humans tend to deceive themselves and others about the fact that they are deceiving. It can tie together all the topics of this paper: deception, irrationality in human impression management and social influence techniques. It can elucidate why we are willing to pay such a high cost for impression management. Jones and Pittman (1982) state this last point very candidly: "For many of us, self-promotion is almost a full-time job."
This paper endeavors to point out that the selfish interests of individuals caused deception and countermeasures against deception to become driving forces behind social influence strategies. The expensive and wasteful nature of negotiation and impression management is a necessary and unavoidable consequence of this arms race between deception and detection. Natural selection created genetic dispositions to deceive, and to constantly and unconsciously suspect deception attempts. In a competitive, selfish, and war-prone world, these techniques, proven in billions of years in evolution, still are optimal. Therefore they are reinforced by cultural selection and learning. Conscious awareness of deception and countermeasures is not required, often even counterproductive. This is so because conscious deception is easier to detect and carries harsher sanctions. Humans not only deceive, but also deceive themselves and others about the fact that they deceive, into believing that they do not deceive. This double deception makes the system so watertight, that it tends to evade detection even by psychologists.
Due to the failure of prior grand theories, psychologists tend to satisfy themselves with micro-theories, that describe only a narrow domain. The tend to equate description or prediction with explanation. Don MacKay (1993) deplores these limitations and suggests that a true theory should be "explanatory, not just descriptive." He complains that "miniature models have only proliferated rather than merged" into "ever larger theories." In his proposed rational epistemology, "observations often do not count as scientific facts until a plausible theoretical mechanism for explaining them is proposed" (MacKay, 1988).
Nobel prize winner Tinbergen (1963) distinguishes between proximate explanations (how physiology or behavior work) and ultimate explanations (why they work this way). Even if every single cognitive process and every single neuron connection were known, the question remains, why the organism is the way it is.
Ultimate explanations historically were the domain of religions and myths. To my knowledge, evolutionary theory is the only scientific theory that plausibly proposes ultimate explanations.
Charles Darwin (1859) established the theory of evolution. This theory suggests that those species and individuals that are best equipped for survival and procreation survive. Genes that determine or mediate a behavior proliferate, if the behavior helps survival, mate finding, and finally creation of viable offspring that will have offspring of its own.
This theory could not explain altruistic behavior. Altruism is defined as behavior that gives (reproductive) advantage to another individual at some (reproductive) cost to the altruist. To solve the riddle of altruism, it was proposed that individuals act for the best interests of their group or species.
This "group selection fallacy" is still often invoked, even though it was soundly disproved (see chapter 4 of Trivers, 1985). A group of altruists would not be evolutionarily stable. A single individual without the altruistic "group benefit gene" would reap the benefit of the other individuals' altruism without paying the price for his of her own altruism. And a gene that brings about a mere 1% higher number of offspring, will, by exponential growth, crowd out competing alleles and be the dominant gene within five hundred generations. Therefore, the altruists would be extinguished and selfish individuals would take over.
W. D. Hamilton solved the puzzle of how altruism could possibly have developed and survived. He recalls that close relatives, like brothers, parents, sons and daughters have 50% of their genes in common with us. Therefore, a sacrifice that gives more than twice as much benefit to our brother than it costs us, has an indirect net reproductive benefit to our genes, via our relative's offspring. The reproductive success
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]
] |
[
2048
] |
2,048
| 2.429465
|
Do You Have What You Need?
We All Need Different Things
What if the power goes out, water stops flowing from your pipes, and you can't go to the store? What if you need to evacuate your home or neighborhood quickly? Gather emergency supplies to make sure you and your loved ones can stay comfortable and safe.
Let's Work Together
Work with friends, family, neighbors, and co-workers. See how you can help each other gather and share supplies. Consider your additional needs, children, and pets. Don't forget to have a toilet plan.
This might seem like a lot of work. Some people find it overwhelming. But doing something is much better than doing nothing at all. So start small, but start today.
Focus on the Essentials
Make a list and put it in priority order. Focus on the things that will keep you alive, like water, food, medications, medical supplies, warmth, and sanitation. Next, move on to other supplies that you know you would need in an emergency. Only include the things you know you would use. Since we all have different needs, everyone's emergency kit will look a little different.
We don't know where we'll be when an emergency occurs. Put supplies in places wherever you and your loved ones spend a lot of time.
If you can, try to have enough supplies available to last you two weeks. Store items in a cool, dry place that you can get to easily. Tell everyone you live with where emergency supplies are stored.
Under Your Bed
You may be sleeping when an earthquake or other emergency happens. Keep a few items under your bed so you can get out of the house and protect you from glass and other debris.
- Slip-on or loosely-laced shoes or boots
- Flashlight (check batteries regularly)
- Hard hat or bike helmet
- Leather work gloves
- A whistle to call for help
In Your Car
Think about what you would need to shelter in place or walk home. Include items like water, food, warmth, maps, etc. Also have car tools, such as a jack, wrench, tire chains, ice scraper, jumper cables, flares, etc. For summer, include extra water, sunscreen, and a sun hat. For winter, include warm clothes, an ice scraper, and chains or other traction devices.
At Work / School
Be prepared to stay put for 1-2 days. Use the lists below and decide what is essential for you. At a minimum, include water, food, a first aid kit, prescription medicine, cash, and a cell phone charger.
On the Go
You may need to leave home quickly. Keep a portable emergency kit in a backpack or other portable container. Keep it near your front door so you can access it easily.
Water and Bleach
Clean water is essential for staying healthy during a disaster. Visit regionalh2o.org for more info about water storage and treatment. At minimum, have:
- At least one gallon per person (and animal), per day, for at least 14 days. That’s 14 gallons per person/animal.
- Unscented bleach and a dropper so you can sanitize unclean water. Use eight drops of bleach per gallon of water.
Shelter and Warmth
Keeping warm and dry is crucial. Blankets and sleeping bags will help you stay warm if the power goes out. A tent, tarp shelter, or car could be used if your home isn’t safe to enter.
You never know what you might (or might not) be wearing when an emergency occurs. Keep clean clothes, sturdy walking shoes, and spare socks in your emergency kit. If you can, include several items for different weather conditions.
You may need to start a campfire for warmth or light a grill for food. Keep lighters or matches in your kit. Put them in a waterproof container. Use Smokey Bear's Campfire Safety Guide. Never do any of this indoors! Carbon monoxide is very dangerous.
Store food that you like to eat. Get items that will last a long time without refrigeration and are highly nutritious. Protein and whole grains are good. Sugar is not. Keep a manual can opener in your emergency kit if you're storing canned food.
First Aid Supplies
We might need to treat our own wounds if professional help is unable to get to us. Include First Aid items that you know how to use. Consider taking a First Aid class so you can better help yourself and those around you.
House fires are the most common type of emergency. An earthquake could break gas lines and lead to a house fire. Have an extinguisher in the kitchen and by your front door. Make sure you know how to use it safely.
Medication and Medical Info
37% of Americans can go a week or less without their medications or medical devices before facing a crisis. Think about your additional needs and plan for them.
If possible, store a two-week backup supply of medications and other medical supplies. Include spare glasses or contact lens supplies.
Keep your prescription details (including dosage and prescribing doctor) in your wallet or purse in case you can't access your emergency kit.
Personal and Financial Documents
Put copies of important personal and financial documents in a portable, waterproof container. Store them digitally and/or make photocopies. Use this Financial Preparedness Checklist and check out FEMA's Emergency Financial First Aid Kit.
Don't forget to include several printed copies of your emergency plan. Keep copies in multiple locations so you have it wherever you are.
Emergency Toilet Items
Diseases like cholera can spread when human waste is not stored safely. Have a toilet plan, and read the Emergency Toilet Guidebook. Have buckets, heavy-duty garbage bags, and layering materials on hand, just in case.
Personal Hygiene Items
Keeping clean helps us stay healthy and improves our spirits. Include a toothbrush, feminine supplies, toilet paper, soap, wet wipes, hand sanitizer, unscented bleach, and garbage bags in your kit.
Even before the COVID-19 pandemic, it was a good idea to include face masks and hand-washing supplies in your emergency kit. Now, it's especially important. Also include items you would need if you get sick, such as extra water and medication.
Diapers, wipes, rash cream, formula, extra clothes, etc. You might already have many of these items in a diaper bag. Store extra water help keep baby clean and prepare formula.
Animal Care Items
For many of us, our animals are an important part of our lives. Make a plan for your pets and livestock. Keep identification tags and microchip info current. Store extra water, food, leashes, cages, medication, photo and paper identification, and bedding in your emergency kit.
The power may go out during an emergency. Candles can be dangerous. LED flashlights are affordable and last longer.
Radios can be powered by batteries, hand-crank, and solar energy. Tune in to 91.5FM or 101.1 KXL-FM for updates. Consider getting a NOAA Weather Radio, which has a loud tone that will alert you when there’s an important update.
Many emergency supplies use batteries. Have plenty available, but store them separately so they don't ruin devices if they leak.
Cell Phone Chargers
Cell phone service might not be available. But if it is, you’ll want to use your phone to stay informed, take photos, and communicate. Get a battery-operated phone charger or one that plugs into your car. If you can afford it, consider buying a solar charger.
You may need to signal for help, and it’s hard to shout for long periods. Keep a whistle in each of your kits (home, car, work, under the bed).
Tools and Gloves
A basic tool kit will help you turn off the gas, repair broken windows, or board up your home. Include a hammer, nails, a pry bar, and a multi-tool. There are special tools for shutting of natural gas, but you can also use a regular wrench. Rope and duct tape have countless uses. Durable work gloves will help keep your hands in good shape.
Dust Masks and Other Barriers
Masks are important if the air quality is poor or there is risk of airborne disease. If you need to shelter in place, you may need plastic sheeting and duct tape to keep bad air out of your house.
Credit and debit cards might not work during an emergency. Put small bills in your kit. Include as much as you can afford and feel comfortable storing.
Eating and Cleaning Supplies
Cups, plates, utensils, paper towels, trash bags, and other items needed to cook, eat, and clean. If you like camping, you might already have all of these supplies packed and ready to go.
Pen, Paper, Local Maps
Keep pen and paper in your kit so you can leave a note, draw a map, keep track of supplies, or draw a picture. A paper map will help you get around when you can't access the map on your phone.
Emergency Reference Materials
Entertainment and Comfort Items
What unique items would make your family feel better in an emergency? Books? Puzzles? Favorite games? Special toys? A musical instrument? Chocolate? Little things can make a big difference. The more we can create a sense of normalcy, the better we’ll all feel.
You may need to do extra planning and put extra items in your emergency kit.
If you need...
- Hearing or vision devices (including glasses)
- Medication or medical devices
- Special food due to dietary restrictions
- Translation or interpretation services
- Public transportation
- Public assistance for food and health services
- Help from a caretaker
- Regular support from behavior health or medical professionals
If you're responsible for...
- Infants or small children
- An older adult or someone with physical challenges
- Someone with physical, behavioral, or cognitive health issues
- Pets or livestock
Visit the Additional Needs page for more info.
Getting emergency supplies
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] |
[
2048
] |
2,048
| 2.651902
|
This is a transcription of this speech made for the convenience of readers and researchers. A single copy of the speech exists in the Senate Speech file of the John F. Kennedy Pre-Presidential Papers at the John F. Kennedy Library.
I am grateful to you - Mrs. Roosevelt - for allowing me to be here today. For I come to Hyde Park not to instruct but to learn.
And I think that we can all agree that Eleanor Roosevelt is a true teacher. Her very life teaches a love of truth and duty and courage. The wide world is her neighborhood. All its people are her daily concern. She is frank, she is outspoken, she is forthright - and I know she always will be.
A visit to Hyde Park is both a pilgrimage and a challenge. We journey here to pay tribute to one of America's most honored leaders. And we find here a challenge to renew the march toward those high goals of peace - and freedom - and a decent life for all men - to which he dedicated his life.
"I occasionally go back home to Hyde Park," said Franklin Roosevelt, "so that I can have a chance to think quietly about the country as a whole." Today, in the turmoil and conflict of our daily lives, we too can pause here a moment to think about the man whose home this was - and about the nation which he led to greatness.
Standing on this quiet lawn - this spacious and soothing scene - it is difficult to recall the furious battles which were fought by the man who lies here in honored glory - the conflicts which he waged - the victories which he won.
Yet we who lived while he governed can, here at Hyde Park, still hear the echoes of those heroic struggles: the struggle to rescue America from poverty and economic collapse - the struggle to build a new America where all could live in dignity - the struggle to secure freedom against the ominous armed advance of tyranny and oppression - and the last, the most arduous, the unending struggle - the struggle which his wife still steadfastly carries on - the struggle to build a world of free and peaceful nations.
If these battles were nobly fought - if the America of Franklin Roosevelt had a rendezvous with destiny - it met that rendezvous only because it was guided to its destination by a great leader of men.
Today we commemorate one of those battles - the passage of the Social Security Act of 1935 - the most important single piece of social welfare legislation in the history of this country. It was 25 years ago this very day that Franklin Roosevelt could say, after a long and arduous struggle: "Today a hope of many years standing is in large part fulfilled"; and with that he signed his name and social security became law.
For millions of Americans, with that one stroke of the pen, their insecurity and fear were transformed into hope - their poverty and hunger were transformed into a decent life - their economic degradation was transformed into a chance to live out their days in the dignity and peace they had so richly earned.
But the job which Franklin Roosevelt set out to do in 1935 is not yet done. That opening battle was won - but the war against poverty and degradation is not yet over. And no one realized this more than Franklin Roosevelt himself. "This law," he said, 25 years ago today as he signed it, "represents a cornerstone in a structure which is being built, but which is by no means complete." We are here at Hyde Park today - not merely to commemorate the cornerstone - but to help complete the edifice.
It is fitting that we celebrate this anniversary. It is essential, from time to time, that we pay tribute to past greatness and historic achievement. But we would betray the very cause we honor if we did not now look to the future as well. We would be unfaithful to the man we honor if we did not look beyond his work to the new challenges - the new problems - the new work which lies ahead. For the last public message he ever wrote, on the morning of his death, closed with these words to the American people: "The only limit to our realization of tomorrow will be our doubts of today. Let us move forward with strong and active faith."
This is not 1935 - or 1945. This is 1960 - and today there are 16 million Americans past the age of 65. Three out of every five of these - more than nine and one-half million people - must struggle to survive on an income of less than one thousand dollars a year. Three million more receive less than two thousand dollars from all sources combined. And those who draw social security receive an average check of $72 a month which - in 1960 dollars - does not begin to do the job.
With the cost of living continually spiraling upwards, with the cost of basic items continually rising - $72 a month or one thousand dollars a year cannot pay for even the most basic rudiments of a decent and dignified old age. And, even worse, the substandard incomes - the poverty and neglect - dissipate and destroy the morale, the self-respect, the personal pride of our older citizens.
These are shocking and shameful figures. They unmistakably reveal the dismal poverty, the hardship and the lonely want which millions of Americans must face as they near retirement - they describe the meager and humiliating reward which this, the richest country on earth, gives to those who have contributed to our country's strength.
This poverty and hardship become heartbreak and despair when illness threatens. No costs have increased more rapidly in the last decade than the cost of medical care. And no group of Americans has felt the impact of these skyrocketing costs more than our older citizens. Almost 20% of all those on social security must use one-quarter to one-half of their meager annual income for medical expenses alone. Those over 65 suffer from chronic diseases at almost twice the rate of our younger population - they spend more than twice as many days restricted to bed - and they must visit a doctor twice as often. And even these impressive figures do not tell us of the uncounted thousands who suffer from lack of needed medical care - from lack of vital drugs - and of hospitalization simply because they cannot afford to pay the bills.
Of course some of those who are now uncared for can get free health care. But such public assistance is often painstakingly slow, the tests for giving it are often rigid and unrealistic. The care itself is often impersonal and inadequate.
And even more important - thousands of our older citizens would rather endure pain and suffering than rely on public charity. And they should not have to ask for charity.
This story is a living story, not merely statistics. It is deeply burned into every city and town, every hospital and clinic, every neighborhood and rest-home in America, wherever our older citizens live out their lives in want and despair under the shadow of illness. You have seen it in your state - I have seen it in my travels across all fifty states. It is a sight engraved upon our minds and hearts - but it is a sight which, together, we can wipe from the face of this great rich land forever.
First, we must enact immediately an adequate, comprehensive plan to enable our older citizens to meet their pressing medical needs. Such a plan, a soundly-financed program - without a destructive, degrading means test - based on the tried and tested operation of the social security system, is now before Congress; and it can - and should - and must be enacted this year!
But I also say to you that this bill will be - like the original social security law - only a single stone in an unfinished structure. It is an important start toward meeting the health problems of our older citizens - but it is only a start. And the coming years will require even more of us.
Secondly, we must broaden and extend the current scale of social security benefits, which have barely kept pace with the rising cost of living. We must devise machinery that will enable us to keep ahead of rising prices - so that human welfare will not be cruelly dissipated by inflation.
Third, we must raise the amount which retired persons can earn and still be eligible for social security benefits - so that our older people can supplement their meager benefits with meaningful outside employment.
Fourth, we must provide more than benefits. Our older people must receive not only their earned reward for their contributions to America's past - they must be allowed to share in the great task of building America's future. Today too many of our older people who can work - who want to work - cannot find work. Their abilities and skills - their experience and wisdom and knowledge - are wastefully ignored, by a country which desperately needs their services
We must embark on a great program to use the skills of older Americans - through changes in government hiring policies - through expanded employment services - and through an intensive education of our nation's employers to the immense value of this great reservoir of unused talents.
And, since new work for our older citizens will often require new training, we must expand vocational training facilities to ease their change to new job opportunities..
Fifth, we must provide adequate housing for the aged - housing which will be an integral part of the community in which they live. For this we may need a new program of loans, and new incentives to builders to construct homes which meet their special requirements.
Sixth, if we adopt these programs of housing and employment, and construct a system of adequate benefits - then we can move to reduce the number of those who must depend on public assistance, and thus increasing the benefits to those who still need assistance.
Seventh, we must expand our basic research into the causes and prevention of those chronic illnesses and diseases which are associated with advancing age.
Eighth, we must do more for the widows and children who survive. Today the widow whose savings are gone - who is forced to live on an income even less than her husband's retirement benefits - is truly the "forgotten
|
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]
] |
[
2048
] |
2,048
| 2.89016
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Even until the 1950s the quarrymen in Berne extracted their sandstone using pickaxes. They carved out trenches around the blocks to be removed, not unlike the way their colleagues did 5.000 years ago in ancient Egypt. Why so? Join me on a trip to the Sandsteinlehrpfad in Krauchthal and Wege zu Klee in Ostermundigen to find out – and to learn about Berner Sandstein. It was a most important stone in Switzerland, giving rise to historic quarry centres substantial on a European scale.
Switzerland is a small country, but thanks to its geology it is big in terms of historic stone architecture. Consequently, it has major historic quarry centres, particularly in the Berne region. Though not as large as the giants, such as Vienna, Paris and Caen (and Rome!), Berne is comparable to major medieval and early modern quarry hubs in Central Europe. In this account the two initiatives focusing on this heritage will be presented – the sandstone quarry trail in Krauchthal and the Paul Klee theme path in Ostermundigen. But it will also explain the extraction technique of Bernese sandstone and its antecedents 5.000 years ago. And it ends with the Bernese quarrymen’s affection for schnaps and beer – something they had in common with, yes, their Bronze Age colleagues!
Bernese sandstone occurs as thick and soft, nearly horizontal beds in the so-called Upper Marine Molasse, which was formed by the material that rivers transported from the rising and simultaneously eroding Alps into a shallow ocean about 25 million years ago. There are many historic quarry centres, first of all Berne itself, with old quarries in the city (Sandflue, now built over) and at nearby Wabern and Gurten. Others are located by Ostermundigen and Bolligen (Stockeren). A bit further away from Berne are the Krauchthal quarries to the east, followed by the Burgdorf-Oberburg quarries. In the west, around Fribourg, is another group of quarries in Bernese sandstone. And there are many more.
As they appear today, the preserved quarries generally have a history back to the 18th and 19th century, but there is ample evidence that quarrying commenced already in the Roman period. It intensified greatly in the Middle Ages and since then regular extraction took place, supplying nearby cities, towns and villages. The heyday started in the 18th century and quarrying boomed for a few decades from the mid 19th century, especially because the city of Berne became capital of the new Swiss federation in 1848. This prompted massive building works, for which huge amounts of sandstone was needed.
With the advent of the railway in the second part of the 19th century, stone was also exported throughout Switzerland. But as modern building materials took over, the industry declined. Today there are only three active quarries, mainly delivering stone for restoration purposes: Gurten, Krauchthal (Thorberg) and Ostermundigenberg.
The old architecture of the whole region is characterised by the yellowish to greenish to greyish to bluish sandstone, but this is nowhere as distinct as in the old quarters of Berne itself. Though restored and renewed, the houses and streets still transmit their medieval atmosphere, which was a main reason for the city’s inscription on the World Heritage List in 1983.
Though quite homogeneous, Bernese sandstone is not uniform, and for the stone carver there is ample difference between varieties of e.g. “hard” and “soft” stone. The bluish-greenish beds at Gurten by Berne and the so-called “Church bed” (Kirchenbank or Kilchenbank) at Ostermundigen are known for their particularly good and durable stone, mainly because they are fine-grained and relatively compact. These beds were much sought after and the name “Church bed” indicates that it was reserved for one of the most important buildings, the Berne Minster (Berner Münster), built from 1421 onwards.
Looking for the best beds was usually of importance, but during the building booms almost any stone would do, also relatively coarse-grained, less compact material, and this is part of the reason why Bernese sandstone has a pretty poor reputation: Stone from inferior beds easily disintegrates and develops scales, especially under the influence of soluble salts. And this again is a reason why so many buildings have been and are in need of restoration.
The Krauchthal trail
The sandstone trail at Krauchthal is a classical one for experience and learning, in particular designed for the local audience – including kids. It starts at the local museum, featuring information posts on geology and history at important quarries, landmarks, old roads and some buildings. A wonderful, half-day walk in the forested, hilly landscape – following in the footsteps of the 150 quarrymen (Steinbrecher) and stone masons (Steinhauer) who paid their taxes to the municipality in the heydays of the second part of the 19th century.
The first quarry, active until about 1875, is impressive: With a ground plan of just 18 x 33 m, Kreuzfluh towers 51 m high – or sinks 51 m down – depending on the perspective! It is almost a true vertical “hole “, with walls on each side, the lowermost only broken by the high and narrow, cut access road.
Bäichle, the next quarry, is much smaller, a “normal” 19th century quarry cut into part of a gentle hill slope. This is used as a place where visitors can put their names on the quarry wall – a guest book in stone! Also, if you contact the local museum, they will lend you tools for working stone here. Not a bad deal!
Then follow the small Brecherfluh quarries, at the bottom of a picturesque natural cliff. The largest local quarry, at Thorbergstrasse, over the centuries developed to a true underground mine. This quarry is the one still in operation and not part of the sandstone trail, which is also the case with at least ten other, mostly smaller quarries in Krauchthal.
A good place for a break is on the top of Chrüzflueh with its pavilion and grand vistas across Krauchthal. To climb the hill you partly use cut-out stairs in the sandstone, but it may be slippery here and elsewhere along the trail, so you will definitely need good shoes!
Wege zu Klee
Wege zu Klee (“Roads to Klee”) is the second initiative presenting the rich regional quarrying history to the public, an initiative launched by the municipality and the museum Zentrum Paul Klee, located between Berne and Ostermundigen. The trail, or theme path, follows in the footsteps of the famous Bernese painter Paul Klee (1879–1940), to whom the Ostermundigen quarries were a great inspiration.
Ostermundigen was the largest regional quarry centre in the second part of the 19th century, even the largest in all of Switzerland, before the boom abruptly came to an end. Up to 500 quarrymen, including many immigrants, were engaged as quarriers and masons and in 1871 the world’s first combined rack railway was constructed to bring the stone easily from the quarries to the railway station.
In addition to the stone mason’s workplace by the railway station and the quarrymen’s houses, the posts at Wege zu Klee concentrate on the part of the quarry that is still in operation at Ostermundigenberg. Here are several of Klee’s paintings exhibited, placed in such a way that one can understand the scenery he saw when he worked. In fact, the famous Bibémus quarries in Aix-en-Provence (France) are presented in a similar way to the public, relying on the paintings by Paul Cézanne, who inspired Klee significantly.
But Ostermundigenberg was only the last quarry to be opened in the 19th century. Earlier, and back to the Middle Ages, extraction took place a bit further east in quarters now known as Hättenberg and Steigrübli. These have to a large extent become covered by houses and new infrastructure, but there is still activity in part of the Steigrübli, now as the scene for the popular theatre group of “Madame Bissegger“. A good way of reusing an old quarry!
Cutting the trenches
With the exception of the still-active quarries, extraction took place with the sole use of manual labour. And this basically meant carving narrow trenches around the blocks to be removed. A special double pickaxe, the Schrotpickel, was the main tool. The quarrymen used it standing beside the trench, typically with one knee on the ground, hacking out the sandstone, whereas the debris in the trench was removed with a tool called Schrothaue.
In this way a remarkably regular pattern of parallel, curved lines on the quarry walls developed – marks that are similar in all Bernese quarries. They are also found in most other Swiss sandstone quarries. With the trenches around the block completed, it could be loosened at the base, i.e. along the bedding plane of the sandstone, using short wedges placed at regular intervals.
This extraction technique was the only one used until the end of the 19th century. But in many cases it was even applied until the 1950s. However, with the advent of pneumatic drills and jackhammers such machines slowly replaced the pickaxes
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[
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Popular Science Monthly/Volume 18/March 1881/The Problem of Municipal Nuisances
By ROGER S. TRACY, M. D.
THE general democratic tendency of the past three hundred years has had some curious results. Free thought and free speech have brought about a universal freedom in criticism, so that, at the present time, singularly enough, it has come to be looked upon as a sign of high civilization and progress for every man to have an opinion about everything, whether he knows anything about it or not. One of the most complicated political problems that men have ever had to treat, viz., the Eastern question, is discussed in this city, by individuals and newspapers, with more readiness and assurance than in the council-chambers of Berlin or London, and every man above the condition of a rag-picker will give you his opinion on the philosophy of evolution. This exaggerated sense of self-importance brings with it not only the tendency to criticise everything not in accordance with each person's notion of what is right or expedient, but, inasmuch as conflicting currents of thought and action are unavoidable, a profound feeling of dissatisfaction with one's own environment. This feeling of dissatisfaction shows itself in curious ways. In place of the intense patriotism and personal loyalty of past ages, we find a widespread belief in almost all highly civilized nations that things are better managed elsewhere than at home, and the newspapers, here and abroad, are crowded with this not-always-well-based self-criticism. New York newspapers are great sinners in this respect. While they are continually extolling the natural advantages of the city, her magnificent river-front and harbor, her advantageous situation, her brilliant sky, they are also constantly bewailing her bad government, her lukewarm public spirit, and the universally asinine quality of her public officers. One would think that her present position as a metropolis is entirely due to natural advantages, and has been gained in spite of the most earnest opposition from her leading citizens. The elevation of an honest, sober, intelligent citizen to a public office makes him straightway an ass in the estimation of his fellows. A public officer, who declines to do what certain citizens want him to do, is believed by them to be prima facie corrupt. If he agrees to do what they wish, some other citizens are equally certain that he has been bought. It seems impossible for a man to remain in public office in New York City for six months without having charges or intimations of bribery come to his ears, in one form or another. And not only are our public officers all supposed to be open to corrupt influences, but, when they are put in office, they are believed ipso facto to become suddenly ignorant of all that they knew before. And not only are they taunted with ignorance, incapacity, and an itching palm, but they are continually reminded that things are much better managed elsewhere, and that the sooner they learn how a city ought to be governed, by observing how other cities are governed, the sooner they will become of some use in their places.
One of the things New-Yorkers complain most about is the dirty streets, including the garbage-box nuisance. It is a popular belief, fostered by the leading newspapers, that New York is the only large city in the civilized world where such a filthy nuisance as the garbage box would be tolerated, and those officers who have charge of the public health are continually reminded of Paris and London, where no such frightful eyesores exist, and where the public service in this regard is immaculate, as every person who has taken a flying summer trip through those cities is ready to testify.
Another frequent cause of complaint is the offensive odors from manufacturing establishments, which also are believed to be kept under such strict watch in Paris and London that they are never nuisances; and the American visitor, being sure that such things are banished from those cities, wants to have them driven out of this one.
The purpose of this paper is not to show that the complaints of our citizens are unfounded, for they are, unfortunately, too well founded, but to do something toward stemming the prevailing current of opinion—1. That the dirty streets and offensive odors of New York are entirely due to the negligence, stupidity, or corruption of public officers; and, 2. That Paris and London are free from the same kind of nuisances. I shall, in other words, try to show that Paris and London, in similar circumstances, are troubled with dirty streets and offensive odors, depending upon the same causes as in New York, and that the public officers of those cities find precisely the same difficulties in abating such nuisances that are met with here; and I submit that the public officers of the city of New York ought not to be called or considered stupid, ignorant, or corrupt, because they meet with the same difficulties as the intelligent, honest, and trained public officers of Paris and London, and, like them, do not always succeed in surmounting them to the satisfaction of the public.
This is not the place for a complete discussion of the subject of street-cleaning, but it may be well, as a preliminary to what follows, to call attention to some points on which there is decided popular misapprehension. It is believed by most citizens of New York that ample funds are given to the Bureau of Street-Cleaning, and that, if this money were honestly expended, our streets ought to be as clean as those of Paris. Now, the facts of the case are these:
Our Bureau of Street-Cleaning employs 387 street-sweepers. Paris has a permanent corps of 3,180, besides 190 machines, each doing the work of ten men. Our bureau has to clean, more or less perfectly, 1,415 acres of paved street surface; Paris, 2,667 acres. The great difference in force, in proportion to the work to be done, is apparent at a glance. Our sweepers are paid $1.60 per day for eight hours' work. The Paris sweepers receive sixty cents per day for ten hours' work. For the sake of ease in calculation, we will suppose that as much work is done here in eight hours as in Paris in ten hours. Then each sweeper in New York costs a dollar a day more than each one in Paris. From the figures already given, the following results may be deduced:
If New York sweepers received Paris wages, we should, with our present force, save yearly $141,255.
If New York sweepers received Paris wages, we could, without increasing the expense of street-cleaning, increase the force by 645 men, i. e., nearly treble it.
If there were as many sweepers in New York as in Paris, in proportion to the area required to be cleaned, the expense of street-cleaning in New York would be increased by $474,500.
If Paris sweepers received New York wages, the expense of street cleaning in Paris would be increased by $1,160,700.
As a matter of fact, the expense of street-cleaning in New York for 1879 was $690,000, including $40,000 for removing ice and snow; and in Paris for 1878, $817,000, including $181,000 for the removal of ice and snow.
An important part of the duties of a street-cleaning bureau is the removal of ashes and garbage. It is also exceedingly difficult, in a large city, to do this effectively and economically. I say, in a large city, for in a small village the garbage nuisance is at its minimum, and it increases with the number and crowding of inhabitants. It is unfair to compare the New York method of removing ashes and garbage with that of smaller and less compact towns, like Boston and Philadelphia. The difficulties to be surmounted in this city are even greater than in Paris or London, because of the peculiar shape of the city, and because we are surrounded by water. But this is a digression.
It is a common belief, reiterated in the daily journals, that the household and street refuse of Paris is sold for enormous amounts, and that so much money is received on this account that the street cleaning service of that city is a source of revenue instead of expense. This is not so. The chief revenue in this regard is derived from the rag-pickers. In New York these people ransack the boxes and barrels on the street, without paying for the privilege, and all that they collect brings them a clear profit. In Paris, on the other hand, the privilege of rummaging the dust-heaps is farmed out to wealthy contractors, who employ about 7,000 chiffoniers, and have a monopoly of rag-picking. So far as I can ascertain, this is the only source of actual revenue to the city of Paris from its street refuse, and what the amount of this revenue is I can not learn. It is very hard to find out anything about the municipal expenditures of that city, as it has no official journal like our "City Record."
Now, let us see what are the practical results of the methods of street-cleaning and removal of household refuse adopted in Paris:
"Street-cleaning in cities has for its aim the removal of dust, mud, snow, filth, and household refuse. As regards the latter, which ought to be thrown directly into the carts, municipal regulations in Paris continually conflict with a corporation very jealous of its privileges; I refer to that of the rag-pickers, who conduct a business represented by nearly 7,000 persons, collecting with their hooks material worth 4,000,000 francs ($800,000) a year, and
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[
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] |
2,048
| 2.857606
|
Water Markets and the Environment
B. Delworth Gardner, Randy T. Simmons
Highlights | Synopsis
- Water quality can be improved by allowing the trading of water-quality permits (and of wastewater-discharge permits) to operate more like a real market. Markets for water quality reduce water pollution by lowering the cost of pollution abatement. Unfortunately, water-quality trading, as usually proposed and practiced under the Clean Water Act, has only a limited number of real market-like features, and this limitation prevents permit trading from living up to its full potential. Some of the hindrances are high brokerages fees set by government agencies, extra costs due to unattractive trading rules, and a lack of marketplace information as to what abatement is worth to buyers and sellers of credit.
- Government wildlife agencies and environmental groups are increasingly purchasing water rights, an activity that was once the exclusive domain of agricultural, industrial, and municipal water users. From 1987 to 2007, more than 2,500 transactions involving so-called instream rights were completed, with total expenditures exceeding $530 million (adjusted for inflation). Colorados state Water Conservation Board has created nearly 1,500 new instream rights on over 8,600 miles of streams and water levels on 482 lakes. Arizona, Idaho, Nevada, Oregon, and Wyoming also permit new appropriations for certain instream purposes.
- Auctions for water rights are improving Oregons Deschutes River Basin and would enhance other watersheds. Auctions are a promising device because they give the owners of water rights and mitigation credits an opportunity to offer their assets for an acceptable price as changing uses are facilitated. They are especially important instruments for generating and revealing information as to what water is worth to people who buy and sell in actual markets.
- The enforcement of water rights and contracts in the United States has weakened. Some of the reasons are changes to federal and state laws, the expanding public-trust doctrine in the courts, and the assertions of new stakeholder rights. These trends are often accommodated by the failure of regulators and conservationists to see how a market-based system of water rights can reduce waste and pollution, and enhance water flow, water quality, and ecosystem management.
- Dam removal has been proposed as a way to reduce the risks to life and property from the possibility of dam failures and to restore damaged river ecosystems. With about 79,000 relatively large dams in the United States that pose high or significant risks in the event of failure, dam removal would be a huge and controversial undertaking. One example of the possibilities and difficulties of decommissioning dams is the September 2009 agreement to remove four dams on the Klamath River, beginning in 2020. The tentative agreement was reached by 28 different groups and took ten years to achieve. The agreement calls for three years of study and then a final decision by the U.S. Department of the Interior, assuming all of the parties sign off on the final agreement.
- How will Californians decide the fate of their most important freshwater
resource? The troubled SacramentoSan Joaquin River Delta ecosystem has long
been the subject of bitter dispute between agricultural interests, urban
water users, taxpayers, environmentalists, and various in-Delta interests.
The most politically feasible approach to shoring up the Delta and better
managing its water exports is probably to build a dual-conveyance system that would
export water through both the Delta and a canal that bypasses it.
Is water facing a crisis? Yes and no. On the one hand, declining water quality is a serious problem in many parts of the world; and if recent usage trends continue, shortages are inevitable. On the other hand, water quality has improved in many economically advanced countries, and in some regions institutions and policies have been adopted that would postpone, or even avoid, the onset of water crises. These policies include establishing secure and transferable water rights and extending these rights to enhance ecosystems.
Aquanomics: Water Markets and the Environment, edited by B. Delworth Gardner and Randy T. Simmons, discusses many examples of such policiesparticularly water markets and market-like exchangesand makes recommendations designed to improve their effectiveness. Reforms that incorporate private-property rights in water and emerging water markets, the editors argue, would help maximize water quantity and quality as water becomes scarcer and more valuable. These measures would also accommodate changing and often conflicting demands for water, including increasingly valuable conservation and environmental uses.
With its thorough analysis of existing water markets and its bold exploration of the potential for private-property rights to enhance freshwater ecosystems, Aquanomics will quench the thirst of readers eager for fresh insights about the worlds most vital natural resource.
Water Rights and the Environment
Markets for freshwater ecosystem servicesfor wetlands, streams, nonpoint source water pollutants, and habitat conservationare developing across the United States. In chapter 2, Martin W. Doyle and Todd BenDor provide a comprehensive review of this trend. Of course, poorly structured state and federal policies can undermine ecosystem mitigation efforts. In addition, the tensions between local and federal policies will remain an on-going problem. But so long as scientific monitoring is used to evaluate a programs success, Doyle and BenDor expect markets for ecosystem services to continue to play an important role in freshwater ecological restoration.
Until recently, nearly the entire burden of pollution control has been placed upon point sources (mostly industrial and municipal). Nonpoint sources (mostly agricultural) are regulated on a voluntary basis. A farmer, for example, may voluntarily elect to use less fertilizer or reduce pollution-generating production. For these actions the farmer may receive credits commensurate with the amount of pollution reduction. Farmers who can abate pollution at lower costs may sell these credits to those whose costs are higher. In chapter 3, Jeffrey M. Peterson and Craig M. Smith describe the extent of these pollution-abatement markets and the major impediments to their further utilization.
Chapter 4, by Brandon Scarborough, looks at the purchase of water for the environment. Scarborough provides a state-by-state account of recent legislation that permits market-water exchanges where instream demanders such as wildlife agencies and conservation groups are increasingly participating in these exchanges. He also suggests ways to eliminate the remaining impediments to instream transfers. Giving instream uses the same legal standing that traditional diversion enjoys would help water markets develop and would require that instream rights be clearly defined and enforced.
How do auctions for water rights promote environmental amenities? In chapter 5, Ray Hartwell and Bruce Aylward explain how various types of auctions can provide increased stream flows to accommodate instream uses and also to provide mitigation credits when pumping reduces groundwater supplies. Various types of auctions are evaluated in terms of their suitability, particularly in thin markets where the numbers of buyers and sellers are limited.
Water markets in the American West display an apparent paradox: unlike commodities in conventional markets, increases in the demand for water for higher-valued uses has not brought forth comparable increases in supplies from lower-valued uses. Why? In chapter 6, Stephen N. Bretsen and Peter J. Hill argue that multiple rights to veto water transfers has hampered the transfer of water from lower-valued agricultural uses to higher-valued industrial and municipal uses. This problem is made worse when exclusion rights and use rights are not bundled together for all rights holders. The high likelihood of lawsuits to invalidate water transferseven after they have been contracted foralso raises the cost of potential transfers and undermines economic efficiency.
Another obstacle to water markets is the evolving public-trust doctrine. What began as a legal principle to protect a public right to access to waters for the purposes of navigation and fishing has evolved into a doctrine that accommodates public rights to almost every conceivable interest in water. As James L. Huffman explains in chapter 7, this development has opened the floodgates of access so widely that few private rights are left. But if every self-identified stakeholder can legally protest water transfers, then parties who have entered into contracts for water rights cannot depend on getting what they have contracted for. This uncertainty discourages the development of water markets.
Water-quality trading, as usually proposed and practiced under the Clean Water Act, falls short of a real market in water quality management. In chapter 8, Leonard Shabman and Kurt Stephenson and explain why market-like approaches should be preferred to the mere trading of effluent permits for wastewater discharge. They also suggest ways to add market-like properties to water-quality management within the existing statutory and regulatory requirements of the Clean Water Act.
In many Western states, public water districts rely on property taxes to fund the payment of water developers such as the federal Bureau of Reclamation. But this kind of tax produces an implicit subsidy to water users because it is unrelated to the quantity of water demanded. Would direct water charges (prices) be a politically and economically feasible alternative? Drawing on data from Utah, B. Delworth Gardener shows in chapter 9 that higher water prices would induce sufficient water conservation so as to preclude the need for many new water projects that are economically infeasible and environmentally harmful. Changing to a pricing system that permits the elimination of property taxes would require some modifications of existing water contracts with the Bureau, but this does not appear to be an insurmountable obstacle once the economic and environment benefits are apparent.
The decommissioning of dams seems to be a growing worldwide concern. Unfortunately, decision-makers will be tempted to set priorities for dam removals solely on the basis of political pressures, without consideration for cost, ecological effects, and stakeholder preferences. In chapter 10, Pearl Q. Zheng, Benjamin F. Hobbs, and Joseph F. Koonce provide an evaluative framework for dam decommissioning that considers these crucial elements. They apply their framework to two case studiesa single dam near Lake Erie and a portfolio of dams in the same area. Among other conclusions, they find that an analysis of a series of dam removals might make more sense than considering them one at a time because for some purposes (such
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These translations of eighteen classical Chinese texts from the mid-ninth century (Tang dynasty) through the late nineteenth century (Qing dynasty) offer a comprehensive collection of primary sources focusing on gender issues in medieval and late imperial China. The book's title reflects the sometimes ironic relationship between Confucian viewpoints and women's visibility in Chinese historical documents. The texts, written by both men and women, show that Confucian values and scholarly practices produced a rich documentary record of women's lives.
Includes a brief guide for use by students and teachers
List of Illustrations
Guide for Students and Teachers
1. Biography of the Daoist Saint Wang Fengxian by Du Guangting (850 - 933)
Translated by Suzanne Cahill
This biography of an important Daoist female saint of the mid-ninth century chronicles her life from childhood through her spiritual self-cultivation, culminating in her ascension to heaven.
2. Biography of the Great Compassionate One of Xiangshan by Jiang Zhiqi (1031 - 1104)
Translated by Chün-fang Yü
The earliest documentary evidence of the legend of Miaoshan, this stone inscription shows how the local story of a Chinese princess became identified with a universal Buddhist deity, the Bodhisattva Guanyin.
3. The Book of Filial Piety for Women Attributed to a Woman Née Zheng (ca. 730)
Translated by Patricia Buckley Ebrey
The excerpt from this classic appears opposite corresponding passages from the original Book of Filial Piety to highlight the differences gender makes in the text and its messages.
4. Funerary Writings by Chen Liang (1143-1194)
Translated by Beverly Bossler
These three funerary odes describe how the funeral tablets of Chen Liang’s mother’s family came to be in his care, how his mother and her sister decided to marry their children together, and how his sister sustained her natal household during a period of family calamity. Along with the commemorative biography that follows, they open important windows on domestic life and family values during the period following the fall of the Northern Song.
5. "The Customs of Various Barbarians" by Li Jing (1251 - ?)
Translated by Jacqueline M. Armijo-Hussein
This description of minority peoples from a Yuan dynasty official’s record of his experiences in Yunnan province illustrates how views of gender relations and especially sexual practices served as a measure of the level of civilization among non-Han populations.
6. Selected Writings by Luo Rufang (1515 - 1588)
Translated by Yu-Yin Cheng
In these writings scholar and philosopher Luo Rufang celebrates women who pursue intellectual and philosophical interests. He also champions the virtue of motherly nurturance and love, which he considered as important as the central Confucian virtues of filial piety and brotherly respect.
7. Final Instructions by Yang Jisheng (1516 - 1555)
Translated by Beverly Bossler
Composed in prison, these notes instruct Yang’s wife and sons how to get along without him. His foremost concerns are three: that his family not become the subject of ridicule, that his sons get along with one another, and that his wife—who had already proven herself the moral conscience of the family—not commit suicide.
8. "Record of Past Karma" by Ji Xian (1614 - 1683)
Translated by Grace S. Fong
This autobiographical essay by the woman poet Ji Xian , with its powerful descriptions of dreams, visions, and personal illness, is unusually self-revelatory of the tensions between her personal religious desires and her obligations to her family.
9. "Letter to My Sons" by Gu Ruopu (1592 - ca.1681)
Translated by Dorothy Ko
Having seen to it that both sons married capable and learned wives, Hangzhou poet Gu Ruopu, virtuous widow and matriarch of the Huang family, decided to divide the family property and establish separate households for them. In this letter Gu outlines her support for the Confucian ideal of familism, but admonishes her sons to recognize women’s indispensable roles in the male-centered kinship system.
10. Personal Letters in Seventeenth-Century Epistolary Guides
Translated by Kathryn Lowry
The large number of epistolary guides and collected letters published in the late Ming include models for letters to family members as well as a few examples of love letters and provide a unique view of the social universe of that period. The love letters translated here show how this genre can be read as a sort of epistolary fiction and raise questions about how people might have consulted letter-writing manuals for reasons beyond social etiquette.
11. Letters by Women of the Ming-Qing Period
Translated by Yu-Yin Cheng
These short letters, written in the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries, reveal the erudition and wit as well as the spiritual and aesthetic sensibilities of highly educated upper-class women.
12. Selected Short Works by Wang Duanshu (1621 - after 1701)
Translated by Ellen Widmer
These short selections from the works of one of the earliest anthologists of women’s writings display the extraordinary range and breadth of her learning, while revealing her personal, aesthetic, and scholarly sensibilities.
13. Two Ghost Stories from Liaozhai’s Records of the Strange by Pu Songling (1640 - 1715)
Translated by Judith T. Zeitlin
The ghost story, authored by men and narrated from the male point of view, is one of the privileged spaces in Chinese literature for exploring fantasies of gender and sexuality. Such tales often involve a passionate affair between a young scholar and a beautiful female ghost who possesses a surprising degree of corporeality. The two late imperial tales translated here share two related themes: the power of love to triumph over death and the cosmic power of male generativity.
14. Two Biographies by Zhang Xuecheng (1738 - 1801)
Translated by Susan Mann
These biographies by one of the most distinguished scholars of the Qing period breathe life into views of women that are sometimes dismissed as mere conventions or stereotypes. In both texts we see, through men’s eyes, how women took responsibility for setting the standards to measure and criticize men’s behavior.
15. Poems on Tea-Picking
Translated by Weijing Lu
These poems about women at work, written mostly by men and spanning the dynasties from Tang through Qing, display the varied meanings of women’s work in the poetic imagery of elite writers and point to the ways in which women as literary subjects supplied a ceaseless range of possibilities for inventive poets over time. The poems also show the subtle relationship between poetry as social criticism and poetry as aesthetic performance in the culture of the late imperial elite.
16. Drinking Wine and Reading "Encountering Sorrow": A Reflection in Disguise by Wu Zao (1799 - 1862)
Translated by Sophie Volpp
In this dramatic tableau the playwright casts herself as the sole speaker. She poses before a portrait of herself cross-dressed as a male scholar and sings to the portrait a sequence of lyrics describing her frustrations as a woman of talent. The text concludes that none but her cross-dressed self-image is a match for the writer herself. Hangzhou poet and official Chen Wenshu, a noted patron of female writers, wrote a collection of poems celebrating this work.
17. A Brief Record of the Eastern Ocean by Ding Shaoyi (fl. 1847)
Translated by Emma Jinhua Teng
During his eight-month stay in Taiwan in 1847 Ding Shaoyi wrote the Brief Record, which treats sixteen topics, among them: taxes, schools, coastal defense, local products, "savage" villages, "savage" customs, and marvels. When he returned to Taiwan in 1871 he appended new material to each item in his original account. The passage translated here is Ding’s 1871 supplement to his original entry titled "Savage Customs."
18. The "Eating Crabs" Youth Book
Translated by Mark C. Elliott
This anonymous bilingual text, in Manchu and Chinese, reflects the complex ethnic picture in late imperial China, particularly in and around Beijing. Youth books were a form of oral performance very popular in the Qing capital. In this particular one, the story is told of a hapless Manchu bannerman and his shrewish Han Chinese wife who run afoul of a pot of feisty crabs.
Glossaries and References
Susan Mann is Professor of History at the University of California, Davis, and author of Precious Records: Women in China's Long Eighteenth Century (1997). Yu-Yin Cheng is Assistant Professor of History at Marymount Manhattan College and author of A Chronological Biography of Lo Ju-fang (1515-1588): Poet, Philosopher, Activist (1995).
"This important volume adds a significant number of new and unique materials for teachers at all levels of higher education to use in classroom and seminar discussion about the issues of gender, society, and religion in imperial China."—Benjamin Elman, author of A Cultural History of Civil Examinations in Late Imperial China
"The eighteen primary documents in this anthology, all of them translated for the first time, provide a rich array of sources on the lives of women in China's past. The anthology is important not only for the selection of documents but for the ways it suggests we can think about, and find sources about, women in China. It is must reading for scholars and students alike."—Ann Waltner, author of The World
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[
2048
] |
2,048
| 2.386694
|
IIMK and Jangal Santhal initiated a violent
IIMK Submitted by, GROUP 8, Section D PGP/14/202 Arik Das PGP/14/207 Chaitra Jagannath PGP/14/209 Chandramohan Nayak PGP/14/214 Kumari Sonia PGP/14/243 Sravya Shakuntala B The Naxalite Revolt – Why is it the Biggest Internal Threat to India’s Progress? Contents Contents2 1 Introduction3 2 The Red Corridor4 3 Causes of Naxalism5 3. 1 Structural violence5 3. 2 Poverty5 3. 3 Food insecurity5 3. 4 Literacy5 3. 5 Health6 3. 6 Drinking water, Sanitation and Housing6 3.
7 Disparities in Infrastructure6 4 Sources of finance and arms7 5 Demands of Naxalites7 Naxals: An Obstacle to growth8 7 Government’s response to Naxalism8 7. 1 Salwa Judum8 7. 2 Operation Green Hunt9 7. 3 Other Initiatives by State and Central Government9 8 Recommendations10 8. 1 Central Government10 8. 2 State Government10 8. 3 Communist Party of India (M)11 REFERENCES12 1 Introduction The Naxalite flag inspired by Maoism Naxals being trained at a camp Naxal origin can be traced to the split in 1967 of the Communist Party of India (Marxist), leading to the formation of the Communist Party of India (Marxist–Leninist).
Initially the movement had its centre in West Bengal. In later years, it spread into less developed areas of rural central and eastern India, such as Chhattisgarh, Orissa and Andhra Pradesh through the activities of underground groups like the Communist Party of India (Maoist). The term Naxalites comes from Naxalbari, a small village in West Bengal, where a section of the Communist Party of India (Marxist) (CPM) led by Charu Majumdar, Kanu Sanyal and Jangal Santhal initiated a violent uprising in 1967.Charu Majumdar, inspired by the doctrines of Mao Zedong, provided ideological leadership for the Naxalbari movement, advocating that Indian peasants and lower class tribals overthrow the government and upper classes by force. A large number of urban elites were also attracted to the ideology, which spread through Majumdar’s writings, particularly the ‘Historic Eight Documents’ which formed the basis of Naxalite ideology.So, the Naxalites mobilized the poor to fight against the existing state, even armed fight if possible, as they consider the existing state to be a set of agents acting for the big multinational corporations, rich landlords and the wealthy in general.
There is a pause in the timeline of the whole Naxalite movement between 1980 and 2000. This is because in 1970s, the major Maoist leaders were caught and shot dead by the government and most of the cadres were imprisoned. So the movement came to a halt.
But, again in the new century, they gathered strength and came back and attacked in a stronger way.The movement has a a very long history of development. The present party, CPI (Maoist), came into being in 2004 by the merger of a number of fraternal organizations including the People’s War Group (PWG). 2 The Red Corridor The map of India showing the red corridor is a region in India which is a cause of the major political unrest and internal threats to our country. The red corridor basically comprises of portion of West Bengal, Jharkhand, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh and parts of Madhya Pradesh.
This region lies in the Eastern Ghats area and is extreme inaccessible due to excessive rain and dense tracts of forests.This makes it difficult for the government to maintain law and order in these areas. The locales of this region are the tribes and Dalits who have been subjected to the most oppressive conditions since ages. Also this region is full of minerals in the forms of iron ore, coal, bauxite, dolomite, copper, manganese etc.
The Indian Map demarcating the Red Corridor areas Therefore, red corridor is described as one of the most impoverished region in the east of India that experiences considerable Naxalite communist terrorism activity. These areas suffer from the greatest illiteracy, poverty and economic inequality in modern India. Causes of Naxalism 3. 1 Structural violence Structural violence basically refers to the form of violence based on the systematic ways in which a given social structure or social institution harms people by preventing them from meeting the basic needs. Dalits constitute the largest percentage of landless people in the country. In the absence of wage employment, they are dependent upon their landowners for providing them avenues of livelihood in these rural areas.
The condition generated by this relationship is that of extreme exploitation. They are subjected to low wages, long working hours, debt bondage and even physical assault.On the other hand, the tribes were one time privileged to own some land, but have now recorded the fastest pace of landlessness among different social groups in recent times.
This agrarian system is further worsened by the caste based system leading to social exclusion and imposition of degrading occupations. When Dalits and tribes approached the state functionaries for seeking justice they faced indifferent, unresponsive and hostile machinery in collusion with their tormentors. 3. 2 Poverty Dalits and the tribal people are among the poorest sections of the society.
The states of Chhattisgarh, Orissa, Jharkhand, West Bengal and Madhya Pradesh account for 58% of the Dalits out of which 70% are below poverty line as well as 49% of tribal population out of which 63% are under poverty line. This can be linked to the lack of productive assets available which can be used to generate income and engage them in sustainable employment. As for the tribal people, the main source of their livelihood was the land available with them but after the government took over their land to be given to the big corporate, these tribes have been led to extreme poverty. 3. Food insecurity Both the tribal population and the Dalits suffer from acute food deficiency. Nearly 71% of the tribal households face conditions of food deficit for 2-3 months and 5% for six months and above.
The incidence of starvation deaths, characteristics of extreme impoverishment is the highest in these classes and they even are forced to sell their children for survival. Hunger is also one of the greatest causes of indebtness among the Dalits and the tribes who actually borrow at a very high rate of interest for food consumption during lean periods when there is no employment. .
4 Literacy The Dalits as well as the tribal population have been deprived of education for centuries under the existing social order. They have remained cut off from the mainstream educational facilities through ages. Despite the universalization of education, the literacy rates in the states affected by naxalite movement are extremely low. It is about 28% in Bihar, 41% in Jharkhand and Madhya Pradesh, 52% in Chhattisgarh and 37% in Orissa. The low enrolment rate and higher dropout rate of students indicate the high incidence of child labour prevalent in these classes of society.
3. Health The situation in respect of health status is the worst amongst these classes. The infant mortality rates, indicative of the reach of primary health care is as high as 84. 2 per thousand in the case of tribals and 83 per thousand in the case of dalits. The disparity is also reflected in the high morbidity, low level of immunization, high level of malnutrition among women in these communities. The nutritional levels in these groups are truly disturbing.
The crude death rate is also higher among the tribals. The incidence of stunting, wasting, underweight in children is the highest mongst these groups. 3. 6 Drinking water, Sanitation and Housing The situation in respect of access to drinking water reveals wide disparities in case of the Dalits and the tribal population.
Only 15. 2% of the tribal households and 27% of Dalit households have drinking water facility in their premises. The position in respect of sanitation is even more dismal. Only 24. 4% of the tribal households have a pucca house while this percentage is 42. 8% for the Dalit households and 57. 7 %.
The access to electricity is enjoyed only by 36. 5% of the tribal households and 44. % of the Dalit household.
3. 7 Disparities in Infrastructure The wide disparities in human development are also accompanied by a huge gap in the availability of development infrastructure in the form of roads, bridges, transport networks and telecommunication facilities as well as social infrastructure in the form of schools, health centers, piped water supply schemes and power distribution lines. Besides, even the meager infrastructure that exists in the region is deteriorating due to poor maintenance and, therefore, becomes increasingly non-functional due to lack of funds. Sources of finance and arms The area inhabitated by these tribes is richly endowed with resources in the form of forests, minerals and wild life. It has been found that these groups have themselves started exploiting these resources, for e. g.
they have started poaching tigers and elephants for their skin and tusks
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]
] |
[
2048
] |
2,048
| 2.3174
|
Written documentation of the patient encounter serves many essential roles in health care. Patient notes chronicle important findings relating to health and disease, provide communication between health care providers, and are the documents used for billing. Patient notes are also used for epidemiological research, to study practice patterns of physicians, or as a primary source of information during malpractice litigation.1–3 Well-organized, complete, and accurate documentation of what occurs between a health care professional and a patient is essential.
Learning the skills for written documentation of patient encounters begins during medical school. The Medical School Objectives Project (MSOP) recognizes written communication as an important skill, and assessment of written communication is included within the six Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education competencies.4,5 Time is devoted in medical curricula to teaching and refining this skill.6 Many clinical clerkships require students to submit patient write-ups as part of the evaluation process. Write-ups are reviewed in great detail, and attention is given to completeness and synthesis of patient information.7 However, this review is typically performed at a time remote from the actual patient encounter, with the underlying assumption that the data presented are accurate and representative of the student-patient interaction.
A limited number of studies have compared information obtained during patient encounters and the corresponding notes. One measurement method employed has been to obtain information directly from patients. Reports, gathered through interviews or surveys, are then compared to documentation from the patient visit. These studies often focus on a specific aspect of the encounter, and patient questioning is directed. The reliability of this technique depends on the patient’s understanding of the parameters being measured and patient recall.8 Completeness or accuracy of documentation has also been studied by comparing checklists scored by standardized patients (SPs) with associated patient notes. Studies using SPs have been performed in controlled testing situations or through the use of unannounced SPs in a practice setting. Discrepancies between what the SPs report as “done” and patient-note documentation for encounters have been identified; however findings in these studies are similarly limited by the specificity of the checklist items and accuracy of the SPs.9,10
The present study was designed to allow a direct comparison between student interactions with a patient and the subsequent patient note. For purposes of this study, we focused on the physical examination (PE). Our goal was to provide a direct comparison between the PE maneuvers that were performed on the patient, and the corresponding documentation of the PE in the patient note. It is important to recognize that we focused on the complete and accurate recording of all PE maneuvers performed by students, rather than focusing only on examination maneuvers that were specific to the presenting problem portrayed by the patient.
We used information from our senior medical student standardized patient-based clinical skills assessment (CSA) to address our question. This study was conducted though the review of videotaped student-SP encounters and the corresponding patient notes. Permission for this work was obtained from our Institutional Review Board and Curriculum Research Committee.
Our CSA has been in place for over 15 years, and achieving a passing score is part of the school’s graduation requirement. For the 2005 examination, each student participated in nine 15-minute standardized patient-based encounters. Following their second, fourth, sixth and eighth patient encounter, students were given 10 minutes to complete a patient note. The note template included sections for the medical interview, physical examination, differential diagnosis, and management plan, a format similar to that used in a nationally administered clinical skills assessment.11 Students were familiar with the examination structure and note format from a detailed orientation session held several weeks before the start of the CSA, and a brief orientation on the day of their exam.
The examination blueprint was aligned with objectives from the core clinical rotations. Patient scenarios were developed locally or adapted from existing SP case banks. Sixteen scenarios were prepared for the 2005 examination from which we selected three for this study. We chose adult cases with problems focused on gastroenterological (40-year-old man presenting with laboratory abnormalities in his liver profile), cardiovascular (44-year-old woman with intermittent tachyarrhythmias) and upper respiratory (55-year-old man with a persistent sore throat and chronic cough) symptoms. For each of these cases, students were instructed to perform a focused medical interview and physical examination. The SPs portraying these patients were experienced from previous work in our SP program and had no abnormal physical findings per the Medical Director’s physical assessment. All three cases had been used in our CSA in previous years.
Four investigators (the authors) participated in the study. All four are internal medicine faculty at our institution and are actively involved in teaching and assessing medical students. The investigators met prior to beginning the study to discuss guidelines for data collection. A well-accepted textbook of physical examination instruction, used for teaching at our institution, served as the standard for PE techniques.12
In the pilot phase of the study, ten complete student-SP encounters were reviewed and were compared to the medical interview and PE portions of the patient note. Because of wide variations in interview styles, encounter-note agreement for the medical interview was difficult to assess objectively. We therefore chose to focus this study on the PE portion of the encounter and the corresponding section of the patient note. We assessed the potential influence of time constraints on student performance by recording time use in each encounter. We recorded time use from the beginning to the end of the encounter, and from initiation to completion of the PE component.
The principle author (KS) reviewed each patient encounter-note pair along with one of the other investigators. Reviewers were provided with copies of the tapes and watched the PE portion of the encounter. There was no limitation on the number of times that an encounter could be viewed. Details of all PE maneuvers performed were transcribed, then compared to the student’s written description of the PE in the corresponding note. Five scoring categories, defined prospectively by the investigators, were used to categorize the relationship between the patient encounter and corresponding note: (1) all PE maneuvers correctly recorded; (2) PE maneuver performed, but not recorded; (3) PE maneuver not performed, but recorded; (4) PE maneuver performed incorrectly, recorded as if done; and (5) inaccurate documentation (inclusion of an abnormal physical finding that was not present). For each patient encounter-note pair, all applicable categories could be selected. Reviews were performed independently and scoring categories were compared. If a category was selected by only one of the reviewers, transcribed details of the encounter were compared between reviewers and consensus was reached through discussion.
We performed a descriptive analysis of our findings by case, and calculated the frequency with which each scoring category was selected for the encounter-note pairs. For individual patient encounters, we also calculated the total encounter time used by each student, and the portion of time spent in the PE. Individual time use information was then used to calculate the mean total encounter time for each case, and the mean percent of time spent in the PE.
Videotapes for all of the encounters with corresponding notes were obtained and reviewed. Technical problems resulted in the exclusion of 7 encounters, with a total of 207 encounter-note pairs available for the study. The frequency of the scoring categories noted for each case is presented in Table 1.
Almost all of the encounter-note pairs reviewed (96%) revealed some degree of mismatch between what students did during the PE and what they recorded in the note. Omissions of information were common, and included a wide range of PE maneuvers. Most concerning was that the majority of notes included documentation of findings from maneuvers that were either not performed during the PE (e.g., “lungs clear to auscultation bilaterally” when the lungs had not been examined; “no splenomegaly” when the examination of the abdomen had been limited to nonspecific, generalized palpation), or performed incorrectly such that the information reported could not have been reliably obtained (e.g., “PMI nondisplaced” when palpation of the chest wall had been performed on top of breast tissue). Of the 207 encounter-note pairs reviewed, 169 (82%) were found to include information from examination maneuvers that had either not been performed or had been performed incorrectly.
Documentation of PE abnormalities that were not actually present most often included findings relevant to the case content. For example, students recorded the presence of scleral icterus, ascites, or a grossly abnormal liver size for the patient with the abnormal liver profile, peripheral edema in the patient with the cardiac presentation, and cervical lymphadenopathy in the patient with upper respiratory symptoms. None of the SPs had these actual abnormalities.
Time use was similar across the three cases, as was the percent of time spent in the PE. Mean total time (standard deviation) for each case was: gastroenterological 13:39 (0:50), cardiovascular 13:53 (0:57), and respiratory 13:32 (1:16). The mean percent of time spent in the physical examination was 20.3% (6.7), 22.2% (7.6) and 22.5% (6.6) respectively.
Our findings revealed a high rate of mismatch between what students did during the PE portion of patient encounters and what they documented in the subsequent patient note. The potential underlying reasons and implications of these findings are complex. For purposes of discussion, we chose to globally classify the mismatch errors into three categories: underdocumentation, overdocumentation, and inaccurate documentation.
Several studies have evaluated issues relating to underdocumentation and why this may occur.8–10,13 Potential explanations for why our students did not record of all of the PE maneuvers that they performed include: they simply forgot that they had performed the maneuver, forgot to record it, or decided after the fact that the maneuver was not relevant and did not need to be recorded. While these are seemingly innocent errors of omission, failing to record information may subsequently underestimate the quality of care provided
|
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2989,
14613,
22527,
311,
2820,
323,
8457,
11,
3410,
10535,
1948,
2820,
2453,
12565,
11,
323,
525,
279,
9293,
1483,
369,
33531,
13,
28924,
8388,
525,
1083,
1483,
369,
60957,
5729,
3412,
11,
311,
3920,
6588,
12624,
315,
34844,
11,
476,
438,
264,
6028,
2530,
315,
1995,
2337,
8641,
59521,
38625,
13,
16,
4142,
18,
8325,
12,
62216,
11,
4583,
11,
323,
13382,
9705,
315,
1128,
13666,
1948,
264,
2820,
2453,
6584,
323,
264,
8720,
374,
7565,
624,
47467,
279,
7361,
369,
5326,
9705,
315,
8720,
33906,
12033,
2337,
6457,
2906,
13,
576,
12939,
6022,
3002,
1886,
5787,
320,
4826,
3067,
8,
44699,
5326,
10535,
438,
458,
2989,
9947,
11,
323,
15449,
315,
5326,
10535,
374,
5230,
2878,
279,
4743,
96692,
7556,
9074,
369,
43725,
12939,
11668,
4533,
5946,
13,
19,
11,
20,
4120,
374,
28229,
304,
6457,
2847,
45482,
311,
12629,
323,
73185,
419,
9947,
13,
21,
8999,
14490,
44257,
17675,
1373,
4143,
311,
9318,
8720,
3270,
26761,
438,
949,
315,
279,
16460,
1882,
13,
9645,
26761,
525,
21926,
304,
2244,
7716,
11,
323,
6529,
374,
2661,
311,
79314,
323,
38875,
315,
8720,
1995,
13,
22,
4354,
11,
419,
3395,
374,
11136,
10660,
518,
264,
882,
8699,
504,
279,
5042,
8720,
12828,
11,
448,
279,
16533,
24335,
429,
279,
821,
10449,
525,
13382,
323,
18239,
315,
279,
5458,
2268,
16389,
16230,
624,
32,
7199,
1372,
315,
7822,
614,
7707,
1995,
12180,
2337,
8720,
33906,
323,
279,
12159,
8388,
13,
3776,
18662,
1714,
19446,
702,
1012,
311,
6851,
1995,
5961,
504,
6835,
13,
28040,
11,
20190,
1526,
19344,
476,
31213,
11,
525,
1221,
7707,
311,
9705,
504,
279,
8720,
3947,
13,
4220,
7822,
3545,
5244,
389,
264,
3151,
12893,
315,
279,
12828,
11,
323,
8720,
33585,
374,
15540,
13,
576,
30538,
315,
419,
14762,
13798,
389,
279,
8720,
748,
8660,
315,
279,
5029,
1660,
16878,
323,
8720,
19091,
13,
23,
42354,
63097,
476,
13403,
315,
9705,
702,
1083,
1012,
19476,
553,
26297,
1779,
17575,
16548,
553,
50014,
6835,
320,
4592,
82,
8,
448,
5815,
8720,
8388,
13,
18720,
1667,
9256,
82,
614,
1012,
10660,
304,
14071,
7497,
14740,
476,
1526,
279,
990,
315,
650,
1020,
19453,
9256,
82,
304,
264,
6588,
6243,
13,
4093,
837,
848,
69007,
1948,
1128,
279,
9256,
82,
1895,
438,
1036,
10438,
854,
323,
8720,
67238,
9705,
369,
33906,
614,
1012,
10820,
26,
4764,
14613,
304,
1493,
7822,
525,
29193,
7199,
553,
279,
74941,
315,
279,
52573,
3589,
323,
13403,
315,
279,
9256,
82,
13,
24,
11,
16,
15,
198,
785,
3042,
3920,
572,
6188,
311,
2138,
264,
2118,
12313,
1948,
5458,
21880,
448,
264,
8720,
323,
279,
17420,
8720,
5185,
13,
1752,
9895,
315,
419,
3920,
11,
582,
10735,
389,
279,
6961,
23568,
320,
1740,
568,
5633,
5795,
572,
311,
3410,
264,
2118,
12313,
1948,
279,
21804,
95791,
429,
1033,
10660,
389,
279,
8720,
11,
323,
279,
12159,
9705,
315,
279,
21804,
304,
279,
8720,
5185,
13,
1084,
374,
2989,
311,
15282,
429,
582,
10735,
389,
279,
4583,
323,
13382,
14633,
315,
678,
21804,
95791,
10660,
553,
4143,
11,
4751,
1091,
21080,
1172,
389,
23568,
95791,
429,
1033,
3151,
311,
279,
31544,
3491,
44777,
553,
279,
8720,
624,
1654,
1483,
1995,
504,
1039,
9990,
6457,
5458,
50014,
8720,
5980,
14490,
7361,
15449,
320,
6412,
32,
8,
311,
2621,
1039,
3405,
13,
1096,
3920,
572,
13075,
3498,
279,
3395,
315,
71274,
10185,
5458,
12,
4592,
33906,
323,
279,
12159,
8720,
8388,
13,
18135,
369,
419,
975,
572,
12180,
504,
1039,
97884,
10294,
8751,
323,
74206,
8319,
10341,
624,
7981,
93407,
702,
1012,
304,
1992,
369,
916,
220,
16,
20,
1635,
11,
323,
31045,
264,
12299,
5456,
374,
949,
315,
279,
2906,
748,
38454,
16287,
13,
1752,
279,
220,
17,
15,
15,
20,
23568,
11,
1817,
5458,
30308,
304,
11627,
220,
16,
20,
23498,
50014,
8720,
5980,
33906,
13,
22713,
862,
2086,
11,
11737,
11,
25031,
323,
36377,
8720,
12828,
11,
4143,
1033,
2661,
220,
16,
15,
4420,
311,
4583,
264,
8720,
5185,
13,
576,
5185,
3811,
5230,
14158,
369,
279,
6457,
7128,
11,
6961,
23568,
11,
40164,
22982,
11,
323,
6240,
3119,
11,
264,
3561,
4428,
311,
429,
1483,
304,
264,
39243,
36918,
14490,
7361,
15449,
13,
16,
16,
20173,
1033,
11285,
448,
279,
23568,
5944,
323,
5185,
3561,
504,
264,
11682,
16725,
3797,
5644,
3807,
5555,
1573,
279,
1191,
315,
279,
93407,
11,
323,
264,
9814,
16725,
389,
279,
1899,
315,
862,
7006,
624,
785,
23568,
52929,
572,
26118,
448,
25398,
504,
279,
6200,
14490,
69201,
13,
28924,
25283,
1033,
7881,
23490,
476,
29364,
504,
6350,
9256,
1142,
13959,
13,
18680,
14901,
25283,
1033,
10030,
369,
279,
220,
17,
15,
15,
20,
23568,
504,
892,
582,
4091,
2326,
369,
419,
3920,
13,
1205,
14554,
6683,
5048,
448,
5322,
10735,
389,
58249,
1950,
5729,
320,
19,
15,
4666,
6284,
883,
31544,
448,
26594,
74715,
304,
806,
25506,
5526,
701,
40613,
320,
19,
19,
4666,
6284,
5220,
448,
74468,
259,
610,
88,
1118,
60154,
3473,
8,
323,
8416,
41531,
320,
20,
20,
4666,
6284,
883,
448,
264,
24999,
35266,
27591,
323,
20601,
39600,
8,
13495,
13,
1752,
1817,
315,
1493,
5048,
11,
4143,
1033,
40975,
311,
2736,
264,
10735,
6457,
7128,
323,
6961,
23568,
13,
576,
9256,
82,
98497,
1493,
6835,
1033,
10321,
504,
3681,
975,
304,
1039,
9256,
2025,
323,
1030,
902,
34563,
6961,
14613,
817,
279,
12939,
10560,
748,
6961,
15449,
13,
2009,
2326,
5048,
1030,
1012,
1483,
304,
1039,
93407,
304,
3681,
1635,
624,
26972,
25381,
320,
1782,
12014,
8,
30308,
304,
279,
3920,
13,
2009,
3040,
525,
5306,
15712,
21564,
518,
1039,
14898,
323,
525,
22040,
6398,
304,
12629,
323,
46514,
6457,
4143,
13,
576,
25381,
2270,
4867,
311,
7167,
279,
3920,
311,
4263,
17501,
369,
821,
4426,
13,
362,
1632,
12,
54574,
55085,
315,
6961,
23568,
7600,
11,
1483,
369,
12629,
518,
1039,
14898,
11,
10223,
438,
279,
5297,
369,
21804,
12538,
13,
16,
17,
198,
641,
279,
17708,
10262,
315,
279,
3920,
11,
5779,
4583,
5458,
12,
4592,
33906,
1033,
21926,
323,
1033,
7707,
311,
279,
6457,
7128,
323,
21804,
19325,
315,
279,
8720,
5185,
13,
9211,
315,
6884,
26244,
304,
7128,
9222,
11,
12828,
67238,
9128,
369,
279,
6457,
7128,
572,
5000,
311,
8552,
84021,
13,
1205,
8916,
14554,
311,
5244,
419,
3920,
389,
279,
21804,
13348,
315,
279,
12828,
323,
279,
12159,
3772,
315,
279,
8720,
5185,
13,
1205,
31348,
279,
4650,
10173,
315,
882,
16982,
389,
5458,
5068,
553,
14633,
882,
990,
304,
1817,
12828,
13,
1205,
12433,
882,
990,
504,
279,
7167,
311,
279,
835,
315,
279,
12828,
11,
323,
504,
60468,
311,
9755,
315,
279,
21804,
3692,
624,
785,
17508,
3150,
320,
40449,
8,
21926,
1817,
8720,
12828,
67238,
6716,
3156,
448,
825,
315,
279,
1008,
25381,
13,
10294,
388,
1033,
3897,
448,
10993,
315,
279,
51696,
323,
15384,
279,
21804,
13348,
315,
279,
12828,
13,
2619,
572,
902,
20278,
389,
279,
1372,
315,
3039,
429,
458,
12828,
1410,
387,
19334,
13,
12309,
315,
678,
21804,
95791,
10660,
1033,
1356,
17433,
11,
1221,
7707,
311,
279,
5458,
748,
5326,
4008,
315,
279,
21804,
304,
279,
12159,
5185,
13,
20924,
19826,
11059,
11,
4512,
21479,
3132,
553,
279,
25381,
11,
1033,
1483,
311,
22049,
551,
279,
5025,
1948,
279,
8720,
12828,
323,
12159,
5185,
25,
320,
16,
8,
678,
21804,
95791,
12440,
12433,
26,
320,
17,
8,
21804,
44114,
10660,
11,
714,
537,
12433,
26,
320,
18,
8,
21804,
44114,
537,
10660,
11,
714,
12433,
26,
320,
19,
8,
21804,
44114,
10660,
43347,
11,
12433,
438,
421,
2814,
26,
323,
320,
20,
8,
49404,
9705,
320,
258,
8957,
315,
458,
34563,
6961,
9271,
429,
572,
537,
3042,
568,
1752,
1817,
8720,
12828,
67238,
6716,
11,
678,
8415,
11059,
1410,
387,
4091,
13,
19276,
1033,
10660,
28135,
323,
19826,
11059,
1033,
7707,
13,
1416,
264,
5582,
572,
4091,
553,
1172,
825,
315,
279,
59038,
11,
1356,
17433,
3565,
315,
279,
12828,
1033,
7707,
1948,
59038,
323,
23869,
572,
8643,
1526,
10219,
624,
1654,
10660,
264,
52844,
6358,
315,
1039,
14613,
553,
1142,
11,
323,
16588,
279,
11639,
448,
892,
1817,
19826,
5582,
572,
4091,
369,
279,
12828,
67238,
13530,
13,
1752,
3842,
8720,
33906,
11,
582,
1083,
16588,
279,
2790,
12828,
882,
1483,
553,
1817,
5458,
11,
323,
279,
13348,
315,
882,
7391,
304,
279,
21804,
13,
29340,
882,
990,
1995,
572,
1221,
1483,
311,
11047,
279,
3076,
2790,
12828,
882,
369,
1817,
1142,
11,
323,
279,
3076,
3266,
315,
882,
7391,
304,
279,
21804,
624,
53,
577,
354,
9337,
369,
678,
315,
279,
33906,
448,
12159,
8388,
1033,
12180,
323,
21926,
13,
26668,
5322,
19006,
304,
279,
41208,
315,
220,
22,
33906,
11,
448,
264,
2790,
315,
220,
17,
15,
22,
12828,
67238,
13530,
2500,
369,
279,
3920,
13,
576,
11639,
315,
279,
19826,
11059,
10342,
369,
1817,
1142,
374,
10449,
304,
6633,
220,
16,
624,
38682,
678,
315,
279,
12828,
67238,
13530,
21926,
320,
24,
21,
11334,
10457,
1045,
8381,
315,
35301,
1948,
1128,
4143,
1521,
2337,
279,
21804,
323,
1128,
807,
12433,
304,
279,
5185,
13,
506,
5176,
315,
1995,
1033,
4185,
11,
323,
5230,
264,
6884,
2088,
315,
21804,
95791,
13,
7496,
18310,
572,
429,
279,
8686,
315,
8388,
5230,
9705,
315,
14613,
504,
95791,
429,
1033,
2987,
537,
10660,
2337,
279,
21804,
320,
68,
1302,
2572,
1036,
75,
28122,
2797,
311,
9421,
92013,
367,
20316,
962,
745,
854,
979,
279,
44174,
1030,
537,
1012,
24109,
26,
1036,
2152,
12503,
268,
635,
70,
5774,
854,
979,
279,
23568,
315,
279,
63672,
1030,
1012,
7199,
311,
31695,
15564,
11,
66117,
74549,
367,
701,
476,
10660,
43347,
1741,
429,
279,
1995,
4961,
1410,
537,
614,
1012,
56382,
12180,
320,
68,
1302,
2572,
1036,
8795,
40,
73898,
285,
36369,
854,
979,
74549,
367,
315,
279,
15138,
7002,
1030,
1012,
10660,
389,
1909,
315,
17216,
19847,
568,
4940,
279,
220,
17,
15,
22,
12828,
67238,
13530,
21926,
11,
220,
16,
21,
24,
320,
23,
17,
11334,
1033,
1730,
311,
2924,
1995,
504,
23568,
95791,
429,
1030,
2987,
537,
1012,
10660,
476,
1030,
1012,
10660,
43347,
624,
64334,
315,
21804,
74715,
429,
1033,
537,
3520,
3042,
1429,
3545,
5230,
14613,
9760,
311,
279,
1142,
2213,
13,
1752,
3110,
11,
4143,
12433,
279,
9362,
315,
56119,
3253,
17902,
465,
355,
11,
14601,
3611,
11,
476,
264,
19952,
398,
34563,
25506,
1379,
369,
279,
8720,
448,
279,
34563,
25506,
5526,
11,
34588,
1578,
9176,
304,
279,
8720,
448,
279,
46245,
15496,
11,
323,
66727,
42645,
21140,
52942,
304,
279,
8720,
448,
8416,
41531,
13495,
13,
2240,
315,
279,
9256,
82,
1030,
1493,
5042,
74715,
624,
1462,
990,
572,
4428,
3941,
279,
2326,
5048,
11,
438,
572,
279,
3266,
315,
882,
7391,
304,
279,
21804,
13,
16327,
2790,
882,
320,
20270,
37564,
8,
369,
1817,
1142,
572,
25,
58249,
1950,
5729,
220,
16,
18,
25,
18,
24,
320,
15,
25,
20,
15,
701,
40613,
220,
16,
18,
25,
20,
18,
320,
15,
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[
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2,048
| 2.590873
|
Masuo Yasui, together with many members of Hood River’s Japanese community, spent the evening of December 6, 1941, rehearsing the annual Christmas show at a local community center. Yasui, an Issei (first-generation immigrant from Japan) had traveled to America in 1903 at the age of sixteen and eventually settled in Oregon, where he became a successful businessman, farmer, and community leader. When he learned about Japan’s attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, he raced to the Japanese community hall and warned those attending church to “remain calm” and “return to your homes.” That night, rumors flew throughout Hood River that local Japanese had known about the attacks, that they had been at the community center planning a victory celebration, and that they were planning to blow up Bonneville Dam.
Hysterical headlines about the role the Japanese population had played in the attack appeared in newspapers in Oregon and up and down the West Coast. One paper reported that the bodies of Japanese navy men had been found near Cannon Beach. The Hillsboro Argus reported that "Officials Feel Japanese May Try Anything." American Legion chapters in Oregon spread the story that hidden supplies of arms and ammunition had been found in Japanese homes.
Federal restrictions on Issei quickly followed. The federal government froze Japanese bank assets and imposed travel restrictions and a curfew. Issei, now considered “enemy aliens,” were prohibited from owning firearms, explosives, shortwave radios, and cameras. The week after the attack on Pearl Harbor, the FBI searched Issei homes and arrested two thousand Issei men living on the West Coast, detaining one man in Hood River when they found a single bullet in his woodshed. They also detained Masuo Yasui after searching his house, where they confiscated maps and his children’s drawings. The FBI would later use those maps to accuse him of planning to blow up the Panama Canal. They detained Masuo Yasui because he was “a wealthy…merchant and farmer” who was “strongly Japanese and wants to do something for that government.”
On February 19, 1942, President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed Executive Order 9066, which authorized the secretary of war to “prescribe military areas…from which any or all persons may be excluded." The order was predicated on the idea that, as an alien people unable to assimilate, the Japanese remained loyal to Japan. Lt. Gen. John L. DeWitt recommended that all people of Japanese ancestry be removed from the West Coast. He argued that “the Japanese race is an enemy race. The very fact that no sabotage has taken place to date is disturbing and confirming indication that such action will be taken." DeWitt's fears proved unfounded; no person of Japanese ancestry living in the United States was ever charged with an act of sabotage.
Ten days after Roosevelt signed the order, DeWitt issued Public Proclamation No. 1, which created Military Areas 1 and 2. Japanese living in these zones, the eastern edge of which roughly followed Highway 97 in Oregon, were to be forcibly removed to incarceration camps farther inland. The few Nikkei living east of the exclusion area were not affected.
Masuo Yasui’s son, Minoru, a practicing attorney, believed that 9066 was unconstitutional and unenforceable. On March 28, 1942, he deliberately broke the federally imposed 8:00 pm to 6:00 am curfew that applied to all Nikkei (persons of Japanese ancestry) in Military Areas 1 and 2 by walking around downtown Portland. He then turned himself in to the police. In his initial trial, Judge James Fee ruled that the United States, in the absence of martial law, had no right to impose a curfew on its citizens.
The Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals in San Francisco, without ruling or review, sent the case directly to the Supreme Court, where Yasui v. United States was heard as a companion case to Hirabayashi v. United States. Gordon Hirabayashi, a student at the University of Washington, had reported to the Seattle FBI office that he had violated the curfew order in that city and intended to violate the exclusion order. He was sentenced to ninety days of hard labor. The Supreme Court heard both cases in May 1943 and unanimously ruled that the United States could impose such a curfew out of military necessity.
In April 1942, officials posted Civil Exclusion Orders No. 25 and No. 26 on telephone poles and store windows throughout Multnomah County. A few weeks later, Civilian Exclusion Order No. 49 was posted in Hood River. The orders gave all Nikkei only a few days to put their affairs in order before they had to report for evacuation. Many quickly sold their businesses, homes, and property at whatever price they could obtain. Mrs. Itsu Akiyama, who lived in Hood River, later remembered: "Caucasians came to buy our cow and calf. They told me, ‘This is forty dollars. This is fifty dollars.’ I would just reply, ‘All right.’”
On May 5, 1942, Nikkei in Military Area No. 1 reported to the Portland Assembly Center, leaving their pets, possessions, and lives behind. The center—a hastily constructed camp on the site of the Pacific International Livestock Exposition—was surrounded by barbed wire, watchtowers, and military guards armed with machine guns. The center had a peak population of 3,676. Those living in Military Area No 2, including the Japanese Americans in Hood River, were sent by train to the Pinedale Assembly Center in California's San Joaquin Valley.
The government-named assembly centers served as temporary detention camps while ten permanent camps were being built. Overall, there were sixteen such camps, the majority of which were built on racetracks or fairgrounds and located relatively close to Japanese populations. The assembly centers lacked privacy and basic sanitation. At the Portland camp, thin sheets of plywood were used to create housing units that were each lighted with a single, bare bulb. Because the living areas had no ceilings, families could hear everything their neighbors were doing. The smell of manure was often overwhelming.
By the summer of 1942, the War Relocation Authority (WRA) began to transfer the Japanese to permanent "relocation centers." Those living in Hood River and southwest Oregon were moved to Tule Lake, just south of Klamath Falls in northern California. Most of the people at the Portland Assembly Center were sent to Minidoka, Idaho, one of ten camps located in remote areas of the West. Ironically, by the time the camps were constructed, the United States had turned the tide of the war in the Pacific at the battle of Midway, eliminating the threat of a Japanese invasion of the West Coast.
The camps were prisons with deplorable living conditions. Surrounded by barbed wire and guard towers, the installations were tightly managed by the WRA. Both Tule Lake and Minidoka were located in desert plains, and the rapidly constructed barracks meant that those held there faced blistering heat and blowing dust in summer and bone-chilling cold in winter. Latrines were open-pit toilets built back-to-back in rows of six. Women would often use cardboard to screen themselves or use latrines late at night, when they could find some privacy. Food poisoning and illness were rampant. The WRA assigned living quarters based on immediate family but with no regard for extended family. Many Issei mourned the erosion of traditional family life, as children ate with their friends, not their family.
Nikkei did their best to create a community and make the camps livable. They set up fire and police departments, published newspapers, held dances, and formed baseball teams. They planted "victory gardens" that augmented the food produced by the large-scale agricultural enterprises overseen by the WRA. Men used scrap lumber to make furniture, including desks, tables, and chairs; and at Topaz (Utah), women dug shells from a ditch inside the camp that they made into jewelry. Men and women offered classes of all kinds, including flower arranging, sewing, and English.
Most of the adults held jobs in food production, construction, maintenance, meal preparation, and security. They received a small wage, initially ranging from eight to sixteen dollars a month. Children attended school, although there were no books or desks. The children sat on the floor while teachers held a small blackboard. Eventually, some books and desks were provided, but classrooms remained overcrowded and had insufficient materials.
Even before the Japanese were moved from the assembly centers, the government wavered on its decision to permanently incarcerate all Nikkei. College-age Nisei (second-generation Japanese Americans) were allowed to attend college if they left the West Coast military zone. Exceptions were also made for agricultural laborers and armed services volunteers.
In 1942, labor shortages led to the WRA's formation of an agricultural leave program. In Malheur County, for example, the Amalgamated Sugar Company had persuaded local farmers to increase their production of sugar to meet increased war demands, and they petitioned the government for Japanese labor to thin and harvest sugar beets. In response to the need for agricultural labor, Oregon Governor Charles Sprague and his executive secretary George Aiken developed what became known as the Oregon Plan. At an April 1942 WRA conference, Aiken outlined his plan to relocate Oregon's Japanese residents to abandoned Civilian Conservation Corps camps in Malheur, Harney, and Crook Counties.
While the plan was rejected, the WRA consented to a more modest program that allowed for as many as four hundred Japanese to provide labor in Malheur County. The program had strict regulations designed
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]
] |
[
2048
] |
2,048
| 3.015272
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Part 2 on Urban Sprawl and Public Health looks at potential interventions and theories that can help reduce the impact of sprawl (read part 1 here). For authors Howard Frumkin, Lawrence Frank, and Richard Jackson, hope lies in the new strategies being put forth under the terms Smart Growth and New Urbanism, arguing for Smart Growth at least as a public health strategy. I have a lot of issues with New Urbanism and Smart Growth as they are so often removed from issues of equity and spatial justice, but it’s interesting to think of how to rebuild and rework our cities as part of a plan around improving health.
They trace a lineage of people working on the connections between health and cities — Dr. John Henry Rauch (1828-1894) in Chicago arguing for land use policies to improve public health, cemeteries at a remove from dense neighborhoods being one of them. Frederick Law Olmstead, and garden cities. Edwin Chadwick working sanitary regulations, housing standards, public water and sewage systems in the UK, Thomas McKeown at Birmingham, who
showed that many of the health advances of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries resulted not from better medical care, but from ‘upstream’ improvements such as better urban infrastructure–better housing, neighborhoods, water, food, and transport. (203)
They also name psychiatrist Leonard Duhl, who has looked at connecting mental health with urban design and community involvement. His ideas have been broadened by physician Trevor Hancock. In 1987, the World Health Organization jumped on the bandwagon, initiating a Healthy Cities Network, which I confess I had never heard of.
There are of course many who could be added to this list, and in the UK at least you have the Marmot Review among others, trying to move health care providers to think more broadly about wellness and how it connects to social and environmental factors.
So…to return to the strategies they promote, we start with Smart Growth. The Environmental Protection Agency itself formed the Smart Growth Network in 1996 together with a number of other nonprofits and governmental organizations. The Networks’ ten Smart growth principles (the whole document ‘Getting to Smart Growth: 100 Policies for Implementation’ can be found here):
1. Mix land uses
2. Take advantage of compact building design
3. Create a range of housing opportunities and choices
4. Create walkable neighborhoods
5. Foster distinctive, attractive communities with a strong sense of place
6. Preserve open space, farmland, natural beauty, and critical environmental areas
7. Strengthen and direct development towards existing communities
8. Provide a variety of transportation choices
9. Make development decisions predictable, fair and cost effective
10. Encourage community and stakeholder collaboration in development decisions
The book goes on to give a more elaborate set of principles in full…they’re interesting, so I do the same — the full text can be found here:
All planning should be in the form of complete and integrated communities containing housing, shops, work places, schools, parks and civic facilities essential to the daily life of the residents.
Community size should be designed so that housing, jobs, daily needs and other activities are within easy walking distance of each other.
As many activities as possible should be located within easy walking distance of transit stops.
A community should contain a diversity of housing types to enable citizens from a wide range of economic levels and age groups to live within its boundaries.
Businesses within the community should provide a range of job types for the community’s residents.
The location and character of the community should be consistent with a larger transit network.
The community should have a center focus that combines commercial, civic, cultural and recreational uses.
The community should contain an ample supply of specialized open space in the form of squares, greens and parks whose frequent use is encouraged through placement and design.
Public spaces should be designed to encourage the attention and presence of people at all hours of the day and night.
Each community or cluster of communities should have a well defined edge, such as agricultural greenbelts or wildlife corridors, permanently protected from development.
Streets, pedestrian paths and bike paths should contribute to a system of fully connected and interesting routes to all destinations. Their design should encourage pedestrian and bicycle use by being small and spatially defined by buildings, trees and lighting; and by discouraging high-speed traffic.
Wherever possible, the natural terrain, drainage, and vegetation of the community should be preserved with superior examples contained within parks or greenbelts.
The community design should help conserve resources and minimize waste.
Communities should provide for the efficient use of water through the use of natural drainage, drought tolerant landscaping and recycling.
The street orientation, the placement of buildings and the use of shading should contribute to the energy efficiency of the community.
The regional land use planning structure should be integrated within a larger transportation network built around transit rather than freeways.
Regions should be bounded by and provide a continuous system of greenbelt/wildlife corridors to be determined by natural conditions.
Regional institutions and services (government, stadiums, museums, etc.) should be located in the urban core.
Materials and methods of construction should be specific to the region, exhibiting continuity of history and culture and compatibility with the climate to encourage the development of local character and community identity.
The general plan should be updated to incorporate the above principles.
Rather than allowing developer-initiated, piecemeal development, local governments should take charge of the planning process. General plans should designate where new growth, infill or redevelopment will be allowed to occur.
Prior to any development, a specific plan should be prepared based on the planning principles. With the adoption of specific plans, complying projects could proceed with minimal delay.
Plans should be developed through an open process and participants in the process should be provided visual models of all planning proposals.
Of course, in years of community work around development, I have never seen anything actually work like this.
walkable neighborhoods, a range of housing choices, a mix of land uses, participatory planning, revitalization of urban neighborhoods (206)
They talk about some of the critiques. They come from wildly different directions…
the public doesn’t want it
it limits consumer choice — it’s a form of coercive social engineering
can exacerbate traffic congestion by creating greater density
smart growth projects are isolated enclaves, not integrated
encourage gentrification (213)
Then go on to look at a public health approach to Smart Growth. It’s a very different perspective though concerned with all of the same things. They begin with constructing a community health assessment — paralleling the medical assessment. One method they believe has great promise is the Health impact Assessment, as a way to measure the health benefits from a Smart Growth approach. Nor is it surprising that many of the potential indicators would be the same as for sustainability — transit ridership, percentage of population living within ten minutes of a park, incidence of asthma, extent of recycling. (217) A few useful checklists exist already that could serve, one is the Built Environment Site Survey Checklist in London (this is news to me, this BESSC).(218)
I like how numerous things are coming together — concerns for the health of individuals and communities and neighbourhoods, issues of sustainability and the health of the land and environment. I think, again, there’s a lot more to think about in terms of equity. People’s own power in the process is always the first thing to go — if it ever was on the table. The cold hard facts of development and politics are not amenable to such things, so progress has been made where it helps certain kinds of development become more marketable. But criticism to come…
Urban Sprawl and Public Health — a great book! It was amazing to see urban planning and public health brought together in this way — a solid primer on both for each, along with a plea for professionals to start working together to fix this. Because sprawl is killing us.
I myself would throw in a soupçon of sociologists and geographers and community organizers to the health and planning mix as well, because what was missing? More analysis on the nature of development and how the drive for profit drives this urban form, more analysis on the struggle of everyday people to fight for and against some of these dynamics, and the ways in which race and land have long been linked (but there is more of this second aspect than in many another book). Still, despite these critiques, I confess that few things get me going the way that talking about the city and health in the same book do.
Health & Sprawl facts:
In the last 15 years, the US has developed 25% of all the land developed in the past 225 years of its official existence. (xii)
Between 1960 and 2000, average American’s yearly driving more than doubled — 4,000 to nearly 10,000 miles per years. “rush hour” spread over seven, not 4 and a half, average driver’s time spent stuck in traffic each year: 6 to 36 hours in Dallas, 1 to 28 hours in Minneapolis, 6 to 34 in Atlanta. (xiii)
Sprawl — a term from William H. Whyte! Did I know that? He wrote an article for Fortune in January 1958, titled ‘Urban Sprawl’. There are a variety of definitions and measurements of sprawl, here they follow those that incorporate both land use and transportation as intrinsic. They focus on four main aspects — density, land use mix, automobile dependence and connectivity (or how destinations are linked through transportation systems (7). (5)
I particularly like how much they use illustrations, this is a good one:
I also liked the ‘transect’ — a look at the continuum between sprawl and compact neighbourhoods (16)
Chapter 2 looks at the origins of sprawl,
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1965,
1966,
1967,
1968,
1970,
1971,
1969,
1974,
1975,
1973,
1972,
1977,
1976,
1979,
1978,
1980,
1983,
1982,
1981,
1984,
1985,
1986,
1987,
1988,
1990,
1989,
1991,
1993,
1992,
1994,
1995,
1996,
1997,
1998,
1999,
2000,
2001,
2002,
2003,
2004,
2005,
2006,
2007,
2008,
2009,
2010,
2011,
2012,
2013,
2014,
2015,
2017,
2016,
2018,
2019,
2020,
2021,
2023,
2022,
2024,
2026,
2025,
2027,
2028,
2029,
2030,
2031,
2032,
2033,
2034,
2035,
2036,
2037,
2038,
2039,
2041,
2040,
2042,
2043,
2044,
2046,
2045,
2047
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|
Diet is seen as a key component of any dysautonomia or POTS syndrome treatment plan. There are many sources available on the Internet and in journals that make dietary recommendations for POTS patients that may result in improvement in symptoms. In this article, we will look at some of these recommendations, and talk a little about whether they are backed up by research and whether they really work in improving POTS symptoms. Several links to appropriate POTS syndrome diet resources are also provided.
Increase Fluid Intake
One of the biggest problems in POTS is the inability to tolerate standing, due to blood pressure dropping and heart rate increasing. Part of the typical initial POTS treatment strategy is increasing water intake.
Water intake has been shown to help healthy people tolerate standing for longer, and be less likely to faint in response to prolonged standing (Lu et al). Water intake has also been shown to be beneficial in patients with orthostatic syndromes (Shannon et al). Most these studies examine the effect of drinking about ½ a liter of water over a five-minute period. Effects include improvement in standing blood pressure and reduction in standing heart rate, in addition to improvement in symptoms. In POTS patients, the fluid intake doesn’t have to be water to be effective. Soup was also shown to result in improvement of the blood pressure response and also in symptoms (Z’Graggen et al). This suggests that as long as hydration is maintained, it doesn’t matter too much what the fluid is.
A study done in 1999 looked in to one of the ways this actually worked (Jordan et al). It was found that it stimulated the sympathetic nervous system and raised the level of the stimulatory neurotransmitter norepinephrine, helping to maintain blood pressure.
Its important to maintain adequate hydration in POTS syndrome. There is a general recommendation to have >2 liters per day, or to maintain clear urine and this seems reasonable. At times where there are prominent symptoms of dizziness on standing, there is some evidence that drinking about 2 glasses of water over a few minute period may relieve symptoms in some patients.
Increase Salt Intake
There is typically a recommendation to increase salt intake in POTS syndrome, even to increase sodium intake to 5-10g/day for very symptomatic patients. Others would generally advise that salt intake is increased by 2-4g/day. There are dietary ways to do this, and if salt can’t be increased adequately through diet then salt tablets may be used if advised by a doctor. Salt should of course be avoided in those with kidney disease or heart failure.
Usually this is added to meals to achieve increased intake. One tablespoon of salt contains between 2 – 2.5g of sodium. When salt tablets are used, they may cause symptoms such as nausea and coated tablets may therefore be preferred. Salt supplementation is most likely helpful if combined with a gradual exercise program (Fu et al).
But why do we want to increase salt in the first place? The reason is that the amount of sodium in the body is directly related to the amount of circulating volume. So basically more sodium would mean more volume, which would mean better tolerance of orthostasis and less symptoms. There is some evidence that in adults with orthostatic symptoms, salt supplementation may decrease symptoms (El-sayed et al). There are no specific studies in POTS looking at this, however most would still recommend at least an effort to somewhat increase dietary salt. Its important to note that salt supplementation will not help in the hyper-adrenergic form of POTS. Ongoing studies are looking at whether a high dietary sodium level results in improvement of symptoms and signs in POTS patients (trial link).
Most experts would recommend that there be some effort to increase dietary salt in POTS patients by around 2-4g/day. Particularly symptomatic patients may benefit from as much as 6-8g sodium/day if recommended by a doctor. Initial efforts should be made through dietary salt, and if necessary salt tablet may be used if part of a treatment plan.
These are some links to guides of sodium content of different foods. Usually this is used to avoid the high sodium food. But in this case you can simply look for the high sodium foods and see which ones you like!
This is a link to a useful resource for a diet higher in sodium: http://www.potsrecovery.com/p/lotsa-salt-diet.html
Lower Carbs and Smaller Meals
POTS patients are generally advised to eat smaller meals more often rather than larger meals, and also to limit the carbohydrate in their diet.
POTS patients may complain of worsening of their orthostatic symptoms after a meal. But why is this? When a meal is eaten, there is increased blood flow to the digestive system in order to help the digestion process. In POTS there is already a problem with blood pooling in the lower part of the body, and not being returned to the heart or upper body as usual. So when a large meal is eaten, there is an added stress of a large amount of blood being diverted to the digestive system, and resulting pooling of blood in the vessels that supply the digestive system (Jensen et al). Eating too fast may also contribute.
There is also evidence that the higher the carbohydrate content of a meal, the greater the lowering of blood pressure in patients with orthostatic symptoms. The blood pressure was seen to be higher in those that limited carbohydrate content in their meals (Vloet et al)(Gentilcore et al).
It’s reasonable to suggest that POTS patients, try eating smaller meals more frequently rather than a few large meals a day. It’s also recommended that carbohydrate content of meals is limited, particularly in patients that experience symptoms after eating.
The Effect of Caffeine
No study has closely looked at the effect of caffeine in POTS patients, however we can look at other studies to help us with this.
In some patients with orthostasis caffeine may actually be helpful to some in preventing the blood pressure dropping too low when standing (Dewey et al). But, other studies have suggested that intake of caffeine may actually impair the normal responses to prolonged standing, resulting in a lower blood pressure (Berry et al). In the subset of POTS known as hyperadrenergic POTS, levels of natural stimulants (known as catecholamines) in the body are high and caffeine, being a form of stimulant can possibly worsen the situation.
In terms of drinking coffee, there is no good evidence that it is helpful for POTS. Although there is no strong evidence that is it harmful, certain individuals may be sensitive to caffeine and so it’s probably worth avoiding caffeine to see if symptoms improve. Those with hyperadrenergic POTS should certainly avoid caffeine. Over the counter caffeine supplements should be avoided unless part of a treatment plan discussed with a doctor familiar with POTS.
Limiting or Avoiding Alcohol Intake
POTS patients are typically advised to stop drinking alcohol, or strongly limit its intake. Lets take a look at the evidence underlying this recommendation.
Alcohol use has been related to passing out spells even in healthy young adults (Dermksian G et al.). Alcohol use is also associated with impairment of the body’s usual response to regulating blood pressure when standing. A nicely done study (Narkiewicz et al.) showed that this is because alcohol use prevents blood vessels tightening as usual, stopping the return of the blood to the upper body and the head. This may lead to low blood pressure, dizziness and possibly passing out. Often the muscles, especially in the lower body, tighten in an effort to increase blood flow return to the heart in response to a lower blood pressure. There is also evidence that alcohol use blunts this muscle response (Carter et al) which may also explain the worsening of orthostatic symptoms with alcohol use.
Alcohol is a strong diuretic (Roberts). Basically meaning it causes the kidneys to pee out more water leading to dehydration. This is a lot of what leads to the hangover effect. When it comes to POTS syndrome, diuretics and dehydration are avoided at all costs. In fact increased fluid intake is typically recommended. So it would seem crazy to stress an already fragile system with alcohol!
In view of the above, its very reasonable to advise avoidance of alcohol in patients with postural orthostatic tachycardia.
Avoid Energy Drinks
Energy drinks such as Red Bull have been implicated in development of POTS in young people. In one published report, avoidance of the energy drink resulted in complete treatment of the POTS syndrome (Terlizzi et al).
Energy drinks typically contain Caffeine and Guarana. Caffeine may exacerbate POTS symptoms in some patients. This is discussed in more detail in the section on caffeine below. Guarana is also a stimulant and contains twice the caffeine found in coffee beans.
Between 2004 and 2006, there were over 40 reported cases of adverse reactions from energy drinks in the USA alone and energy drinks are seen as a growing problem (Reissig et al). Symptoms reported included many of those seen in POTS such as tachycardia, tremors, dizziness and chest pain. There have been associations with seizures and even death (Clauson et al).
Energy drinks are certainly not beneficial for POTS syndrome, and there is potential for deterioration of symptoms. It is reasonable to recommend avoidance of energy drinks in POTS patients.
Allergies and Intolerances – Gluten and Dairy
Depending on the symptoms experienced certain conditions are worth considering in patients with POTS syndrome and may worsen symptoms if left untreated.
In patients with predominant gastrointestinal symptoms, celiac disease and gluten sensitivity may be considered. In some patients with these symptoms it may be worthwhile discussing a blood test with their doctor and also a trial of a gluten free diet to see if symptoms improve.
The same goes for lactose intolerance. In patients with lactose intolerance, avoidance of
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]
] |
[
2048
] |
2,048
| 2.365953
|
The Massive Montanore
Threatens Waters, Wildlife, and Wilderness
The Kootenai National
Forest and Montana Department of Environmental Quality
(DEQ) recently released a Supplemental Draft
Environmental Impact Statement (SDEIS) for the proposed
Montanore mine. The EIS can be found at:
The EIS analyzes the
impacts of four different mine alternatives, including
the no-action (no mine) alternative, and five electrical
transmission line alternatives, also with a no-action
(no transmission line) alternative.
The permitting agencies
are now accepting public comments on the proposal. The
comment period closes on December 21, 2011.
The proposed Montanore
mine would be an underground copper/silver project with
an above ground tailings impoundment and processing
facilities constructed on lands in the Kootenai National
Forest 18 miles south of Libby, Montana. Similar to the
proposed Rock Creek mine, the Montanore mine would
extract ore from beneath the mountains, meadows, and
alpine lakes of the Cabinet Mountains Wilderness.
permit area, under the agencies preferred alternative,
Alternative 3, would
encompass 2,030 acres. In
addition, the proposed project would require the
construction of approximately 16 miles of high-voltage
electrical transmission line to power the mining
The permitting process for
the Montanore Project began in 1989 when Noranda
Minerals obtained a permit to construct an exploration
adit in the Libby Creek drainage just outside the
wilderness. In 1991, Noranda halted construction of
the 14,000-foot adit when the amount of nitrate
pollution generated from blasting operations degraded
Libby Creek. A state directive mandating the
construction of a water treatment facility, combined
with low metals prices led the company to abandon the
Today, the company
currently pursuing a permit to construct the mine is
Mines Management, Inc. (MMI)/Montanore Minerals Corp.
The future of the Cabinet
Mountains Wilderness depends upon all of us.
Now is the time to get
involved by expressing your concerns about the proposed
Montanore mine. To view the Supplemental EIS, go to:
Four underground tunnels
or adits would be used to access and move the ore from
beneath the wilderness, or serve as a ventilation
source. An exploratory adit reaching the ore body
would be located along Libby Creek just outside the
wilderness. A ventilation adit would be constructed
above Rock Lake, an alpine lake located within the
Mine wastewater would be
treated and discharged to groundwater adjacent to Libby
Creek. The discharge would not meet current water
quality standards for nutrients and metals, but would be
allowed to degrade the quality of the receiving waters.
In 1992, at the request of Noranda Minerals, the state
issued an order that would
permit an increase in the concentration of certain
pollutants discharged to surface water and groundwater
above current water quality standards as defined by
Montanas 1971 nondegradation statute. The 19-year
order still stands despite changes in water quality
standards, best available technology, and new findings
related to the impacts of the mine.
Other discharges of mine
wastewater would include untreated water from the mine
cavity that would escape to groundwater through highly
fractured rock, and seepage from the tailings
impoundment to groundwater. Pollution from the mine
would require long-term monitoring and treatment.
Under the permitting
agencies preferred alternative, 120 million tons of
mine tailings would be conveyed from the underground
mine via a pipeline to be stored in an impoundment
between Poorman Creek and Little Cherry Creek. The
tailings impoundment would require the construction of a
dam to contain the massive volume of mine tailings and
waste rock. The dam would be 320 feet high, 10,650 feet
long, and consume 675 acres of National Forest Land.
The surface area available
for the deposition of 120 million tons of tailings would
be insufficient, resulting in the need for a higher dam
that could affect the stability of the dam. The
agencies conservatively estimate the chance of a
catastrophic failure of this tailings impoundment to be
as high as 1%. The impacts from this failure would be
the loss of the entire Libby Creek Watershed. Toxic
sediment would fill Libby, Poorman, Bear, and Ramsey
Creeks, destroying the bull trout habitat in these
streams. The metal-laden sediment would eventually be
deposited into the Kootenai River potentially
threatening the habitat of bull trout and the extremely
rare white sturgeon, a species that has survived since
the time of the dinosaurs.
Seepage from the tailing
facility would have the potential to be acid generating
and the EIS states that effects on groundwater quality
beneath the impoundment are unknown.
The area of the proposed mine
encompasses two major watersheds: the Clark Fork River
Drainage and the Kootenai River Drainage. One of
the greatest impacts from the mine would result from
massive dewatering of wilderness lakes and area streams
in both drainages as a result of the inflow of ground
water into the underground mine cavity and tunnels
(adits). While rain and snowmelt replenish some of the
water in area streams, most of the recharge comes from
groundwater. By diverting ground water into the
man-made mine void, the lakes and streams would be
deprived of the water critical to maintain their flows
and delicate water chemistry.
The EIS states that
groundwater drawdown and
related changes in stream flows will be greatest at the
end of mining and during the long post-closure phase.
Modeling of the hydrologic impacts predicts that
flows would be reduced in East Fork Rock Creek, Rock
Creek, East Fork Bull River, Libby Creek, Ramsey Creek
and Poorman Creek. Groundwater levels would not recover
until reaching a steady state 1,200 to 1,300 years after
A significant portion of
the East Fork of Bull River and the East Fork of Rock
Creek would be completely dewatered for centuries. The
East Fork of Bull River provides habitat for most
productive bull trout population in the Lower Clark Fork
Bull Trout Recovery Area. This cold-water stream has
the deep pools the species requires to spawn and
survive. It is expected that after mine closure in
30 years, the East Fork of Bull River would lose 100% of
its ground water recharge, resulting in the
disappearance of this pristine wilderness stream. The
East Fork of Bull River would not reestablish most of
its pre-mining flows until approximately the year
3200. Bull trout would be long gone.
The East Fork of Rock
Creek flows from Rock Lake through the Rock Creek
Meadows until converging with the West Fork to form the
Main Stem of Rock Creek. Along the way, the creek and
the groundwater create wetlands that make Rock Creek
Meadows unique and productive habitat for wildlife and
fish. Bull trout and Westslope Cutthroat thrive here.
The proposed Montanore mine would transform the East
Fork of Rock Creek into a dry channel by diverting all
of the groundwater that currently flows to the stream.
Rock Creek Meadows would become parched in summer
resulting in the loss of the bull trout and westslope
The main channel of Rock
Creek cannot survive without the significant water
contribution from the East Fork. The controversial and
legally contested Rock Creek mine already threatens Rock
Creek with the introduction of massive amounts of
sediment, and with heavy metals. Now, the struggling
stream and its fragile bull trout population face
threats from this additional mine. The Montanore
mine would dry the lower reaches of Rock Creek for long
periods of time. The waterless sections of the stream
would be expected to expand, rendering Rock Creek
virtually useless to migrating bull trout.
The volume of groundwater
flowing into Rock Lake and St. Paul Lake also would be
reduced. Some of the most drastic impacts would
be to Rock Lake, which sits almost on top of the ore
body that would be mined. The water table
surrounding Rock Lake would lowered by as much as 1,000
feet. Not only would groundwater recharge be cut off,
but the mine void would also siphon water from this
wilderness lake causing it to slowly drain. It would
be 1,000 years before groundwater flows would be
expected to return to pre-mining levels.
St. Paul Lake already
suffers from low water levels in very late summer.
During the dry summer months, groundwater would no
longer be available to help maintain its water levels.
The lake would depend solely on snowmelt and rain for
recharge. As a result, St. Paul Lake would be
transformed into a pond that begins to dry up shortly
after winter snowmelt disappears.
North of Rock Lake nested
between Elephant and Ojibway Peaks are the Libby Lakes.
These three pristine lakes sit virtually atop where the
proposed mine cavity would be located. The mining
company claims that these lakes are outside the region
of groundwater impacts because of their high elevation.
Others who dont have such a
|
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]
] |
[
2048
] |
2,048
| 2.27309
|
Food Safety Regulations Impact Feed and Grain Industry
First significant update and expansion of FDAs food safety regulatory power in 70 years calls for increased penalties for violators.
From the Food Safety Modernization Act (FSMA) to the Reportable Food Registry to calls for increased penalties for some food safety violators, food safety is clearly on the national radar. What many are unaware of is the extent to which these new food safety regulations impact the feed and grain industries.
FDA regulates animal and pet food products and ingredients under the same authority and regulations as it does human food products — the Federal Food Drug & Cosmetic Act. The regulations are essentially the same for all food products, whether for human or animal consumption — food must be safe to eat, must be produced in sanitary conditions, must not contain any harmful substances, and must be labeled properly and truthfully.
What is the Food Safety Modernization Act?
FSMA is the first significant update and expansion of FDA’s food safety regulatory powers in approximately 70 years. It is a comprehensive bill that can roughly be divided into three areas of focus: prevention, detection and response, and imported foods. With very few exceptions, these provisions apply to the animal feed industry.
FSMA puts a heavy emphasis on improving the safety of in imported foods and ingredients. Much of the media focus has been on the human food supply, but imported animal feed and pet food products have also been a problem.
FSMA takes major steps towards increasing regulation of imported food products. The regulations apply the same whether the product is destined for human or animal consumption. One of the new programs is the foreign supplier verification program. This program will require importers to conduct risk-based verifications of foreign suppliers to ensure the suppliers are complying with food safety requirements. Importers would also need to verify that foreign suppliers are not producing adulterated or misbranded food. Importers are responsible for verifying foreign supplier compliance and keeping records of those verification efforts for at least two years.
For purposes of this program, Congress has defined an importer as the owner of food item or ingredient at the time it enters the United States, or if none, the U.S. agent or representative of the foreign owner. At this time, we have only the skeletal framework of this program and FDA is in the process of developing the regulations that will provide further information. FSMA requires FDA release regulations regarding the foreign supplier verification program by January 2012.
In addition to the verification program, the FSMA also includes a new voluntary qualified importer program. This program will allow importers to seek expedited review and importation of certain foods from qualified foreign facilities — in essence, a fast track. FDA will look at a number of factors, including the food type's risk, the importer's compliance history, the exporting country's food safety system, the importer's record-keeping practices and the risk of adulteration, to determine if importers are qualified. Details of the program are sparse at this point.
FDA is also empowered to require a certificate of compliance before it allows the import of certain high-risk foods. These would be foods identified due to known risks associated with that food, risks relating to country of origin and/or a finding that the country of origin cannot adequately ensure that U.S. food safety standards are being met. For example, in 2007, FDA determined that melamine was contaminating wheat gluten produced in China used in hog feed here in the U.S. If a similar type of contamination concern arose today, FDA could require that all wheat gluten imported from China provide a certificate of compliance before it was allowed to enter the United States.
While we will not see regulations released by FDA for about a year, companies should now start to gather information and records, such as identifying their foreign suppliers of feed ingredients and begin to work with those suppliers in anticipation of the upcoming regulations.
While most of FSMA applies equally to animal and human food companies, one exception to this is found in the part of FSMA addressing preventative measures. One key component of is the requirement that facilities create a written hazard analysis and preventive controls plan. Although similar to a HACCP plan, which many companies already have in place, the FSMA requirement is broader and more comprehensive. Voluntary programs, such as the Safe Feed/Safe Food Certification Program developed by the AFIA, will give companies a head start on complying with the new requirements. However, because we do not yet have regulations from FDA providing details of what exactly companies must do to comply with this provision, it is unclear whether these voluntary plans will satisfy the mandatory requirements.
FDA is required to release regulations related to the Hazard Analysis & Risk-based Preventive Controls plan provision by July 2012. In the mean time, companies should review any similar plans in place, and be prepared to re-analyze those plans to determine compliance once regulations are released.
Some animal feed companies may ultimately be exempted from this provision. FSMA allows FDA to modify the preventive controls requirements for facilities that are “solely engaged in the production of food for animals other than man” or to even fully exempt those facilities from the requirements. However, for this to occur, FDA needs to issue a regulation detailing the modification or exemption. This has not yet occurred, meaning that for the time being, animal feed companies should be prepared to comply with the hazard analysis provision. Further, based on FDA comments in a recent public hearing on FSMA implementation, it is unlikely FDA will fully exempt most, if any, feed companies.
What if you classify yourself as “just a farmer”, who processes and sells a little feed as well? FDA regulations require farms must register with FDA if (1) the farm packs or holds food or animal feed not grown, raised or consumed on that farm or another under the same ownership or (2) the farm manufactures or processed food (including animal feed) that is not consumed on that farm or another under the same ownership. FDA is now required to issue regulations that specify what activities fall under each of these categories. In addition, FDA must issue regulations that will exempt certain on-farm activities from the preventive control plan requirement. There may also be exemptions or modifications for small or very small businesses.
Detection and Response
FSMA also gives FDA the authority to issue a mandatory recall of a food product. Up to this point, FDA could only request a company issue a voluntary recall, but could not order one. What is significant about this provision is that it establishes a formal process FDA must follow and gives companies the opportunity to challenge a recall, although only after the fact. A related provision lowers the standard that must be met before FDA may administratively detain food articles.
FSMA also expands FDA’s authority to review company records, and provides authority for FDA to suspend a company’s registration in Class I recall-type situations. The increased authority to review records (in addition to the various new recordkeeping requirements within FSMA) means companies need to ensure they have a well-organized recordkeeping system.
The provision most directly affecting the largest number of feed and grain companies is the requirement that FDA increase inspections of all regulated facilities. High-risk facilities and/or foods will be identified by FDA, based on factors such as compliance history, inspection history, or types of food more commonly tied to outbreaks. If designated high-risk, a facility can expect to be inspected once by 2016 and then at least once every three years. Other facilities must be inspected by FDA once by 2018 and then at least once every five years thereafter. Inspections of foreign facilities are also set to dramatically increase over the next five years.
Regulated facilities should be prepared for their next inspection including having a plan in place for employees to follow should FDA arrive for an inspection, identifying (in advance) those responsible to work with FDA during an inspection, knowing where the relevant documents are kept, and having a plan in place as to how to respond to any issues FDA identifies.
Another important component of FSMA is a newly established series of “whistleblower" provisions. These provisions prohibit companies from terminating or discriminating against employees who engage in certain protected activities, such as reporting violations of food safety regulations. This type of whistleblowing provision is new to this industry. In order to ensure compliance, companies should review their current policies and practices, including discipline and discharge policies, as well as provide training to managers and employees, as needed.
Reportable Food Registry
The detection and response provisions of the FSMA also included some updates to the Reportable Food Registry (RFR). The RFR was launched by FDA in 2009 as a type of early warning system related to foodborne illnesses. The RFR applies equally to the human and animal food industries, yet there appears to be some confusion regarding the application of the RFR on the animal feed side. Generally, if you are required to register with the FDA, then you are subject to the RFR requirements.
Anytime a company becomes aware of the reasonable probability that the use of, or exposure to, an article of food will cause serious adverse health consequences or death to humans or animals, it is required to make a report to the RFR. For example, swine feed with elevated levels of selenium or sheep feed with elevated levels of copper would likely be considered reportable foods. If a company (the party responsible for filing the report) determines that it has a reportable food in its possession, it is required to file a report within 24 hours.
The only time a report need not be made is if the company can satisfy three criteria: (1) The adulteration originated with the responsible party; and (2) the responsible party detected the adulteration prior to the food article changing custody; and (3) the responsible party corrected the adulteration or destroyed the food article. If all three criteria are satisfied, then a report does not need to be filed.
Two key questions come up in relation to the RFR — how do I determine if I have a reportable food and when do I need to report it? The second question is somewhat easier
|
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] |
[
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] |
2,048
| 2.117888
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STROPHE DIVISIONS OF MODERN TRANSLATIONS
|Blessedness of Forgiveness and of Trust in God||The Joy of Forgiveness||Thanksgiving For Healing||Confession and Forgiveness||Candid Admission of Sin|
"A Psalm of David. A Maskil"
READING CYCLE THREE (see "Guide to Good Bible Reading")
FOLLOWING THE ORIGINAL AUTHOR'S INTENT AT PARAGRAPH LEVEL
This is a study guide commentary which means that you are responsible for your own interpretation of the Bible. Each of us must walk in the light we have. You, the Bible, and the Holy Spirit are priority in interpretation. You must not relinquish this to a commentator.
Read the chapter in one sitting. Identify the subjects (reading cycle #3). Compare your subject divisions with the five translations above. Paragraphing is not inspired, but it is the key to following the original author's intent, which is the heart of interpretation. Every paragraph has one and only one subject.
1. First paragraph
2. Second paragraph
3. Third paragraph
A. Because of the MT introduction many scholars believe this Psalm, like Psalm 51, describes David's sin (i.e., sexual encounter with Bathsheba and the murder of Uriah, cf. 2 Samuel 11), cover up (cf. 2 Samuel 12), and forgiveness (i.e., although the consequences of his sin destroyed his family). In Romans 4:7-8 Paul quotes 32:1-2 (LXX) as referring to David.
B. This is surely possible but it may have a wider implication and purpose (cf. plurals of Ps. 32:11). Sin and its consequences are common to all humans (cf. Rom. 1:8-3:18), even covenant humans (cf. Romans 7; 1 John 1:5-10).
C. The psalmist's physical problems were the merciful acts of God that would not allow the sinful covenant person to remain in his/her rebellion (cf. Heb. 12:7-13). There are consequences to sin, thank God, the God of mercy pursues us in spite of them. As sin abounds, grace does much more abound (cf. Rom. 5:20).
D. One can tell which concepts, events, and issues are central to a culture by the number of words used to describe it. Obviously Israel was concerned with covenant rebellion (cf. 1 Kings 8), as well as its forgiveness. There are many words for sin and rebellion.
E. Psalm 31 and Psalm 32 may have been placed together by an editor or compiler, because they both discuss the physical result of sin (cf. Ps. 31:9-10; 32:3-4).
F. The NASB Study Bible (p. 769) gives an interesting theory about the speakers.
1. dialogue between David and YHWH in the tabernacle, Ps. 32:1-2
2. David speaks to YHWH in the hearing of the gathered worshipers, Ps. 32:3-7
3. a priest addresses David on YHWH's behalf, Ps. 32:8-10
4. David speaks to the gathered worshipers, v.11
G. This Psalm emphasizes
1. the sinfulness of humans
2. the merciful character of God
3. how a sinful human can become acceptable to a holy God (i.e., confession)
Paul's use of Ps. 32:1-2 in Romans 4, where he discusses OT examples of "justification by grace through faith" (cf. Rom. 3:21-31; Galatians 3; Eph. 2:8-9), reveals the context as an OT example of the theme developed and prioritized in the NT. This is the heart of how one is forgiven, although the mechanism for that forgiveness (i.e., the gospel of Christ) is not mentioned. It still clearly reveals the merciful, gracious availability of YHWH's forgiveness (i.e., "lifted and removed" and "covered").
If YHWH can forgive David, He can forgive you! Receive it through confession and repentance! Then stand forgiven in the promises!
WORD AND PHRASE STUDY
NASB (UPDATED) TEXT: PSALM 32:1-2
1How blessed is he whose transgression is forgiven,
Whose sin is covered!
2How blessed is the man to whom the Lord does not impute iniquity,
And in whose spirit there is no deceit!
32:1 The term "blessed" (BDB 80, cf. Ps. 1:1, is used 26 out of 45 times in Psalms) is recurrent in Wisdom Literature and describes the faithful followers.
1. Job 5:17; Ps. 94:12 — disciplined by Shaddai
2. Psalm 1:1 — studies and walks in God's word
3. Psalm 2:12 — takes refuge in YHWH
4. Psalm 32:1-2 — sin is forgiven
5. Psalm 40:4; 84:12; Pro. 16:20 — trusts in YHWH
6. Psalm 41:1-3; Pro. 14:21 — considers the poor
7. Psalm 80:6 — strength is in YHWH
8. Psalm 89:12 — know joy and walk in the light of YHWH's countenance
9. Psalm 119:2 — seek Him with whole heart, observe His testimony
10. Psalm 112:1; 128:1 — fears YHWH, walks in His ways
11. Psalm 146:5 — YHWH is his help
12. Proverbs 3:13 — finds wisdom
13. Proverbs 8:32,34 — listens to YHWH, keeps His ways
14. Proverbs 28:14 — fears YHWH
15. Proverbs 29:18 — keeps YHWH's laws
The first two verses of this Psalm from the LXX are quoted by Paul in Romans 4:7-8 in his example of David as a blessed man because his sin was forgiven.
Notice the different words used to describe rebellion against YHWH (cf. Ps. 32:5).
1. transgression — BDB 833, KB 981; it denotes an intentional breaking of that which is God's will (i.e., covenant)
2. sin — BDB 308, KB 306; it denotes missing (BDB 306) a set target, again not by ignorance but willfully
3. iniquity — BDB 730, KB 799; misdeed, guilt (#1,2,3 appear together in Exod. 34:7; Lev. 16:21; Job 12:23; here; Isa. 59:12; Ezek. 21:24; Dan. 9:24)
4. deceit — BDB 941, KB 636; means treachery, trickery, fraud (cf. Ps. 52:2; 101:7; 120:2-3)
The UBS Handbook mentions that the psalmist purposely alternated masculine, feminine (twice) to show completeness (p. 303).
YHWH's (note the passive participles) forgiveness is described as righteousness given to sinners based on God's mercy and their repentance (this is the theological concept of imputed [cf. BDB 362, KB 359, Gen. 15:6; Rom. 4:3; Gal. 3:6]).
1. forgiven (lit. "lifted and taken away") — BDB 669, KB 724, Qal passive participle, cf. Exod. 32:32; 34:7; Num. 14:18,19; Micah 7:18; same word negated in Exod. 23:21; Jos. 24:19; Job 7:21; Isa. 2:9
2. covered (i.e., puts out of sight, theological concept in Isa. 38:17; 43:25; Micah 7:19) — BDB 491, KB 487, Qal passive participle
The result is a person with no deceit/guile (cf. John 1:47). This does not mean sinless, but repentant.
32:2 "man" This is the Hebrew word Adam (BDB 9). In the early parts of Genesis (Genesis 1-3) it refers to Adam, the original human creation, but it took on the sense of humanity in general.
NASB (UPDATED) TEXT: PSALM 32:3-7
3When I kept silent about my sin, my body wasted away
Through my groaning all day long.
4For day and night Your hand was heavy upon me;
My vitality was drained away as with the fever heat of summer.
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Directory of Special Education Services
The Northside Independent School District special education department operates a variety of services to students with identified disabilities and their parents. This information is an attempt to describe some of the services the district provides.
As a general overview of special education services, this directory describes the continuum of services available to implement a special education student's individual education program. This booklet is an informative description of some services but is not a categorical description of all services or placements available to students.
All placement decisions involving specialized settings are based on the thoughtful and collaborative review of evaluation, current competencies and other data shared at an Admission, Review and Dismissal (ARD) committee meeting.
Developing and Enhancing a Continuum of Services
Development of a Clearly Defined Model
IDEA requires that a range of support options be available. These options represent a hierarchy of more intensive services and supports. Besides instruction in general education, other options for receiving special education services may be considered, including special classes, special schools, home instruction, and instruction in hospitals and institutions. Considering all IEP components, the ARD Committee must decide which one of these settings is the Least Restrictive Environment for each individual student.
Instructional Support Services/Levels of Support
In order to base appropriate service delivery decisions on the need of the student, all educators must be acutely aware of the service delivery options relative to a continuum of services. These options represent a hierarchy of support that can be delivered by educators in a variety of educational contexts, and will differ in frequency and intensity based on the unique need of any student. The focus is placed on the SUPPORT that the student needs in order to be successful while accessing the general education curriculum, as opposed to a PLACE where the student goes. In order to create a common vocabulary, the support available via special education will be discussed in terms of intensity, each representing an increased level of support for the student, based on his or her need: (a) consultative support, (b) in-class support, and (c) specialized support.
Students who require this level of support have a relatively low need. These students are in the general education classroom receiving their instruction and do not require a second adult in the classroom. They may have need for a limited number of accommodations or support materials, which are prepared prior to the instructional delivery and can be implemented by the general educator in the classroom. The need for these materials is identified through the IEP process and collaborative planning between the general education teacher and special population's personnel.
When provided the appropriate level of support to meet their needs, most students with disabilities can be successful in the context of the general education classroom with a variety of supplemental aids and services, which in some cases might include instruction or behavioral support from a second adult. This support is directly related to the goals and objectives of the student with the disability and is designed to minimize the impact of the disability on the performance of the student in the general education classroom. The support occurs in the general education classroom. The frequency and intensity of support is based on the individual need of the student and is determined via the IEP process.
Many students can appropriately meet their IEP goals and objectives within the general education environment with weekly support, particularly if they are placed in a classroom where the general education teacher is skilled at making accommodations and differentiating instruction for all learners. The purpose for the support, which could be delivered two or three times a week, is to assist the student in making progress on his/her IEP objectives, which in turn positively influences learning in the general education curriculum. On days that the support is not directly scheduled into the general education classroom, additional supplementary aids and services including differentiated instruction, accommodations, cooperative learning (and other peer support systems), and other special populations teachers can be utilized to help the learner be successful. Weekly support is appropriately delivered by either a paraprofessional or a certified special educator. If the IEP team determines that a student requires more frequent and intense support to make progress relative to IEP goals and objectives, it would be appropriate to consider daily support as an option.
A student who has a need for more intense support (either instructionally or behaviorally) in order to be successful in the general education curriculum and make progress on IEP goals and objectives might receive daily support within the context of the general education classroom. Due to training and skill level, a certified special educator is typically the most appropriate designee to deliver this high level of support. This support is scheduled daily for a given content area, based on the needs of the student, and is delivered in the general education classroom.
Regardless of frequency, in-class support options provide the student with the opportunity to access the general education curriculum while having the support come to the regular classroom. In addition to minimizing loss of instructional time, which can occur when a student leaves the classroom to go to an alternative setting, teachers can intensify instructions by working collaboratively with one another. By utilizing specially designed instructional approaches in these settings, teachers can lower the student-teacher ratio and differentiate instruction to a degree that might otherwise be challenging to accomplish. Thus, the use of collaborative teaching provides another supplementary aid and service that can be delivered within the context of the general education classroom.
Specialized Support (formerly known as ALE, AMC, AU Unit, BMC, CMC, LC):
Some students, due to the severity of their disability, might have to leave the general education environment for a portion of their instructional day to receive very intense and specific instruction related to their IEP goals and objectives. This ARD decision is made only after all other options, supports, supplementary aids and services in the general education environment have been considered and explored. The decision for a student to receive support in a setting other than the general education environment is reached through an analysis of individual student needs and not on the basis of disability labels or traditional special education settings.
Continuum of Services
Adapted Physical Education (APE)
Adapted physical education is a diversified and systematic program of developmental activities, exercises, games, sports, aquatics and rhythms that are designed in the psychomotor domain. The program is organized and presented in a sequential and developmental manner that is geared to the abilities, limitations and needs of each individual student.
Alternative schools provide a positive but disciplined educational setting for those NISD students whose disruptive and/or unacceptable behaviors at their regular schools warrant removal from their home campus. The Admission, Review and Dismissal (ARD) committee must base its decision on the student's educational needs. The ARD committee must determine if the student's Individual Education Plan (IEP) can be implemented at the alternative schools.
Assistive Technology (AT)
The assistive technology service helps students be more independent with communication, learning and self-help needs through the use of modifications and adaptive aids. It provides special education students with appropriate technology and devices in order to accomplish individual education program (IEP) goals.
Certified teachers provide itinerate services, consultation, staff development, direct instruction in language and auditory training, use and care of adaptive equipment and adapted materials to prepare students to be literate, independent, functioning members of society.
The autism program is designed to educate students with an autism spectrum disorder, to their maximum potential. The program promotes effective assessment and teaching practices in addition to offering training and support to families of children with autism spectrum disorders. Support to individual campuses is provided through lead specialists and specialists who are experienced and knowledgeable in the area of autism.
Bedside Hospital Program for Children with Medical Disabilities
Assists students in maintaining their current level of academic functioning while hospitalized and facilitates a smooth return to the home school.
Behavior specialists support classrooms and other special education services by assisting staff in creating, maintaining and evaluating effective behavior techniques, interventions and strategies for students with behavioral difficulties.
Classrooms for Children in Psychiatric Treatment Facility
These classrooms assist students to continue their education program while residing in a treatment center or attending day treatment. This service facilitates a smooth return to their home district and/or campus.
Dual Enrollment: In Public and other school (private or home school)
Parents of an eligible child ages 3 or 4 may "dual enroll" their child in both public and private schools beginning on the student's third birthday until the end of the school year in which the student turns 5 or until the student is eligible to attend the district's public school kindergarten program, whichever comes first. The school district where the student resides is responsible for providing special education and related services to a student whose parent has chosen to dual enroll and comply to the individualized education plan set forth by the Admission, Review, and Dismissal committee.
Extended School Year (ESY)
ESY services are individualized instructional programs provided to eligible students with disabilities beyond the regular school year. These services must be determined on an individual basis by the Admission, Review and Dismissal (ARD) committee and must be addressed annually for each student with a disability.
The purpose of ESY is to address severe and substantial regression in one or more acquired critical skill that cannot be recouped within a reasonable period of time, not to exceed 8 weeks.
Homebound services provide students academic content, commensurate with classmates, while they are at home recuperating from illness or surgery.
Music Therapy (MT)
Music Therapy is a technique and strategy used to support students with disabilities in the gaining of non-musical knowledge and skills essential to their education.
Northside Habilitation Program (NHP)
This is a full day campus based educational program for students who are either medically fragile, in need of extensive physical management and health care support, or are Post High School non-vocational students of specialized instructional settings. The long-term educational and short-term diagnostic/transitional placements are offered. Related and instructional services, as well as nursing procedures are addressed within the context of the classroom activities. Specialized support is regularly scheduled with other schools and facilities within the community.
Northside Vocational Transition Program (NVTP)
The NVTP uses a multi-faceted approach to provide employment training and transition services. Students receive campus based and community based instruction as well as
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]
] |
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A detailed look at
America's poisonous mushrooms
One cannot safely enjoy edible wild mushrooms without learning about poisonous wild mushrooms (toxic wild mushrooms) as well. Poisonous wild mushrooms are common, they're dangerous, and some resemble popular species of edible wild mushrooms.
Of the thousands and thousands of wild mushroom species in North America, we know of at least 250 significantly poisonous mushrooms, and they are typically divided into eight different categories based on the chemistry of the toxins and the symptoms or syndromes that they elicit.
This is far and away the worst type of mushroom poisoning, causing more deaths that all other poisonous wild mushroom exposures combined, both in North America and globally. Poisonous mushrooms such as the Death Cap (Amanita phalloides), the Destroying Angel (A. virosa/A. bisporigera), and several "little brown mushrooms" ('LBMs,' we call them) such as the Deadly Galerina (Galerina autumnalis [see photo, right], G. marginatus, and G. venenata), Lepiota josserandii, L. helveola, and L. castanea have been shown to contain these dangerous toxins.
Symptoms are typically delayed anywhere from six to 24 hours after the poisonous mushrooms are consumed, which unfortunately gives the body time to completely absorb the toxins and can also make diagnosis more problematic because of the lack of uneaten specimens for proper identification. The initial symptoms mimic those of influenza or a stomach virus: nausea, vomiting, abdominal cramps, and diarrhea; these symptoms can be severe, e.g. violent vomiting, acute cramping, and bloody diarrhea.
The appearance of such symptoms six to 24 hours after eating the poisonous mushrooms should be cause for great concern, and every effort should be made to provide uneaten specimens (or, where practical, good photographs of the specimens) to a bona fide expert on the identification of toxic wild mushrooms!
After a period of apparent improvement that lasts approximately 24 hours—during which time misdiagnosed patients have often been, regrettably, released from medical supervision—the liver and kidneys begin to fail. Coma, permanent debilitating liver/kidney damage, and death are common outcomes. Medical treatment in properly diagnosed cases may include administration of massive doses of penicillin; kutkin; silibinin/silymarin (in recent cases, this treatment has show great promise); activated charcoal; and electrolytes. In some cases, a liver transplant is considered the only viable therapy for victims of these poisonous wild mushrooms. Regardless of treatment, many victims never fully recover from permament organ damage.
For more information on this type of mushroom poisoning, see the Death Cap mushroom.
This is the most common type of mushroom poisoning but, generally, the least troublesome. Mushrooms in general contain a variety of proteins and amino acids, some of which are peculiar to certain species or certain genera of mushrooms and which cause mild to severe gastrointestinal irritation.
Mushrooms that contain these toxins are numerous and include:
•Several species of gilled mushrooms in genus Agaricus;
•The Green-spored Lepiota (Chlorophyllum molybdites);
•Several blue-staining, orange- to red-pored boletes in genus Boletus, e.g. B. satanas, B. subvelutipes, and B. sensibilis;
•The Sulphur Tuft mushroom (Hypholoma fasciculare = Naematoloma fasciculare)
•Several species of genus Russula, e.g. R. emetica
•Scleroderma citrinum and other species of that genus;
•Verpa bohemica; and
•Gomphus floccopus (see photo, right).
Symptoms usually appear within an hour and are rarely delayed more than four hours at most; they include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and abdominal cramps. These symptoms may range from mild to acute.
In most cases, the symptoms subside after the body has eliminated the meal and the troublesome amino acids, but in severe cases medical treatment and hospitalization are needed to maintain fluids and electrolyte balance. In rare cases, death can occur from heart failure secondary to dehydration and electrolyte depletion. If mushroom poisoning is suspected, seek medical attention immediately and, if possible, take uncooked specimens with you!
Some mushrooms cause this type of poisoning only if eaten raw or undercooked, or if eaten in large quantity, but in the case of others, it doesn't matter. Some individuals are particularly sensitive to these amino acids, while others are apparently immune to some mushrooms which cause significant sickness in most people who eat them. For example, a group of four friends tried the tempting Scaly-vase Chanterelle (Gomphus floccopus); an hour later, three of the four were fine, but the fourth was quite sick. In another case, a man camping with his family in Texas served the Green-spored Lepiota (see photo, right)—which he had misidentified as the edible Shaggy Parasol mushroom—to his entire family. Everyone got sick except him, even though he ate more than any other member of the family.
A handful of mushroom species contain this toxin, which can elicit visual disturbances, glandular hypersecretion (excessive secretion of tears, perspiration, and salivation), difficulty breathing, a drop in blood pressure, and an irregular heartbeat. In acute cases, fatalities have been reported due to respiratory failure. Nausea, vomiting and diarrhea are also typical. Symptoms appear within 30 minutes after the mushrooms are consumed and usually abate within 24 hours. Atropine is generally administered, based on the symptoms, regardless of whether muscarine poisoning is properly diagnosed.
Mushrooms which contain muscarine include:
•The Jack O'Lantern Mushrooms (Omphalotus illudens [=O. olearius] and O. olivascens; see photo, right);
•Boletus luridus and some other blue-staining, orange- to red-pored boletes in genus Boletus;
•Mycena pura; and
•Several species of genus Inocybe.
IBOTENIC ACID, MUSCIMOL and similar ISOXAZOLE DERIVATIVES
Several poisonous wild mushrooms of genus Amanita—most notably the Fly Agaric (A. muscaria) and the Panther (A. pantherina)*—contain muscimol and ibotenic acid, which, per Edible Wild Mushrooms of North America, cause "…delirium, apparent innebriation, manic behavior, and a tendency to perceive small objects as very large. Some victims exhibit a desire for intense physical activity; most experience a deep sleep, usually with visions. Nausea and vomiting may also occur. …" The North American Mycological Association (NAMA)'s Website states that "…the principle effects are on the central nervous system: confusion, visual distortion, a feeling of greater strength, delusions and convulsions. Drowsiness is a common symptoms, and many who ingest these mushrooms fall asleep and can not be roused (right away)."
* -- According to the North American Mycological Association (NAMA)'s Website, Amanita muscaria, A. pantherina, A. gemmata [see photo, right], A. cothurnata, A. frostiana, A. crenulata, A. strobiliformus, and Tricholoma muscarium also contain these chemical compounds.
Symptoms appear half an hour to two hours after ingestion of the toxic wild mushrooms and last for up to four hours or more. The only appropriate treatment is moral support—reassuring the victim that the effects of the poisonous mushrooms' toxins are only temporary. NAMA notes that atropine is not recommended, as it tends to exacerbate rather than relieve the symptoms.
GYROMITRIN / MONOMETHYLHYDRAZINE (MMH)
From Edible Wild Mushrooms of North America:
Monomethylhydrazine (MMH) is a substance used as a propellant for rockets. It is produced when gyromitrin (present in some species of poisonous wild mushrooms) is gently heated. MMH interferes with normal utilization and function of vitamin B6, thus affecting amino acid metabolism.
The NAMA Website adds that MMH is highly carcinogenic; that victims often complain of a headache as well; and that some mushrooms of other genera related to Gyromitra, i.e. Helvella, Verpa, and Cudonia, also contain gyromitrin. There is no specific antidote for this type of poisoning; medical treatment is largely supportive.
Following ingestion of the poisonous mushrooms, seven to ten hours pass before the onset of nausea and vomiting. Victims typically feel bloated and experience abdominal pain and diarrhea. Deaths due to liver damage have been reported in severe cases. Several North American Gyromitra species, or false morels, are known to produce these symptoms. Some of the most common of these toxic mushrooms include Gyromitra esculenta, G. californica, G. caroliniana, G. fastigiata, G. gigas, and G. infula.
It is worth noting that many people in North America, oblivious of what we now know about their chemistry, continue to eat these mushrooms! Because MMH is so volatile, thorough cooking (especially a process of boiling, rinsing, boiling, and rinsing again) apparently drastically reduces the toxins—but there have been a number of cases where inhaling the fumes from the cooking pot has made the chef ill! I urge every mushroom hunter to avoid Gyromitra, Helvella, Verpa, and other closely related poisonous mushrooms.
Several mushrooms are known to contain the amino
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] |
[
2048
] |
2,048
| 2.212103
|
A fluorescent lamp is a gas-discharge lamp that uses electricity to excite mercury vapor in argon or neon gas, resulting in a plasma that produces short-wave ultraviolet light. This light then causes a phosphor to fluoresce, producing visible light.
Unlike incandescent lamps, fluorescent lamps always require a ballast to regulate the flow of power through the lamp. In common tube fixtures—typically 4 feet (120 centimeters) or 8 feet (240 centimeters—the ballast is enclosed in the fixture. Compact fluorescent light bulbs may have a conventional ballast located in the fixture or they may have ballasts integrated in the bulbs, allowing them to be used in lampholders normally used for incandescent lamps.
- 1 History
- 2 Principles of operation
- 2.1 Mechanism of light production
- 2.2 Electrical aspects of operation
- 2.3 Method of 'starting' a fluorescent lamp
- 2.4 Mechanisms of lamp failure at end of life
- 2.5 Phosphors and the spectrum of emitted light
- 3 Usage
- 4 Mercury toxicity
- 5 Cleanup of broken fluorescent lamps
- 6 Advantages over incandescent lamps
- 7 Disadvantages
- 8 Tube designations
- 9 Other fluorescent lamps
- 10 Film and video use
- 11 Agapito Flores controversy
- 12 See also
- 13 Notes
- 14 References
- 15 External links
- 16 Credits
Since fluorescent lamps use considerably less energy than incandescent lamps, governments and industry are encouraging the replacement of traditional incandescent light bulbs with fluorescent lamps as part of sound environmental and energy policy.
The earliest ancestor of the fluorescent lamp is probably the device by Heinrich Geissler who in 1856 obtained a bluish glow from a gas that was sealed in a tube and excited with an induction coil.
In 1894 D. McFarlane Moore created the Moore lamp, a commercial gas discharge lamp meant to compete with the incandescent light bulb of his former boss Thomas Edison. The gases used were nitrogen and carbon dioxide emitting respectively pink and white light, and had moderate success.
In 1901 Peter Cooper Hewitt demonstrated the mercury-vapor lamp, which emitted light of a blue-green color, and thus was unfit for most practical purposes. It was, however, very close to the modern design, and had much higher efficiency than incandescent lamps.
In 1926 Edmund Germer and coworkers proposed to increase the operating pressure within the tube and to coat the tube with fluorescent powder which converts ultraviolet light emitted by an excited plasma into more uniformly white-colored light. Germer is recognized today as the inventor of the fluorescent lamp.
General Electric later bought Germer's patent and under the direction of George E. Inman brought the fluorescent lamp to wide commercial use by 1938.
Principles of operation
The main principle of fluorescent tube operation is based around inelastic scattering of electrons. An incident electron (emitted from the coils of wire forming the cathode electrode) collides with an atom in the gas (such as mercury, argon or krypton) used as the ultraviolet emitter. This causes an electron in the atom to temporarily jump up to a higher energy level to absorb some, or all, of the kinetic energy delivered by the colliding electron. This is why the collision is called 'inelastic' as some of the energy is absorbed. This higher energy state is unstable, and the atom will emit an ultraviolet photon as the atom's electron reverts to a lower, more stable, energy level. The photons that are released from the chosen gas mixtures tend to have a wavelength in the ultraviolet part of the spectrum. This is not visible to the human eye, so must be converted into visible light. This is done by making use of fluorescence. This fluorescent conversion occurs in the phosphor coating on the inner surface of the fluorescent tube, where the ultraviolet photons are absorbed by electrons in the phosphor's atoms, causing a similar energy jump, then drop, with emission of a further photon. The photon that is emitted from this second interaction has a lower energy than the one that caused it. The chemicals that make up the phosphor are specially chosen so that these emitted photons are at wavelengths visible to the human eye. The difference in energy between the absorbed ultra-violet photon and the emitted visible light photon goes to heat up the phosphor coating.
Mechanism of light production
A fluorescent lamp is filled with a gas containing low pressure mercury vapor and argon (or xenon), or more rarely argon-neon, or sometimes even krypton. The inner surface of the bulb is coated with a fluorescent (and often slightly phosphorescent) coating made of varying blends of metallic and rare-earth phosphor salts. The bulb's cathode is typically made of coiled tungsten which is coated with a mixture of barium, strontium and calcium oxides (chosen to have a relatively low thermionic emission temperature). When the light is turned on, the electric power heats up the cathode enough for it to emit electrons. These electrons collide with and ionize noble gas atoms in the bulb surrounding the filament to form a plasma by a process of impact ionization. As a result of avalanche ionization, the conductivity of the ionized gas rapidly rises, allowing higher currents to flow through the lamp. The mercury, which exists at a stable vapour pressure equilibrium point of about one part per thousand in the inside of the tube (with the noble gas pressure typically being about 0.3 percent of standard atmospheric pressure), is then likewise ionized, causing it to emit light in the ultraviolet (UV) region of the spectrum predominantly at wavelengths of 253.7 nanometers and 185 nanometers. The efficiency of fluorescent lighting owes much to the fact that low pressure mercury discharges emit about 65 percent of their total light at the 254 nanometer line (also about 10-20 percent of the light emitted in UV is at the 185 nanometer line). The UV light is absorbed by the bulb's fluorescent coating, which re-radiates the energy at lower frequencies (longer wavelengths: two intense lines of 440 nanometer and 546 nanometer wavelengths appear on commercial fluorescent tubes) (see stokes shift) to emit visible light. The blend of phosphors controls the color of the light, and along with the bulb's glass prevents the harmful UV light from escaping.
Electrical aspects of operation
Fluorescent lamps are negative resistance devices, so as more current flows through them (more gas ionized), the electrical resistance of the fluorescent lamp drops, allowing even more current to flow. Connected directly to a constant-voltage mains power line, a fluorescent lamp would rapidly self-destruct due to the unlimited current flow. To prevent this, fluorescent lamps must use an auxiliary device, commonly called a ballast, to regulate the current flow through the tube.
While the ballast could be (and occasionally is) as simple as a resistor, substantial power is wasted in a resistive ballast so ballasts usually use a reactance (inductor or capacitor) instead. For operation from AC mains voltage, the use of simple inductor (a so-called "magnetic ballast") is common. In countries that use 120 volt AC mains, the mains voltage is insufficient to light large fluorescent lamps so the ballast for these larger fluorescent lamps is often a step-up autotransformer with substantial leakage inductance (so as to limit the current flow). Either form of inductive ballast may also include a capacitor for power factor correction.
In the past, fluorescent lamps were occasionally run directly from a DC supply of sufficient voltage to strike an arc. In this case, there was no question that the ballast must have been resistive rather than reactive, leading to power losses in the ballast resistor. Also, when operated directly from DC, the polarity of the supply to the lamp must be reversed every time the lamp is started; otherwise, the mercury accumulates at one end of the tube. Nowadays, fluorescent lamps are essentially never operated directly from DC; instead, an inverter converts the DC into AC and provides the current-limiting function as described below for electronic ballasts.
More sophisticated ballasts may employ transistors or other semiconductor components to convert mains voltage into high-frequency AC while also regulating the current flow in the lamp. These are referred to as "electronic ballasts."
Fluorescent lamps which operate directly from mains frequency AC will flicker at twice the mains frequency, since the power being delivered to the lamp drops to zero twice per cycle. This means the light flickers at 120 times per second (Hz) in countries which use 60-cycle-per-second (60 Hz) AC, and 100 times per second in those which use 50 Hz. This same principle can also cause hum from fluorescent lamps, actually from its ballast. Both the annoying hum and flicker are eliminated in lamps which use a high-frequency electronic ballast, such as the increasingly popular compact fluorescent bulb.
Although most people cannot directly see 120 Hz flicker, some people report that 120 Hz flicker causes eyestrain and headache. Dr. J. Veitch has found that people have better reading performance using high-frequency (20-60 kHz) electronic ballasts than magnetic ballasts (120 Hz).
In some circumstances, fluorescent lamps operated at mains frequency can also produce flicker at the mains frequency (50 or 60 Hz) itself, which is noticeable by more people. This can happen in the last few hours of tube life when the cathode emission coating at one end is almost run
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Marijuana has become one of the most widely used — and abused — drugs in the United States. The Journal of the American Medical Association notes that while the prevalence of marijuana use in the US hasn’t changed much since the 1990s, the prevalence of cannabis abuse and addiction has greatly increased. The 2012 Monitoring the Future survey, which tracks drug use among American teens, showed that marijuana use has increased among high school students in recent years, while disapproval of cannabis among teens has declined. At one time, marijuana was not considered to be addictive, but recent studies have shown that this drug can cause symptoms of dependence and addiction, including cravings, insomnia, anxiety, depression, and agitation. 12 Steps of Recovery
Withdrawal is medically supervised and supported by our on-site nurses. For certain cases, we make use of medical aids to render the process much easier and safer. For opiate withdrawals we use suboxone, and for Benzodiazepine withdrawal we follow a modified version of the Ashton protocol. Alcohol withdrawal is medically supervised and medication is given to eliminate the risk of seizure and stroke. We take every measure to ensure that this first, important stage towards drug addiction recovery is a comfortable and safe one. To find out more about the detox program at Searidge please call us at 1-866-777-9614. So... What is Rehab Like?
Usually, however, drug classification under such legislation is not related simply to addictiveness. The substances covered often have very different addictive properties. Some are highly prone to cause physical dependency, while others rarely cause any form of compulsive need whatsoever. Also, under legislation specifically about drugs, alcohol and nicotine are not usually included.
The United States' approach to substance abuse has shifted over the last decade, and is continuing to change. The federal government was minimally involved in the 19th century. The federal government transitioned from using taxation of drugs in the early 20th century to criminalizing drug abuse with legislations and agencies like the Federal Bureau of Narcotics (FBN) mid-20th century in response to the nation's growing substance abuse issue. These strict punishments for drug offenses shined light on the fact that drug abuse was a multi-faceted problem. The President's Advisory Commission on Narcotics and Drug Abuse of 1963 addressed the need for a medical solution to drug abuse. However, drug abuse continued to be enforced by the federal government through agencies such as the DEA and further legislations such as The Controlled Substances Act (CSA), the Comprehensive Crime Control Act of 1984, and Anti-Drug Abuse Acts. POWERFUL lesson from a drug & alcohol rehab
If you or someone you care about is struggling with an alcohol problem help is out there. There are many treatment options, from inpatient rehab to outpatient counseling and support groups. Just because a problem has developed doesn’t mean it has to stay a problem. Get treatment for your alcohol addiction right now and start taking your life back from this disorder.
Alcohol rehabilitation can be helpful for the management of drinking problems. But what happens during the alcohol rehab process? What can you expect and how are therapies implemented? We review the basics of alcohol rehabilitation here. Then, we invite your questions about alcohol rehabilitation at the end. In fact, we try to respond to all questions with a personal and prompt reply.
Some addicts may require a detoxification cycle before beginning addiction treatment. This is perhaps one of the most significant misconceptions of drug rehab. Many people assume that detoxification is standard practice and is the “only” thing that occurs in a rehabilitation clinic. However, this is not the case. Drug rehab clinics seek to address the root problem to help break the long-term cycle of addiction.
Alcohol abuse and addiction doesn’t just affect the person drinking—it affects their families and loved ones, too. Watching a family member struggle with a drinking problem can be as heartbreakingly painful as it is frustrating. But while you can’t do the hard work of overcoming addiction for your loved one, your love and support can play a crucial part in their long-term recovery.
Within the framework of the 4th edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV), substance dependence is redefined as a drug addiction, and can be diagnosed without the occurrence of a withdrawal syndrome. It was described accordingly: "When an individual persists in use of alcohol or other drugs despite problems related to use of the substance, substance dependence may be diagnosed. Compulsive and repetitive use may result in tolerance to the effect of the drug and withdrawal symptoms when use is reduced or stopped. This, along with Substance Abuse are considered Substance Use Disorders." In the DSM-5 (released in 2013), substance abuse and substance dependence have been merged into the category of substance use disorders and they no longer exist as individual diagnosis. Russel Brand on Addiction and the 12 Step Program
Addiction affects not just the addict but also everyone that person comes into contact with. The addict will likely suffer physical consequences, social consequences, emotional consequences, financial consequences, and perhaps even legal consequences as a result of their drug use. As the drug addict’s personal life falls apart, their work and health will likely suffer as well. Drug addicts are more likely to have domestic violence problems, to lose their jobs, and to be arrested than those who are not addicts, proving that addiction, if left untreated, can negatively impact every facet of a person’s life.
The official diagnosis of drug addiction by the Diagnostic and Statistic Manual of Mental Disorders (2000), which makes distinctions between drug use, abuse, and substance dependence, is flawed. First, diagnosis of drug use versus abuse can be arbitrary and reflect cultural norms, not medical phenomena. Second, the term substance dependence implies that dependence is the primary pharmacologic phenomenon underlying addiction, which is likely not true, as tolerance, sensitization, and learning and memory also play central roles. It is ironic and unfortunate that the Manual avoids use of the term addiction, which provides the best description of the clinical syndrome.
Neurons communicate with each other by sending messages along axons and dendrites via electrical impulses. The axons turn these impulses into chemical signals, sending neurotransmitters across synapses. The receiving dendrite then converts neurotransmitters back into the right electrical signals, so we understand the message; for example, that bite of pie was delicious, I’ll take another one. These exchanges happen countless times in the brain, and they control mood, behavior, movement, and cognition.
Drug addiction recovery is a long-term process, and those who attempt to overcome their drug problems must be prepared for a challenging struggle. In the end, persistence and determination will make all the difference, and if people recovering from substance use disorders are strong enough to stay the course, a happy, healthy, drug-free future will be within their grasp. The Best Drug Rehab Centers in the U.S.
Addiction is an all-consuming disease, using much of an individual’s time, energy and resources. There are many physical, mental and emotional signs of addiction. If you or a loved one are experiencing a combination of these signs, treatment may be a stepping stone for long-term recovery. Looking for signs and symptoms of drug abuse can be the first step toward identifying an addiction:
Outpatient drug rehab provides patients with a more loosely defined schedule. This form of treatment allows patients to stay with their support system at home and maintain a limited presence at work or school. Both options offer patients a different range of therapeutic options and counseling with the goal of maintained abstinence and long-term recovery.
Work with an intervention specialist. If your loved one is in strong denial about the problem, he or she will probably refuse to get treatment or even to listen to you. A substance abuse counselor or therapist who specializes in intervention can help you plan a formal meeting to confront your loved one with the consequences of their behavior and propose a treatment plan. Best Alcohol Detox Drug Program Treatment Addiction Alcohol
Co-occurring conditions require specialised treatments that can safely address both aspects of a dual diagnosis. Doctors and therapists work to create effective but flexible treatment plans that account for both conditions without treating one at the expense of the other. The delicate balance necessary to achieve a positive outcome suggests that residential treatment is the better option for dealing with dual diagnosis scenarios. How To Choose The Best Alcohol Addiction Treatment Center - Call 1(800)-615-1067
We are also able to offer a tailored outpatient therapy package at our wellbeing centres, which is specifically designed to tackle alcohol addiction. In order to allow peace of mind, our therapy package offers a set amount of one-to-one therapy sessions, discounted rates, certainty of price for initial treatment, a personalised treatment plan, and further discounts for any additional therapy sessions that you may require following your initial treatment package. Priory’s outpatient therapy package for alcohol addiction consists of 12 one-to-one therapy sessions with our alcohol addiction specialists, which is the number of sessions that are recommended according to national guidelines. More information on the treatment and package price can be found by accessing our alcohol use disorder outpatient therapy package leaflet.
If you feel like you are ready to begin the transition process back into your “normal” routine but think that you might require further support, sober living is an option. It provides 24/7 accountability with check-ins, house meetings, regular meal times, therapy sessions and more but also provides the freedom to go out into the world and find positive employment and a supportive new home.
In-patient residential treatment for alcohol abuse is usually quite expensive without proper insurance. Most American programs follow a traditional 28–30 day program length. The length is based solely upon providers' experience. During the 1940's, clients stayed about one week to get over the physical changes, another week to understand the program, and another week or two to become stable. 70% to 80% of American residential
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]
] |
[
2048
] |
2,048
| 2.057689
|
U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission
In enacting Section 501 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, Congress charged each federal agency to promote the hiring and retention of individuals with disabilities in two ways: first, to be a model employer of individuals with disabilities through use of meaningful affirmative hiring, placement, and advancement opportunities; and second, to ensure employment non-discrimination and reasonable accommodation. To assist agencies in focusing this effort on severe disabilities that have historically been used to exclude qualified individuals from employment, the federal government has identified certain "targeted disabilities" for special emphasis in affirmative action programs. The "targeted disabilities," which were last listed on the Office of Personnel Management (OPM) Standard Form (SF) 256 in 1987,1 include: deafness; blindness; missing extremities; partial paralysis; complete paralysis; convulsive disorders; mental retardation; mental illness; and distortion of limb and/or spine. EEOC tracks statistics on the employment by federal agencies of people with these targeted disabilities because their unemployment and under-employment rates are so high.2 Tracking employment statistics for this population allows federal agencies to better monitor their own efforts at becoming and remaining model employers.
Despite these efforts, the percentage of federal employees with targeted disabilities has declined since it reached its peak of 1.24 percent in fiscal year 1994 (32,337 employees). In fiscal year 2007, federal employees with targeted disabilities comprised only 0.92 percent (23,993 employees) of the federal workforce. Moreover, although the federal workforce has increased by 128,973 employees from FY 1998 to FY 2007, a net increase of 5.2%, the number of federal employees with targeted disabilities decreased from 28,035 in FY 1998 to 23,993 in FY 2007, a net decrease of 14.42%.3
EEOC's LEAD (Leadership for the Employment of Americans with Disabilities) Initiative, launched in 2006, is a national outreach and education campaign to raise awareness about the declining numbers of people with disabilities in federal employment, to educate federal agencies and individuals with disabilities about special hiring authorities for individuals with targeted disabilities, and to provide information and resources on reasonable accommodation. Drawing on actual experiences to provide practical examples, this publication provides an overview of legal issues that affect the hiring and advancement of people with disabilities in the federal government. This document is intended as a reference tool for federal government managers and supervisors who, by hiring applicants with disabilities and ensuring equal employment opportunity for employees with disabilities, can reverse the current trend and fulfill the employment mandates of Section 501.
The statutory language of Section 501 mandates that federal agencies submit to EEOC for approval an annually updated "affirmative action program plan for the hiring, placement, and advancement of individuals with disabilities." The Section 501 regulations require that the federal government be a "model employer" with respect to the employment of individuals with disabilities. To implement this mandate, EEOC's Management Directive 715 ("MD-715") directs covered agencies4 annually to review their EEO and personnel programs, policies, and performance standards in accordance with specified criteria to identify where their EEO programs can become more effective and to identify and eliminate barriers that hamper the advancement of any applicants or employees with disabilities. The results - which must specifically address how an agency will make substantial progress in promoting the employment of qualified individuals with disabilities at all levels of the federal workforce - are reported to EEOC for review and analysis. The text of MD-715, EEOC's MD-715 instructions, and a user-friendly guide entitled Frequently Asked Questions about MD-715, are available at http://www.eeoc.gov/federal/directives/md715.cfm.
To assist agencies in reporting under MD-715, EEOC's Office of Federal Operations (OFO) provides tools and assistance to agencies to help them analyze their work forces and uncover barriers to equal employment opportunities. Once barriers are identified by agencies, OFO collaborates with them to develop creative strategies to eliminate or reduce the impact of identified obstacles. Further, OFO works with agencies to promote workplace policies and practices that foster an inclusive work culture and prevent employment discrimination. This effort includes working with federal agencies to adopt and successfully implement the attributes of the EEOC's Model EEO Program under MD-715.
Section 501 is also a non-discrimination law that:
Under Section 501, the term "disability" means: (1) a physical or mental impairment that substantially limits one or more major life activities; (2) a record of a substantially limiting impairment; or (3) being regarded (i.e. treated) as having a substantially limiting impairment.5 This definition is broader than the above-listed "targeted" or severe disabilities that the federal government has identified for special emphasis in affirmative action and data collection. It is also broader than the severe disabilities eligible for Schedule A appointment authority discussed below. For example, an employee with diabetes that substantially limits her in the major life activity of eating would be an "individual with a disability" protected against discrimination under Section 501, even though she would not have a "targeted disability."6
Section 501 protects only "qualified" individuals with disabilities from disparate treatment, harassment, or denial of accommodation. An individual with a disability is qualified if he:
"In general, an accommodation is any change in the work environment or in the way things are customarily done that enables an individual with a disability to enjoy equal employment opportunities,"8 including "modifications or adjustments to a job application process," "the work environment," "the manner or circumstances under which a position held or desired is customarily performed, or to enable an employee with a disability "to enjoy equal benefits and privileges of employment."9 Employers may be required to remove a marginal, but not an essential, function as a reasonable accommodation. Relevant factors to consider in determining if a function is essential include but are not limited to the following: whether the reason the position exists is to perform that function; the number of people available to perform the function or among whom it can be distributed; the degree of expertise or skill required to perform the function; the employer's judgment as to which functions are essential; written job descriptions prepared before advertising or interviewing applicants for the job; the time spent performing the function; the consequences of not requiring the employee to perform it; the terms of any applicable collective bargaining agreement; the work experience of past incumbents in the job; and/or the current work experience of incumbents in similar jobs. 29 C.F.R. Section 1630.2(n)(2) and (3). The fact that a function is listed in a job description as essential is relevant, but not necessarily controlling.
The following are answers to frequently-asked questions from managers and employees about affirmative action and non-discrimination provisions of the Rehabilitation Act applicable to applicants and employees with disabilities.
1. Must a federal agency have an affirmative action program for individuals with disabilities that establishes specific hiring and advancement plans?
Yes. Section 501 of the Rehabilitation Act requires all agencies, regardless of their size, to have an affirmative action program plan for individuals with disabilities. Moreover, MD-715 requires those agencies with 1,000 or more employees to establish a special recruitment program with specific goals for the employment and advancement of individuals with targeted disabilities, and to submit their special program plan annually to the EEOC. These goals should be set in a way that will achieve measurable yearly progress, accounting for attrition and for the distribution of individuals with disabilities in the agency's overall workforce, and in particular segments and levels with an under-representation. Targeted disabilities are considered as a group, rather than separately by disability, when setting goals for special recruitment. Those agencies with fewer than 1,000 employees should maintain documentation of their Section 501 affirmative action program to allow EEOC to verify the compliance standards as set forth in MD-715. EEOC will approve or disapprove specific plans as appropriate, and will periodically conduct evaluations and program reviews to more closely assess MD-715 compliance. EEOC is also available to provide technical assistance to agencies on an ongoing basis, in order to facilitate program improvements.
For EEOC's recent assessment of agencies' efforts and specific suggested program improvements, see Improving the Participation Rate of People with Targeted Disabilities in the Federal Work Force (January 2008), http://www.eeoc.gov/federal/reports/pwtd.html.
2. What are some specific steps federal agencies may take to achieve their affirmative action goals for hiring and advancement of individuals with disabilities?
Some specific steps may include:
3. In making hiring, promotion, or other employment decisions, may a federal agency give an advantage to individuals with disabilities?
Yes. Although an agency is not required to prefer individuals with disabilities for hire or promotion, it may do so. Favoring an individual with a disability over a non-disabled individual for purposes of affirmative action in hiring or advancement is not unlawful disparate treatment based on disability, and therefore does not violate the Rehabilitation Act. This rule stands in stark contrast to the legal standards under Title VII for making employment decisions based on race, color, sex, or national origin. For an explanation of the applicable standards under Title VII for affirmative hiring based on race or ethnicity, see EEOC Compliance Manual Chapter on Race and Color Discrimination, Section VI-C (Diversity and Affirmative Action) (4/19/06), http://www.eeoc.gov/policy/docs/race-color.html, and Management Directive 71
|
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]
] |
[
2048
] |
2,048
| 2.587992
|
By Dr. Mercola
With Consumers for Dental Choice
- Thanks to deceptive, manipulative efforts by the American Dental Association (ADA) and the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), most Americans are unaware that “silver” fillings are 50 percent mercury
- The ADA has historically covered up the fact that mercury is used in dental fillings while taking money from Coca-Cola and other companies whose products promote the formation of cavities
- 50 percent of dentists are now mercury-free; you can help abolish the use of mercury in dentistry by supporting one of them
- We are on the brink of prompting real change in the fight for mercury-free dentistry; action items are included so you can help!
Mercury is an incredibly potent neurotoxin; it doesn't take much to cause serious damage because it's an absolute poison. If you were to take the amount of mercury in a typical thermometer and put it in a small lake, that lake would be closed down due to environmental hazards.
Yet, amounts much higher than that are readily put into your mouth if you receive a "silver" amalgam dental filling, as the majority of material in the filling is actually mercury.
Amalgam or "Silver" Fillings are Actually Mercury Fillings
It's estimated that 75 percent of Americans are ignorant about that fact that amalgam fillings are actually 50 percent mercury, and this is no accident. The American Dental Association (ADA) popularized the deceptive term "silver fillings" so consumers would think amalgam is made mainly of silver when actually it has twice as much mercury as silver.
As Charlie Brown, who founded the Consumers for Dental Choice in 1996, stated:
"The American Dental Association is basically a gigantic fraud agent when it comes to amalgam because for years they promoted amalgam as silver fillings and they're not. It's a gigantic consumer fraud perpetuated by thousands of dentists in the United States who use the word silver fillings when by far the most prevalent material is mercury.
The FDA defends amalgam and says the word silver is because they are silver colored. The FDA knows better. They know they are perpetuating a lie. The Food and Drug Administration has basically been the agent of the American Dental Association in protecting the use of mercury fillings.
That protection continues even though two scientific panels in a row – these are scientists handpicked by FDA itself – the scientists have come in and to the surprise of the FDA staff have told the FDA staff, you're wrong. You've got to stop amalgam use for pregnant women. You've got to stop amalgam use for children. You've got to do both of them now and you've got to make sure that every consumer knows and every parent knows that amalgam is not silver, that it's mercury."
Not only are most Americans unaware that silver fillings contain mercury, but many are also unaware of what risks that poses to your health. Once you get a mercury filling, your risk continues because every time you chew, the mercury releases a vapor into your mouth that deposits slowly in your tissues over time and does not disappear.
What are the Health Risks of Mercury Fillings?
The metallic mercury used by dentists to manufacture dental amalgam is shipped as a hazardous material to the dental office. Any amalgam leftover is also treated as hazardous and requires special precautions to dispose of, as it should because it can cause wide-ranging damage to your health.
Charlie Brown states:
" … mercury is a reproductive toxin. Meaning, of course, it can harm your unborn baby. It's a neurotoxin meaning it can harm your brain. It's a nephrotoxin meaning it will harm your kidneys. There is no safe level of mercury. This dentist is playing Russian roulette with your child or you if he or she is giving you a mercury filling."
Virtually any kind of stimulation can cause these fillings to release mercury. Eating, drinking, brushing your teeth, grinding your teeth, chewing gum, anything. If you want to see the vapors released for yourself, watch this shocking video.
Mercury vapor from the amalgams passes readily through cell membranes, across the blood-brain barrier, and into your central nervous system, where it causes psychological, neurological, and immunological problems. Children and fetuses, whose brains are still developing, are most at risk, but really anyone can be impacted.
Further, dental mercury is the number one source of mercury in our wastewater, so dentists are handing the clean-up bill for their pollution to taxpayers and water ratepayers. And this mercury ends up in your food supply, where it can cause continued damage to your health if you eat fish and other contaminated seafood.
Does the American Dental Association Want You to Eat Candy?
You may be aware that poor diet, including eating sugar, is the primary reason why people develop cavities in their teeth. The ADA puts out propaganda that they want you to eat less sugar, and hence get fewer cavities, but in reality they have maintained ties with makers of some of the most detrimental products to your teeth, namely soda!
"The American Dental Association wants you to get more cavities. They were taking a million bucks a year from Coca Cola until they were discovered. They tell you they want to reduce cavities. They want more cavities. The World Dental Federation takes money from the Mars Candy colossus which is the Wrigley, the Mars candy bar, the Snickers and all that. They take money from them.
Their propaganda is we want you to eat less sugar. But the candy companies and Coca Cola would not be shoveling money to the American Dental Association and the World Dental Federation if they really thought the ADA believed them. You never see the ADA doing public service out saying, "eat less, don't eat candy, don't eat sugar" because it's good for business. The more sugar, the more money and that's why amalgam is used."
Amalgam was introduced in the Civil War era by the new American Dental Association, which won a political battle with the physicians of the mouth, who said using mercury in oral health care is malpractice. Florida dentist James Hardy, in his book Mercury Free, refers to the creation of amalgam and the creation of the American Dental Association as the "twin-birth."
The truth is, amalgam is a primary money-maker for conventional dentists; amalgams are quick and easy, and dentists make more money per chair per day implanting mercury.
50 Percent of Dentists are Now Mercury-Free
We are on the brink of prompting real change in the fight for mercury-free dentistry, and this is largely because of readers like you who have taken the time to write to the FDA to let your voice be heard on this issue. Consumers for Dental Choice and World Alliance for Mercury-Free Dentistry, of which Charlie Brown is president, have also been major catalysts for change. They played an integral role in allowing dentists the freedom to tell the truth that there is mercury in the fillings.
Prior to that the American Dental Association actually had a gag order of sorts that threatened to pull the licenses of dentists who mentioned the "M" word (mercury) to their patients! At that time, in the 1990s, only 3 percent of dentists were mercury-free.
Brown and his organizations took the matter to the courts and said dentists have a right under the United States constitution to talk to their patients, to advertise, and to tell the truth – and they won. Now dentists can say the "M" word, and as an extension of that 50% of dentists are mercury-free! This is one of they ways you can vote with your pocketbook and have enormous economic and environmental influence. Find a mercury-free dentist!
As Brown states:
"It's just time for dentistry to realize the amalgam era is over. If they don't realize it, the world needs to say, we need to get rid of it but the starting point is with your dentist and your office to say, I know that amalgam is mercury. Do not give it to my child. Do not give it to me. We will not tolerate it.
Frankly, you shouldn't go to a dentist that still uses mercury fillings. You should go to a mercury-free dentist.
Amalgam is a primitive polluting pre-Civil War product. It had no business in 20th century dentistry and for goodness sake's we're in the 21st century now. I call on the dentists of America to wakeup. But if they won't wake up, if they insist on continuing to put mercury into children's mouths please don't give that dentist any money. Don't go to that dentist anymore."
You Can Help Catalyze the Transition to Mercury-Free Dentistry!
Charlie Brown is headed to Nairobi in October to lead a worldwide delegation participating in the world mercury treaty negotiations. With him will be a team of dentists, consumers, attorneys, and scientists fighting to get amalgam into that treaty. With the world deciding whether we continue allowing mercury in children's mouths, much is at stake. During this Mercury-Free Dentistry Awareness Week, I urge you to take action.
Here's what you can do:
Americans: Our number one problem is the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), which has partnered with the American Dental Association (ADA) to cover up the mercury -- to make you think you are getting silver instead of toxic mercury in your mouth. The FDA intentionally conceals the warnings about amalgam deep in its regulation -- so parents will never see them. On its website, the FDA gives dentists the green light to continue to deceive consumers with the term "silver fillings"
"Americans are ready for the end of amalgam." This was the theme of the testimony to the U.S. Department of State on August 18 by former West Virginia state Senator Charlotte Pritt. Yes, Americans are ready. But FDA is not. So let's send
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Biosystematics is in great flux today because of the plethora of genetic research continually shedding light on organism relationships. Despite the large amount of data being published, the challenge is having enough knowledge about genetics to draw conclusions regarding the biological history of organisms and their taxonomy. Based on the analyses of molecular data, hybridization capability, and statistical baraminology it is estimated that 11 extant turtle kinds and three extant crocodile kinds were brought on the Ark.
Keywords: Ark Encounter, biosystematics, taxonomy, amniotes, reptiles, testudines, crocodylia, turtles, alligators, archosaurs, kind, baraminology
Creation research should be guided by God’s Word which is foundational to the scientific models that are built. The Ark Encounter Project has tasked creation researchers to investigate several questions, some of which include:
In previous papers the number of amphibian kinds were estimated (Hennigan 2013a; Hennigan 2013b). The purpose of this paper is to use all available information to make an initial estimate of the identity and number of extant turtle and crocodile kinds taken on board the Ark.
Biosystematics is the science of discovering, classifying, and organizing biological diversity. The science of identifying taxa and naming organisms is taxonomy. There is no universally accepted procedure for organism classification and currently these disciplines are in great flux as researchers are putting more importance on new genetic and molecular data being accumulated for phylogeny development and much is being changed accordingly. Therefore, how organisms are named and organized today may change tomorrow, depending on the data and assumptions about that data. For example, naturalists assume randomness and common descent and in keeping with these assumptions, are gradually moving away from Linnaean hierarchies and toward the PhyloCode system based on assumed evolutionary relationships (Vitt and Caldwell 2009, pp. 20–25). In contrast, creation biologists recognize the God of Scripture as the Creator of all “kinds” and assume “forest,” rather than “tree” thinking. For the creationist, instead of the tree (or trees) of life that represent evolutionary random processes and common descent from life’s beginnings, creationists visualize individual trees in a forest as the originally created kinds. The separation of each tree represents the discontinuity between kinds and the degree of branching represents the diversification of that kind over time. Whereas the philosophical and/or materialistic naturalist may interpret continuity between taxa as evidence for common descent or similar environmental pressures, the Christian theist may interpret continuity between taxa as either limited common descent (e.g., hybrids between Emys and Glyptemys turtles) or products of a common Designer. Specifically, creationists are interested in how creatures have diversified from the originally created baramins and the archetypes that left the Ark. While genetic and molecular data will be incorporated in this taxonomic analysis, there is still not enough knowledge about biochemistry and genetics to draw conclusions regarding the biological history and taxonomy of organisms. Therefore, other variables will also be incorporated such as hybridization data (which has its limitations) and holistic continuity and discontinuity amongst and between organisms using statistical baraminology (Lightner et al. 2011; Genesis 1; Genesis 7; Sanders and Wise 2003; Wood 2006a; Wood 2006b).
The following precautions and perspectives are in order. Baraminologists tend to equate kinds with the family (Wood 2006a). However, we should carefully analyze the structures, behaviors, and physiologies of members of a putative kind and look at the genetic reasons why a certain member of a kind doesn’t have characters that the other members possess. Scripture, especially for herptiles, does not shed much light about their kinds. The challenge is to demonstrate where discontinuities lie, and there is not enough information to do that. There is a need to compare whole genomes of species and genera in order to see if there is genomic equivalence (Wilson 2010). Did any members of a kind have features not present in other members of the same kind and if so, why? Hybridization data is also limited. Biogeographic data may shed light on geographic patterns based on Ark dispersal; however, until we can demonstrate either empirically or theoretically that fairly disparate species can arise from a founder population of two, we have to be careful about lumping smaller taxa into large ones and calling the larger taxon an Ark kind. Therefore, this research is meant to be a foundation upon which further research and understanding of God’s diverse organisms can be built. Within His Trinitarian character God is diverse, and we would expect that His creation would reflect that diversity in His creatures. When we better understand what mechanisms are involved in the production of differences since the initial creation, we should be better able to infer whether they are traits produced by direct creation, post-Flood diversification through unknown genetic preprogrammed mechanisms, and/or random mutations.
Extant reptiles consist of the following taxa: birds, turtles, tuataras, snakes, amphisbaenas, lizards, and crocodiles (Pough et al. 2004 p. 8; Vitt and Caldwell 2009, p. 24). Birds will not be discussed here, but are the subject of another paper (Lightner 2013). Reptiles, along with mammals, are amniotes and have an amniotic membrane that encloses the embryo in a fluid-filled sac. Based on current taxonomy, all extant reptiles, with the possible exception of the turtles, are classified in the taxon Diapsida. This is because they share the diagnostic character of temporal fenestrae which are a pair of holes on each side of the skull and behind the eyes (Vitt and Caldwell 2009, p. 18). Extant turtles, depending on the source, are either classified in the Anapsida because they do not have temporal fenestrae and have skulls completely roofed, or in the Diapsida with the lack of temporal fenestrae considered a modified or derived character developing from the original diapsid condition. Complicating matters, this character is absent in fossils interpreted to be diapsid ancestors and are present on fossils interpreted to be anapsid ancestors, and is therefore not considered a reliable guide in phylogenetic studies (UC Berkeley Museum of Paleontology 2013). In fact, much about turtle taxonomy and evolutionary history is incertae sedis (of uncertain placement) and those issues will be briefly discussed later.
All extant diapsids are classified in the taxon Sauria which also include the extinct ancestors and, depending on the researcher, may or may not include turtles. Sauria is further subdivided into the Archosauromorpha (crocodiles, dinosaurs, birds, and possibly turtles) and Lepidosauromorpha (tuataras, lizards, amphisbaenas, and snakes; Vitt and Caldwell 2009, p. 19). The rest of this paper will focus on Archosauromorpha, specifically the Orders; Testudines (turtles, tortoises) and Crocodylia (crocodiles, gharials, alligators). Taxon Lepidosauromorpha will be the subject of later papers.
In terms of reproduction both turtles and crocodiles are oviparous and must lay their hard-shelled or leathery shelled eggs on land. In many reptile species, including turtles and crocodiles, the gender of the embryo is not determined by parental genetics, but is instead determined by soil temperature. Temperature-dependent sex determination (TSD) is species dependent and sex is determined based on the average temperature during the second trimester (Vitt and Caldwell 2009, pp. 121–124).
Turtles belong to the Order Testudines. Currently they consist of 14 Families and 328 species (Complete Chelonian Taxonomy List 2003; Reptile database 2013). They are unique in the animal world and are easily identified because of the shells that give them a tank-like look. Turtles are the only group of vertebrates with the limbs encased within the rib cage (since the ribs form part of the shell). Other names are used to describe turtles and, though they are not precise, they include tortoise and terrapin. Generally speaking tortoises are land-dwelling turtles that typically have high-domed, hard shells and short powerful legs; some of which have spade-like front feet used for burrowing (Jensen et al. 2008, pp. 440–443; Pough et al. 2004, p. 8). Terrapin is an Algonquin word that usually refers to an edible aquatic turtle. Aquatic turtles tend to have flatter, lightweight shells with either flippers (marine turtles) or webbed feet that are optimally designed for aquatic environments (Jensen et al. 2008, p. 440).
The shell is comprised of a dorsal carapace and ventral plastron that are shields formed by the fusion of the vertebrae, clavicles, and ribs as well as dermal bones. The outer epidermis (scutes) on most turtles is made of the fibrous protein, keratin. These scutes overlap between the seams on the shell for extra strength. Other turtles like the softshells and one marine species do not have scutes and instead have a leathery
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]
] |
[
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] |
2,048
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Waste no more time arguing what a good man should be. Be one. – Marcus Aurelius
It was difficult for people to believe that Suwema and her husband Chembwerembwesu were separated as husband and wife. The whole village of Mwalija and neighbouring villages like Nkungulu, Mtera, Tabola and Chiwunda shook and quaked with sadness and delight in equal measure at the downfall of the highly regarded an endless love of all. The couple who loved each other so much and were role model to many people, were not seeing eye to eye and had vowed not to walk the same path, not to go to the same hospital, nor drink from the same well in a village that had one good well. All because of the goats they did not yet have or heard their bleating.
Not everyone was unhappy. The couple was famous for their display of love of each other; they used to walk hand in hand around the village, sometimes cycled together and Suwema spent most of her time with her husband than her women peers. And she was the first woman to wear trousers, and the first married woman to leave her hair uncovered in the village steeped in tradition. And were the first couple to kiss in public which was regarded as taboo. It was against tradition for a woman to wear trousers and follow her husband everywhere as white people do. The village tradition dictated that a woman should be frequently in company of her women folk than men folk. And Chembwerembwesu had quashed that tradition and had a tendency of taking his wife everywhere, to the market where he used to play a game of bawo with her fellow men. Suwema had watched, cheered and spurred her husband to beat his opponents. Many men found this type of behaviour so strange and foreign and advised Chembwerembwesu to stop it, and they accused him of using charms through his wife. A testimony to this was the day he lost a game for the first time when he did not bring his wife. Chembwerembwesu challenged them to bring their wives too and see if they could help them to win. Only one stubborn and self-centred, Mandutu brought his concubine who had cheered him but failed to vanquish Chemberembwesu with a support of his wife’s cheers. Sometimes he could carry his wife on his back. So, when many people had heard that the couple had their first fight in their marriage of ten years of blissful life together were very happy. It echoed their testimony that the profligate love that Chembwe had lavished on his wife was short-lived, foreign, and could not last and stand against tradition, and the wishes of their enemies. What really happened to a couple that loved each other so dearly, should fight and end their love unceremoniously?
People who were jealous and unhappy with the couple had been praying hard for their love to end. The Chembwes had tried to live within their love domain but people were not happy and spoke slightingly of their love and wanted it to end and follow the common love and traits of the common people – the majority.
Detractors had tried so many snares to put Chembwe into trouble but had failed, and like Daniel in the lions’ den had walked free and unharmed. One morning, as he was on the farm weeding, a young girl of 16 years of age: naïve, untouched by man, with only a wrapper wrapped from the breasts without underwear, her small pointed breasts standing firm and tempting on her tender bosom walked slowly like a chameleon toward Chembwe.
She dropped her wrapper down and jumped on him and firmly pulled him against her pointed breasts and fondled his manhood. Chembwe cried and convulsed like a fish out of water and broke free, and ran away. The girl ran after him picking up her wrapper and screaming: wandigwilira! wandigwlira! (has raped me! Has raped me!)
People burst out from their fences: women, men, boys and girls and pursued the alleged culprit with stones. Luckily, the agile Chembwe outran them and headed to the chief’s house and swiftly like a wheezing arrow thrown with ultimate force entered the house and out into the yard huffing and puffing. The chief who was sitting in his living room with a visitor got up and walked out to ward off the concourse of people who were screaming and threatening to enter the house and capture the alleged culprit for a mob justice treatment.
Meantime, the girl was given proper clothes to wear and she kept on chanting: wandigwilira! Wandigwilila! (Has raped me! Has raped me!). The chief’s Induna dispersed the angry crowd and promised them that the chief will deal with the matter as soon as possible. They were informed that the chief would settle the matter at his court at around 3 o’clock in the afternoon. The Induna took the girl in and some people returned to their homes whilst others lingered here and there waiting for the chief’s ruling. By this time, Chembwe’s wife was still in the forest with her friends where they had gone to collect firewood and knew nothing of what had transpired in her absence back home.
Suwema in a company of her three friends, trotting, balancing diligently a heavy bunch of firewood on her head slowed down upon seeing a crowd of women and men at her house. Like vultures they encompassed her and assailed her with sneering remarks about her husband’s promiscuity and labeled him a rapist, a disgrace to the community and should be banished for good. Traditionally, in accordance with customary law of the land if Chembwe would be found guilty of rape, he would be banished from the village and forced his wife to marry another man regarded highly by the chief and his Indunas.
‘Leave me alone!’ screamed Suwema as she threw down her bunch of firewood and entered her house, slumped on the mat and started crying.
‘If you think we are lying, go to the chief and ask about your husband’s whereabouts,’ said one woman who was sucking at a big yellow mango seed.
By three o’clock people had already gathered at the chief’s court and were impatient for his verdict. Most of the people had believed the girl’s allegations that Chembwe had raped her and wanted him banished from the village immediately.
As a long hand of the clock made its move to twelve and the shorter one stuck at three, people started singing traditional songs until the Induna emerged and stopped the singing, ordering silence as the chief was about to come out and deliver his verdict.
Silence reigned for a while; there were a few coughs here and there. The sun was still high in the clear sky emitting hot rays and some people especially the elderly found solace in the shed under the mango trees. Nearby, a stubborn he-goat came out of the hut running, a handle of pail dangling from its neck and its mouth powered from the maize flour it had been devouring. A woman ran after it with a stick and was hailing insults at the owner of the animal.
At three – ten pm, the chief emerged from the house standing tall, his face devoid of what his heart was about to pour out to the people. Everyone got up, and after a while the Induna ordered everyone to sit down. The chief still standing, coughed thrice and harangued: ‘Rape is a very serious offence in our land and the punishment is to banish the offender. And today we could see one of our beloved members of this community banished for good.’
‘He must go! We don’t want rapist in this village!’ hollered the people in unison.
‘Order!’ cried the Induna.
He continued: ‘Indeed our daughter, Adijah sustained injuries during her confrontation with the accused. But she is fine, nothing serious.’
‘Where is the rapist? Bring him out! We will teach him a lesson!’ cried the people.
‘Silence please!’ cried the Induna.
‘Every member of this community has a duty to obey our laws and to treat our women with respect as naturally as possible. Our women shouldn’t be scared to go to the forest to collect firewood; to the river to wash their clothes or even wash themselves. I shall never tolerate this nonsense in this village!’
‘Bring out the rapist!’ cried one madala who was eating matowo.
‘Hey! Madala shut up!’ cried the Induna.
‘Our elder women have examined the victim. I shall now call upon the accused and the victim. The chief motioned with his head to the Induna. The Induna ran into the house and in a jiffy brought out Chembwe and Adijah. Chembwe did not show any sign of guilt in his persona. He was as extrovert as usual and faced the crowd with smiling eyes. Adijah on the other hand kept her face down and avoided eye contact with the people. Many people had wondered at her sombre disposition instead of showing bravery after all her accused had been nabbed.
‘Now! My beloved people, time has come for the verdict to be declared. Our elder women have examined the victim thoroughly.’
He picked up a gourd of water from a stool and drunk. When he was about to remove it from his mouth the Indunda’s hand was already stretched out to receive it. He quickly received it and put back on the stool. The chief coughed, tension was mounting amongst the people who were impatient to chase away the culprit from the village, pelting stones at him.
‘It has come to my knowledge and beyond a reasonable doubt that the accused is not guilty. He did not rape Adijah!’
‘Aaaa…no…no…no
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] |
[
2048
] |
2,048
| 2.17911
|
by Tomo Lazovich
figures by Alexandra Was
When you picture a science experiment, you probably imagine someone wearing a white coat, hunched over a lab bench, looking through a microscope, or mixing something in a beaker. While this is not an inaccurate picture in many fields, it misses an important dimension of the modern scientific process: collaboration.
In his speech at the banquet for his second Nobel Prize in 1972, John Bardeen, one of the fathers of the transistor and the theory of superconductivity, explained, “Science is a collaborative effort. The combined results of several people working together is often much more effective than could be that of an individual scientist working alone.” Scientists’ ability to collaborate has grown exponentially as both communication and travel across the globe have become easier in the last century. At the same time, scientists are tackling problems of ever-increasing complexity, collecting mounds of data and pushing our reach to smaller and larger energies and distances.
The two trends are not merely a happy coincidence. Large, international conglomerations of scientists, or so-called “big science” collaborations, have emerged as the preferred way to tackle science’s biggest questions. These entities, comprised of hundreds or thousands of scientists from scores of countries, are achieving discoveries at an impressive rate. Their success has also raised questions that challenge the traditional picture of the scientific process, staring a brilliant individual making the breakthrough of a lifetime by virtue of his or her genius alone. Let’s take a closer look at these big science collaborations and find out how they work and what makes them so effective.
If you have followed science news in the past decade, you have likely seen many examples of the success of big science. The Human Genome Project (HGP), an ambitious effort to map the entirety of human DNA lasting from 1990-2003, was the world’s largest collaborative biological project. In addition to advancing our scientific knowledge, the technologies for sequencing and understanding genes that were developed during the course of this project spawned entirely new areas of research in both academia and industry.
A 2011 assessment of the economic impact of the HGP stated that in the year 2010 alone, human genome sequencing projects generated 310,000 new jobs and $20 billion of personal income for Americans. Another well-known international endeavor, the International Space Station (ISS), is an example of an experiment pushing the physical boundaries of humanity. Research conducted at the ISS has ranged from the physical effects of microgravity to detailed studies of earth science, and the experiment has produced over 1200 publications as of December 2015. Scientists at the Large Hadron Collider (LHC), a proton collider which has set the record for the highest energy proton collisions ever recorded, announced the discovery of the long-sought Higgs Boson in July of 2012. These experiments all benefit from two key factors: the number of scientists working on them and the international diversity of those scientists.
International diversity is the key to success
The level of international collaboration in science has increased rapidly in the past decade. A recent report from the National Science Foundation showed that the percentage of publications with authors from multiple nations increased from 13.2% to 19.2% between 2000 and 2013. In the same time frame, the average number of authors on scientific publications has increased from approximately 4 authors to an estimated 5.4 authors per paper. Studies have also shown that international diversity leads to more successful papers. After analyzing papers from eight different fields published between 1996 and 2012, a team of researchers from the University of Chicago and University of Florida published findings that suggested that papers with more countries in their affiliations performed better in both number of citations and journal placement. Big science builds on the success of international collaborations and takes them to the next level.
Case study: the Large Hadron Collider
One of the most successful big science collaborations of the past decade is the Large Hadron Collider and its associated experiments. The LHC collides proton beams at record energies, and when these protons collide they produce sprays of particles that need to be analyzed. There are four associated experiments – A Toroidal LHC ApparatuS (ATLAS), the Compact Muon Solenoid (CMS), A Large Ion Collider experiment (ALICE), and the Large Hadron Collider beauty experiment (LHCb). The ATLAS and CMS detectors are general purpose, dedicated to measuring whatever they can from the collisions, while the ALICE and LHCb experiments are tailored for specific measurements (as their names suggest).
These experiments are examples of science on a truly global scale. Dedicated to studying the smallest units of matter that make up everything around us, these initiatives boast scientists from over 70 different countries and budgets in the billions of dollars. The ATLAS and CMS experiments also list over 3000 scientists each on their papers, giving them the unique distinction of having the largest author lists of all recent publications. To illustrate why a large collaboration can be so important to getting good science done, let’s focus in on a particular example – the discovery and subsequent measurement of the Higgs boson by ATLAS.
Before we get to its discovery, we need to discuss what the Higgs boson is and why it is important. In the 1960s, theoretical physicists developed a framework called the Standard Model (SM), which explained the fundamental particles that make up all matter and the forces that govern how those particles interact with each other. Over the next 50 years, this theory was one of the most rigorously tested in all of physics, with numerous experiments testing its predictions. At the same time that the SM was being developed, Peter Higgs and others formulated a mechanism by which some of the force-carrying particles in the SM could have mass while others didn’t – a fact that was absolutely essential for the success of this theory. This mechanism predicted that there should be an additional particle produced, and this particle was named the Higgs boson. Even though the SM was extremely successful and most of its predictions had been experimentally validated in the subsequent 50 years, the Higgs boson had yet to be discovered. Without it, we could not be sure whether our understanding of the fundamental laws of nature was correct or incomplete. It took a herculean effort at the LHC to make that discovery happen.
ATLAS was an ideal experiment for the discovery of the Higgs, but it also could not have been successful without the large 3000-scientist collaboration mentioned previously. The reasons for its success are the same reasons it required so many scientists – the modularity and complexity of the detector and the amount of data that it took.
The ATLAS detector is incredibly large—as tall as an eight-story building and as heavy as 3500 cars. It is constructed out of sub-components, each dedicated to measuring a different type of particle. The only way such a complex machine could be constructed is in parts and pieces, the same way you built your Lego masterpieces out of individual bricks as a child.
This aspect was actually incredibly important for the discovery of the Higgs. The Higgs boson is short-lived, which means we can’t observe it directly. Instead, when it gets produced in proton-proton collisions, it decays very quickly into different constituents, and we measure the end products of that decay chain in ATLAS. This decay is probabilistic, meaning that one time a Higgs is produced you might measure two photons in your detector, and another time you might get two W bosons (the particle responsible for radioactive decay), which then decay into electrons or muons and neutrinos.
This means that in order to detect a Higgs, ATLAS needed do have many sub-components dedicated to measuring different types of particles. Each one of these sub-detectors has a team of hundreds of scientists dedicated to making sure their component runs smoothly and that the data coming from it makes sense. In this way, the expertise on each component is distributed and no one person has to know everything about this truly complex machine.
The Higgs boson is also produced at a very low rate, (one in about 10 billion proton collisions produces a Higgs). Therefore, the experiment must record many, many collisions before being able to observe the Higgs boson enough times to confirm its discovery. Scientists on ATLAS sifted through mounds of data in search of the Higgs. The experiment generates 3.2 petabytes of data (approximately 6400 of the typical 500-gigabyte laptop hard drives) each year. ATLAS uses a distributed computing model where labs from around the world pool their computing resources together for data processing. Like with the different sub-detectors, different teams also are experts at analyzing different types of data. This not only helps to distribute the work, but also allows for the results to be derived independently and without bias.
While we’ve only talked about the ATLAS here, which on its own required thousands of scientists to discover the Higgs boson, the particle was also observed in the CMS, which required thousands more scientists to ensure that it was running smoothly and to analyze the data it produced. Importantly, this effort required thousands of scientists from around the world and could not have been accomplished by a single lab or research group.
To infinity and beyond
The success of big collaborations in scientific research has motivated a push for more endeavors of the same type. Now, international collaborations are being formed to address everything from the search for the elusive dark matter to a better understanding of the human body. The U.S. should continue investing in these crucial alliances, both so that our scientists have the opportunity to bring their expertise to the world’s biggest problems and so that we do not miss out on discoveries to come.
CMS and ATLAS jointly announced the discovery of the Higgs boson on July 4,
|
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[
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2,048
| 2.409357
|
Natural and Man-Made Disasters,
The Space Shuttle Challenger disaster occurred in the United States, over the Atlantic Ocean, off the coast of central Florida, at 11:39 a.m. EST (16:39 UTC) on January 28, 1986. The Space Shuttle Challenger disintegrated 73 seconds into its flight after an O-ring seal in its right solid rocket booster (SRB) failed at liftoff. The seal failure caused a breach in the SRB joint it filled, allowing a flare to reach the outside and impinge upon the adjacent attachment hardware and external fuel tank. The SRB breach flare led to the separation of the right-hand SRB and the structural failure of the external tank. Aerodynamic forces promptly broke up the orbiter. The shuttle was destroyed and all seven crew members were killed. The crew compartment and many other vehicle fragments were eventually recovered from the ocean floor after a lengthy search and recovery operation.
The disaster resulted in a 32-month hiatus in the shuttle program and the formation of the Rogers Commission, a special commission appointed by United States President Ronald Reagan to investigate the accident. The Rogers Commission found that NASA's organizational culture and decision-making processes had been a key contributing factor to the accident. NASA managers had known that contractor Morton Thiokol's design of the SRBs contained a potentially catastrophic flaw in the O-rings since 1977, but they failed to address it properly. They also ignored warnings from engineers about the dangers of launching on such a cold day and had failed to adequately report these technical concerns to their superiors. The Rogers Commission offered NASA nine recommendations that were to be implemented before shuttle flights resumed.
Many schoolchildren viewed the launch live due to the presence on the crew of Christa McAuliffe, the first member of the Teacher in Space Project. Media coverage of the accident was extensive: one study reported that 85 percent of Americans surveyed had heard the news within an hour of the accident. The Challenger disaster has been used as a case study in many discussions of engineering safety and workplace ethics and inspired the 1990 television movie, Challenger.
Challenger was originally set to launch from Kennedy Space Center in Florida at 2:43 p.m. Eastern Standard Time (EST) on January 22. However, delays suffered by the previous mission, STS-61-C, caused the launch date to be pushed back to January 23 and then to January 24. Launch was then rescheduled to January 25 due to bad weather at the Transoceanic Abort Landing (TAL) site in Dakar, Senegal. NASA decided to use Casablanca as the TAL site, but because it was not equipped for night landings, the launch had to be moved to the morning (Florida time). Predictions of unacceptable weather at Kennedy Space Center (KSC) caused the launch to be rescheduled for 9:37 a.m. EST on January 27. According to Malcolm McConnell's book, Challenger: A Major Malfunction, NASA normally would have launched with the predicted forecast of a 50 percent chance of rain.
The launch was delayed the next day by problems with the exterior access hatch. First, one of the microswitch indicators used to verify that the hatch was safely locked malfunctioned. Then, a stripped bolt prevented the closeout crew from removing a closing fixture from the orbiter's hatch. When the fixture was finally sawn off, crosswinds at the Shuttle Landing Facility exceeded the limits for a Return to Launch Site (RTLS) abort. The crew waited for the winds to die down until the launch window finally ran out, forcing yet another scrub.
Forecasts for January 28 predicted an unusually cold morning, with temperatures close to 31 °F (-0.5 °C), the minimum temperature permitted for launch. The low temperature had prompted concern from engineers at Morton Thiokol, the contractor responsible for the construction and maintenance of the shuttle's SRB. At a teleconference which took place on the evening of January 27, Thiokol engineers and managers discussed the weather conditions with NASA managers from Kennedy Space Center and Marshall Space Flight Center. Several engineers—most notably Roger Boisjoly, who had voiced similar concerns previously—expressed their concern about the effect of the temperature on the resilience of the rubber O-rings that sealed the joints of the SRBs. They argued that if the O-rings were colder than 53 °F (approximately 11.7 °C), there was no guarantee the O-rings would seal properly. This was an important consideration, since the O-rings had been designated as a "Criticality 1" component—meaning their failure would destroy Challenger and its crew. They also argued that the low overnight temperatures would almost certainly result in SRB temperatures below their redline of 40 °F. However, they were overruled by Morton Thiokol management, who recommended that the launch proceed as scheduled.
Due to the low temperature, a significant amount of ice built up on the fixed service structure that stood beside the shuttle. The Kennedy Ice Team inadvertently pointed an infrared camera at the aft field joint of the right SRB and found the temperature to be only 8°F (-13°C). This was the result of supercooled air blowing on the joint from the liquid oxygen tank vent. It was much lower than the air temperature and far below the design specifications for the O-rings. This information was never communicated to the decision makers.
Although the Ice Team had worked through the night removing ice—and not knowing of the super-cooled joint—engineers at Rockwell International, the shuttle's prime contractor, still expressed concern. They warned that during launch ice might be shaken loose and strike the shuttle, possibly due to the aspiration induced by the jet of exhaust from the SRBs. Although Rockwell viewed this situation as a launch constraint, Rockwell's managers at the Cape voiced their concerns in a manner that led Houston-based mission manager Arnold Aldrich to go ahead with the launch. Aldrich decided to postpone the shuttle launch by an hour in order to give the ice team the time to perform another inspection. After that last inspection, during which the ice appeared to be melting, Challenger was finally cleared to launch at 11:38 a.m. EST.
The following account of the accident is derived from real time telemetry data and photographic analysis, as well as from transcripts of air-to-ground and mission control voice communications. All times are given in seconds after launch and correspond to the telemetry time-codes from the closest instrumented event to each described event.
At 6.6 seconds before liftoff, the three space shuttle main engines (SSME) ignited. Until liftoff actually occurs, the SSMEs can be safely shut down and the launch aborted if necessary. At liftoff time (T=0, which was at 11:38:00.010 EST), the three SSMEs were at 100% of their original rated performance, and began throttling up to 104% under computer control. At this moment, the two SRBs were ignited and hold-down bolts were released with explosives, freeing the vehicle from the pad. With the first vertical motion of the vehicle, the gaseous hydrogen vent arm retracted from the External Tank (ET) but failed to latch back. Review of film shot by pad cameras showed that the arm did not re-contact the vehicle, and thus it was ruled out as a contributing factor in the accident. The post-launch inspection of the pad also revealed that kick springs on four of the hold-down bolts were missing, but they were similarly ruled out as a possible cause.
Later review of launch film showed that at T+0.678, strong puffs of dark grey smoke were emitted from the right-hand SRB near the aft strut that attaches the booster to the ET. The last smoke puff occurred at about T+2.733. The last view of smoke around the strut was at T+3.375. It was later determined that these smoke puffs were caused by the opening and closing of the aft field joint of the right-hand SRB. The booster's casing had ballooned under the stress of ignition. As a result of this ballooning, the metal parts of the casing bent away from each other, opening a gap through which hot gases above 5,000 °F (2,760 °C) leaked out. The primary O-ring was designed to close that gap, but was too cold to seal in time. The secondary O-ring was not in its seated position due to the metal bending. There was now no barrier to the gases, and both O-rings were vaporized across 70 degrees of arc. However, aluminum oxides from the burned solid propellant sealed the damaged joint, temporarily replacing the O-ring seal before actual flame rushed through the joint.
As the vehicle cleared the tower, the SSMEs were operating at 104% of their rated maximum thrust, and control switched from the Launch Control Center (LCC) at Kennedy to the Mission Control Center (MCC) in Houston, Texas. To prevent aerodynamic forces from tearing the shuttle apart, at T+28 the SSMEs began throttling down to limit the velocity of the shuttle in the dense lower atmosphere. At T+35.379, the SSMEs throttled back further to the planned 65%. Five seconds later, at about 19,000 feet (5800 m), Challenger passed through Mach 1. At T+51.860, the SSMEs began throttling back up to 104% as the vehicle approached Max Q, the period of maximum aerodynamic pressure on the vehicle.
Just as the shuttle approached Max Q
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Diego Velázquez – Virtual Tour
Diego Velázquez (1599 – 1660) was a Spanish painter, who was the leading artist in the court of King Philip IV, and one of the most important painters of the Spanish Golden Age.
Velázquez’s artwork from the first quarter of the nineteenth century was a model for the realist and impressionist painters, in particular, Édouard Manet.
Many modern artists, including Picasso and Dalí, have paid tribute to Velázquez by recreating several of his most famous works.
Virtual Tour of Diego Velázquez
- The Triumph of Bacchus
- Las Meninas
- Portrait of Juan de Pareja
- Venus at her Mirror
- Christ in the House of Martha and Mary
- The Surrender of Breda
- The Lady with a Fan
Highlights Tour of Diego Velázquez
Christ in the House of Martha and Mary
“Kitchen Scene with Christ in the House of Martha and Mary” by Diego Velázquez depicts the interior of a kitchen with two women in the foreground to the left and in the background is a biblical scene, of the story of Martha and Mary, according to the Gospel of Luke 10:38–42.
In the kitchen, the older woman on the left is directing the younger girl in the preparation of a meal. On the table are several foods, including fish, eggs, and garlic.
Perhaps the ingredients of aioli with a garlic mayonnaise made to accompany fish. In the story of Martha and Mary, Christ goes to the house of a woman named Martha.
Her sister, Mary, sat at his feet and listened to him speak. Martha, on the other hand, went to “make all the preparations that had to be made.”
Upset that Mary did not help her, she complained to Christ to which he responded: “Martha, Martha, … you are worried and upset about many things, but only one thing is needed. Mary has chosen what is better, and it will not be taken away from her.”
Museum: The National Gallery, London
The Surrender of Breda
“The Surrender of Breda” by Diego Velázquez depicts a military victory in 1624 during the Eighty Years War.
The Eighty Years’ War or “Dutch War of Independence” (1568–1648) was a revolt of the Seventeen Provinces of what are today the Netherlands, Belgium, and Luxembourg against Philip II of Spain, the sovereign of the Habsburg Netherlands. V
elázquez shows the end of the “Siege of Breda,” which was one of Spain’s last significant victories in the Eighty Years’ War.
Velázquez composed “The Surrender of Breda” into two halves, which included the Dutch leader Justinus van Nassau, on the left and Spanish Genoese general, Spinola on the right.
He presents the Spanish as a potent force but also shows facial expressions of fatigue, providing a personal view of the reality to war. Museum: Prado Museum, Museo del Prado
The Triumph of Bacchus
“The Triumph of Bacchus” by Diego Velázquez depicts Bacchus surrounded by drunks. The work represents Bacchus as the god who rewards men with wine, releasing them from their problems.
Bacchus was considered an allegory of the liberation of man from the slavery of daily life.
Commissioned by King Philip IV, Velázquez had studied the king’s collection of Italian paintings and especially the treatment of mythological subjects.
In this work, Velázquez adopted a realist treatment of a mythological subject, an approach he pursued during his career. Museum: Prado Museum, Museo del Prado
“Las Meninas” or “The Ladies-in-Waiting” by Diego Velázquez is a complex and mysterious composition which, when it is studied it creates an ambiguous relationship between the audience and the various subjects in this painting.
The complex arrangement of Las Meninas has made this painting one of the most analyzed masterpieces in Western art.
“Las Meninas” depicts a room in The Royal Alcázar of Madrid, which was a fortress located at the site of today’s Royal Palace of Madrid, Madrid, Spain, during the reign of King Philip IV of Spain.
The figures in the painting are all real historical members of the Spanish court.
The young Infanta Margaret Theresa is in the center of her entourage of maids of honor, chaperone, bodyguard, two dwarfs, and a dog.
Infanta was the title for the daughter of the ruling monarch of Spain, especially the eldest daughter, who was not heir to the throne. Museum: Prado Museum, Museo del Prado
Portrait of Juan de Pareja
The Portrait of Juan by Diego Velázquez is a portrait of Velázquez’s enslaved assistant Juan de Pareja, who was owned by Velázquez at the time the painting was completed. Velázquez painted this portrait in Rome while he was traveling in Italy.
It is the earliest known portrait of a Spanish man of African descent. Diego Velázquez, as the court painter to King Philip IV of Spain, was sent to Rome to purchase works of art for the King.
Velázquez brought with him Juan de Pareja, who served as an assistant and who was of Moorish descent. De Pareja (1606 – 1670 ) was born into slavery in Spain, but he became an artist in his own right, and he was freed in 1650, close to the time of this painting.
His 1661 work, The Calling of Saint Matthew, is on display at the Museo del Prado. Museum: Metropolitan Museum of Art – MET
Venus at her Mirror
“Venus at her Mirror” by Diego Velazquez depicts the goddess Venus in a sensual pose, lying on a bed and looking into a mirror held by Cupid.
Painted by Diego Velázquez, the leading artist of the Spanish Golden Age, between 1647 and 1651, it is the only surviving female nude by Velázquez.
Nudes were extremely rare by seventeenth-century Spanish artists, who were policed by members of the Spanish Inquisition. Despite the Spanish Catholic church’s restrictions, nudes by foreign artists were keenly collected by the Spanish court nobles.
This painting was also known by the titles of “The Rokeby Venus” and “The Toilet of Venus.” It was inspired by famous Italian works of the nude Venuses, which were the precedents for this work, which was painted during Velázquez’s visit to Italy.
Velázquez combined two traditional compositions of Venus in this painting, the recumbent Venus and the Venus looking at herself in the mirror. Museum: The National Gallery, London
The Lady with a Fan
“The Lady with a Fan” by Diego Velázquez depicts a woman wearing a black lace veil on her head and a dark dress with a low-cut bodice.
It is an enigmatic portrait as there is no documentary information about the portrait; the sitter’s identity has not yet conclusively been verified.
Most other Velázquez portraits are recognizable likenesses of the members of the Spanish royal family, their courtiers, and court servants.
The details of the costume suggest that the sitter could be Marie de Rohan, the Duchess of Chevreuse, as she is dressed according to the French fashion of the period.
There is documented evidence that Velázquez painted a Frenchwoman, in a letter dated 1638. Velázquez claims to have portrayed the exiled Duchess of Chevreuse, who was then living in Madrid under the protection of the King.
The letter claims that the Duchess had escaped from France disguised as a man. However, other experts argued at the features of the sitter differ remarkably from other images of the Duchess. Museum: Wallace Collection
- Name: Diego Rodríguez de Silva y Velázquez
- Born: 1599 – Seville, Spain
- Died: 1660 (aged 61) – Madrid, Spain
- Nationality: Spanish
- Movement: Baroque
- Notable works:
Velazquez – The Painter’s Painter
A Tour of Artists and their Art
- Sandro Botticelli (1445 – 1510)
- Leonardo da Vinci (1452 – 1519)
- Albrecht Durer (1471 – 1528)
- Michelangelo (1475 – 1564)
- Raphael (1483 – 1520)
- Titian (1488 – 1576)
- Pieter Bruegel the Elder (1525 – 1569)
- El Greco (1541 – 1614)
- Caravaggio (1571 – 1610)
- Peter Paul Rubens (1577 – 1640)
- Diego Velázquez (1599 – 1660)
- Johannes Vermeer (1632 – 1675)
- Canaletto (1697 – 1768)
- Francisco Goya (1746 – 1828)
- J.M.W. Turner (1775 – 1851)
- Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres (1780 – 1867)
- John Everett Millais (1829 – 1896)
- Edgar Degas (1834 – 1917)
- Paul Cézanne (
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]
] |
[
2048
] |
2,048
| 2.102414
|
- Amino Acid
Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins. There are 20 different amino acids, and each one has a unique and specific chemical group, which gives it distinctive properties. The linear sequence of amino acids in a protein determines the structure and function of the protein. The sequence of amino acids in a protein, and hence protein function, are determined by the genetic code.
Synonyms: amino acids
Any substance foreign to the body that evokes an immune response
A single-celled organism which does not have a nucleus to store its hereditary material (DNA). Unlike plant and animal cells where the hereditary material (DNA) is linear, in bacteria, DNA is usually circular. The unique DNA characteristics of bacteria and its ability to reproduce very quickly make it ideal for use in certain biotechnology applications.
The field of science in which biology, computer science and information technology merge to form a single discipline. Bioinformatics is used to test hypotheses on the function or structure of a gene or protein of interest by identifying similar sequences in better characterized organisms.
A set of tools that uses living organisms (or parts of organisms) to make or modify a product, improve plants, trees or animals, or develop microorganisms for specific uses. Examples of biotechnology include traditional applications, such as the making of bread, cheese, wine and beer, and more modern applications to grow or culture cells for research or to make genetically modified crops for food, feed, fuel and fiber.
A cell is the smallest unit of life. Each cell contains everything that it needs to function. Some organisms such as bacteria are made up of only one cell. Multicellular organisms such as plants and humans may have millions of cells.
Group of three nucleotides.
- Crop Protection Product
A product that control weeds and provide protection against insects and disease. The EPA regulates the use of all crop protection products that are used on crops grown in the U.S.
Synonyms: Crop Protection Products
Adding substances to stimulate immune cells
Short for cultivated varieties; plants that are maintained by cultivation – cuttings, grafts or other vegetative propagation – and not from seeds
DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid, is the hereditary genetic material for most living organisms. DNA is present in cells in the form of a double-stranded helix that is composed of long strands of nucleotides. The unique sequence of nucleotides within the DNA molecule stores the genetic information.
Process by which plants or animals are changed via selective breeding by humans, in order to bring out traits that benefit humans. Plants and animals are domesticated for various uses, including food, clothing, medicine and others. Crop domestication began 10,000 years ago when humans began farming and forming societies.
- Double-cross Method
Result from the cross between two different F1 hybrids, or single cross hybrids
- European Corn Borer
An insect — one of corn’s primary pests — that damages the ears of corn, as well as the stalks, by chewing tunnels, causing the corn plants to fall over. In recent years, the planting of genetically modified corn that is resistant to the European corn borer has helped farmers control this pest, drastically reducing the harm caused to their crop. Because of its effectiveness in controlling European corn borers and other similar pests, genetically modified corn has been adopted on about 63 percent of all U.S. corn acres.
Synonyms: European Corn Borers
The unit of heredity transmitted from generation to generation during sexual or asexual reproduction. More generally, the term is used in relation to the transmission and inheritance of particular identifiable traits. The simplest gene consists of a segment of nucleic acid that encodes an individual protein or RNA.
- Genetic Engineering
The name for certain methods used to introduce new traits or characteristics to an organism typically involving the use of recombinant DNA methods. While these techniques are sometimes referred to as "genetic modification," “genetic engineering” is considered to be a more precise term.
- Genetically Modified Organism (GMO)
Often used to describe organisms developed using the tools of genetic engineering. In plants, GMOs commercially available include corn (field and sweet), soybeans, sugar beets, cotton, alfalfa, papaya, squash, canola and potatoes. Farmers choose to use GM seeds to reduce crop damage from weeds, diseases and insects, as well as from extreme weather conditions, such as drought.
Synonyms: Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO)s
The entirety of an organism’s hereditary information, containing all of the biological information needed to build and maintain a living example of that organism. An exact copy of the entire genome of the organism is in almost every cell.
Plants, parts of plants, and seeds that contain the genetics of the plant and that can be used to generate more plants and seeds. Germplasm is often used as a resource for breeding, research and preservation.
the increase in growth,size,yield, or other characters in hybrids over those of the parents (also called hybrid vigor)
Containing six sets of chromosomes
- Hybrid Vigor
the increase in growth,size,yield, or other characters in hybrids over those of the parents (also called heterosis).
A process by which an organism is genetically changed, resulting in a mutation, which is a change in the DNA sequence of a gene. It may occur naturally, for example, due to natural exposure to ultraviolet (UV) light or chemicals; or it can happen deliberately for the purpose of increasing genetic variation of a species. Mutagensis is a commonly used tool for plant breeding, in which researchers force the mutation of a plant’s genetics, for example, by exposing seeds to chemicals or irradiation to induce changes in their DNA. More than 2,200 crop varieties have been created with mutagenesis breeding. These crops are not considered GMOs and this technique is not considered genetic engineering. In fact, varieties developed using these techniques are considered to be “conventional” varieties and are allowed in organic production systems.
The basic structure of nucleic acids (DNA and RNA) that, when linked together, form the building blocks of DNA or RNA. They are composed of a phosphate group, a nitrogenous base, and a sugar (deoxyribose or ribose). For all types of living organisms, there are four types of bases in DNA: adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C) and thymine (T). Thymine is replaced by Uracil (U) in RNA.
- Pathogen Derived Resistance
A technique used to protect plants from viruses or infection. The process introduces a plant to a mild strain of a virus to protect the plant from a more severe strain of that same or very closely related pathogen. Eventually, the plant may build resistance to the virus. This technique is similar in nature to a human vaccination, which aims to build an individual’s immunity to a virus or pathogen. Pathogen derived resistance is used to curb the negative impact viruses can have on crop production. The technique was used to make the Hawaiian papaya plant resistant to the deadly papaya ring spot virus and has been used to develop virus-resistant potatoes and squash.
- Plant Breeding
The science of selecting and altering plants to increase their value by producing desirable traits such as increased quality or yield, virus resistance or increased tolerance to pests.
- Plant Cell
Plant cells, like animal cells, have a nucleus that stores most of their DNA. Plant cells differ from animal cells in that plant cells contain plastids, such as the chloroplast, which assist in storing and harvesting the needed substances for the plant. Plant cells also have a rigid cell wall around the cell to help it keep its shape.
Synonyms: Plant Cells
The act or process of polyploidizing, which causes a plant to become a polyploid, or a cell or organism containing more than two sets of chromosomes
Proteins are fundamental components of all living cells. Proteins are made up of one or more chains of amino acids, which are folded into a specific three-dimensional shape. They exhibit an enormous amount of chemical and structural diversity, enabling them to carry out an extraordinarily diverse range of biological functions. Proteins help us digest our food, fight infections, control body chemistry and in general, keep our bodies functioning smoothly. Expressions of proteins, or complexes of proteins, determine the traits of plants, such as herbicide tolerance or insect resistance, and even height and flower color.
- Restriction enzyme
A restriction enzyme is a protein or protein complex that is produced by living cells and acts as a catalyst in specific biochemical reactions. A catalyst increases the rate of biochemical reaction but ultimately does not change it.
Synonyms: Restriction enzymes
RNA, or ribonucleic acid, is a chain of nucleotides that is made based on the DNA sequence. The structure of RNA is similar to the structure of DNA. RNA functions in many ways in cells, including playing the important role of carrying instructions from DNA during protein production. In certain viruses, RNA rather than DNA may carry the genetic information.
- Selective Breeding
The process of breeding plants (or animals) for desirable traits or for the elimination of a trait. Selective breeding has been used by humans for centuries to produce better crops. Since the 1700s, farmers and scientists have been cross-breeding plants within a species and mixing the genetic makeup of different plants together to select for new desirable traits.
A plant characteristic. Traits are dependent on influence from genes, environment and management
- Transgenic Organism
Organisms that have had genes from other species inserted into their genome. Transgenic means that one or more DNA sequences from another species have been introduced by artificial means. Transgenic plants can be made by introducing foreign DNA into a variety of different tissues.
Synonyms: Transgenic Organisms
- U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA)
The USDA is a federal executive department of the U.S. It is responsible for developing and executing federal
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] |
[
2048
] |
2,048
| 2.393112
|
Income and quality of life indicators
The can include a country's resource endowments, access to the sea, ethnic fragmentation, climate and legal systems.
Indonesia is the world's fourth most populous nation. The main religion in Indonesia is muslim.Like many other East Asian nations, Indonesia has evolved from an agricultural economy to one whose GDP is led by manufacturing.
Prior to 1967, Indonesia had been a closed economy, rejecting the West's offer of becoming an ally, however when General Suharto came into power, Indonesia opened itself up to the west by welcoming foreign investment, increase trade particularly in its oil and gas exports. Protection in the form of subsidies within its agricultural industries was introduced as Indonesia aimed to gain self-sufficiency in growing rice so as to lower rice imports.
Indonesia is also a mixed market economy in that it both regulates as well as participating in economic activity through State Owned Enterprises (SOE's) in main industries such as agriculture, manufacturing, trade, finance and mining to ensure that there is sufficient competition to ensure lower prices for the average Indonesian consumer.
Contrasts in levels of development
Indonesia is a developing economy, compared with Australia which is a high income economy. Similar to Australia, Indonesia has a wealth of natural resources.
May 25th 2004
From the Economist Intelligence Unit
Source: Country data
2000 2001 2002 2003
GDP per head ($ at PPP) 3,055 3,200 3,330 3,490
GDP (% real change pa) 4.93 3.47 3.69 4.10
Government consumption (% of GDP) 7.18 7.73 8.21 9.20
Budget balance (% of GDP) -2.80 -1.18 -1.60 -1.90
Consumer prices (% change pa; av) 3.69 11.46 11.92 6.59
Public debt (% of GDP) 102.41 88.98 78.11 72.90
Labour costs per hour (USD) 0.27 0.28 0.37 0.47
Recorded unemployment (%) 6.08 8.10 8.30 8.70
Current-account balance/GDP 5.32 4.82 4.31 3.80
Foreign-exchange reserves (mUS$) 28,502 27,246 30,969 34,962
Copyright é 1995-2001 The Economist Newspaper Group Ltd. All rights reserved.
Before the economic crisis of 1997/98 Indonesia had an average GDP of 7% for almost 30 years. During this time, real incomes had risen. In 1970, it was estimated 60% of the population lived below the poverty line. In 1997, this had fallen to 11% of the population. At this time Indonesia was ranked 11th in the world for its nominal Gross Domestic Product at Purchasing Power Parity rates.
The collapse of the Indonesian economy has saw export prices fall, and the value of the rupiah to lose three quarters of its value against foreign currencies.
Since this time, Indonesia's economy has slowly recovered. The current GDP being at 6-7%. Its GDP per capital is US$2,830 in 2002, adjusted for purchasing power parity. This, compared to Australia's $25,370 is much lower than developed countries. Australia's Current GDP lies at 3.8%.
The reasons for the differences between nations are as follows:
The different sizes in population.
Level of government support.
Level of growth
Time spent as an industrialized nation.
Income and quality of life indicators
18.2%, or 28 million living in poverty (defined by the World Health Organisation as living on less than US$1 a day). Its Human Development Index is currently ranked 112th in the world, and its GDP
Indonesia was a founding member of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN). Created in 1967, ASEAN is dedicated to regional cooperation and stability. ASEAN also actively promotes trade and investment within ints members. ASEAN comprises Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam.
Cambodia, Laos, and Myanmar - the so-called "CLM countries" - presently hold observer status in ASEAN.
Indonesia is committed to ASEAN's plan to create a free trade zone (ASEAN Free Trade Zone, or AFTA) by 2003. The plan envisions as much as 85 percent of the goods traded among ASEAN members will face tariffs of between 0 and 5 percent by 2003. By 2010, all tariff protection is to be removed.
ASEAN Regional Forum
In 1993, Indonesia helped found the ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF). Its objective is to accumulate new ASEAN member to confer on political-security issues. The ARF has created a regional security discussion forum, placing ASEAN at the center of these discussions. It is comprised of 21 members.
Nominally a free-trade area for more than a year, there is not much sign of economic integration in ASEAN
This divergence over trade pacts points to a deeper rift within ASEAN. Countries that already have relatively open economies, such as Singapore and Thailand, view the grouping as a means to increase the competitiveness of their exports, and so to attract more foreign investment. According to this view, the pooled natural resources, shared industrial base and collective consumption of ASEAN should give even China a run for its money. The investment, by and large, would still come from beyond ASEAN, and most of the goods produced would end up overseas too.
But formally, at least, ASEAN is designed to promote trade and investment among its members, not with outsiders. Thus the six old-timers, for example, have agreed to accord one another's citizens the same rights as domestic investors by 2010, but will not grant outsiders equivalent treatment until 2020. In fact, the reverse would be much more useful. No wonder the likes of Singapore and Thailand are concentrating on their own market-opening measures--depriving ASEAN of its best integrators in the process
In Indonesia the natural environment is deteriorating on all fronts. The Asian financial crisis of 1997 and 1998 worsened Indonesia's environmental problems. In an effort to try to rejuvenate local enterprises, Indonesia set aside its regulations on industrial behaviour. This resulted in local firms to take up cheaper yet more environmentally damaging production and harvesting methods. Due to inefficient energy use, there is increasing air pollution, this has a serious impact on public health. The deforestation that results from unregulated logging has been closely linked with floods and landslides.
Trade investment and transnational corporations
In 2002 merchandise exports (fob) rose by 2.5% year on year to US$59bn and imports (fob) rose by 2.8% to US$35.7bn, resulting in a trade surplus of US$23.1bn. At the same time the deficit on the invisibles and transfers account remained unchanged at US$15.6bn, leaving a current-account surplus of US$7.5bn.
The Indonesian Government implemented gradual changes to reduce its trade barriers, to promote trade liberalization since it opened its market up to the west.
Between 1986 to 1996, twenty policy packages were delivered to deregulate trading industries . This included quotas and import licenses converted to less damaging tariffs and overall, tariffs were lowered significantly.
Subsidies were also reduced significantly due to pressure from the World Trade Org. (WTO) and Assoc. South East Asian Nations (ASEAN). Subsidies on fuel and basic food products such as rice, previously absorbing 30% of the budget, were removed in 2002.
Since Indonesia joined regional trade agreements such as ASEAN, Asian Pacific Economic Corporation (APEC) and Asian Free Trade Agreement (AFTA), these agreements have pressured it to promote freer trade. Thus in 2003, the government cut tariffs on imports on over 6400 products by 5%.
As Transnational Corporations moved into Indonesia, its exports began to shift from oil and gas to the booming manufacturing sector, thus reallocating resources in Indonesian markets. In 1989, 67% of exports came from oil and gas, and by 2002 this was reduced to 24%. Thus globalization has had an impact on the allocation of resources in the economy.Indonesia's major exports include the following: textiles, processed wood, electronics, leather products, processed rubber, steel and machinery, palm oil, pulp and paper, food and beverages, and processed tin and copper.
Major exports 2002 % of total Major imports 2002 % of total
Textiles & garments 11.9 Machinery & transport equipment 27.5
Crude petroleum & products 11.0 Fuel & lubricants 21.0
Liquefied natural gas 10.4 Chemicals 16.9
Wood & products 5.2 Manufactures
|
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|
Skip to 0 minutes and 1 secondRight. We're now going to consider how we can get the robot to learn a task-- the task of moving around and avoiding obstacles. And we will mention rules of behaviour. So, we're going to use the robot that we had in Week 2, which has got two sensors. This one over here, which detects the distance of any object around over here, i.e. to the forward and to the left. This one over here detects objects over on the right. Got two wheels which we can set the speeds of the associated motor. We're going to assume that we can make each wheel either go forward or go backwards.
Skip to 0 minutes and 38 secondsSo if the robot is to move around avoiding obstacles, but there is no obstacle, then we might as well set both wheels to go forward. So the robot will move from here to here to here. If, however, there is an obstacle on the left, then we want the robot to avoid it. And one way we could do that is have left motor forward, right one back. So the robot would turn right away and therefore avoiding the obstacles. And we can formalise this behaviour like the following rules. If the left sensor and the right sensor are giving a large value that means there's no object near at all so the left motor is set forward, the right motor is set forward.
Skip to 1 minute and 21 secondsBut if the left sensor is large, that means there is an obstacle near the right sensor. Then we can set the left motor backwards, the right motor forward, and that will turn to the left. Similarly, otherwise, if the right sensor is large, so there's an object near the left sensor, then we can say the left motor should go forward, the right motor back to that will turn it to the right. Otherwise, we retreat, both motors go backwards. And this is instinctive behaviour. The question is can it be learned? So, need to talk about instincts and learning. Most advanced animals have some sort of basic instinctive behaviour built in, like how to feed. Initially, however, they can't control themselves.
Skip to 2 minutes and 4 secondsBut they have built in the ability to learn. Learning can be done, for instance, by trial and error. You try something, then you say, how good was that? And you change your behaviour if it's not very good. Like babies when they're very young, they want to grab hold of objects, typically to put them in their mouth. But they don't know how to grab things so they randomly move arms and legs before they learn that this is how you can move the arms and get them closer to the object. Basically, it's a feedback process and we can adapt that concept for our robot. So the basic idea is we have four sets of possible actions.
Skip to 2 minutes and 43 secondsEach motor can go forward or back. So both forward, left forward, right back, back, left back, right forward, or both going back. And associated with each action is the probability of choosing it. And initially all actions are equally probable. And in use, the robot decides on one action based on those probabilities, and then does it. And the action with the highest probability is the one that is most likely to be chosen. The robot then decides if the action they chose, was it a success? If yes, you then increase the probability of choosing that action, decreasing the others. If it was not a success, then you decrease the probability of choosing it and increase the others.
Skip to 3 minutes and 26 secondsSo, therefore, successful actions become more probable, and therefore they're more likely to be chosen. As I say, it's trial and error meets learning by the cybernetic processes of feedback. The problem with this is that if there's nothing around, the best action is different from if there's something on the left or on the right. So instead of having one set of actions with those four possible actions and the associated probabilities, we have a number of them, each with the actions and their associated probabilities. So one is when there's nothing visible, one where there's something on the left, one whether something on the right and, optionally, if there's something that both sensors can see.
Skip to 4 minutes and 9 secondsSo the robot determines instinctively which scenario it's in and then it goes through the trial and error process of choosing an appropriate action based on the probabilities, doing it, evaluating it, and adjusting the probabilities.
Skip to 4 minutes and 24 secondsWhat is it we mean by is it a successful action? Well. The instinctive behaviour built in is that if nothing's visible, it's better to go forward. Otherwise, it's successful for moving away from the objects. Let's see whether this actually works using another web page. So here is the web page. We see the robot as usual, and we've got a set of probabilities-- forward, forward, forward, back, back, forward, back, back. For when there's no wall, when there's one on the left, there's one on the right-- I'm not going to use the both state-- and so forth. And initially all the probability is 25%. So it's equally possible. And we press start.
Skip to 5 minutes and 5 secondsAnd we're in the open, so the wall is not seen. So very rapidly, you'll notice, that the probabilities have meant that the robot moves forward most of the time. Because it occasionally chooses the action on the basis of the one that's most likely, it can still choose some of the others, which is why it does some odd movements. But you also notice that he has detected the situation when there's a wall on the left, and it's adjusted the probabilities. And it's also adjusted the situation when there's an object on the right or a wall on the right. He's now moving around quite well. Is it able to avoid things? Yes, it's turned away quite nicely from the wall there.
Skip to 5 minutes and 47 secondsSo it has learned that when there's a wall on the left to move away from, turn to the right. So in this simple example we've seen that it's worked quite well. And you can also on the web page make it a slightly more complicated environment. But it's worked. While it's still working, well, stop. That's the basic idea and it does work. We can enhance that using so-called shared experience learning. We have multiple robots, each using the same process to learn. The key point is that they share their experiences. They tell the others that, for instance, in one particular situation, I did this and the result was a good or it was bad.
Skip to 6 minutes and 31 secondsAnd then the robots can adjust the probabilities on the basis of what they're told. So they don't have to experience a wall on the left, one of their colleagues does that and learns how to avoid it. That information comes back to the other robot. We found when we did that, that if we had two robots learning and communicating, overall they learn almost twice as fast, with almost four times the speed. It wasn't exactly four times because when you're communicating between the robots, sometimes the information is lost. For instance, if there are a number of robots in the way, they can't see each other to communicate. And this worked very successful here in Reading in the UK.
Skip to 7 minutes and 11 secondsBut we also had fun because we put one of our robots over in the States, and we communicated over the internet. So our robot in Reading was teaching the one in America. And that was nice to see.
Skip to 7 minutes and 28 secondsSo in summary, the basic instinctive behaviour for avoiding can be programmed into a robot, but it can also be learned. And we've shown here how we can use trial and error for that process. And that can be in enhanced by having cooperation between different robots sharing experiences.
Skip to 7 minutes and 46 secondsWe showed that to avoid an object on the left, you could have left, forward, right, back but you could also do it by left, forward, right, stop. And it will turn a little less quickly. So given that, some of the initial work that we did-- and we'll show that in a later video-- is rather than having four actions, we have nine actions because each motor can go forward, be off, or stopped, or go backwards. And the subsequent work, which I'm going to show you in another video, of how we tried to get the robot to learn what the different scenarios are. But what we have shown you is that we can get a robot to learn a simple task.
In this video Richard explains how to make a robot with two sensors learn a task.
Key concepts include:
- Setting the scene - how a robot avoids obstacles.
- Rules of Behaviour
- Instincts and Learning
- How do we get a robot to learn?
- Demo of robotlearn
- Shared Experience Learning
The robot’s sensors detect the distance of the nearest object, and check to see if the distance measurement is large (i.e. the object is too far away) or not. We’ve included the instructions from the video below, for further information.
If left_sensor and right_sensor is Large // no near obstacle
Left_motor = Forward Right_motor = Forward **// go forward**
Else if left_sensor is Large // obstacle nearer right sensor
Left_motor = Backward Right_motor = Forward **// turn to left**
Else if right_sensor is Large // obstacle nearer right sensor
Left_motor = Forward Right_motor = Backward **// turn to right**
Else: //obstacle
|
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]
] |
[
2048
] |
2,048
| 2.068843
|
Volume 14, Number 12—December 2008
Sentinel-based Surveillance of Coyotes to Detect Bovine Tuberculosis, Michigan
Bovine tuberculosis (TB) is endemic in white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) in the northeastern portion of Michigan’s Lower Peninsula. Bovine TB in deer and cattle has created immense financial consequences for the livestock industry and hunting public. Surveillance identified coyotes (Canis latrans) as potential bio-accumulators of Mycobacterium bovis, a finding that generated interest in their potential to serve as sentinels for monitoring disease risk. We sampled 175 coyotes in the bovine TB–endemic area. Fifty-eight tested positive, and infection prevalence by county ranged from 19% to 52% (statistical mean 33%, SE 0.07). By contrast, prevalence in deer (n = 3,817) was lower (i.e., 1.49%; Mann-Whitney U4,4 = 14, p<0.001). By focusing on coyotes rather than deer, we sampled 97% fewer individuals and increased the likelihood of detecting M. bovis by 40%. As a result of reduced sampling intensity, sentinel coyote surveys have the potential to be practical indicators of M. bovis presence in wildlife and livestock.
The emergence and reemergence of zoonotic diseases are becoming increasingly important issues for numerous reasons, including deforestation and habitat fragmentation, increased globalization of travel and trade, urbanization, and bioterrorism concerns. Diseases such as severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), avian influenza, transmissible spongiform encephalopathies, Rift Valley fever, West Nile disease, anthrax, and Escherichia coli O157 infections recently have resulted in major public health and economic concerns, as well as public anxiety. Over 60% of the 1,415 known human pathogens and 75% of the 175 emerging pathogens are zoonotic (1). Many emerging diseases have spilled over from wildlife directly (e.g., West Nile virus infection, hantavirus infection, and Lyme disease) or indirectly through domestic or peridomestic species (e.g., avian influenza, SARS, and Nipah virus infections, plague) (2). Early detection of new disease outbreaks in domestic and wild animals is an essential prerequisite of disease control and eradication. Development of methods for early detection of diseases in free-ranging wildlife is problematic.
Development of practical strategies for conducting surveillance in free-ranging wildlife to detect and monitor disease and evaluate control efforts is a necessary component of predicting and managing emerging zoonoses. A case in point is bovine tuberculosis (TB). Mycobacterium bovis, the bacterial pathogen that causes bovine TB, has been identified in wildlife, domestic animals, and humans (3–6). Transmission of M. bovis may occur through ingestion of infected tissues or, less likely, through inhalation of aerosolized bacilli (7); typically, granulomatous lesions develop in the thoracic lymph nodes and lung after aerosol exposure, and granulomatous lesions develop in the abdominal lymph nodes after oral exposure. Bovine TB often progresses slowly, and clinical symptoms may not appear until advanced stages are reached (8,9). In 1995, M. bovis was found in free-ranging white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) in a localized area in the northeastern Lower Peninsula of Michigan (10). In subsequent years, a reemergence of M. bovis in Michigan cattle was detected; deer were postulated to be the source of infection. Because the socioeconomic impact of this discovery has been immense (11), a strategy was developed and implemented to monitor and eradicate M. bovis from wildlife and cattle. Although the strategy successfully reduced the apparent prevalence of M. bovis in deer, the disease still persists at low levels (e.g., 2001–2006 statistical mean 2.3%) because of high deer densities (statistical mean 13/km2) and spatiotemporal crowding resulting from supplemental feeding (12). As prevalence of M. bovis in deer decreases, the sample size required to detect positive deer increases, making monitoring of the disease in deer more difficult and costly. Eventually, prevalence in deer may become too low to accurately estimate through current methods because of the difficulty and expense of obtaining a sufficient sample size, and consequent difficulty of verifying disease eradication. We hypothesized that the presence of M. bovis in wild deer at low prevalence could be more accurately determined through an indirect estimator (i.e., a sentinel species).
Use of sentinel animals has been suggested as a cost-effective way to infer prevalence in host populations when direct estimation in such populations is difficult (13). As facultative scavengers, coyotes (Canis latrans) may act as biological sensors and bio-accumulators of M. bovis. by consuming infected host material, resulting in high rates of infection. Furthermore, social foraging by coyote populations (14,15) should increase the likelihood of multiple coyotes ingesting infected tissue from the same M. bovis–positive deer. As a logical corollary, the increased numeric exposure of coyotes to M. bovis should mediate an increased detection probability relative to sampling effort. Support for this hypothesis was provided by research (5), which reported an apparent prevalence of M. bovis. in opportunistically sampled coyotes as 4% in the general area where apparent prevalence in deer averaged 2.3% from 1995 through 2001 (16). Finally, coyote home-range sizes (statistical mean 14.25 km2, 95% confidence interval [CI] 9.54–18.96 km2) in Michigan allow for reasonable estimates of where infection was acquired (17).
We report on a sentinel-based surveillance program designed to detect M. bovis in coyotes. Specifically, we sought to determine whether 1) M. bovis occurrence in coyotes was detectable, given reduced sampling intensity relative to white-tailed deer, and 2) prevalence of M. bovis was greater in coyotes than deer for a given area. If so, coyotes should be effectual sentinels of M. bovis occurrence in free-ranging white-tailed deer.
We worked within the 4-county bovine TB–endemic area in Michigan’s Lower Peninsula, where cattle herds continue to be infected and intensive sampling of hunter-killed deer is ongoing (Deer Management Unit [DMU] 452; Figure 1). DMU 452 is the historic core bovine TB–endemic area and remains a focal site of intensive sampling of hunter-killed deer (18). Prior carnivore surveillance conducted by the Michigan Department of Natural Resources (MDNR) had detected M. bovis in 18 of 249 sampled coyotes. Given the history of intensive surveillance and elevated M. bovis prevalence in the area, it was the logical choice to implement and evaluate a sentinel-based surveillance program. Habitat associations within DMU 452 were diverse; moraine uplands were dominated by forests of jack pine (Pinus banksiana), white pine (P. alba), oak (Quercus spp.), and maple (Acer spp.). Dominant lowland vegetation included tag alder (Alnus rugosa) and white cedar (Thuja occidentalis), and wetland ephemera were common. Annual precipitation typically ranged from 71 cm to 91 cm; most occurred as snowfall (19). Mean yearly summer and winter temperatures were 21°C and –10°C, respectively (19).
We trapped coyotes from December 2003 through September 2005 using padded foot-hold traps and scent lures in 15 townships within the 4-county area. We trapped coyotes in 6 townships in Alcona County, 5 in Oscoda County, 2 in Montmorency County, and 2 in Alpena County. Because a large proportion of land in the study area was privately owned (e.g., commercial hunting clubs, agricultural operations, residential development), landowner permission to access property dictated trap placement. Thus, we were unable to randomize trapping locations or distribute traps proportionally among counties. Within each township, traps were checked daily, and trapping was terminated when 10 coyotes were collected. Because multiple captures could occur on the final day of trapping, we occasionally collected >10 coyotes/township. We killed trapped coyotes with a 0.22-caliber gunshot to the brain, determined their age on the basis of tooth wear and eruption (20), and performed necropsy examinations on them within an hour of death to minimize autolysis. Tissues containing visible lesions as well as the parotid, mandibular, retropharyngeal, bronchial, mediastinal, and mesenteric lymph nodes were collected and submitted in formalin for histologic examination and fresh for mycobacterial culture.
Coyote samples were processed by following protocols used for histologic examination and mycobacterial culture of white-tailed deer samples (6,10). Fresh tissues for bacterial culture were digested and decontaminated with a sodium-hypochlorite-sodium hydroxide method (21). We then spun tissue suspensions in a refrigerated centrifuge at 6,000 × g for 20 minutes (21). Half of the supernatant was discarded, and the pellet was
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]
] |
[
2048
] |
2,048
| 2.424627
|
How Much Carbon Dioxide is Produced by Airplanes?
Have You Ever Flown?
Flying in 2014
Flying became a way to travel to the other side of the globe in about one day. Flying is preferred above travelling by car or train, because it goes fast and straight.
The flight industry accounts for 2.2% of the global economy (2.4 trillion$ vs. 108 trillion$ in 2014)
2014 is the first year in history with more than 100,000 scheduled flights per day, covering globally nearly 50,000 routes. According to year reports, air travel would be responsible for 2% of the world's emitted carbon dioxide. This figure seems to have clear relations with its economical share.
Average Flight Distances and Time
2400 km (1491 mi)
Flight time: 168 min
2300 km (1429 mi)
Flight time: 162 min
2270 km (1410 mi)
Flight time: 160 min
At What Altitude Fly Airplanes?
The Turbo Fan Jet Engine
The world's first jet engine to fly solely on jet power was the Heinkel He 178, in 1939. After WWII the jet engine literally made lift-off in both military and civil airplanes.
Jet engines offer higher speeds and greater fuel efficiency than piston and propeller aeroengines. Most of the jet engines are the so called airbreathing jet engine types, that are propelled by a jet of hot exhaust gases formed from air that is drawn into the engine via an inlet duct. This engine literally breaths air (and oxygen) in, and burns it all to CO2 and complex NOx compounds.
The exhaust gases of jet engines are not suitable anymore for respiration, and has to be treated by mother Earth into oxygen again. But this takes a while though.
The jet engine made the airplanes more reliable, faster and cheaper to operate, which made the industry booming. The aviation industry growth showed since WWII an average annual growth of around 7%.
The table below shows that especially between 2009 and 2013 the amount of passengers grew with an average of 225 million passengers per year!
According to the Air Transport Action Group (ATAG), the new Airbus A380, the Boeing 787, the ATR-600 and the Bombardier CSeries aircrafts, would use less than 3 litres of jet fuel per 100 passenger kilometres. This would match the efficiency of most modern compact cars.
But this are tricky figures, because a car doesn't drive as far as an airplane. With airplanes everything goes in large numbers and are therefore also very pollutive.
A nation that destroys its soils destroys itself. Forests are the lungs of our land, purifying the air and giving fresh strength to our people.— Franklin D. Roosevelt
Growth of Amount of Passengers
Four-engined Boeing 747
10 Most Built Commercial Airliners
Boeing 737 series
Airbus A320 series
Bombardier CRJ series
McDonnell Douglas MD-80
De Havilland Canada DHC-8
These are the most used airplanes in the air transport industry. The total amount of large airplanes in use is estimated around 35,000. So, the top 10 above represents about 65% of all large commercial airplanes in use today.
How Does a Jet Engine Work?
The Average Turbo Fan Engine
The CFM56-series turbo fan is one of the most used engines in airplanes, and is regarded as the most successful jet engine in commercial aviation history. More than 50% of the airplanes in service today are powered with this engine. The engine is mounted on the Boeing 737 series and Airbus A320 series. The engine is powerful, compact and relatively economical when compared to most other engine types.
This engine can be regarded as a standard in the modern aviation industry and will be taken as an example for the calculations below.
Spec's of a Boeing 737 With a CFM56 engine
Resulting propulsive power
Unused kinetic energy
Maximum thrust (sea level)
Thrust at cruise height (30,000 ft)
5.3 : 1
Fuel consumption: Take off
3,000 lbs / 15 min
5,500 lbs / hour
600 lbs / 20 min
2,500 lbs / 30 min
2,000 lbs / 20 min
Fuel and Air Consumption of a Modern Turbo Fan Engine
One of the most typical design features of a modern (quiet) turbofan engine is a high bypass ratio. The bypassed air goes through the outer part of the engine, and is not directly involved in the combustion process. The cold air forms a sound insulating shield around the burning gases that come from the noisy engine core. This ratio lies mostly between 5:1 up to 6:1 (most air runs via the bypass).
After leaving the engine, the cold air will mix with the exhaust fumes, whereby another postreaction occurs, which leads to a large number of other complex poisonous compounds like NOx, HNOy, SOx and H2SO4.
Most modern turbo fan engines have a bypass ratio of 5:1. 5 kg (11 lbs) passes the engine, while 1 kg (2.2 lbs) of air is used in the actual combustion process.
An average airliner with two engines like the CFM56 types has the following specifications:
- ratio fuel/air = 0.02871 at cruise height of 30,000 feet,
- average fuel consumption during 2.8 hour flight = 20,475 lbs2,
- average CO2 production per average flight = 63,985 lbs3.
Air Densities of the Atmosphere
Altitude in feet
Air pressure hPa
Pollution of 100,000 Scheduled Flights Per Day
At cruise altitude of around 30,000 feet the density of air is 33% of the density at sea level (density and pressure are not proportional). To develop enough thrust power at cruise altitude this airflow has to be 3 times as high as on sea level.
The bypass ratio of 5.3:1 however plays also a major role. The exhaust gases mix with the bypassed air and form complex compounds, like NOx, HNOy, SOx, HxSOy, soot and metal particles. There is though no additional carbon dioxide formed, this happened directly in the engines itself.
The air consumption of an average airplane like the Boeing 737, during one average flight of 2.8 hours, is 3,781,094 lbs4. This equals 1,361,194 m3 (4,809,646 ft3) at sea level.
With 100,000 scheduled flights each day, the daily amount of spoiled air is 1.4×1011 m3, thus an annual amount of 5.0×1013 m3. This annual exhausted amount of air is totally unsuitable for respiration, and is moreover very poisonous.
The Amount of Pollution Each Year
Earth's total surface is 5×108 km2 (2×108 mi2). The amount of air on Earth is estimated to be around 4.2×109 km3, and weighs together 5.1×1015 metric tonnes.
The airplane industry creates each year 5.0 ×104 km3 (12,013 mi3) of totally spoiled air. For your imagination: This equals Earth's whole surface, covered with a 4 inch thick layer of absolutely unbreathable air. And this is just 2% of all polluters!
Due to the airplane industry each year 0.00119% of Earth's atmosphere becomes unavailable to breathe, and is, moreover, poisoned. And if it's true that the airplane industry would be just 2% of the polluters, that would make each year 0.0595% of all the air unavailable to breathe.
0.00119% might seem not so much to you. But this is each year an area of 5.952 km2 (2298 mi2) where the atmosphere is spoiled from ground up to 16 km (10 mi) high. This is significantly larger as the state of Delaware.
0.0595% pollution of Earth's atmosphere is an area proportional to the state of Maryland, from sea level up to 10 miles high. Not one drop of oxygen left, and full of poisonous gases. Each year.
Source of All Life - Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide
Peeing in a swimming pool is done because people tend to believe no one notices this, and that the pee is nothing compared to the volume of the swimming pool itself. But in a very crowdy swimming pool, when all recreants like to pee in the pool too, it becomes another matter. And now imagine you have to drink daily from this pool! Let's have a look at the filtration system.
For the many among us who still don't seem to understand this:
- humans and animals breath air (oxygen),
- trees and plants breath CO2 during their lifetime.
What about all the factories, power plants, ships, trucks,
|
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Christmas Tree: Most houses are decorated with the typical Christmas tree and the Nativity scene. Even though the Christmas tree is originally from Nordic countries, this custom has been adopted by the Venezuelan society, and it represents today a typical tradition. To commemorate the Christmas season, Christmas trees are decorated with ornaments, lights and presents. A five-point star is also placed in the highest branch at the tip of the tree. Unlike many other countries, Christmas trees in Venezuela are rarely evergreen but instead they’re usually artificial. The family typically gathers to put up the tree and children participate placing ornaments.
Nativity: Because the Venezuelan population is mostly Catholic, “pesebres” or “nacimientos” (Nativity scenes) are protagonist during Christmas, and the birth of Baby Jesus is celebrated during this season. The Nativity is often displayed in a visible area of the living room so that visitors and family members can be delighted with its glory. The portrayal of the Nativity scene can range from simple to complex. Some families become artists when it comes to putting together the Nativity and the most sophisticated scenes are put up to represent an entire region with mountains, hills, plains, lakes, valleys and the manger at Bethlehem. This is a very important tradition in most Venezuelan dwellings as the entire family generally gathers to put up the Nativity scene. The figures used are the typical shepherds, the Magi, Mary, Joseph and Jesus. Sheep and camels are also protagonist together with the Bethlehem Star and Angel Gabriel. Baby Jesus usually remains covered for most of the month of December until the stroke of 12am on Christmas Eve when he’s symbolically born.
Christmas Spirit: This is a very unique tradition dictating that every year on December 21st; when the winter season officially stars, the Christmas Spirit comes down to Earth to physically bring everything we wish for. This is another Nordic tradition that has been instilled in the Venezuelan culture, and although the myths behind this ritual are various; it is said that the Christmas Spirit is the energy within us that brings peace, love, harmony, joy and all the non-tangible things that we long for. The ritual consists of having the family gather around a table between 10pm and 12am while celebrating with wine, “ponche” or champagne and cake or nougat. Each individual around the table must prepare a list of what are much like resolutions for the year or have it done before midnight. The old list of resolutions is tore apart and tossed at the time, and the new lists are put in a container or basket in the center of the table. Each member then grabs his or her list and saves it until the following year. The celebration of this tradition varies widely from family to family, and some people don’t even celebrate it. There are people who believe in cleaning the house the night before the Christmas Spirit comes, so that they can be released from all bad energies. Other people celebrate by lighting blue candles during the ritual for the Spirit to come pleasantly.
Music: During Christmas, music plays a very important part in Venezuela. “Gaitas” are the main popular music during this season and this kind of music was originally created as a way for citizens to protest. These songs started in the city of Maracaibo in Zulia State, although the tradition has extended throughout the Venezuelan geography. Even though there are different kinds of Gaitas, the most traditional type is called “Gaita del Furro.” When Venezuelans speak about “Gaitas” they are mainly speaking about “Gaita del Furro,” and this kind of Gaita is named after the leading instrument “furro” or “furruco” used to play Gaitas. This kind of Gaita is very catchy because of the musical rhythm and its lyrics. It is therefore the most commercial kind of Gaita played and known by the Venezuelan culture. Venezuelan Gaitas usually start on middle-September and they last until the end of Christmastime.
Besides Gaitas, the “Aguinaldos” or “Villancicos” are also typical Venezuelan songs sung during Christmas. It is customary to gather groups of people who go door-to-door singing “Aguinaldos” to Virgin Mary and Baby Jesus while playing traditional instruments such as the “cuatro”, “furruco” and “maracas” (discussed below.) After Aguinaldo performances, people living in the visited houses usually give out candy, cake or any kind of drink to thank the group of singers. Because of this tradition, the term “aguinaldo” is usually associated with gifts. As time has gone by, this custom has developed into what is today the “Aguinaldo Navideño,” which is typically a monetary present or extra pay given to and received by employees and companies during Christmas time. Some other people prefer to give a “Cesta Navideña” (Christmas Basket), containing bottles of champagne or wine, nougat, cookies and any other kind of non-perishable food that the individual or family wishes to offer during Christmas time.
Instruments: The instruments used for playing Gaitas and Aguinaldos are usually customary to the Venezuelan culture. The main instrument used for Aguinaldos and Gaitas is the “cuatro,” which is a guitar-like instrument but smaller and with four strings only. For Gaitas, the “charrasca” and “tambora” are also used. The “charrasca” is a traditional steel tube-shaped instrument that’s usually 12 inches in length by 3 inches in diameter. It is a relatively small instrument normally hand-held played. This instrument is stroked in an upward and downward motion with a metal rod that produces different sounds upon contact to the steel tube. The “tambora” was originally a horizontal drum, although vertical barrel-drums are also typical. These drums are beat with two wooden sticks to produce diverse sounds on the tightly stretched leather membrane and on the sides. The “maracas” are rattle-like instruments used mainly for the Aguinaldos. Finally, the “furruco” is another important instrument used in both Gaitas and Aguinaldos. The “furruco” or “furro” is a friction drum with a wooden stick slightly pierced into the middle of the drum and whose movement in the leather produces a unique and characteristic sound much like that of the bass.
Food: Regarding the culinary aspect of the Venezuelan Christmas, the food is also an important part of these festivities. The range of Christmas food is diverse, and it includes “hallacas”, “pan de jamón” (ham bread), “torta negra” (dark or black cake), “dulce de lechoza” (green papaya dessert), “ponche crema” (eggnog), “ensalada de gallina” (chicken salad) and stuffed “pernil” or “pavo” (pork thigh or turkey). I’ve dedicated a separate post to the typical Venezuelan food during Christmas, so you can refer to it for an extended explanation of what each dish is made of. Even though these are some of the typical dishes eaten on Christmas/New Year’s Eve, each family has its own tradition, so regardless of what they eat, what’s important is that the meal is plentiful, special, and usually out of the ordinary when compared to daily life menus.
Fireworks: The burning of fireworks is one the characteristic traditions of Venezuelan Christmas. Fireworks in Venezuela are exploded ever since the start of the season until the New Year. The noises and brilliant lighting effects produced by firecrackers, rockets and sparkles, among others, are children’s and some adults’ favorite. A huge display of fireworks follows the Christmas and New Year’s dinner although the biggest display occurs after the New Year is received. The fireworks are seen and heard throughout the entire season, and they are by far one of the most special entertainments of the night during December 24th and 31st. Regardless of the danger of these explosive items, parents rarely seem to hesitate when buying a few bags of fireworks to be burned during Christmas. I’ve celebrated Christmas in Venezuela, America and Spain; and I can tell you for sure, that I’ve never seen and heard so many fireworks in my life as I have in Venezuela. They are simply a must.
Christmas Eve: It is called “Noche Buena” in Spanish, and it is celebrated on December 24th when Venezuelans usually prepare a Christmas dinner for the entire family and gather at the grandparents’, an uncle’s or aunt’s house. This dinner usually includes any or all of the typical Venezuelan Christmas dishes although the time at which family members actually dine depends on the customs of each family. The typical time to have dinner is around 9 to 10pm after all guests have arrived and people have had a chance to catch up and chat for a while. Then dinner is served and a Champagne toast is usually given to celebrate the evening. Dessert follows together with typical Christmas nougats and dry fruits such as nuts, almonds and hazelnut. Following dinner, the entire family goes out to the street or backyard to explode firecrackers, rockets and all kinds of fireworks. Later on during the night and frequently around midnight, the family gathers once more but this time around the Christmas tree to exchange presents. In extended families the “Amigo Secreto” (Secret Santa) is typical among adults. Children typically receive toys and gifts from all of their relatives and spend what’s left of the night playing with their new presents until they go to bed. Some children make sure to leave cookies and milk for Baby Jesus’ stop. In Venezuela, Baby Jesus is the one to bring the presents rather than Santa Claus, although Santa is also well known. Overnight, Baby Jesus stops by the house to leave children some more presents, generally the presents listed in the letter that children wrote and left on the tree for Baby Jesus
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]
] |
[
2048
] |
2,048
| 2.422865
|
- freely available
Sensors 2012, 12(6), 7015-7032; doi:10.3390/s120607015
Published: 25 May 2012
Abstract: Pioneered by Clark's microelectrode more than half a century ago, there has been substantial interest in developing new, miniaturized optical methods to detect molecular oxygen inside cells. While extensively used for animal tissue measurements, applications of intracellular optical oxygen biosensors are still scarce in plant science. A critical aspect is the strong autofluorescence of the green plant tissue that interferes with optical signals of commonly used oxygen probes. A recently developed dual-frequency phase modulation technique can overcome this limitation, offering new perspectives for plant research. This review gives an overview on the latest optical sensing techniques and methods based on phosphorescence quenching in diverse tissues and discusses the potential pitfalls for applications in plants. The most promising oxygen sensitive probes are reviewed plus different oxygen sensing structures ranging from micro-optodes to soluble nanoparticles. Moreover, the applicability of using heterologously expressed oxygen binding proteins and fluorescent proteins to determine changes in the cellular oxygen concentration are discussed as potential non-invasive cellular oxygen reporters.
Molecular oxygen (O2; here often simply referred to as “oxygen”) is an essential factor for most life forms on Earth and its vital role in respiratory energy metabolism has been well described. When the availability of oxygen for respiration is reduced (hypoxia) or depleted (anoxia), severe consequences for cell viability arise. Hypoxic conditions can occur when the resupply of oxygen to a cell does not keep pace with its oxygen consumption. This is for example a typical phenomenon in tumors due to the extremely high respiration rate of cancer cells. While the oxygen distribution is widely studied in animals and mammalian tissues, it is much less well characterized in plant cells. Plants are sessile organisms and therefore depend on their direct environment for the supply of substrate and nutrients. The availability of oxygen in the atmosphere as an essential substrate for plant metabolism is usually underestimated for plants, because of their autogenous photosynthetic oxygen production. However, during the night plants are not photosynthetically active and also non-green tissues such as roots rely on the supply of oxygen from the environment. Additionally, plants lack an active distribution system for oxygen and depend on diffusion of oxygen through the tissue. When the rate of oxygen consumption exceeds the resupply of oxygen from the environment, the plant internal oxygen concentration can drop well below ambient. Indeed, the internal oxygen concentration of cells in the center of plant tissue can be about five times less than the concentration of cells at the surface [1,2]. In addition to these steep internal oxygen concentration gradients, external oxygen deficiency or depletion is regularly occurring in the rooting area after rain or flooding, when oxygen diffusion is hampered due to water-filled spaces in the soil. The lack of oxygen can damage the root system, leading to repressed growth and development of the whole plant. However, with oxygen being a key metabolite, oxygen depletion induces metabolic as well as morphological rearrangements , adaptive processes and protective responses that are essential to understand because of their impact on plant cultivation and crop production . Plant productivity could be greatly improved, if the endogenous hypoxia could be circumvented or reduced [5,6].
The development of oxygen sensors has greatly contributed to our knowledge on the oxygen distribution in plant tissue and the regulation of oxygen consumption by plant cells. Still, measuring oxygen concentrations in plant tissue encompasses several plant specific technical problems that do not occur when oxygen is measured in animal cells. Therefore, this review discusses the state of the art of optical oxygen sensor methods with a special emphasis on the problems of their application in plants.
2. Polarographic Electrode Sensors versus Optical Oxygen Sensors
At present, two categories of methods to assess the oxygen distribution inside tissues are being distinguished, namely electrochemical and optical systems. Much of the early work on oxygen sensing employed Clark-type polarographic electrode sensors, which detect a current flow caused by the chemical reduction of oxygen . Such sensors have been miniaturized to reduce the invasive character of the electrode. High resolution profiles of the oxygen distribution in plant roots were elegantly obtained and ultra-micro electrodes were fabricated to use on single algal cells or purified chloroplasts with a size of 20 and 5 μm respectively . However, microelectrodes display limitations over optically based sensors. They are invasive and consume oxygen, which can cause experimental errors especially when measuring oxygen concentrations in very small volumes such as in a living cell. Nevertheless, they are still more widely used than optical sensors and dominate the current literature of oxygen measurements in plants.
Phosphorescence quenching-based optical oxygen sensing methods have the capability to overcome the limitations of polarographic measurements. The main advantage of optical probes is the potential of extreme miniaturization down to a molecular scale. Furthermore optical sensors are suitable for detecting both dissolved and gaseous oxygen. This review aims to stepwise guide the reader through this subject, by explaining the principle of the measurement technique, introducing the most popular oxygen-sensitive optical probes, new measurement modalities and highlighting particular biological applications. Some techniques are established for mammalian cells and tissue only, but provide high potential for plant application and are thus being discussed as well. Furthermore, we will introduce a class of cell-internal/intrinsic proteins as potential oxygen sensors. Endogenous oxygen-binding proteins such as plant hemoglobin or fluorescent proteins have shown to exhibit oxygen sensitive properties. They bear the great advantage of being genetically encoded and therefore can be expressed inside cells to directly report on the cellular oxygen concentration without additional chemical treatment and physical damage of the cells. Oxygen sensing proteins would thus be of particular value for fundamental physiological research.
3. Fundamentals of Oxygen Sensing by Photoluminescence Quenching
Oxygen is a quencher of molecular luminescence in general, and photoluminescence quenching is a convenient method to detect oxygen [10,11]. The phenomenon of photoluminescence quenching is described as a dynamic process of the collisional interaction of an analyte molecule with the indicator molecule in its lowest excited electronic state. After collision, energy is transmitted to the analyte resulting in its transfer from the ground state to its excited state, and at the same time in a radiationless decay of the indicator molecule to the ground state (Figure 1). Due to its biradical electronic nature, molecular oxygen has, exceptionally, a triplet ground state. Therefore, triplet-triplet energy transfer is extremely efficient, rendering oxygen detection highly specific with minor cross-reactions, only.
Collisional quenching reduces the luminescence intensity (I) and lifetime (τ) of the indicator molecule in a concentration dependent manner and can thus be employed to determine the concentration of the analyte. The quenching behavior can be described by the Stern-Volmer equation:where τ0 and I0 are the excited-state lifetime and luminescence intensity in the absence of oxygen, and τ and I in the presence of oxygen, respectively. [O2] is the partial pressure and concentration of oxygen and kQ the bimolecular quenching constant. The latter is dependent on the physico-chemical properties of the system, e.g., solvent parameters, temperature, steric factors, etc. . The product kQ·τ0 is also named Stern-Volmer constant. Due to microheterogeneities in the case of solid optical oxygen probes, multiple quenching sites can be involved, leading to non-linear behavior . Therefore, in practice, the calibration curves can be described by a slightly modified Stern-Volmer equation, assuming that only a certain fraction f of the indicator molecules is quenched by oxygen :
In contrast to I0 and I, the luminescent lifetimes, τ0 and τ, are widely independent of the concentration of the luminophore, and thus are the parameter of choice to measure oxygen concentrations. This holds particularly in cellular systems where absolute dye concentrations are hard to control. It has to be taken into account that the quenching process involves the occurrence of singlet oxygen as by–product, a reactive oxygen species that could damage the biological sample if not protected properly against it .
4. Oxygen-Sensitive Systems
This section will introduce the most commonly used luminescent oxygen dyes and will discuss their applicability in respect to lifetime, quenching efficiency, spectral properties and stability towards photobleaching, as well as modifications regarding biological application to improve the performance of the sensor.
4.1. Oxygen Indicator Dyes
The most widely used exogenous dye structures belong to the organometallic material group. Due to their strong luminescence and long lifetimes, they are highly suitable for the development of oxygen nanosensors. This group is further categorized into metalloporphyrins, among which platinum(II)- and palladium(II)-porphyrins are the most important members and the transition metal complexes with pyridine derivatives, where ruthenium(II) and iridium(III) are worthwhile mentioning. The porphyrin dyes and their metallocomplexes have been investigated for long since oxygen transport in blood, but also photosynthesis is related to naturally occurring porphyrin structures such as heme in hemoglobin or chlorin in chlorophyll (Figure 2) . The spectral properties of oxygen sensors on the basis of meso-substituted porphyrin dyes differ according to the metal ion, the chemical structures of the complexing agents and to the ambient matrix. They exhibit distinct absorption spectra with an intense Soret band around 400 nm in the UV and further maxima in the visible range of 500–550 nm. Significant is a bright emission between 630–700 nm which is well preserved at room temperature and in aqueous solutions. The phosphorescence
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[
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Abraham Lincoln’s Values and Philosophy
William E. Miller, Lincoln’s Virtues: An Ethical Biography
(New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2002)
Abraham Lincoln was “a man of profound feeling, just and firm principles, and incorruptible integrity,” wrote Civil War general and politician Carl Schurz. 1 As an American and America’s leader, Lincoln embodied the country’s values and virtues. “Lincoln’s greatness must be sought for in the constituents of his moral nature,” wrote John Bigelow, a New York journalist who became the American consul in Paris during the Civil War. “He was so modest by nature that he was perfectly content to walk behind any man who wished to walk before him. I do not know that history has made a record of attainment of any corresponding eminence by any other man who so habitually, so constitutionally, did to others as he would have them do to him. Without any pretensions to religious excellence, from the time he first was brought under the observation of the nation, he seemed, like Milton, to have walks ‘as ever in his great Taskmaster’s eye.’”2 Of his final meeting with President Lincoln in early April 1865, General William T. Sherman, no sentimentalist, wrote that he left “more than ever impressed by his kindly nature, his deep and earnest sympathy with the afflictions of the whole people, resulting from the war, and by the march of hostile armies through the South; and that his earnest desire seemed to be to end the war speedily, without more bloodshed or devastation, and to restore all the men of both sections to their homes.”3
Lincoln thought a lot. At home, in the office, on a horse, in the woods, in a buggy, Mr. Lincoln thought about life, politics, and morality. “Abraham Lincoln is the greatest of all interpreters of America’s moral meaning,” wrote Lincoln scholar William Lee Miller. “Lincoln was a particularly worthy interpreter of America’s moral meaning, in the first place, because he stated it with a rare eloquence. Secondly, he was the primary voice giving the American idea received from the founders its necessary reinterpretation and fresh critical application because he dramatized the centrality of equality – specifically racial quality – as part of the nation’s essence. And in doing those things, he was able, to an unusual degree, to avoid the bane, scourge, curse, and disease that threaten all human statements of moral claims and national ideals – self-righteousness, invidiousness, moral pride and condescension.”4 Lincoln was steeped in the American tradition. Lincoln understood the American Founders and the country’s subsequent history in the early 19th century. Lincoln scholar Harry V. Jaffa wrote: “The central idea of our Founding was the equality of man.”5 This was Lincoln’s central idea as well. The young Lincoln lived out that principle. Miller noted that “in the society around him young Lincoln found two great bodies of opinion with ethical implications. He would respond to both with an unusually high level of seriousness. One was the idealism of the new American republic. The other was the religion drawn from the Bible there in the [Indiana] cabin, and promulgated the Pigeon Creek Baptist Church and by the various gatherings of sects in New Salem.”6
Mr. Lincoln’s personal philosophy was based on reason and respect for the law. “Mr. Lincoln believed in laws that imperiously ruled both matter and mind. With him there could be no miracles outside of law; he held that the universe was a grand mystery and a miracle,” wrote law partner William H. Herndon. “Nothing to him was lawless, everything being governed by law. There were no accidents in his philosophy. Every event had its cause. The past to him was the cause of the present and the present including the past will be the cause of the grand future and all are one, links in the endless chain, stretching from the infinite to the finite. Everything to him was the result of the forces of Nature, playing on matter and mind from the beginning of time and will to the end of it, play on matter and mind giving the world other, further, and grander results.”7 Because of its basis in reason, there was a consistency to Mr. Lincoln’s moral philosophy and a consistent focus on morality. “Any casual reader of Lincoln has to be struck by the consistency with which every argument, however technical or legal, or economic, took on moral dimension as well,” wrote Lincoln scholar Stewart Winger.”8
Historian James Oakes wrote that “for Lincoln there was nothing higher than the rule of law, without which there could be no real freedom.”9 In his Lyceum speech of January 1838, Mr. Lincoln warned: ”I hope I am over wary; but if I am not, there is, even now, something of ill-omen amongst us. I mean the increasing disregard for law which pervades the country; the growing disposition to substitute the wild and furious passions, in lieu of the sober judgement of Courts; and the worse than savage mobs, for the executive ministers of justice. This disposition is awfully fearful in any community; and that now exists in ours, though grating to our feelings to admit, it would be violation of truth, and an insult to our intelligence, to deny. Accounts of outrages committed by mobs, form the every-day news of the times. They have pervaded the country, from New England to Louisiana; – they are neither peculiar to the eternal snows of the former, nor the burning suns of the latter; — they are not the creature of climate–neither are they confined to the slaveholding, or the non-slaveholding States. Alike, they spring up among the pleasure hunting masters of Southern slaves, and the order loving citizens of the land of steady habits. Whatever, then, their cause may be, it is common to the whole country.”10
The cure for the nation’s problems, advised Mr. Lincoln in the Lyceum speech, was respect for the nation’s law: “Let every American, every lover of liberty, every well wisher to his posterity, swear by the blood of the Revolution, never to violate in the least particular, the laws of the country; and never to tolerate their violation by others. As the patriots of seventy-six did to the support of the Declaration of Independence, so to the support of the Constitution and Laws, let every American pledge his life, his property, and his sacred honor;– let every many remember that to violate the law, is to trample on the blood of his father, and to tear the [charter] of his own, and his children’s liberty. Let reverence for the laws, be breathed by every American mother, to the lisping babe, that prattles on her lap – let it be taught in schools, in seminaries, and in colleges; – let it be written in Primmers, spelling books, and in Almanacs; – let it be preached from the pulpit, proclaimed in legislative halls, and enforced in courts of justice. And, in short, let it become the political religion of the nation; and let the old and the young, the rich and the poor, the grave and the gay, of all sexes and tongues, and colors and conditions, sacrifice unceasingly upon its altars.” 11 Political philosopher Harry V. Jaffa wrote: “The Lyceum speech is designed, as the whole idea of political salvation implies, to give force to the one practical proposal of the Lyceum speech; namely, the proposal for a ‘political religion.'”12 The law was a persistent theme in Lincoln’s public discourse. Historian Kenneth J. Winkle observed: “Throughout Lincoln’s rhetoric and later his policy on both slavery and antislavery ran a profound commitment to do everything possible to enforce the law.”13
Despite his veneration for the law in a democracy, Lincoln was also very conscious of the importance of public opinion in making public policy. “Lincoln believed the will of the people could be identified through constitutionally prescribed forms of representation, and expressed in legislative deliberation and decision,” wrote historian Herman Belz. “The will of the people as communicated in public opinion imposed moral and constitutional obligation on government officials.” Belz added that “Lincoln viewed public opinion” as embodying “universal, objective, rational principles and ideas.” 14 But he noted that Lincoln understood the limits of public opinion – particularly on questions like slavery where public opinion was claimed by both sides.
Lincoln understood context as well as principles. “Even the younger Abraham Lincoln seems to have been more reflective about moral ideas than most politicians, or practical persons of any kind,” wrote William Lee Miller.sup>15
But it was passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Act in 1854 that excited Mr. Lincoln to complex moral analysis and tough political action. He saw the legislation, sponsored by Illinois Senator Stephen A. Douglas, as an attack on the equality principle of the Declaration of Independence. The Declaration and the Constitution were fundamental to Lincoln’s values. Historian Mark E. Neely, Jr., wrote: “Although Lincoln took his economic ideas almost uncritically from the Whig party, his view of the American revolution more closely resembled that of the Jacksonian Democrats. Characteristically, Lincoln saw the United States as dating neither from Plymouth Rock nor from the Constitution, but from the Declaration of Independence.”16 It was the Declaration which was the bedrock of Lincoln’s principles.
In his 1842 Temperance Speech on Washington’s birthday, Lincoln acknowledged the work of temperance advocates but warned against those in the past who simply railed against indulgence in liquor on principle and demonized individuals. Said Lincoln to the pro-temperance Washingtonian Society
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1996,
2000,
2001,
2002,
2003,
2004,
2005,
2007,
2006,
2009,
2010,
2011,
2008,
2012,
2014,
2013,
2015,
2016,
2017,
2018,
2019,
2020,
2021,
2023,
2022,
2024,
2025,
2026,
2027,
2028,
2030,
2029,
2031,
2032,
2033,
2034,
2035,
2036,
2037,
2039,
2038,
2041,
2040,
2042,
2043,
2044,
2046,
2045,
2047
] |
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[
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2,048
| 2.65989
|
Children Inspired by Yoga Sessions
Children Inspired by Yoga Sessions
Our yoga-inspired classes are founded a sense of fun and imagination but underneath the playfulness vital development emerges. There are 3 natural, but critical, processes of child development. Behind the scenes our paediatric-physiotherapists, yoga-teachers and educationalists have carefully worked these 3 pillars of development into each class. Here we’d like to share with you the detail and theory of what we focus on at Children Inspired by Yoga …
- establishing postural control
- organisation of the senses
- the emergence of self-regulation
1. POSTURAL CONTROL
What is it?
So often children’s physical skills are defined by what they do … when did they crawl, walk, or learn to jump? We rarely think about how they control their body positon – yet this is vital for development.
Why is it Important?
Postural control keeps us stable whilst in motion – at the start, during and after. With good postural control a child can:
- keep safe – break a fall by putting out a hand
- feel confident – refining physical skills is empowering and boosts self-esteem
- perfect hand skills – essential for writing, typing and basics like getting dressed
- sharpen visual skills – vital on the sports field or classroom … following words on a page or whiteboard
- maintain attention –a good sitting positon that’s automatic and comfortable helps a child attend to a task
- keep healthy – being mobile and flexible when young avoids aches and pains in later life
Children Inspired by Yoga and Postural Control
Our carefully graded Yoga poses help babies and children explore, and extend, their postural control in a very natural way – without realising what they are doing!
2. THE SENSES AND SENSORY ORGANISATION
Contrary to popular belief we actually have 7 senses. We all know about vision, hearing, touch, smell and taste, but there are 2 vital senses which tell us about our bodies …
- our proprioceptive sense
- our vestibular sense
Senses don’t work in isolation so for us to literally make sense of the world our brains have to learn how to sort, prioritise and organise the constant flow of sensory information they receive – this is sensory organisation.
Tiny, specialised cells, deep in our muscles and around our joints, provide our brains with constant updates on our body’s position – these are our proprioception detectors! Every time we squeeze or stretch a muscle, bend or straighten a joint, even against a slight resistance, our proprioceptive sense is activated. The higher the resistance, the greater the proprioceptive input – we really stimulate this sense when we work hard! Pushing, pulling, or lifting our body weight are all ‘proprioceptive rich’ activities.
Why is it Important?
- it helps us move – without proprioception, our movements would be slow and clumsy
- it keeps us safe – it creates a mental image of our bodies in our brains so we don’t bump our heads when passing through a low doorway
- it helps us to control our emotions – like deep pressure touch, our bodies tend to accept and enjoy proprioceptive input. Doing hard work, proprioceptive rich, activities can help us to feel more grounded and organised – more on this later.
Children Inspired by Yoga and Proprioception
- As children grow their body shape constantly changes. Our yoga-inspired stories encourage children to move into different shapes and positions enabling them to accurately update their mental image.
- During our stories children are challenged to stretch and contract their muscles, to take weight through their joints, and to lift up their arms or legs, these proprioceptive rich activities help children to gently calm or alert themselves so they feel happy in their bodies, and receptive to learning.
The Vestibular Sense
Other specialised cells, deep within our ears, provide our brains with constant updates on our head movements. For example, is our head still? Is it moving slowly or quickly? Or are we upside down?! Like the proprioceptive sense we stimulate this sense every time we move, but we really stimulate our vestibular sense when we move our head vigorously.
Why is the Vestibular Sense Important?
- it helps us to move and balance – from about 7 years old we increasingly depend on it to keep us upright and stable.
- it influences our vision – the vestibular sense is crucial for focusing and tracking skills
- it’s critical for overall brain development and hugely impacts our ‘state of alertness’ – this sense is the ‘volume control of our body’, quick head movements ‘wake us up’ whilst slow, rocking head movements can calm us down.
Children Inspired by Yoga and Vestibular Sense
- Our varied Yoga poses give children a healthy, but balanced ‘dose’ of vestibular input. Children can spin round and round in helicopter pose, then sit, with their head still in butterfly pose. They can stand with their head still and upright in mountain pose, then put their head upside down in dog pose.
- Young babies especially, thrive on varied vestibular input. In our Baby Bumpkin sessions gentle swings, combined with quieter poses, give the infant brain the perfect amount of vestibular input.
- Children Inspired by Yoga teaches children to discover the right amount of vestibular activity their own body needs. Young children often use vestibular activities to alert themselves throughout their day, automatically seeking out spinning, rocking, swinging activities to wake themselves up if they feel drowsy, but sometimes they don’t know when to stop and too much spinning or swinging can lead to over-excitement!
What is it?
- In order for us to accurately understand our environment, and respond appropriately, our sensory systems need smoothly work together.
- Sensory organisation cannot be observed. Largely occurring in our brains, it is the ability to sort, prioritise and blend all the sensory information we receive so we can live and operate effectively and safely in the world.
Why is it Important?
- it leads to coordinated movements – and has a profound impact on our general well-being, learning skills and ability to self-regulate.
- The diagram below illustrates the benefits gained from good sensory organization.
Sensory Organisation and Children Inspired by Yoga
- Sensory organisation is a natural, but complex process largely occurring in the first 7 years of life. From birth, babies need a variety of sensory experiences to develop their sensory organisation.
- Children Inspired by Yoga sessions offer babies and children chances to experience sensations at their own pace, actively or quietly, creatively and joyfully. Getting the right balance of sensations is key and will vary from child to child.
3. SELF-REGULATION AND THE IMPACT OF SENSORY ORGANISATION
What is Self-regulation and How Does it Develop?
Self-regulation can be defined as the ability to manage stress: to be able to deal with a stressful situation and then recover to feel calmly focused and alert.
Current thinking suggests self-regulation is the result of processes occurring at different levels in our bodies and minds:
- Babies and young children start to regulate their body’s ‘state of arousal’, they learn how to wake themselves up and how to calm themselves down for rest and sleep. This level is often called biological self-regulation.
- Regulation then expands to the mind. Older children learning how regulate their social and emotional feelings and responses – emotional and social self-regulation.
- With experience and time children start to regulate their cognitive or thinking skills. Managing attention and memory, learning how to inhibit impulses and developing the ability to cope with frustrations and delays – this is the level of cognitive self-regulation.
Sensory input has a huge impact on our biological, emotional and cognitive regulation. As adults, we develop ‘sensory habits’ to help regulate ourselves, these often involve our senses. Reflect on how you:
- Wake your-self up in the morning. Do you: have a warm shower, a cup of coffee or go for brisk walk?
- Help yourself to concentrate when learning something new. Do you: fidget, chew on a pen, rock on your chair?
- Calm yourself down when you feel anxious or to sleep. Do you: sit quietly or lie down listening to soft music, have a meal with friends or drink a warm cup of milk?
Self-regulation and Children Inspired by Yoga
Each baby and child needs to develop their own sensory habits, which will most effectively help them to self-regulate. Parents can support this process by being ‘sensory detectives’ for their little ones, offering them times of low sensory input, in quieter environments, and periods of higher sensory input, in more stimulating environments, all the time noting how their own child responds and then adapting the activity, or the environment, appropriately. Children Inspired by Yoga helps parents and carers, and the children themselves, become excellent sensory detectives!
Children Inspired by Yoga’s Rainbow Year
Our Yoga-inspired stories are presented in 7 week blocks to coincide with the school terms and the summer holidays. Each block corresponds to a colour of the rainbow. Alongside each story we have created a range of assets to back up all that we do.
The Rainbow Certificates- colourful and engaging reminders to the child and their parent of their session …
‘What I Did in my Class Today’ Information
Children can be inspired by Yoga throughout their day! These detailed sheets give guidance to parents and carers on how to do the ‘pose of the week’ with their baby or child – outlining the key benefits.
Early Years Foundation Stage, Key Stage One and Curriculum for Excellence Links
Every weekly story is carefully linked to both the English and Scottish curriculums. These documents provide clear evidence on how session content works to enhance and encourage the broad scope of a child’s development and learning. Physical, social and emotional and communication needs are all supported.
Colouring Sheets – to calm and remember
We provide bespoke colouring sheets to match every story. After children have stretched, balanced, or worked hard, in their Yoga poses, they can then settle down and colour
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AIDS : ANOTHER VIEW
By Dr. Michel Henrard
(Text of the special issue of the magazine INFOR VIE SAINE a.s.b.l., N° 92 of November December 1992, written under the pseudonym Ch. Randier)
The viewpoint of Dr. Ryke Geerd Hamer
The viewpoint of Dr. Ryke Geerd Hamer
If our criticism proves to be correct, say the alternative researchers who have just founded the "Group for the Scientific Reappraisal of HIV/AIDS", the link HIV-AIDS will be considered to be the largest medical blunder of this century.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTIONA little bit of history: the birth of a disease
Two fundamental objections
First law. The relations between psychism, brain and organs. Psychic origin of disease
Second law. The two phases of disease
Third law. The nature of symptoms according to the two phases
Fourth law. The role of microbes
The impact of symptoms and medical conceptions
Diagnosis and treatment The basic conflict
The general state
The cerebral symptoms
The opportunistic infections
Bone and bone marrow
The lymphatic glands
The respiratory organs
The digestive organs
The official theory of AIDS had its tenth birthday in 1993 and, today, it remains the reference in the medical circles, and, as a matter of consequence, in the minds of the public. Although it has become more sophisticated, it still only entails questioning and fear; and even despair for those directly concerned by it.
The tragedy of AIDS is real, but its extent may be appreciated in different ways. Considering mortality i.e. concretely, the number of AIDS victims this extent may seem very limited when compared with the extent of other "diseases" such as cancer or cardiovascular diseases. Considering, on the contrary, the rising number of people being only seropositive, the importance of the plague seems to grow together with the number of questions and with the gaps in the theory. Notably the fundamental question of understanding how and why one evolves from seropositivity to the disease? When finally considering the impact on the populations state of mind, the consequences become impressive, through the haunting thoughts that spread almost in the whole world and that modified behaviour at different levels: personal, medical, social,
The aim of this booklet is to contribute to demystify the plague. To this end, we will first pick out the shortages of the classical explanations, because, notwithstanding all the succeeding and multiplying hypotheses, one still does not know the mechanism through which the HIV virus can lead to AIDS. Next, we will evoke the questioning starting to express itself more openly within the scientific community in this 1992 spring. And, last but not least, we will propose a coherent explanation of the AIDS phenomenon by following a very different approach though: AIDS seen as a simple peculiar case in the process of disease in general and that can be understood according to the same principles as those applicable to the other affections.
A LITTLE BIT OF HISTORY: THE BIRTH OF A DISEASE
The AIDS concept is born in the United States in 1981, where the first cases were noted. The term consists of the initials of Acquired Immune-Deficiency Syndrome. Syndrome means the whole of the symptoms and a table was drawn associating an alteration of the general state (loss of weight, fever, fatigue, ), the swelling of the glands and an abnormally high frequency of various infections. These two last characteristics in traditional medical reasoning evoked a downturn of the immune system considered to be our defence organ against the microbial attacks, hence immune deficiency. Finally, the syndrome was noted as acquired opposing to inborn or congenital as it appeared most of the time in adults between 20 and 45 years of age.
At that time, there was not yet a rational explanation for the disease, but we may already retain two observation elements to be kept in mind as they will reveal troubling, as well as highly significant in the scope of this booklet. The first is the fact that the syndrome is almost exclusively observed in a list of "minorities": homosexuals, drug addicts, haemophiliacs, prostitutes, black immigrants. The second one is that it affects about nine times more men compared with women. On the other hand, the syndrome was quickly considered infectious and transmissible through sexual contact and through the blood.
The second and conclusive milestone of the history is set less than two years later in the laboratories of the Institut Pasteur in Paris. Considering the viral hypothesis of the syndrome, the virology team of Professor Montagnier examined an hypertrophied gland removed from a patient clinically diagnosed as an AIDS patient. In March 1983, they isolate a virus from it that to date has not been identified yet and that will be baptised HIV1 or LAV. The discovery was transmitted to the scientific circles and confirmed: a new virus was found in AIDS cases and, consequently, it had to be the responsible agent.
Within the two years that followed, the data and hypotheses are building up and take shape. Some other related viruses are being involved. The way of transmission from a pregnant woman to her foetus, through the placenta, is also established. The virus is principally found in a variety of white blood cells called T4 lymphocytes, being a cornerstone of our immune system, and this was considered a scientific confirmation of the immune deficiency. Screening tests are elaborated but, as it is technically very difficult to isolate the virus itself, the corresponding antibodies are rather being measured out. These are the specific proteins manufactured by some white blood cells when the organism is in contact with a micro-organism: they are, consequently, the proof that the individual was "contaminated".
At this stage, a clarification of the difference between seropositivity and AIDS as such is necessary. The most simple way is to recall the four stages described by the theory in the "disease owed to HIV". The first stage starts with the contamination, i.e. as soon as the individual is contaminated. It is qualified as a primary invasion, lasts a few weeks to a few months, can be symptomless or present various and non-specific signs such as fatigue, fever, digestive or cutaneous disorders, temporary swelling of the glands, etc The second stage reveals the presence of antibodies, what is called the stage of seropositivity. It is the asymptomatic stage, with or without biological abnormalities (decrease of the number of blood cells and, in particular, of the T4s, protein modification), that can last months or years. The third stage witnesses the appearance of durable and important gland swelling; this with or without biological abnormalities other than seropositivity. I classically announces the fourth stage that is clearly symptomatic and where one finally speaks of AIDS. This last stage subdivides in various sub-groups according to the possible numerous symptoms: marked affection of the general state, neurological signs, various infections, cancers, etc
In parallel and progressively, the most fantastic mediatisation was set on, that will make AIDS the discovery of this decade while spreading and amplifying fear. Because AIDS in itself is lethal, without much hope for a really efficient treatment or for a vaccine, being constantly postponed, the only hopes resides in the latency period between the simple state of seropositivity and the disease. The prognosis of this delay is imprecise and elastic; when looking back in time, it prolongs as we still find seropositives in good health after years. In fact, this hope is especially a hope for a reprieve, that not in the least takes away the permanent threat. Today, it is estimated that within ten years, one third of the persons infected may remain "unharmed"; one third will present more or less important symptoms and one third will develop the fatal disease.
TWO FUNDAMENTAL OBJECTIONS
Faced with the gloomy perspectives of these discoveries, the critical spirit of simple good sense makes one raise multiple questions, while remaining though in the frame of a classical medical reasoning. Let us summarise the principal questions:
Why does AIDS originate in minorities, notably sexual ones? In the case of the latter, the notion of transmission of the virus was, of course, rapidly and logically extended to the more usual relations of heterosexuality, but the "sexual victims" are homosexual in majority.
Why this impressive predominance still observed today of men among the diseased while certain studies dealing with seropositivity only show that women may also be contaminated?
Why all this lack of definition and modification in the delay between contamination and the disease? First for the individual himself for whom the fatal maturity may occur after some months as well as after several years; or not be noted yet, given rise to every possible speculation on the prognosis. Next, the theory that adapts itself to the observation of the facts recognises the possibility of its extension, almost proportional with the retrospect observation one has after years: one may not ignore the seropositives who are still in good health after a long period; but their case is far from being one of the essential concerns of research (what is evenso curious as regrettable).
Why such a sudden change in the classical approach of the antibody phenomenon? Up to now, they were considered a proof of a healthy reaction to a microbial attack. One studied the modifications of the blood level of these antibodies by means of successive sampling while keeping an eye on the clinical state of the patient, what allowed to conclude to either an evolutive or a regressive infection, or to the simple memory of past infections. The latter eventuality was even judged favourable as it confirmed a good immunity such as the one one seeks to obtain through the practice of vaccination. In AIDS, on the contrary, the presence of antibodies even if it is no longer synonymous with short-term death sentence means being the bearer of a lethal virus with a potential threat for oneself and for the others. Let us note
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[
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2,048
| 2.818177
|
|Article Index||"All About Goats"||Article Index|
|ALL ABOUT GOATS||
2) Goats can survive on bushes, trees, desert scrub and aromatic herbs when sheep and cattle would starve to death. Goat herders often have neglected a rational numerical balance between goat numbers and sparse vegetation. Over-grazing has destroyed many tree and woodland areas which was blamed then on goats rather than man, and this has caused widespread ecological and political concerns, erosion, desertification and even ban on freely grazing goats in some areas. On the other hand, goats are valued by cattle and sheepmen in the fight against brush encroachment on millions of acres of open rangeland.
3) Swiss goat breeds are the world's leaders in milk production. Indian and Nubian derived goat breeds are dual-purpose meat and milk producers. Spanish and South African goats are best known for meat producing ability. The Turkish Angora, Asian Cashmere and the Russian Don goats are kept for mohair and cashmere wool production. In addition, there are Pygmy goats from Western Africa of increasing interest as laboratory and pet animals.
4) Goat milk casein and goat milk fat are more easily digested than from cow milk. Goat milk is valued for the elderly, sick, babies, children with cow milk allergies, patients with ulcers, and even preferred for raising orphan foals or puppies. Fat globules in goat milk are smaller than in cow milk and remain dispersed longer. Goat milk is higher in vitamin A, niacin, choline and inositol than cow milk, but it is lower in vitamin B6, B12, C and carotenoids. The shorter chain fatty acids (C6, C8, C10, C12) are characteristically higher in goat milk than in cow milk. Otherwise milk gross composition from goats or cows is similar except for differences due to breeds, climate, stage of lactation and feeds.
5) Breeds of goats vary from as little as 20 lb mature female bodyweight and 18 inches female withers for dwarf goats for meat production up to 250 lb and 42 inches withers height for Indian Jamnapari, Swiss Saanen, Alpine and AngloNubian for milk production. Some Jamnapari males may be as tall as 50 inches at withers. Angora goats weigh between 70 to 110 lb for mature females and are approximately 25 inches tall. Birthweights of female singles are between 3 and 9 lb; twins being often a pound lighter and males 1/2 lb heavier. Twinning is normal in goats with a high percentage of triplets thus giving several breeds an average annual litter size above 2 per doe and more than 200reproduction rate. Females are called doe, young are kids, males are bucks; one speaks of buck and doe kids, and doelings, and of wethers or castrates.
7) Goats come in almost any color, solid black, white, red, brown, spotted, two and three colored, blended shades, distinct facial stripes, black and white saddles, depending on breeds.
8) Teeth in goats are a good guide to age. Six lower incisors are found at birth and a set of 20 ''milk teeth'' are complete at 4 weeks of age consisting of the eight incisors in the front of the lower jaw, and 12 molars, three on each side in each jaw. Instead of incisors in the upper jaw there is a hard dental pad against which the lower incisors bite and cut. Some goats have an undesirable inherited recessive condition of ''parrot'' (overshot upper jaw) or ''carp'' mouth (undershot upper jaw) which does not interfere with barn feeding conditions but handicaps the goat severely in pasturing and browsing, because the lower incisor teeth cannot cut correctly against the upper dental pad. With progressing age, the permanent teeth wear down from the rectangular crossectional shape and cores to the round stem which is a further distinguishing mark of age. Furthermore, there are pregnancy rings marking horns and telling age.
9) The digestive tract of the goat after nursing has the typical four stomach compartments of ruminants consisting of the rumen (paunch) (4-6 gallon), the reticulum (honeycomb) (1-2 liters), the omasum (maniply) (1 liter), and the abomasum (true stomach) (3.5 liters). The intestinal canal is about 100 feet long (11 liters), or 25 times the length of a goat. The total blood volume of the goat approximates 1/12-1/13 of bodyweight; it takes about 14 seconds for goat blood to complete one circulation.
10) Among diseases, goats are not too different from cattle and sheep in the same regions. Goats tend to have more internal parasites than dairy cows, especially in confined management. They tend to have less tuberculosis, milk fever, post partum ketosis and brucellosis than dairy cows and their milk tends to be of lower bacteria counts than cow milk. They have more prepartum pregnancy toxemia than dairy cows, and are known to have laminitis, infectious arthritis, Johne's disease, listeriosis, pneumonia, coccidiosis, scours, scabies, pediculosis, liver fluke disease and mastitis.
12) Tails, scent and horns distinguish goats easily from sheep and cattle. The goat tail is short, bare underneath and usually carried upright. Major scent glands are located around the horn base. They function in stimulating estrus in male and female goats, improving conception. The goat odor is, however, a detriment to goat keeping and milk consumption if not properly controlled. Many goat breeds are seasonal breeders, being influenced by the length of daylight. Artificial insemination is commercially practiced in regions where numbers of females make it economical. Goats are in puberty at 1/2 year of age and can be bred if of sufficient size. Does come into estrus in 21 day cycles normally, lasting approximately 1 to 2 days.
13) In temperate zones, goats breed normally from August through February. Nearer the equator, goats come into estrus throughout the year. Thus more than one litter per year is possible, considering the length of pregnancy of 150 days. Five days after ovulation one or several corpus luteum form to protect the conceptus from abortion. The goat pregnancy is corpus luteum dependant in contrast to cattle. If no conception occurred, the corpus luteum disappears and new ovulation takes place. A buck ejaculates normally 3/4 - 1 1/2 ml of semen with 2-3 billion spermatozoa each. The life of an ovum after ovulation is about 8-10 hours. As the ovum travels down the goat's oviduct, it is fertilized by semen which traveled up through the uterus. The fertilized embryo becomes firmly attached to the uterine walls and surrounds itself with a nourishing placenta starting at 52 days after conception. Semen of goat bucks freezes as well as that of bulls and may be stored for years in 1 ml ampules or 1/2 ml straws in liquid nitrogen tanks for artificial insemination use.
15) Truly wild goats are found on Creta, other Greek islands, in Turkey, Iran, Turkmenia, Pakistan; in the Alps, Siberia, Sudan, Caucasus; the Pyrenees, the Himalayan, Central Asian, Russian and Tibetan mountain ranges, and prefer rocky, precipitous mountains and cliffs. Goats can not be herded as well with dogs as sheep; instead they tend to disperse or face strangers and dogs headon. Relatives of true goats are the Rocky Mountain goat, the chamois of the Alps and Carpathian, and the muskox.
16) Goats belong, scientifically, to the Bovidae family within the suborder of ruminants (chevrotain, deer, elk, caribou, moose, giraffe, okapi, antelope), who besides the other suborders of camels, swine and hippopotamuses make up the order of eventoed hoofed animals called artiodactyla. They have evolved 20 million years ago in the Miocene Age, much later than horses, donkeys, zebras, tapirs, rhinoceroses, who make up the order of uneventoed hoofed animals; and the hyrax, elephants, manatees who make up the ancient near-hoofed animals. All these are herbivorous mammals, i.e., they live from plants and nurse their young with milk from an external gland after the young is born, having been carried in pregnancy to term relatively long in an internal uterus with a complex, nourishing placenta.
17) Goats and sheep make up a tribe within the Bovidae family called Caprini that include six goat, six sheep and five related species. Goats have a 2n chromosome set number of 60 while domestic sheep have a 2n set of 54; yet living hybrids of the two genera have been reported. The six species of goats can be distinguished by their horn shapes:
19) The major breeds of US goats are:
20) Saanen originate from Switzerland (Saanen Valley), are totally white, with or without horns. The white color is dominant over other colors. They are mostly short haired. The ''Appenzell'' is a similar breed, but partially related to the Toggenburg is from Northern Switzerland, longhaired, white and hornless. Saanen have been
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]
] |
[
2048
] |
2,048
| 2.460877
|
Resettlement Pattern: The Afghan Refugees in Pakistan
Development and modernization in Afghanistan, unlike that in developing civil societies, did not generate from the bottom but was imposed from above by a bureaucratic elite that tried to transform the country's precapitalist social formation overnight without creating a solid base to support it. The ruling class could not mobilize civilians to take an active part in carrying out the reforms.
Lacking popular support and the active consent of civil society, the Afghan ruling class lost its consensus-i.e., it was no longer a "leading" but only a "dominant" influence, exercising coercive force alone. As a result, the stage of development and the building of a hegemonic project from above culminated in a crisis of authority. Bereft of social hegemony, the dominant class was reduced to mere bureaucratic functionaries with no creative ideology binding them together in a legitimate social mandate.
The development strategy adopted by the dominant class benefited only a small section of the population; living conditions of the overwhelming majority of the Afghan people remained unchanged. A social revolution loomed on the horizon as various social classes became more dissatisfied. The struggle of social classes and the necessity for political change was manifested in the struggle among various class factions within the dominant class in the Afghan bureaucracy. In the course of this struggle. President Mohammad Daoud, who had ruled the country since July 1973, was overthrown in a coup in April 1978 and Afghanistan was declared a democratic republic.
The pro-Soviet regime in power in Kabul tried to transform the country's socioeconomic structure by issuing decrees from above without the active participation of the peasantry, white collar workers and other social strata. To achieve this, the state resorted to bureaucratic measures, a strategy of social development that backfired. Opposition to the regime in Afghanistan developed a few months after the inception of the regime in Kabul. The regime in Kabul was not in a position to consolidate its influence across the country and was on the verge of collapse when the USSR decided to send its troops to "defend" the client state in Afghanistan in December 1979.
Afghans began fleeing their homeland soon after the pro-Soviet coup in April 1978. Among the first refugees were members of the royal family and their associates, who went to Pakistan; from there, some went on the western European countries and to North America. More and more refugees poured into Pakistan when the regime in Kabul began to arrest and prosecute thousands of suspected opposition supporters. The Soviet occupation of Afghanistan in December 1979 and the continuation of the war sent more waves of refugees to seek shelter outside the country, mainly in Pakistan, Iran, the Middle East and western European countries.
According to United Nations statistics, there are 5 million Afghan refugees in Pakistan, Iran and elsewhere and an additional one million internal refugees who fled the countryside to Kabul and other major cities for security reasons. Approximately one-third of Afghanistan's pre-war population of 15 million has been uprooted and scattered; they represent one-half of the world's estimated refugee population.
The Soviet-backed government in Afghanistan before and after the invasion consistently denied the presence of Afghan refugees in the neighboring countries. Regarding the influx of Afghan refugees to Pakistan, President Babrak Karmal told a BBC correspondent during an interview that first, an important point: who has taken a census of these two or two and a half million people? These figures are entirely incorrect. But I would like to point out to you that throughout history two and a half and even three million Afghan nomads have been traveling to and from Afghanistan, previously to India, and presently to Pakistan. Likewise, there are Pushtun families having one brother living on this side and another brother on the other side, and they are traveling freely between the two countries.
According to available statistics, 2.7 million registered Afghan refugees are living in 380 camps in Pakistan, while several hundred thousand more are unregistered and live on their own resources. The overwhelming majority of Afghan refugees (75 percent) live in Pakistan's northwest frontier, 20 percent live in Baluchistan and 4 percent live in Punjab Province.
Afghan Refugees in Iran
According to the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), the latest official number of Afghan refugees in the Islamic Republic of Iran is estimated to be between 2 and 2.25 million (700,000 in Khorasan, 250,000 in Sistan-Baluchistan, 50,000 in Kerman, approximately 200,000 to 300,000 in Tehran, 250,000 in Mashbad and the rest in nine other provinces). The refugee population includes an estimated 200,000 Afghans who had settled in Iran permanently prior to the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan and some 400,000 who were working in Iran at the time as seasonal laborers, tradesmen and nomads. Most Afghan refugees work in various projects in Iran. Less than 50,000 Afghan refugees were accommodated in camps and other quarantine and reception centers. A large number of Shiite Afghan refugees have settled in Khorasan and Mashbad provinces.
Afghan refugees in Iran work in various construction projects, agriculture, small shops and cottage industries. The condition of Afghan refugees is below decent living standard. According to the UNHCR, "Afghan refugees who work on constructions, agricultural projects, or employed to install natural gas pipelines live more or less on the site itself...On average the refugee workers earn 45,000 rials [$500] per month" (1985a:28)-barely enough to make ends meet considering the skyrocketing of prices in Iran.
In general, the condition of refugees is deteriorating in Iran because of the Iran-Iraq War. The decline in oil revenues, which affected the course of economic development in Iran, also exerted its impact on job opportunities for Afghan refugees. As a result, Afghan refugees compete with the local population for employment, resulting in periodic clashes between the two groups. To reduce social friction and to improve the situation, the government of Iran introduced a law in 1985 restricting the number of Afghan refugees to be employed in Iran as well as places where they may choose to live. The government of Iran also outlawed the integration of Afghan refugees into local population by not permitting Afghans to marry Iranians.
In addition to these measures, "refugees in Iran are under tight government control and since 1983, have been compelled to carry special identification cards. Tehran is also said to have spent huge sums of money to spread its brand of radical Islam among the refugees". Some Afghan refugees have been sent to the war front to fight Iraqi soldiers. The government in Iran claims that it provides opportunities for Afghan refugees to enrich their military training and experiences prior to going to participate in the Jihad in Afghanistan. A refugee who opposes such a policy always risks being deported to Afghanistan on alleged charges of being a Soviet agent.
Ethnic Distribution of Refugees in Pakistan
Afghanistan is a multi-ethnic nation, with a structure composed of various ethnolinguistic groups, such as Pushtun, Uzbek, Turkman, Tadjik, Hazara, Baluch and Kirghiz. The Soviet occupation of Afghanistan and the continuation of eight years of war displaced almost all the country's indigenous groups.
A major ethnic group among Afghan refugees is the Pushtuns, originating from several southeastern provinces of Afghanistan. At the beginning of the armed struggle against the Soviet-backed regime of President Noor Mohammad Taraki in 1978, a great number of Pushtuns from these regions were forced to leave their homes because their houses had been bombed and their properties destroyed. They crossed the Durand Line (the line drawn in 1893 by the British colonial government of India that separates Pushtuns and Baluchis between Afghanistan and Pakistan) and settled in several areas in the North West Frontier Province (NWFP) of Pakistan, where they have relatives and distant kinfolk. They all share the same language, Pushtu. The government of Pakistan provided lodging and a limited amount of assistance to the refugees. As the number of refugees increased in subsequent years, the Pakistani government appealed for international assistance and relocated refugees away from the border areas in Kurram and North Waziristan in the NWFP.
The Hazara and Baluch refugees are mainly concentrated in Quetta, capital of Baluchistan Province of Pakistan. A great number of the Hazara ethnic group migrated to Pakistan at the beginning of the twentieth century when the Hazara armed struggle for autonomy was crushed by the government. After their defeat, a large number of the Hazara were enslaved, their land granted to Pushtun nomads. A great number of them migrated to Pakistan. Following the Soviet invasion, another wave of Hazara refugees poured into Quetta, Baluchistan, where they have distant relatives and kin. All speak Hazaragi, a dialect of the Persian language. Many other Hazara, who had no relatives in Pakistan, went to Iran because of their Shiite religious orientation.
Afghan Baluch refugees also settled in Quetta following the Soviet invasion where, like the Hazara, they have relatives and kinfolk. They are mainly Sunni in religious belief. A great number of those refugees who do not have relatives and are poor live in camps in Quetta. Most refugees get a limited amount of food and their rations consist of flour, tea and sugar. This situation compels children and the elderly to work in coal mines and construction projects in Baluchistan far below the wage level of a local Pakistani worker.
The other major Afghan ethnic refugee groups are Uzbek, Tadjiks and Turkmen from the northern provinces of Afghanistan.
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]
] |
[
2048
] |
2,048
| 2.891673
|
Australian statistics claim that Russian emigration to Australia was steadily growing from the 1880s up to World War I. By 1901 there were around 3400 «Russians» in Australia, in 1911 4500, and in 1921 7700. Who were these people, what was their ethnic origin, and why did they come to Australia? Basing my research on the Australian censuses and other statistics, as well as on Charles Price's data deriving from the naturalization records, I discovered that until the 1920s the ethnic Russians (and the closely related Byelorussians and Ukrainians) were not the dominant nationals among other immigrants from the Russian Empire. Jews, and especially Polish Jews and Jews from the Pale of Settlement, were the predominate group. They were little Russianized and had fled from the outer regions of the Empire fearing pogroms. The Jews are followed by considerable groups of Finns and Poles. The number of ethnic Russians at different periods was not consistently proportionate to the total number of immigrants from the Russian Empire, but grew from 4.4 per cent in 1901 to 9 per cent in April 1911 and reached nearly 30 per cent by the time of the February 1917 revolution (1). Immigration of ethnic Russians experienced an unprecedented growth in 1911-14, most of it to Queensland. From around 1911 among the new arrivals from the Russian Empire ethnic Russians were becoming the most numerous ethnic group, increasingly «diluting» the predominantly non-ethnic Russian immigrants from the Empire who lived in Australia. The Australian statistics of arrivals and departures indicate that a significant increase in arrivals between 1910 and 1914 was followed by a considerable number of departures after 1914, which suggests that many Russian immigrants came to Australia not to settle permanently but to earn money and leave after a few years. Russian Jews, by contrast, emigrated to Australia to settle permanently from the very beginning. In the text which follows I use the expression «Russian emigrants» to mean ethnic Russians, Byelorussians, and Ukrainians as well as a small group of Russianized Jews, Poles, Germans and others. The later were mostly political emigres or, rarely, intellectuals and professionals.
Throughout the nineteenth century Russian emigration to Australia was quite rare. The dominating perception of potential emigrants was that of a far, almost unreal, country and their stories are stories of thwarted dreams and misadventures rather than of the routine emigration usual for Russian Jews, Poles, and Finns. Still there is a number of unique characters among the early Russian immigrants. The first was John Potocki (c. 1762-1824) born in Byelorussia. He spoke Russian and, if he is to be believed, served in the Russian army. In England he was convicted for stealing and he was brought to Tasmania in 1804 with the first group of convicts. By now his descendants number over two thousand. Another convict (the first ethnic Russian resident in Australia) was Konstantin Milkov (Milcow), a horsebreaker, born in Moscow c. 1783. He was sentenced in London for stealing a piece of bacon and deported for seven years to Australia in 1816. Several other convicts born in Russia were British or European by parentage or of Jewish origin.
A number of cases of desertion from Russian naval vessels and, later, merchant ships visiting Australia were mostly unsuccessful. They were prompted by the hardships aboard Russian ships for the lower deck crews and the attractions of shore life. The fact that these escapes occurred in Australia and not in previous ports of call suggests that this land might have seemed especially attractive to the Russian sailors in spite the fact that for the Russian lower-class seamen who did not know English, this step was more difficult than for their English or American counterparts. The distinction of being the first ethnic Russian deserter in Australia belongs to a drummer P. Elizarov from the Blagonamerennyi who left his ship in Sydney in 1820. He was followed by several sailors from the Otkrytie. The most notorious case was the rebellion of a group of Russian sailors led by Stanislav Stankevich from the Kreiser in Tasmania in 1823. According to Dmitrii Zavalish-in, four sailors, who had been working on shore, were encouraged by local runaway convicts and escaped. After negotiations three of them gave themselves up, while the fourth, the brightest of them, Stankevich, was never found or heard of again.
Cases of Russians who did succeed in settling in Australia were more the exception than the rule. The most colorful figure associated with Russia was Ivan Fredericks, known as «Russian Jack» (c. 1855-1904), a former sailor born in Arkhangelsk. He deserted an English ship in Newcastle and by the mid 1880s had joined a bold band of goldminers in the Kimberly district. He become a champion of Australian «mateship» and hero of goldminers' folklore to such a degree that in the 1970s in Halls Creek a monument was erected to commemorate an exploit in which he carried a sick digger «more than 300 kilometers in a bush-made wheelbarrow seeking medical aid». As a result he was late getting to the new goldfield, but he saved the man. Symbolically, this personality, like one taken from Russian heroic epics, fitted perfectly into Australian frontier life.
The last decades of the nineteenth century brought to Australia a new type of Russian who may be described as a «romantic adventurer» personality. We do not know their exact numbers and names. They would have belonged to the educated strata of Russian society and would have dreamed since childhood of seeing the wonders of Australian nature. Usually they had an image of Australia as an exotic land and saw it as an integral part of the South Pacific rather than as an outpost of Western civilization. For them the Australian continent lost in the expanses of the Pacific Ocean satisfied a thirst for the exotic. This was exemplified by the case of the first «Russian colony in Australia». In 1886 Miklouho-Maclay's brief invitation to Russians «to settle ... on the Maclay coast or in the Pacific», published in Russian newspapers, unexpectedly provoked hundreds of applications from Russians wanting to follow him to the South Seas. Russian newspapers discussed this project as «Russian colonization in Australia» , obviously perceiving Australia and the south-western Pacific as synonyms. Professor V. I. Modestov captured the root of this movement believing that there were many courageous, educated people in Russia, unhappy with the present situation and «desiring to exert their efforts not in the routine way ... but longing for a new life», longing for freedom. In fact Miklouho-Maclay's followers were romantic democrats attracted both by the democratic principles of the proposed colony and its situation somewhere in the Pacific, near Australia (accurate geography probably was the last thing to trouble them). Miklouho-Maclay with his proposal to create a Russian democratic Utopia in the South Seas perfectly caught this mood of the Russians.
The «adventurous-romantic» element in Russian society, though not large, may have had a deep impact on the Russian mind and the image of the South Pacific, including Australia. But it was not their destiny to be among the hundreds and thousands of Russians who came to Australia during the second decade of the twentieth century. These people came with one desire - to work; and either to return home with a modest fortune or to remain permanently settled.
The first ethnic «Russian wave», which reached Australia in 1910 and was rising for several years after that, came from the Russian Far East and Siberia across the Pacific to Queensland. The reasons for the peak of emigration from Russia at this time, which was a period of stable economic growth in Russia, actually its «star hour», may be understood only in a wider context. Of fundamental importance were the effects of peasant resettlement from overpopulated regions of Central Russia to Siberia and the Far East caused by the shortage of land and the suppression of any peasant initiative first by serfdom and later by obshchina (peasant community). A free life on abundant land was the Russian peasantry's cherished dream, one of the determining characteristics of their consciousness and Siberia, in psychological terms, was a kind of Russian frontier. The newcomers were the most mobile and adaptable of the Russian peasantry and artisans. The numbers of migrants increased especially at the beginning of the twentieth century at the time of Stolypin's reforms. For various reasons many of them remained unhappy with their new land and the opportunities for employment there. This unsettled element increased after the Russo-Japanese war, one outcome of which was that a considerable number of soldiers and other servicemen preferred not to return to their original homes in Russia. They were joined by tradesmen who had been involved in railway work and were now unemployed (the Trans-Siberian Railway was completed in 1905), and a smaller, more intellectual group without a real trade, such as unemployed clerks and foremen, and unsuccessful businessmen and contractors. By 1910 Siberia and the Far East accumulated a growing number of dissatisfied people who were ready to try their luck once again.
The exodus was facilitated by emigration agencies, connected with shipping companies, that specialized in attracting migrants to Australia. Their methods varied-leaflets distributed throughout the country and especially in Siberia, advertisements in local Siberian newspapers and personal trips by agents to recruit potential
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]
] |
[
2048
] |
2,048
| 2.460981
|
The most famous case in American corporate law, decided in the Supreme Court of Michigan in 1919. It posed a short but complicated question: what is a corporation supposed to do, and who gets to decide its fate? Is it really all about maximizing shareholder value?
Facts of the case
Henry Ford started the Ford Motor Company in 1903. By 1916, the company was worth $130 million and was paying regular dividends of over $1 million per year. And it was growing exponentially. Between 1911 and 1915, it paid out a total of $41 million in "special dividends" to its shareholders, on top of the regular dividends. In today's money, that's roughly $800 million; not a bad return over four years.
Ford himself owned over half of the company's stock. This meant that he controlled the company more or less single-handedly. And, as many history students will know, Ford wasn't a particularly profit-driven businessman; he was expansionist. He would rather sell more cars than sell more expensive cars, even if more expensive cars would be more profitable. He believed that profits weren't everything—that they were incidental to core goals of employing people and making cars.
To this end, in 1916, Ford decided that the company would not pay another special dividend. Instead, it would reinvest its profits. Ford wanted to double the size of the factory in Highland Park, purchase iron ore mines in northern Michigan, and build a new smelting plant in River Rouge. He planned to cut the prices of Ford cars to increase sales and keep the expanded assembly lines busy.
John F. Dodge and Horace E. Dodge together owned around a quarter of the company, making them the next-biggest shareholders. They were enraged by Ford's plans. For one thing, their investment totaled over $50 million, and if they didn't get their special dividends, their return would go down to nothing. There was also a vested interest at work. At the time, Ford was only assembling cars: the parts came from a number of outside vendors, one of which was Dodge—the brothers' own company. Dodge was also starting to build cars at the time. It all added up to a huge threat to the brothers' livelihood.
So the Dodges told Ford they wanted special dividends of no less than half of the capital surplus. Ford responded that the matter would be considered at the next board meeting. Since Ford controlled the board, this was a polite way of telling the Dodge brothers to get stuffed. They then did what any good American would do: they sued Ford Motor Company, Henry Ford, and the company's other four directors (Edsel Ford, Horace H. Rackham, F. L. Klingensmith, and James Couzens), seeking to enjoin the new construction projects and impose a special dividend of no less than 75% of the corporation's surplus.
Among their allegations were the following:
(27) In the face of the increased labor and material cost and the uncertain conditions that will prevail in the business world at the termination of the present world war, the policy of said Henry Ford, in continuing the expansion of the business of said corporation, is reckless in the extreme and seriously jeopardizes the interest of your orators as stockholders of said corporation.
(28) That there are many other corporations engaged in the business of manufacturing cars in competition with the only car manufactured by the Ford Motor Company, to-wit, the class recognized in the trade as 'low priced cars'; that the annual production of such other companies of such class of cars runs into the hundreds of thousands of cars per annum. That if the said Henry Ford is permitted to continue the policy that he has inaugurated and announced he is determined to carry out, of increasing production, reducing the price of cars, and increasing the capital investments in the conduct of such business by withholding the dividends from stockholders to which they are entitled, the necessary result will be the destruction of competition on the sale of the class of cars manufactured by such corporation and the creation of a complete monopoly in the manufacture and sale of such cars in violation of the State, Federal and common law.
(31) That the operations of said corporation should by the injunction of this honorable court, be limited at least to the conduct of the company's business within the limits of its present capital investment, not including its cash accumulations, and your orators' interests as such stockholders should not be put in jeopardy by the reckless ventures proposed to be entered upon in connection with the carrying out of the policy of expansion of the said Henry Ford as above herein outlined.
Ford's response in his individual capacity said, in part:
(That it) has been the practice of the Ford Motor Company for the past eight or ten years to cut the price of the car annually and to increase the output. That such policy has been productive of great prosperity to the company and to its stockholders. That what was done in that regard on the first of August, 1916, was strictly in pursuance of the regular policy of the company. That this policy of cutting the price was not carried out on the first of August, 1915, because in the counsels of the company, among its active managers it was, after full discussion, decided that the proposed expansion and buildings were necessary to the continued success of the company and that it would be wiser and better not to cut the price during the fiscal year ending July 31, 1916, in order that a considerable additional fund might be accumulated for the very purpose of building the extensions and making the improvements that are now being complained of by the plaintiffs. This policy so adopted for the fiscal year ending July 31, 1916, was thoroughly understood by all the directors and active members of the management and as this defendant is informed and believes by all of the stockholders, including the plaintiffs. Original price of the touring car which is now sold at three hundred and sixty dollars was upwards of nine hundred dollars, being substantially the same car although it has been greatly improved in many respects since the time when it was sold at nine hundred dollars and upwards. The cuts in the price have been made substantially every year except for the fiscal year ending July 31, 1916. This defendant has every reason to believe that the action of the board of directors in reducing the price for the current year was very wise and this defendant denies that it was adopted for any reason except the permanent good of the company.
...This defendant shows that the expenditures of the Ford Motor Company from day to day are very great and its requirements of cash are enormous. He shows that if, by any chance, there should be a sudden falling off of business or collapse of business that it would require great sums of money to carry on the business of the company, and his idea is to be well fortified against emergencies. This defendant is opposed to any policy which would necessitate the discharge of large numbers of employees in case there should be a sudden depression of business if there be any way to avoid it, and this defendant believes that the latter methods and policies ultimately redound to the best financial interests of the company and its stockholders. This defendant is not in favor of paying out in dividends the surplus of the company to the danger point or any point where it could be regarded as risky in the least degree. This defendant further shows that he is not in favor of keeping up the price of the car to the highest possible point that the public will apparently stand for the time being, but he is in favor of the policy of reducing the price of the car from time to time as the safety and welfare of the company and stockholders will dictate, since he believes such to be a better, permanent policy for the company. Such always has been the policy adopted in the past and he believes that such has been one of the causes of the unexampled success of the company.
At the next board meeting, the construction of the River Rouge plant was approved, as well as plans for new offices and showroom space in Manhattan. However, in December of 1916, a three-judge panel granted a preliminary injunction against Ford to halt its investment projects, stating that the projects constituted an "abuse of discretion" by the directors.
The trial, in the Wayne County Court, lasted from May to December of 1917. Henry Ford testified that he intended to continue his low-profit strategy "indefinitely" into the future. He told the Dodges' lawyers that he considered Ford's profits to be "awful profits," and that moneymaking was incidental to his real business. When questioned about his strategy of keeping prices low and wages high, he replied: "If you give all that, the money will fall into your hands. You can't get out of it."
Ford lost. The county court ordered the company to pay half of its surplus in a special dividend. It enjoined Ford from building the River Rouge plant—indeed, from entering the ironmaking business at all. And it placed a ceiling on the company's capital assets, keeping the company from expanding at all. (This was something of a technical issue. At the time, Michigan corporations could not have a capital value of over $25 million. Ford Motor had about $60 million paid in by shareholders, but the combined par value of its stock was only $2 million. The Dodges argued, successfully, that the company had exceeded the bounds of the statute by accepting such huge investments, even though it was the brothers themselves who provided part of that investment.)
Understandably, Ford didn't want to take this sitting down, so he took the case to the Supreme Court of Michigan. Their opinion, sans dissent, said:
A business corporation is organized and carried on primarily for the profit of the stockholders. The powers of the directors are to be employed for
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Cement Concrete: Advantages and Disadvantages | Concrete ...Cement concrete is an important construction material. Its importance is increasing every day. It is a composite material consisting of a binding material, which is essentially cement, inert mineral Filler, known as aggregates and water. Thus cement concrete can be prepared by mixing above ingredients in a fixed proportion.advantages and disadvantages of cement milladvantages and disadvantages of antimony » rock crusher new original manufacturer » ball mill sales in tamilnadu » aluminium mill sheet in coil » material grinding guide » reasons of boulder formation in cement kiln advantages and disadvantages of using cement brick . What are the advantages and disadvantages of cement,Advantage And Disadvantage Of Cement - Crusher Millsadvantages and disadvantages of using cement as a building . advantages and disadvantages of using cement as a building material The marble flooring is more durable. Concrete roof decking, processes,advantages and disadvantages
Two of the major advantages of stamped concrete are that it is available in just about any color and a range of styles to mimic many different material patterns. Because of this, it is an excellent choice for both new construction and remodeling projects.Advantage And Disadvantage Of Cement - Crusher Millsadvantages and disadvantages of using cement as a building material The marble flooring is more durable. Concrete roof decking, processes,advantages and disadvantages Decked roof may not give you too many options in terms of design, but it also has its .Block Paving: Advantages and Disadvantages – Krishna Pre-FebJan 30, 2016· Block Paving: Advantages and Disadvantages. One of the major benefits or advantages of using block paving over other materials is that the paver blocks or bricks can be effectively replaced by lifting up later. Without leaving any mark, the use of block paving allows remedial work carried out under the surface of pavement.THE MERITS AND DEMERITS OF USING BURNT BRICKS OR .Compared to fired bricks, ISSBS are 30% cheaper and even 60% cheaper than concrete blocks and they are faster to build with - (UN-HABITAT 2009) To be effective, ISSBs have to be complemented with efficiency in layout design, unit designs, appropriate construction specifications, optimization in infrastructure design and minimum project VICTOR ...disadvantages of precast bricks - spessartbogen What is the advantage of using bricks instead of . What is the advantage of using bricks instead of concrete only? Update Cancel. [ bricks : 1900 Kg /Cum whereas concrete : 2400 kg / Cum ] 3. Ease of construction ; However, using bricks alone, also has its own .Advantages and disadvantages of fire clay brickBesides, fire clay brick is very cheap and very durable 4. Fire clay brick has good moisture-proof function, it also has the advantages of fire insulation, heat insulation and moisture absorption. Disadvantages of fire clay brick： 1.Clay brick is made of concrete and is much heavier than other masonry materials. It will make the whole building bear more weight, and it will increase the cost of the whole project.Advantages and Disadvantages of Using Bricks in ...Sep 26, 2017· Advantages and Disadvantages of Using Bricks in Construction by admin // September 26, 2017 // No Comments Brick is one of man's oldest manufactured products.Advantages and Disadvantages of Fiber Cement Siding ...Sep 27, 2016· Fiber cement is a durable material composed of sand, cellulose fibers and cement. The material was first patented in 1901 and underwent a change from asbestos-containing materials in the 1980s. Since then, its use has increased among homeowners. Advantages of Fiber Cement. Fiber cement siding offers a wide range of benefits for homeowners.The Advantages And Disadvantages Of Brick Flooring ...The Advantages And Disadvantages Of Brick Flooring. 12 May 2015 Categories: Construction & Contractors, Blog Brick is a common building material for the exteriors of homes, but can also be used as an alternative flooring material inside your home.ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF USE OF BRICK .advantages as well as some disadvantages as nothing is perfect in this universe. So the main focus of this study is to determine whether the use of brick dust and fly ash as a partial replacement of fine aggregates in self compacting concrete is useful or not, and what are the limitations of using fly ash and
advantages and disadvantages of using cement brick Small-Scale Dairy Farming Manual - Food and . In most countries in the Asian region, ruminant animals, particularly cattle and buffalo, have an important economic role in village farming systems to provide .Pavers vs Stamped Concrete - Pros and Cons of EachAdvantages of Brick Pavers: Pavers cost about the same as concrete stamping; Can be mixed with various patterns and colors for a custom look. Unlimited designs can be created to complement your home. Pavers are extremely durable and withstand cracking and weather damage. It's easy to replace a single brick paver in case of cracking.advantages and disadvantages of using aggregate in ...May 08, 2014· This can increase the cost of using and sourcing it can add significantly to cost and time of the build project. How This Saves Money. Adding aggregate to a composite material like concrete can both lower the cost and increase the variety of applications for the product.Prestressed Concrete-Advantages and DisadvantagesAdvantages and disadvantages of prestressed concrete can be listed as follows Advantages of Prestressed Concrete: Prestressed concrete members are free from cracks and the resistance to the effect of impact, shock and stresses are higher than RCC structures.WHAT ARE THE ADVANTAGES OF PPC (PORTLAND POZZOLANA CEMENT .Advantages of PPC in Fresh Concrete Portland pozzolana cement (PPC) has following advantages when concrete is in its fresh state. 1. Workability Portland pozzolana cement has spherical cement particles and they have higher fineness value. Due to the spherical shape concrete move more freely and more fineness of particles allows better filling of the pores.Fiber Cement Siding: Advantages and Disadvantages | PJ ...Oct 06, 2010· Fiber Cement Siding: Advantages and Disadvantages Posted on Oct 6, 2010 in Green Ideas, Home Improvement Fiber cement siding consists of cement (obviously), sand, silica and other additives which are pressured and molded into the finished product.Advantages and Disadvantages of Plywood - GharpediaPlywood possible is the very useful & most commonly used building material. However, very little information is provided to common people, this can be the area where most customers get deceived. Therefore, you need to carefully consider its advantages and disadvantages of plywood before you use.Advantages and Disadvantages of Brick Masonry Over Stone ...Disadvantages: Strength of brick masonry is less than that of stone masonry. Durability of brick masonry is less. Brick masonry needs plastering and plastered surface needs colour washing. Stone masonry don't need them and hence maintenance cost is more in brick masonry. Brick masonry absorbs water and there are possibility of dampness.What are the advantages and disadvantages of using mortar ...Nov 13, 2009· Disadvantages are - it is slow to construct and cement is not very sustainable - but the chief objection to modern mortars is the lack of flexibility - traditional details like pointing around window frames is almost certain to fail because of the lack of movement.Fly Ash Concrete Advantages and Disadvantages - wfm. However the advantages and disadvantages of using fly ash in concrete are. Advantages of Fly Ash. It is highly economical. Use of Fly Ash is environmentally friendly as the waste materials from industries are effectively being used to create quality building materials.
Sep 12, 2017· Reinforced cement concrete has innumerable uses in construction some of which are listed below : Buildings. Flyovers. Water Tanks. Road and Rail Bridges. Chimneys and Towers. Retaining Walls. Bunkers and Silos.the advantages and disadvantages of building in cementHome >GCSE >Chemistry >Advantages and Disadvantages of using limestone, Advantages and Disadvantages of using, Some people think concrete building and . Live Chat; Advantages and Disadvantages of Concrete - Civil, Concrete, an artificial kind of stone, is a common construction material The advantages and disadvantages of concrete are given belowdrawbacks of cement bricks - jillscityspaAdvantages and Disadvantages of Using Bricks in, Masonry structures are the oldest structur These are structure built by using masonry units with mortar The masonry units may be: Brick is a solid unit of . Live Chat; Concrete | Advantages and Disadvantages of Concreteadvantages of cement - ggzplusnederlandConcrete | Advantages and Disadvantages of Concrete · Concrete Concrete is an artificial stone-like material used for various structural purpos It is made by mixing a binding material (as cement) and various aggregates (inert materials), such as sand, stone chips, brick chips, brick chips, pebbles, gravel, shale, etc with water and ...An Overview of Advantages and Disadvantages of Autoclaved ...An Overview of Advantages and Disadvantages of Autoclaved Aerated Concrete. ... concrete have many advantages when compared with conventional concrete such as advanced strength to .Advantages and disadvantages of different kinds of ...Advantages and disadvantages of different kinds of refractory bricks Refractory materials are generally divided into two types, unshaped refractories and shaped refractories. The most widely used refractory bricks are as follows: 1. Dolomite brick Dolomite brick has good hanging
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] |
[
2048
] |
2,048
| 2.728384
|
Keep biting insects out of your outdoor living space
Mosquitoes are a nuisance that make you itch just thinking about them! Once they invade your pool and patio area, they can make a good time in your backyard less comfortable for you, family, and guests.When outside temperatures increase, so does mosquito activity. Warm weather allows these insects to lay more eggs, and the eggs hatch quicker.
A female can produce up to 300 at a time and up to 3,000 in her lifetime. Mosquitoes go through all four lifecycle stages—egg, larvae, pupa, flying adult—in approximately one week.
Why mosquitoes bite
Female mosquitoes are the ones that pierce your skin and cause those aggravating red bumps. What attracts them is the heat and sweat from our bodies, as well as the carbon dioxide from our breath.
To nurture and lay their eggs, mosquitoes need fresh blood from another creature. Toward this goal, the females hunt for nearby people and animals on which to feed. (The males don’t bite; they rely on flower nectar.)
Mosquitoes’ attraction to bodies of water
After they mate, the only place that mosquitoes can deposit their future offspring is in stagnant or slow-moving water. The body of water must be still enough for the insects to land and layer their floating egg clumps across the surface.
This kind of mosquito-friendly water can be found in some ponds and puddles, as well as in various discarded or hidden receptacles like empty cans, storm drains, gutters, and buckets.
However, mosquitoes won’t find a suitable environment in your regularly maintained swimming pool. Running a pool pump even a few hours a day creates ample water circulation, thereby preventing a mosquito landing strip from forming on the pool surface.
In the rare case that a mosquito manages to drop a batch of eggs in your pool or spa, no worries: They won’t hatch. The combination of chlorine and/or any other pool sanitizing methods will kill them long before they mature into larvae.
Some species of mosquitoes bite. What’s worse is that some spread diseases and parasites that they pick up from an infected animal or human.
Yellow Fever, West Nile, Zika, malaria, and Encephalitis are among the viruses and diseases that mosquitoes can transfer from person to person or animal to animal.
Avoid dangerous microorganisms and potential illness by taking precautions around your pool and backyard to ward off the number of mosquitos.
How to fight mosquitoes in your backyard
Due to climate and other factors, some regions of the country are more susceptible to mosquitoes than others. The 20 metropolitan areas with the highest populations of these pests are listed here.
Fortunately, there are methods that can help thwart them. Of course, one is the standby of bug repellent. Applied to exposed skin, this product makes people unappetizing to hungry mosquitoes.
These products can help safeguard family members from direct mosquito attacks, but they can be a hassle to apply. Some brands contain chemicals that you may prefer avoiding, but organic products are also available.
You can also show mosquitoes who’s boss with specific tactics to cut their numbers and discourage them from ever visiting your backyard in the first place. Let’s look at some products and techniques to use in the war against these pests.
1. Set out mosquito traps.
Portable mosquito traps are designed to rid yards of nasty insects by capturing them. Best of all, they achieve results without dispersing chemicals or pesticides throughout your backyard.
This technology draws in mosquitos by simulating the elements that attract them to a person or animal. Some devices use a supply of propane gas, which they convert into carbon dioxide (CO2) to simulate our breath. (The tiny amount of CO2 emitted in an outdoor area is not recognized as harmful to pets or people.)
Others models use two kinds of bait, combining CO2 with ultraviolet (UV) or LED lights that attract the insects by imitating human movement. Some UV devices, such as this one called Dynatrap, use titanium dioxide on some components inside the trap to produce CO2.
Once an insect is lured to the device, a fan or vacuum sucks it up, and places it into a net or cage. There, it dies in about 24 hours.
Strategically position a device trap around your outdoor living space; the best spots are near any water sources, but as far as possible away from where people gather. In most cases, a single unit will be enough for a typical yard.
Propane-powered devices like SkeeterVac and Mosquito Magnet can run around $300 to $700 for a standard version; optional upgrades and accessories will run extra. UV or LED light devices can usually be yours for $50 to $150.
Take note: In terms of effectiveness, the propane models will capture and kill more mosquitoes. If you have a larger backyard or high-volume of insects around, a propane type may be your best choice.
2. Install a bug misting system.
Special mist can create a line of defense across your backyard. This method involves a series of stationary insecticide sprayers placed every 10 to 15 feet around your yard. You can hang the nozzles from trees, fences, or mount them on stakes that get driven into the ground.
Each nozzle connects to a tube that holds the insecticide. A timer or remote device activates the system to disperse the mosquito-killing vapors.
Since installation does not require an expert, you can save money by putting in the sprayers yourself. Many manufactures provide step-by-step instructions on how to set everything up, as well as guidance on the number of nozzles your yard will need. The larger an outdoor area, the more nozzles a system requires to do a good job.
While effective, this method does have health and environmental drawbacks. The system relies on spraying a toxic substance which can affect pets and humans if they become exposed to it.
In addition, some municipalities may have regulations that prohibit or regulate these systems. Do your research to make sure they are allowed in your area.
3. Maintain your landscape.
Tall, overgrown grass and hedges—as well as weeds—provide an open invitation to mosquitoes. They seek refuge in the overgrowth and take shelter in the cool vegetation and on hot summer days.
Don’t lay out a doormat for an invasion. Take proper care of your landscape. Routinely cut the grass, trim hedges, and kill weeds and wild grass. This way, your yard is less likely to offer a comfortable hiding place for mosquitoes.
Mosquitoes will also target puddles in lawns for a spot to lay eggs. If your patio has any natural or artificial grass, check that it is draining correctly and that no miniature pools are forming.
To help control mosquito populations, consider reaching out to your next-door neighbors as well. If their yards are close, the level of their landscape and backyard maintenance can either support or diminish some of your good mosquito-combat efforts.
4. Build a screen room enclosure.
Screen rooms are towering, semi-permanent structures made of steel and fine netting. Their transparent mesh walls and steel supports typically stand 8-ft. to 14-ft. tall, and they are built around an entire swimming pool, spa, deck, and landscaping. In some cases, they incorporate the side of a house as the fourth wall.
Popular in tropical, mosquito-friendly climates in Florida and other Gulf Coast states, these screen rooms—also known as Lanais—create fully secure patio living areas that blocks entry by nearly all bugs and insects.
While virtually 100% effective against mosquitos and other would-be invaders, these outdoor structures do come at a cost. For a typical 30-foot pool, basic structures average $5,000 to $12,000. Prices depend on factors like the manufacturer, local installation rates, and any state or municipal building codes, all of which can vary around the country.
If you already have a screen room, make sure it’s secure. Periodically check for any holes or tears in the material, and make sure the doors completely seal when closed. Even the slightest tear or opening can allow in unwanted guests.
5. Hang mesh patio curtains.
Mesh curtains provide a miniature-scale alternative to a screen room. You can use them to block insect intrusion into small sections of patio where people frequently gather.
Mesh curtains won’t safeguard the entire pool & patio area like a screen room, but they work well for spots like an enclave beneath an awning or pergola-type roof structure with openings on the sides. A perfect candidate is a free-standing gazebo—which often contains a dining table and chairs—that’s open on all sides.
These mesh or vinyl drapes can be hung from a roof, awning, gazebo structure, or columns in a large cabana to create soft, retractable virtual walls. They come in various styles and configurations of material and support frames.
When the weather cools, and the mosquito populations dwindle, you can easily take the curtains down and store them for later use.
Bonus tip: If you have a wide-open backyard and neighbors nearby, pick a heavier, semi-opaque material that creates some privacy from prying eyes.
6. Monitor your pool cover.
To lay eggs, mosquitoes need only a thimble-sized amount of standing water. The smallest bit of stagnant H20 could become a teaming nest of larvae.
If you have a pool or spa cover with solid material, you know how water from rain, nearby sprinklers, or other sources can gather on top of it. Or, in rare cases of a tear in the material, pool water can seep to the surface and sit.
Sunshine and wind will evaporate small amounts of water, but greater volumes may remain for days on end without drying out. Don’t let this happen. Water can become stagnant after sitting for one week.
At least once a week, remove any water that’s accumulated on the cover. Sweep it off onto a nearby lawn, or
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]
] |
[
2048
] |
2,048
| 1.790554
|
A valid MPI implementation guarantees certain general properties of point-to-point communication, which are described in this section.
Messages are non-overtaking: If a sender sends two messages in succession to the same destination, and both match the same receive, then this operation cannot receive the second message if the first one is still pending. If a receiver posts two receives in succession, and both match the same message, then the second receive operation cannot be satisfied by this message, if the first one is still pending. This requirement facilitates matching of sends to receives. It guarantees that message-passing code is deterministic, if processes are single-threaded and the wildcard MPI_ANY_SOURCE is not used in receives. (Some of the calls described later, such as MPI_CANCEL or MPI_WAITANY, are additional sources of nondeterminism.)
If a process has a single thread of execution, then any two communications executed by this process are ordered. On the other hand, if the process is multi-threaded, then the semantics of thread execution may not define a relative order between two send operations executed by two distinct threads. The operations are logically concurrent, even if one physically precedes the other. In such a case, the two messages sent can be received in any order. Similarly, if two receive operations that are logically concurrent receive two successively sent messages, then the two messages can match the two receives in either order.
Example An example of non-overtaking messages.
CALL MPI_COMM_RANK(comm, rank, ierr) IF (rank.EQ.0) THEN CALL MPI_BSEND(buf1, count, MPI_REAL, 1, tag, comm, ierr) CALL MPI_BSEND(buf2, count, MPI_REAL, 1, tag, comm, ierr) ELSE ! rank.EQ.1 CALL MPI_RECV(buf1, count, MPI_REAL, 0, MPI_ANY_TAG, comm, status, ierr) CALL MPI_RECV(buf2, count, MPI_REAL, 0, tag, comm, status, ierr) END IFThe message sent by the first send must be received by the first receive, and the message sent by the second send must be received by the second receive.
If a pair of matching send and receives have been initiated on two processes, then at least one of these two operations will complete, independently of other actions in the system: the send operation will complete, unless the receive is satisfied by another message, and completes; the receive operation will complete, unless the message sent is consumed by another matching receive that was posted at the same destination process.
Example An example of two, intertwined matching pairs.
CALL MPI_COMM_RANK(comm, rank, ierr) IF (rank.EQ.0) THEN CALL MPI_BSEND(buf1, count, MPI_REAL, 1, tag1, comm, ierr) CALL MPI_SSEND(buf2, count, MPI_REAL, 1, tag2, comm, ierr) ELSE ! rank.EQ.1 CALL MPI_RECV(buf1, count, MPI_REAL, 0, tag2, comm, status, ierr) CALL MPI_RECV(buf2, count, MPI_REAL, 0, tag1, comm, status, ierr) END IFBoth processes invoke their first communication call. Since the first send of process zero uses the buffered mode, it must complete, irrespective of the state of process one. Since no matching receive is posted, the message will be copied into buffer space. (If insufficient buffer space is available, then the program will fail.) The second send is then invoked. At that point, a matching pair of send and receive operation is enabled, and both operations must complete. Process one next invokes its second receive call, which will be satisfied by the buffered message. Note that process one received the messages in the reverse order they were sent.
MPI makes no guarantee of fairness in the handling of communication. Suppose that a send is posted. Then it is possible that the destination process repeatedly posts a receive that matches this send, yet the message is never received, because it is each time overtaken by another message, sent from another source. Similarly, suppose that a receive was posted by a multi-threaded process. Then it is possible that messages that match this receive are repeatedly received, yet the receive is never satisfied, because it is overtaken by other receives posted at this node (by other executing threads). It is the programmer's responsibility to prevent starvation in such situations.
Any pending communication operation consumes system resources that are limited. Errors may occur when lack of resources prevent the execution of an MPI call. A quality implementation will use a (small) fixed amount of resources for each pending send in the ready or synchronous mode and for each pending receive. However, buffer space may be consumed to store messages sent in standard mode, and must be consumed to store messages sent in buffered mode, when no matching receive is available. The amount of space available for buffering will be much smaller than program data memory on many systems. Then, it will be easy to write programs that overrun available buffer space.
MPI allows the user to provide buffer memory for messages sent in the buffered mode. Furthermore, MPI specifies a detailed operational model for the use of this buffer. An MPI implementation is required to do no worse than implied by this model. This allows users to avoid buffer overflows when they use buffered sends. Buffer allocation and use is described in Section Buffer allocation and usage .
A buffered send operation that cannot complete because of a lack of buffer space is erroneous. When such a situation is detected, an error is signalled that may cause the program to terminate abnormally. On the other hand, a standard send operation that cannot complete because of lack of buffer space will merely block, waiting for buffer space to become available or for a matching receive to be posted. This behavior is preferable in many situations. Consider a situation where a producer repeatedly produces new values and sends them to a consumer. Assume that the producer produces new values faster than the consumer can consume them. If buffered sends are used, then a buffer overflow will result. Additional synchronization has to be added to the program so as to prevent this from occurring. If standard sends are used, then the producer will be automatically throttled, as its send operations will block when buffer space is unavailable.
In some situations, a lack of buffer space leads to deadlock situations. This is illustrated by the examples below.
Example An exchange of messages.
CALL MPI_COMM_RANK(comm, rank, ierr) IF (rank.EQ.0) THEN CALL MPI_SEND(sendbuf, count, MPI_REAL, 1, tag, comm, ierr) CALL MPI_RECV(recvbuf, count, MPI_REAL, 1, tag, comm, status, ierr) ELSE ! rank.EQ.1 CALL MPI_RECV(recvbuf, count, MPI_REAL, 0, tag, comm, status, ierr) CALL MPI_SEND(sendbuf, count, MPI_REAL, 0, tag, comm, ierr) END IFThis program will succeed even if no buffer space for data is available. The standard send operation can be replaced, in this example, with a synchronous send.
Example An attempt to exchange messages.
CALL MPI_COMM_RANK(comm, rank, ierr) IF (rank.EQ.0) THEN CALL MPI_RECV(recvbuf, count, MPI_REAL, 1, tag, comm, status, ierr) CALL MPI_SEND(sendbuf, count, MPI_REAL, 1, tag, comm, ierr) ELSE ! rank.EQ.1 CALL MPI_RECV(recvbuf, count, MPI_REAL, 0, tag, comm, status, ierr) CALL MPI_SEND(sendbuf, count, MPI_REAL, 0, tag, comm, ierr) END IFThe receive operation of the first process must complete before its send, and can complete only if the matching send of the second processor is executed. The receive operation of the second process must complete before its send and can complete only if the matching send of the first process is executed. This program will always deadlock. The same holds for any other send mode.
Example An exchange that relies on buffering.
CALL MPI_COMM_RANK(comm, rank, ierr) IF (rank.EQ.0) THEN CALL MPI_SEND(sendbuf, count, MPI_REAL, 1, tag, comm, ierr) CALL MPI_RECV(recvbuf, count, MPI_REAL, 1, tag, comm, status, ierr) ELSE ! rank.EQ.1 CALL MPI_SEND(sendbuf, count, MPI_REAL, 0, tag, comm, ierr) CALL MPI_RECV(recvbuf, count, MPI_REAL, 0, tag, comm, status, ierr) END IFThe message sent by each process has to be copied out before the send operation returns and the receive operation starts. For the program to complete, it is necessary that at least one of the two messages sent be buffered. Thus, this program can succeed only if the communication system can buffer at least count words of data.
Advice to users.
When standard send operations are used, then a deadlock situation may occur where both processes are blocked because buffer space is not available. The same will certainly happen, if the synchronous mode is used. If the buffered mode is used, and not enough buffer space is available, then the program will not complete either. However, rather than a deadlock situation, we shall have a buffer overflow error.
A program is ``safe'' if no message buffering is required for the program to complete. One can replace all sends in such program with synchronous sends, and the program will still run correctly. This conservative programming style provides the best portability, since program completion does not depend on the amount of buffer space available or in the communication protocol used.
Many programmers prefer to have more leeway and be able to use the ``unsafe'' programming style shown in example Semantics of point-to-point communication . In such cases, the use of standard sends is likely to provide the best compromise between performance and robustness: quality implementations will provide sufficient buffering so that ``common practice'' programs will not deadlock. The buffered send mode can be used for programs that require more buffering, or in situations where the programmer wants more control. This mode might
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[
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2,048
| 2.946924
|
Sandy: How are "name signs" established?
Bill: Name signs are somewhat like "Indian names." You may
have seen the movie,
"Dances with Wolves?"
Bill: The hero in the movie got that name because he was playing around
in a field with a wolf. We Deaf will sometimes assign you a name based on
something you do or a physical characteristic you have. Or you might get an
arbitrary name sign like the first letter of your name tapped on your chin
or some other location.
Remember, your "Hearing" standards of culture don't apply
here. We Deaf will sometimes give a name sign to someone with a facial scar--that
points out the fact that the person has a scar. This would be rude in Hearing culture because it calls attention to a physical
"defect" but to us Deaf it is obvious and effective. Don't think
rude because of it. To us it is normal. After all, the person knows he has a scar.
In a message dated 5/8/2004 8:56:45 AM Pacific Daylight Time, RobertCMazur
Found the NAME SIGNS section in the library. If I'm reading the article
correctly, name signs are equivalent to monikers that we use like "SLIM" for a
skinny person. They can also be mis-monikers, so that a fat person could be
However, my name is Robert, and if there isn't an acceptable ASL fingerspell
short form, or handsign, then I'll have to spell it in full. My family and
friends all call me Robert. I've never been given a "pet" or "nick" name. When
I asked about this, they'd all say that I "looked" like a "Robert," and that
nothing else seemed right to call me by. Go figure!
In the radio amateur (Ham) world, my international callsign is VA3ROM. Any
other Ham in the world would instantly know that I'm from Ontario, Canada and
would simply call me R-O-M, and not use my given name at all. My friend
Steven, VE3DP, would be called D-P (or DELTA-PAPA. 3-letter suffices aren't
sounded phonetically after the initial name/callsign introductions.) Since,
most of my friends are Hams, and I've been R-O-M for so long, that's become my
monicker, or radio NAME SIGN. Even my callsign is just my initials, which was
assigned at the issuing office. Guess the radio inspector thought that I
"looked" like an R-O-M!
Now, if I stepped into the culturally Deaf world, I would have to accept and
respect its history and traditions, just as I have in the radio world. But,
even though I may be given a NAME SIGN, flattering or otherwise, by new Deaf
friends, I would probably never use the NAME SIGN, especially if I didn't like
it, just ROBERT#. Unless they also happened to be Deaf Hams. Then we would
just NAME SIGN to each other's callsign prefixes!
Hopefully, I'm not being overly prickly or sensitive, or misunderstanding the
concept of NAME SIGNS, and talking through my hat on this issue. My wife
always called me Robert, she said that nothing else seemed to fit. Go figure!
P.S. I know that you a very busy. Don't feel obligated to reply to my rant.
I'll be butting heads on on this issue locally in a while, and probably get
the NAME SIGN of "STUBBORN" if I'm lucky, and "DONKEY" if I'm not. LOL.
Allow me to bestow upon you your first ASL namesign:
Tap the tip of an "R" handshape twice on the side of your head
just above your ear. But you should not use that name sign until you
have checked with the local Deaf in your area to make sure
that doesn't conflict with any existing name signs. Suppose someone
already has that name sign? That is why it is always best to get your name
sign from a local native Deaf adult ASL signer.
[Updated September 2010]
Belinda, my wife, received her "first" namesign from her
hearing teacher at the Kern County Deaf Day Program. The namesign
was a "B" on the chin. The other Deaf kids teased her about it for a
couple of years because it was similar to the sign for b_tch. Then in fifth grade
she went to Deaf camp where one of the Deaf teachers upon seeing the "b on
the chin" namesign remarked that maybe her namesign should be a "B" on the
nose for being full of sh_t.
[Note: The teacher was not seriously planning on giving that as the name
sign, he was simply commenting on the inappropriateness of the original name
Belinda (a child at the time) decided then and there to change her name to a "B moving downward at
the side of the head" -- representing her long hair (at the time).
Later when she got a bit older others in the Deaf community began using an arbitrary namesign
for her consisting
of a the first letter of her name tapped to the side of the chin.
For the past couple of decades though she has used the downward "B"
alongside the head. A few people (at church) started signing a "V" on
the side of the chin, but that seems to have gone away now and we are back
to the "B" alongside the head.
In a message dated 7/18/2006 12:06:32 P.M. Pacific Daylight Time,
I have a question regarding name signs. I am a hearing teacher of 7 hearing
students who have significant developmental disabilities. They are all
nonverbal, and my main goal was to find a system of communication for them.
We tried PECS and communication boards all year with no results, and finally
found success using signs. Naturally, I'm excited about this and plan to
expand the signing in the coming school year. We are in a small, rural
county with no Deaf community whatsoever...I don't know of anyone who
signs. Here's my question: I know you can't assign yourself a name sign,
nor can a hearing person assign a name sign, but in my situation, doing a
limited number of simple signs with my students, can I? I feel like the
children need a way to refer to each other, and a way to express their own
5541 Merle Avenue, Columbus, GA, 31909
LK Moss Primary School
Special Education Teacher,
Focus: Early Intervention for students
ages 3+ with significant developmental delays.
There is a very real danger of a fledgling signer handing out name signs of
an embarrassing or offensive nature. For example, you might have a student
named Paul who always smells things. You might think it is a good idea to
sign the letter "P" on the nose to indicate Paul. That would be very
inappropriate since that particular sign happens to be one of the signs for
"P_NIS." That is one of the reasons why in the Deaf community we have that
"rule" regarding getting your name sign from a Deaf person.
While it is "best" to have a Deaf person (who is very familiar with ASL)
assign some namesigns to you and your students for classroom use. We are
talking about the
creation of "temporary" name signs until you are able to have a Deaf person
(or at least a highly skilled local interpreter with strong ties to the
local Deaf community check them out).
For now you may wish
to tap the initial of their first names just below the non-dominant
shoulder (generally the "upper left hand area of the chest") or the
forearm which are relatively safe areas. And then at the first
chance you get, ask a Deaf person to review your sign choices and
either approve them or suggest new ones.
In a message dated 7/18/2006 3:28:25 PM Pacific Daylight Time, spreetster@
Thank you for a very insightful answer. I hadn't thought of that. I
guess I should have, after reading the story of your wife's name sign! Just
to let you know, the initials are L, D, S, T, K, M, and then there's another
T. I'll do all under the shoulder, except one T will be on the left
forearm. If any of those have another meaning, will you let me know? Thank
you for your consideration!
The L hand on the upper left chest could be interpreted as LAZY if it is
palm back. If you make contact with the tip of the thumb (palm down) it
wouldn't mean anything.
Some people "might" try to claim a "D" means detective, and an "M" means
missionary or morals. But those two signs tend to use a small rotational
movement rather than a double tap.
In a message dated 12/31/2006 10:48:29 PM Pacific Standard Time, an ASL Hero writes:
The deaf folks in south Texas use both [arbitrary and descriptive name signs] some only the strictly basic,
initial on the chest. Others had very interesting stories behind their signs--from hearing moms, in most
cases, occasionally not.
|
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]
] |
[
2048
] |
2,048
| 2.685176
|
JEL Classification F6
A housing bubble can be defined as a run-up in housing prices fueled by demand, speculation and the belief that recent history is an infallible forecast of the future (Investopedia, 2013). It usually starts with an increase in demand, opening the door for speculators that believe they can make a profit, followed by a drop in prices caused by the decrease in the aforementioned demand. Historically housing bubbles are repeated every 13 years and last about 2.5 years and cause about 4 per cent loss in GDP (Investopedia, 2013).
The real estate bubble in Spain has had a huge impact on the country’s economy and the way people there live and invest. Some well positioned individuals in Spain were able to take advantage of the bubble and improve their financial investments in the process. One such case was the family of Enrico. Enrico’s family changed homes three times specifically due to the speculative bubble, taking advantage of the rising prices of properties by willingly selling their home at a peak in price. But in 2008, the bubble burst in Spain, not long after the USA had triggered world attention with its own housing crisis.
The situation in Spain right now does not look promising. Few families can afford to buy houses and yet the building of new houses continues due to work in process and planned building prior to 2008 that has not stalled. Most of the ongoing projects are very high cost projects and planners hope by simply slowing the building process, conditions will improve once the project is complete. Builders do not want to abandon work in progress due to the investment already incurred, despite projections that these projects will not get the expected and needed financial return (Foxman, 2012). This process will cause a domino effect, eventually taking away jobs and leaving empty houses and high debt. Banks are left with real estate properties that have no market value. Many families have tied up all their liquidity and leverage in real estate and have found themselves financially overextended. The whole country of Spain is suffering due to the housing bubble created and its resultant economic crisis.
Figure 1. “Market oracle”
Figure 1, offers a timeline of different stages of the Spanish housing bubble. Starting in 2002, primarily as a result of joining the Eurozone, residential prices started to rise dramatically and this continued until 2008. Correlated to the global economic crisis of 2008, demand for Spanish real estate started dropping. In 2012, the ECB (European Central Bank) and the IMF (International Monetary Fund) offered 125 Billion bailouts to banks. Spain accepted these bailouts due to increasingly urgent calls from across Europe and the United States (Minder). The prediction at the time were that prices would continue to decrease lower than they were before the bubble started.
There were both international factors as well as internal factors in Spain that led to this situation. First of all, Spain belongs to the Eurozone, so its economy has to compete with other European countries under a fixed exchange rate regime (Gentier). In order to compete with other European countries Spain had to develop industries such as real estate, tourism and construction. Because inflation was high in Spain, the production of tradable goods was not enough to compete against other top European economies such as Germany; this caused Spain to link its GDP exclusively to the housing market, creating an illusion of wealth.
Second, Spain’s Central Bank used a currency devaluation policy and has enjoyed a long period of very low interest rates (Gentier). In Spain, the population has always been encouraged to buy houses. Renting is an expensive option due to high renting rates. It was actually cheaper to pay for a mortgage than to rent. The government encouraged people to buy and the banks made it even easier with affordable mortgages with low interest rates. This caused the private Spanish debt to rise dramatically: it represented 64.6% of the GDP in 2009, compared to 31.6% in 2001 (Gentier 345).
Migration from other European countries also rose. The migratory balance increased by 800% between 1998 and 2002 (Dorgan). Additionally, foreign investments increased considerably in Spain’s coastal areas, boosting the housing effect. People saw the opportunity to speculate with real estate, buying and selling in short-time operations just like Enrico’s family. Other factors that led to the housing bubble were the desire for people to move out of their parent’s house, encouraged by government campaigns and low mortgage rates, and the increase in urban population.
Just when everyone in Spain was enjoying the financial benefits of the housing bubble, the 2008 global economic crisis hit. Unemployment began rising and of course, these people had mortgages and loans to pay, but no income available to them. For example, Fernando and Sara friends of Enrico, bought a home in 2007. After both of them lost their jobs, they were forced to move out since they could not afford the mortgage. Now, the young couple lives with their parents, yet still owe 90,000 euros to the bank because in Spain, one is not free of mortgage repayments once the bank has repossessed the property (Hadzelek and Rodriguez).
The aftermath of Spain’s housing crisis is not promising. Right now, banks hold more troubled real estate assets than non-troubled ones and bad loans account for 8.95 percent of total loans, the highest in 18 years (Foxman). The total amount of housing increased between 2001 and 2008 by 20%, while population only increased by 13% (Gentier). There are between 6 and 8 million properties that are either vacant, being constructed or available on the rental market (“The dire state”). Furthermore, 800,000 used homes are in the market, banks have foreclosed on 300,000 homes and 150,000 are in the process of foreclosing. Figure 2, shows how demand was surpassing construction between 1994 and 2007, and then in 2008 dropped significantly leaving thousands of houses empty, construction companies broke and an unprofitable housing market.
Figure 2. Housing starts and housing completions in Spain, 1991-2009
What alternatives does Spain have to diminish the cost of the housing crisis and start an economic upswing? First, consider the bailout option. As stated, the ECB gave 100 billion to the banks in 2012. At the end of 2012, Spain was requesting another 39.5 billion for their banks. Even though the banks have not been good at managing the situation, in Spain’s case bailing the banks out means trying to help the creditors (people that deposited money) and trying to keep the cash flowing in order to give Spain a chance to turn the crisis around. If the banks do not get bailed out, Spain could be forced out of the European Union for not keeping up with the economic standing of other countries. That would be disastrous for Spain due to the economic opportunities and growth that membership in the European Union produces. Enrico, and other citizens like him, feel that the banks being helped are not in turn helping them, because they have to help the government (public debt) first. It seems that a country like Spain, which heavily relies on tourism and services must be bailed out in order for the government to keep offering those services.
On the other hand, countries like Iceland have refused a bailout successfully. They imposed austerity measures and let their three main banks fail. They focused on improving the economy of the public by imposing temporary controls to the spending of the population. Could this be an option for Spain? Letting the banks fail usually makes the investors lose money but guarantees the safety of the people’s money. The main problem in Spain is that the banks are linked closely to European banks (due to the euro) and letting them fail could seriously damage existing financial markets. Also, the situation in Spain is a lot more complicated than Iceland.
Another measure that could work in order to reduce the number of vacant houses would be to promote renting. As of now, income tax is very high for renting, which heavily forces home ownership. In 2002, 79.7% of the gross wealth of households was related to real estate, compared to 38.4% in the U.S. (Harrison). If the tax was reduced, many empty houses would be rented, given the owners cash flow to keep up with overdue mortgages.
Recently, some private-equity foreign firms are buying Spanish real estate. This is very positive for the economy. Miami based H.I.G Capital is buying a majority stake in a package of 939 homes known as Project Bull (Bjork). Since February of this year, foreign investors are starting to come back to the Spanish market. Also, Spain is planning to offer residency permits to foreigners who buy houses priced at more than 160,000 euros (“Spain seeks”). This measure is a very interesting one, and could help the banks sell the thousands of houses that are empty. Also, foreigners would revitalize the economy with their everyday spending.
It is obvious that the current situation does not allow for young people to buy houses. A housing bubble of this magnitude cannot be fixed in a short period of time. People want to buy houses, so demand is there; if the economy can turn around, these empty houses will eventually be filled. The government should try to balance between the population needs and banks’ needs. It is not an easy task and they will be required to analyze every possibility before making decisions.
Spain
|
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[
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2,048
| 2.3745
|
Topic Sentences Step Up to Writing ... Other topic examples Although horses are different, some are alike. Whenever I read a book, sometimes I blank out.
Date added: October 8, 2011 - Views: 408
PowerPoint Presentation Author: ... Student Examples of Topic Sentences Paragraph Details Examples Think of a Closing Statement for this paragraph ...
Date added: May 22, 2013 - Views: 75
Supporting Details Are specific examples and details that support main the ... radio stars read the comics aloud to kids. (5) ... TOPIC SENTENCES Author: sportman ...
Date added: October 24, 2013 - Views: 80
Use strong verbs and colorful adjectives in a Descriptive Paragraph. Verb. Examples ... topic sentence. 2. supporting sentences in a logical ... Types of Paragraphs
Date added: May 2, 2013 - Views: 63
Writing a GreatTopic Sentence ... What you plan to say about the topic is called the controlling idea. ... concluding sentences. unity & coherence. types ...
Date added: May 4, 2013 - Views: 27
Hamburger Paragraphs How to write a really great paragraph! The Topic Sentence (Top Bun) Very first sentence of your paragraph. Always needs to be indented.
Date added: December 10, 2011 - Views: 188
... choices, etc.) Write 3 original thematic statements on a chosen topic. Be prepared ... Literary thesis statement examples: ... (topic sentences of body ...
Date added: April 17, 2012 - Views: 323
5 Elements of an Expository Essay ... Topic Sentences: ... Element 4: Evidence and Examples Your evidence is the meat of the essay.
Date added: June 3, 2012 - Views: 82
What is Expository Writing? ... reasons, explanations, or examples with supporting details about the topic. ... Topic Sentences.
Date added: December 28, 2013 - Views: 64
Cause and Effect Paragraphs What is ... by deciding if causes or effects will be the focus Create a topic sentence that focuses ... sentences to identify the ...
Date added: May 19, 2012 - Views: 174
NONFICTION TEXT FEATURES ... paragraphs, topic sentences, concluding sentences, ... Now we are going to try some examples on the overhead ...
Date added: July 5, 2012 - Views: 80
Your TOPIC SENTENCES told more than introducing the topic ... Your claim must be supported byat least 3 sentences with. EVIDENCE (facts, examples, ... Paragraph Writing
Date added: March 18, 2014 - Views: 15
Just venting about a topic. Persuasive writing ... used as topic sentences in each of the body paragraphs, ... By the time kids get into the school, ...
Date added: September 22, 2014 - Views: 11
Writing the Argumentative/Persuasive Essay CHOOSING A TOPIC Possible Topic Ideas Should ... Second and perhaps third sentences narrow the idea down to your ...
Date added: September 19, 2011 - Views: 194
Students write detail and concluding sentences when given a topic sentence. Paragraph Ending. ... Write 3 detail sentences on a hamburger organizer worksheet.
Date added: May 30, 2012 - Views: 157
Title Choose a title that reflects your topic and is in the form a ... Purpose Write 1 to 3 sentences describing what you want to ... PowerPoint Presentation ...
Date added: May 23, 2012 - Views: 156
Problem-solution Essay- Part 2. ... Present situation 1-2 sentences. This essay will look at. ... Topic Sentence. Rules. Rules. Examples 1-2.
Date added: January 3, 2013 - Views: 129
HOW TO WRITE AN EXPOSITORY ESSAY !!!!! WHAT IS AN EXPOSITORY ESSAY? ... (3-5 sentences) Topic statement Body Paragraphs Purpose of Body Paragraphs: ...
Date added: December 17, 2012 - Views: 48
Sample Compound Sentences The cat was unsuccessful in his attempt to catch the mouse, and the mouse was equally as unlucky in his attempt to get the cheese.
Date added: October 14, 2011 - Views: 482
Writing Complex Sentences #1: Simple Sentence A simple sentence has one subject and one verb I like to study grammar.
Date added: November 10, 2011 - Views: 195
... Sentence Frames for Argumentation ... Convenience Use these frames at the outset of your argument to establish what others have been saying on this topic: ...
Date added: March 28, 2012 - Views: 27
Contents Writing non-fiction paragraphs Beginning non-fiction paragraphs Topic sentences Writing ... Add more sentences to give examples to ... com/kids /creature ...
Date added: August 3, 2013 - Views: 4
Writing the Thesis Statement By Worth Weller ... THESIS = TOPIC + SPECIFIC ASSERTION Summary The four “shoulds” of a thesis statement: ...
Date added: September 7, 2011 - Views: 265
Now turn your headings into effective topic sentences Question: Why did the Great Fire of London get out of control and destroy so much of London?
Date added: May 4, 2013 - Views: 51
Types of Sentences Third Grade ... Examples of Interrogative Sentences Can you repeat the question? Are we going to have recess today? What is your favorite movie?
Date added: November 1, 2011 - Views: 188
ALL ABOUT PARAGRAPHS When should you change paragraph? How do you know when to change paragraph? WHAT DO PARAGRAPHS DO? PARAGRAPHS HELP YOU TO ORGANISE YOUR WRITING.
Date added: October 25, 2011 - Views: 103
Set up the action for the entire story in a few sentences. ... Writing Leads Author: Inst Last modified by: Michael Created Date: 10/30/2002 10:22:03 PM
Date added: October 6, 2011 - Views: 139
A PowerPoint Presentation Created by: Mrs. Perry Interrogative Exclamatory Imperative Declarative The Four Kinds of Sentences Let’s start with the Declarative Sentence.
Date added: September 22, 2011 - Views: 444
Leaves it open for readers to fill in the blank. Creating a Thesis Statement 1. Determine essay’s topic (what you’re talking about) Example: Pixar’s film Up 2.
Date added: November 4, 2012 - Views: 106
In Week 3, you learned about topic sentences and in Week 4, ... you will learn how to expand concluding sentences into longer pieces of writing, ...
Date added: November 22, 2011 - Views: 73
No paragraph should be less than five sentences and ... It should state the topic of the paragraph and explain how the sub ... (topic sentence and three examples ...
Date added: December 10, 2013 - Views: 54
Thesis Statements What is a Thesis Statement? Summary sentence that supports your opinion & ideas of an ENTIRE essay or paper Explains topic, reasoning, main points ...
Date added: October 13, 2012 - Views: 96
... used to talk about a given topic. The Beginning Has 3 Sentences S1 ... the Ending paragraph is what people remember This powerpoint was kindly donated to ...
Date added: September 18, 2011 - Views: 69
... Conclusion Introduction (7-15 sentences) ... Conclusion Sentence You must close the paragraph out with reference to the topic of the paragraph and the subject of ...
Date added: November 22, 2012 - Views: 141
Topic Sentences: Topic sentences. ... Expository writing notes. ... Explain that fact with details, examples, or explanations. Conclude.
Date added: November 21, 2013 - Views: 69
Also called the topic ... detailed EXAMPLES and ... beginning and ending make sense all sentences are complete with subject and verb transitional ...
Date added: December 5, 2013 - Views: 20
The Parts of the Introductory Paragraph ... Designed to grab attention immediately and give some indication about the essay’s topic The ... Personal examples 2 ...
Date added: September 19, 2011 - Views: 517
The Art of Persuasive ... Forms of Persuasive Writing Blogs provide commentary on a particular topic, often ... have the right to tell kids how to ...
Date added: May 25, 2013 - Views: 97
... Body Paragraphs --Topic Sentences and Supporting ... Develop the idea --illustrate the idea with examples --elaborate ... Little kids race up and ...
Date added: May 3, 2013 - Views: 53
... Which one of the following sentences is CORRECT?? A) I
|
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] |
[
2048
] |
2,048
| 2.742083
|
CBD (Cannabidiol) oil is derived from hemp. Many individuals confuse hemp with cannabis, but hemp is a very distinct plant. Cannabis and hemp may possibly share the identical scientific title, Cannabis sativa, but they are not the exact same.
Cannabis is cultivated primarily for its psychoactive cannabinoid, a chemical compound referred to as tetrahydrocannabinol or THC, for recreational and medicinal use. Cannabis consists of each THC and CBD.
Hemp includes only a trace of THC, significantly less than .3% compared to marijuana’s hefty five-35%. The main cannabinoid in hemp is CBD, but there are over 100 other cannabinoids in hemp, as nicely as compounds that generate preferences and scents named terpenes (e.g. citrusy scent of oranges, special aroma of pine trees, or sweet flower scent of lavender).
For countless numbers of a long time, hemp has been cultivated for meals, garments, fiber, and fuel. It is a single of the world’s oldest domesticated crops. In the early times, hemp was a crucial crop in the U.S. Throughout the 1700s, colonial farmers grew hemp primarily for its strong fiber.
Nonetheless, hemp creation arrived to a screeching halt when the Marijuana Tax Act of 1937 was passed. Mainstream attitudes toward cannabis commenced to sway significantly towards the adverse. Hemp turned the “evil weed” due to the fact it shares the identical species as cannabis even however it does not have marijuana’s ample THC.
In excess of the several years, numerous have speculated that the true purpose for the anti-cannabis marketing campaign boiled down to the fret that hemp could become a reduced-cost substitute for paper pulp. American industrialist William Randolph Hearst and the DuPont family members experienced key investments in the timber and newspaper industries. They initiated a smear marketing campaign to wipe out the profitable hemp market for dread that the rise of hemp would undercut their revenue. Nevertheless, several years later, it turned acknowledged that hemp does not include a substantial adequate concentration of cellulose to be an powerful paper substitute.
Eighty long years later, hemp lastly regained its lawful status in the U.S. after the passage of the 2018 Farm Invoice. Hemp, defined as cannabis with considerably less than .three% THC, is removed from Plan I controlled substances. Hemp-derived products are lawful as extended as they appear from licensed hemp growers. A lot more and a lot more universities and hospitals have begun to research it. Us citizens can now use CBD lawfully. It can be ordered on-line and shipped to all fifty states.
Cannabis legal guidelines are also modifying at a speedy speed across America. Even though it is nonetheless unlawful on the federal level, a lot of states have legalized marijuana. For the remaining states, some have authorized it for health-related use and some recreational use.
The Human Endocannabinoid System (ECS)
Cannabinoids manufactured by our very own bodies are named endocannabinoids (the prefix “endo” indicates inside). In the 1990s, researchers made an astonishing discovery that the ECS plays a significant function in our general overall health.
cbd gummies recipe maintains consistent communication with each organ program in the physique.
This conversation entails messenger molecules referred to as endocannabinoids and cannabinoid receptors on every single mobile that accepts them. Feel of it as a “important and lock” method. The receptors are locks and the endocannabinoids are keys that bind to these receptors and unlock them.
There are two main kinds of receptors inside the ECS – cannabinoid receptor variety one (CB1) and cannabinoid receptor kind two (CB2).
Scientists identified more than 1,000 receptors in the body. CB1 receptors are found mainly on nerve cells in the brain and spinal wire, as effectively as the eye and retina. CB2 receptors are predominantly identified in the immune system and in the organs and tissues, these kinds of as mind, spleen, blood cells, gastrointestinal, and urinary tracts.
The physique generates two sorts of endocannabinoids – anandamide and 2-AG. These are transported into the cells by way of the CB1 and CB2 receptors. As we age, the human body gets to be less successful in producing anandamide and two-AG. The correct working of the ECS also depends on the adequacy of omega-three in the diet plan.
Several men and women have knowledgeable the really feel very good sensation or “large” following intense workout. The lifted mood comes from the launch of endorphins. Scientists now know that it is also from an improve in anandamide, which targets largely the CB1 receptors and, to a lesser extent, the CB2 receptors.
The other endocannabinoid, 2-AG, transmits indicators across the mind cells and activates the two CB1 and CB2 receptors. 2-AG supports mind well being, immune well being, as well as insulin sensitivity.
Researchers have now discovered that both endocannabinoids, anandamide and 2-AG, have a substantial impact on a variety of capabilities like appetite, vitality and harmony, immunity, memory, metabolic rate, anxious system, rest, and tension reaction.
Evidence For CBD Health Rewards
The Hashish plant consists of above a hundred cannabinoids. These compounds intently resemble the human endocannaboids. The main cannabinoid in hemp is CBD, and in marijuana, THC.
Not like THC, CBD does not bind straight into our cannabinoid receptors. Nevertheless, it does stimulate the activity of both CB1 and CB2 receptors without having directly tapping into them. A study by the National Institute of Health identified that CBD causes the human body to release a lot more endocannabinoids, especially 2-AG. In addition, CBD inhibits the degradation of anandamide.
Scientists are now beginning to discover many of CBD’s wellness positive aspects:
CBD has been touted for a wide assortment of health passions, but the strongest scientific evidence is for its effectiveness in dealing with two uncommon drug-resistant childhood epilepsy problems, namely Lennox-Gastaut syndrome (LGS) and Dravet syndrome (DS). The Food and drug administration has not too long ago approved the 1st ever CBD-derived drug Epidiolex for these circumstances. In numerous research, CBD was ready to reduce the quantity of seizures, and in some situations it was able to end them altogether.
CBD may offer an choice for managing different kinds of persistent discomfort: fibromyalgia, gout, HIV, several sclerosis, neuropathic, and rheumatoid arthritis. Research found that implementing CBD oil right on the problem location helps to lower discomfort and irritation. CBD functions by impacting cannabinoid receptor exercise in the physique, lowering swelling, and interacting with neurotransmitters.
Researchers also identified that topics did not develop up a tolerance to the outcomes of CBD, so there was no want to enhance dosage continually. In contrast to some soreness medications, CBD is not addictive and does not have any intoxicating outcomes, supplying a lot reduction for men and women who have chronic pain.
An oral spray called Sativex, which is a mixture of CBD and THC, has been authorized in a variety of international locations in Europe and Canada (but not in the U.S.) to treat soreness and muscle spasms related to several sclerosis.
Another controlled examine identified that Sativex substantially enhanced pain throughout movement, pain at rest, and snooze quality in people with rheumatoid arthritis.
Stress and Melancholy
Scientific trials have exposed that equally cannabis and CBD may be successful in lowering different kinds of nervousness including generalized anxiousness dysfunction, stress problem, social nervousness problem, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and put up-traumatic tension dysfunction (PTSD).
Not only did contributors in the scientific studies felt better, they also described diminished cognitive impairment and anxiousness. Researchers suggest that in addition to impacting the endocannabinoid technique, CBD might influence receptors included in the modulation of serotonin, a chemical messenger that plays a role in nervousness regulation.
In addition, some scientific studies confirmed that CBD eases despair and helps with psychotic disorders like schizophrenia. (Make sure you notice that marijuana does not support with possibly and could actually worsen psychosis.)
Researchers located that most cancers patients treated with CBD and THC, the psychoactive compound from cannabis, knowledgeable considerable reduction in soreness. In addition, a a single-to-one blend of CBD and THC administered through mouth spray lowered aspect consequences associated with cancer remedies like nausea, vomiting, and reduction of urge for food.
At current, far more analysis demands to be completed on whether or not CBD by yourself can create the identical advantageous outcomes.
A variety of mobile lifestyle studies discovered that cannabinoids can help sluggish tumor progress, minimize tumor invasion, and induce tumor mobile loss of life in numerous sorts of most cancers, like mind, blood, breast, colon, pancreatic, and prostate.
Experts feel that CBD most likely works by starving cancer cells of strength, producing them far more sensitive to the body’s immune reaction, and by blocking a recently discovered cannabinoid-relevant most cancers pathway. Nevertheless, human trials are needed ahead of further conclusions can be drawn.
Other Potential CBD Positive aspects
Lowers blood strain (caution if using blood pressure medication).
Lowers LDL (poor) cholesterol and overall cholesterol.
Lowers uric acid stages and decreases gout indicators.
Helps with sleeplessness thanks to calming and anxiety-minimizing results.
Assists men and women to stop using tobacco and is a promising treatment method for those with opioid dependancy.
Mitigates neurodegenerative conditions like Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s, and ALS (Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis). Some research suggests CBD could protect mind cells from injury and oxidative pressure. Early results have been broadly good but more reports are necessary.
Minimizes chance of building variety 1 and type two diabetes, especially at the early disease levels (no human trials nevertheless).
Lessens swelling and symptoms of inflammatory bowel disease (no human trials yet).
CBD
|
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] |
[
2048
] |
2,048
| 2.493375
|
In principle, we try to find the best giving opportunities by comparing many possibilities. However, many of the comparisons we’d like to make hinge on very debatable, uncertain questions.
- Some people think that animals such as chickens have essentially no moral significance compared to that of humans; others think that they should be considered comparably important, or at least 1-10% as important. If you accept the latter view, farm animal welfare looks like an extraordinarily outstanding cause, potentially to the point of dominating other options: billions of chickens are treated incredibly cruelly each year on factory farms, and we estimate that corporate campaigns can spare over 200 hens from cage confinement for each dollar spent. But if you accept the former view, this work is arguably a poor use of money.
- Some have argued that the majority of our impact will come via its effect on the long-term future. If true, this could be an argument that reducing global catastrophic risks has overwhelming importance, or that accelerating scientific research does, or that improving the overall functioning of society via policy does. Given how difficult it is to make predictions about the long-term future, it’s very hard to compare work in any of these categories to evidence-backed interventions serving the global poor.
- We have additional uncertainty over how we should resolve these sorts of uncertainty. We could try to quantify our uncertainties using probabilities (e.g. “There’s a 10% chance that I should value chickens 10% as much as humans”), and arrive at a kind of expected value calculation for each of many broad approaches to giving. But most of the parameters in such a calculation would be very poorly grounded and non-robust, and it’s unclear how to weigh calculations with that property. In addition, such a calculation would run into challenges around normative uncertainty (uncertainty about morality), and it’s quite unclear how to handle such challenges.
In this post, I’ll use “worldview” to refer to a set of highly debatable (and perhaps impossible to evaluate) beliefs that favor a certain kind of giving. One worldview might imply that evidence-backed charities serving the global poor are far more worthwhile than either of the types of giving discussed above; another might imply that farm animal welfare is; another might imply that global catastrophic risk reduction is. A given worldview represents a combination of views, sometimes very difficult to disentangle, such that uncertainty between worldviews is constituted by a mix of empirical uncertainty (uncertainty about facts), normative uncertainty (uncertainty about morality), and methodological uncertainty (e.g. uncertainty about how to handle uncertainty, as laid out in the third bullet point above). Some slightly more detailed descriptions of example worldviews are in a footnote.1
A challenge we face is that we consider multiple different worldviews plausible. We’re drawn to multiple giving opportunities that some would consider outstanding and others would consider relatively low-value. We have to decide how to weigh different worldviews, as we try to do as much good as possible with limited resources.
When deciding between worldviews, there is a case to be made for simply taking our best guess2 and sticking with it. If we did this, we would focus exclusively on animal welfare, or on global catastrophic risks, or global health and development, or on another category of giving, with no attention to the others. However, that’s not the approach we’re currently taking.
Instead, we’re practicing worldview diversification: putting significant resources behind each worldview that we find highly plausible. We think it’s possible for us to be a transformative funder in each of a number of different causes, and we don’t - as of today - want to pass up that opportunity to focus exclusively on one and get rapidly diminishing returns.
This post outlines the reasons we practice worldview diversification. In a nutshell:
- I will first discuss the case against worldview diversification. When seeking to maximize expected positive impact, without being worried about the “risk” of doing no good, there is a case that we should simply put all available resources behind the worldview that our best-guess thinking favors.
- I will then list several reasons for practicing worldview diversification, in situations where (a) we have high uncertainty and find multiple worldviews highly plausible; (b) there would be strongly diminishing returns if we put all our resources behind any one worldview.
- First, under a set of basic assumptions including (a) and (b) above, worldview diversification can maximize expected value.
- Second, if we imagined that different worldviews represented different fundamental values (not just different opinions, such that one would ultimately be “the right one” if we had perfect information), and that the people holding different values were trying to reach agreement on common principles behind a veil of ignorance (explained more below), it seems likely that they would agree to some form of worldview diversification as a desirable practice for anyone who ends up with outsized resources.
- Practicing worldview diversification means developing staff capacity to work in many causes. This provides option value (the ability to adjust if our best-guess worldview changes over time). It also increases our long-run odds of having large effects on the general dialogue around philanthropy, since we can provide tangibly useful information to a larger set of donors.
- There are a number of other practical benefits to working in a broad variety of causes, including the opportunity to use lessons learned in one area to improve our work in another; presenting an accurate public-facing picture of our values; and increasing the degree to which, over the long run, our expected impact matches our actual impact. (The latter could be beneficial for our own, and others’, ability to evaluate how we’re doing.)
- Finally, I’ll briefly discuss the key conditions under which worldview diversification seems like a good idea, and give some rough notes on how we currently implement it in practice.
Note that worldview diversification is simply a broad term for putting significant resources behind multiple worldviews - it does not mean anything as specific as “divide resources evenly between worldviews.” This post discusses benefits of worldview diversification, without saying exactly how (or to what degree) one should allocate resources between worldviews. In the future, we hope to put more effort into reflecting on - and discussing - which specific worldviews we find most compelling and how we weigh them against each other.
Also note that this post focuses on deciding how to allocate resources between different plausible already-identified causes, not on the process for identifying promising causes.
The case against worldview diversification
It seems likely that if we had perfect information and perfect insight into our own values, we’d see that some worldviews are much better guides to giving than others. For a relatively clear example, consider GiveWell’s top charities vs. our work so far on farm animal welfare:
- GiveWell estimates that its top charity (Against Malaria Foundation) can prevent the loss of one year of life for every $100 or so.
- We’ve estimated that corporate campaigns can spare over 200 hens from cage confinement for each dollar spent. If we roughly imagine that each hen gains two years of 25%-improved life, this is equivalent to one hen-life-year for every $0.01 spent.
- If you value chicken life-years equally to human life-years, this implies that corporate campaigns do about 10,000x as much good per dollar as top charities. If you believe that chickens do not suffer in a morally relevant way, this implies that corporate campaigns do no good.3
- One could, of course, value chickens while valuing humans more. If one values humans 10-100x as much, this still implies that corporate campaigns are a far better use of funds (100-1,000x). If one values humans astronomically more, this still implies that top charities are a far better use of funds. It seems unlikely that the ratio would be in the precise, narrow range needed for these two uses of funds to have similar cost-effectiveness.
One might therefore imagine that there is some “best worldview” (if we had perfect information) that can guide us to do far more good than any of the others. And if that’s right, one might argue that we should focus exclusively on a “best guess worldview”4 in order to maximize how much good we do in expected value terms. For example, if we think that one worldview seems 10,000x better than the others, even a 1-10% chance of being right would still imply that we can do much more good by focusing on that worldview.
This argument presumes that we are “risk neutral”: that our goal is only to maximize the expected value of how much good we do. That is, it assumes we are comfortable with the “risk” that we make the wrong call, put all of our resources into a misguided worldview, and ultimately accomplish very little. Being risk neutral to such a degree often seems strange to people who are used to investing metaphors: investors rarely feel that the possibility of doubling one’s money fully compensates for the possibility of losing it all, and they generally use diversification to reduce the variance of their returns (they aren’t just focused on expected returns). However, we don’t have the same reasons to fear failure that for-profit investors do. There are no special outsized consequences for “failing to do any good,” as there are for going bankrupt, so it’s a risk we’re happy to take as long as it’s balanced by the possibility of doing a great deal of good. The Open Philanthropy Project aims to be risk neutral in the way laid out here, though there are some other reasons (discussed below) that putting all our eggs in one basket could be problematic.
The case for worldview diversification
I think the case for worldview diversification largely hinges on a couple of key factors:
Strong uncertainty about which worldviews are most reasonable. We recognize that any given worldview might turn out to look misguided if we had perfect information - but even beyond that,
|
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Santorini (official name: Thira, also called "Fira")
Most visitors coming to Santorini (a name derived from "Saint Irene" which was applied to the island during the reign of the Venetians in the 13th century BC) lodge in the main town, Fira, which swells the islands population from approximately 14,000 to 70,000 during peak tourist season in July and August.
The island industry of tourism is paramount, but the local wineries are respected for producing some of the higher rated Greek wines, and visitors are able to tour the vineyards and wineries.
Santorini (official name: Thira)
Size: 28 square miles, the highest point is 1,857 feet (566 meters) on Profitis Ilias. Daily ferry service from Piraeus and regular Olympic Airways flights from Athens to the Santorini airport at Monolithos.
There are some archeological digs on the island (at Akrotira) that reveal multi-story homes and paved streets beneath the layers of ash from a volcanic eruption in 1450-1500 BC (the island was then known as "Stroggli") which wiped out the town and changed the shape of the island from a single round mass into five separate islands: Thira, Thirassia, Palea Kameni, Nea Kameni, and Nisida Strogilo. Habitation is thought to have ceased on the island for nearly 300 years following the destruction. Since no human remains have so far been found in the archeological excavations (ongoing since 1969), it is suggested the eruption was prefaced by warnings that caused the inhabitants to flee before the explosion.
"...the volcanic island of Santorini (Therea in Greek). The worst eruption occurred is 1500 B.C.; the latest in 1956, when all but one building in Phira, the capital, was destroyed. The town was rebuilt as it was, on the rim of the volcano, nine hundred feet above the sea. A monastery of the Prophet Elias crowns the mountain, and on the southern slope are the ruins of the ancient city of Thera with its Doric and Egyptian temples and homes. Directly below is the village of Perissa, which borders a black volcanic beach. The bottom drops off so abruptly that one can dive directly into the sea from the sand."Page 233, Portrait of Greece, by Nicholas Gage, American Heritage Press, 1971.
Fresco wall paintings uncovered at Akrotira show classic imagery of birds, dolphins,and creatures from Africa which seems to demonstrate the island was a meeting place of ancient Minoan and African cultures. There is also pre-Christian religious imagery. The archeological work on Santorini is pursued each summer through the National Archeological Museum in Athens which brings students to advance the careful excavation. The discovery of the buried ancient town happened when the island was being mined for building materials fro the Suez Canal.
Santorini is one of the Cylades Islands that also includes Amorgos, Anafi, Andros, Antiparos, Delos, Ios, Kea, Kimolos, Kythnos, Milos, Mykanos, Naxos, Paros, Folegandros, Serifos, Sifnos, Sikinos, Siros, Tinos, and many other much smaller isles which make up a group counted at 220 altogether. Only Milos and Santorini are volcanic in origin, the other islands are in fact submerged mountains. There are nine volcano's all together in Greece and the Greek Islands.
Santorini is linked to various Aegean legends, one being that the volcano erupted approximately 3500 years ago, destroying Atlantis. Many historians suspect Santorini is, in fact, the remains of the ancient city-state of Atlantis. Scientists have speculated that the 1450 BC eruption at Santorini is responsible for the destruction of the Minoans on Crete, as the wreckage from he force of the volcanic eruption damaged much of the area of the Mediterranean.
[Below: Map of the Aegean showing the location of Santorini)
Santorini sets upon a meeting of the Eurasia and the African plates of the earth, accounting for its violent history. The volcano still emits gas and steam regularly that is measured at a constant temperature of 176 degrees Fahrenheit (80 Celsius), and slabs of lava and pumice are still seen throughout the island. The volcanic haze produced by this activity makes for startling sunsets and images of Santorini are used heavily in advertising for Greek tourism throughout the world. The main beaches on Santorini are Perissa, Kamari and Vlichada which are usually quite hot and footwear is necessary to tread the ashy sand.
The official name of the island "Thira" is apparently derived from the leader of the settlement, Theras, that placed Hellenic culture on the island in 9th century BC. However, there are a number of alternative historical (and linguistic) theories about the origin of the name, most having to do with mythological tales.
[Below: Photo of Santorini, showing the 'caldera,' which is the slope of the volcano wall, stretching down to the water. From the sea, at a distance Santorini appears to be snow-capped because of the white-washed town of Fira. Photo source Wikipedia, image credit Simms.]
Earthquakes, Volcano's, invasion, and Saint Irene
"Santorini is a physical melodrama, a sensation to the eye. It is the whopping exception to the rule that Aegean islands are more notable for their Greekness (such as the white houses of Mykonos) than they are for their natural formation.
The cliffs that bound the western side of Santorini are like a petrified layer cake seven hundred feet high. On top, the white icing of the town of Thira perches precariously and looks as though it may at any moment fall down the cliffs and into the sea. Parts of it frequently have. On Santorini, people have lived for thousands of years with earthquake and volcanic eruption. The island's name could be Cataclysm.
It has so many names one wouldn't matter. To the Phoenicians who colonized it about 2000 B.C. it was Kalliste, meaning "most beautiful." It had five other names, apart from Thira (or Thera or Phira or Fira), from the Spartan who conquered it about 1000 B.C. Then it became Santorin or Santorini, after St Irene of Irini. The old name of Thira, which the town retains, has been officially restored as the name of the island; but only officialdom uses it. The Greeks call it Santorini, not Santorin.
Santorini is also Atlantis, according to Angelos Galanopoulos, professor of Seismology at the University of Athens. He says it was Metropolis, the mother city of the Lost Continent. This engaging theory - - which has the academic respectability of having been propounded at an international science congress in 1960 at Helsinki - - appears to rest on what Plato said Solon said some Egyptian priests said about a sovereign kingdom that existed thereabouts 9,000 years before Solon's time, plus evidence drawn from mythology. However, if ever there was an Atlantis, and it wasn't in the Atlantic, Santorini deserves to have been part of it, after all the place has gone through.
The island, what is left of it, sits on a submarine volcano. This has erupted a dozen times in the A.D. era, and four times in this century, in 1926, 1928, 1939 and 1950. But more damaging than any eruption since a great one in 16540 (the noise was heard ii the Dardanelles), have been earthquakes. Numerologists might warn their children to warn their grandchildren to stay away from Santorini in the year 2056: in 1856 and 1956 the earth quaked so violently that about two thousand houses were destroyed on each occasion."
From Greece, the Unclouded Eye, by Colin Simpson. Pages 80-81, published by Fielding Publications, 1968.
[Below: NASA image of Santorini Island.)
"...Guardians of the Aegean is a new film about overfishing in the Aegean Sea and the collective efforts of committed environmentalists to create a Marine Protected Area in Santorini.
...Pierre-Yves' love of Greece and passion for activism to protect the seas is inherited, of course, from his famous father who spent many years here, sailing on the famed ‘Calypso' and discovering what lay beneath the Aegean."
15 most beautiful islands in the world [Santorini #3] - Travel India
"Admire the blue water of the Aegean Sea and visit beaches with black, red and white sand. The blue and pristine white architecture of Santorini is another marvel to look forward to."
Santorini Bulges as Magma Balloons Underneath - Nat'l Geographic
"Now satellite radar technology has revealed the source of the symptoms. A rush of molten rock swelled the magma chamber under the volcano by some 13 to 26 million cubic yards (10 to 20 million cubic meters)—about 15 times the volume of London's Olympic Stadium—between January 2011 and April 2
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Summer is an anticipated time of the year for the kids. It means that school is out and they can enjoy their summer break while it lasts. During the summer, most kids and families love to spend their time outdoors. But while summer brings a whole lot of fun, it also brings with it the problem of dealing with various kinds of pests. One of the most persistent (and dangerous) of them are mosquitoes. Thankfully, there is a wide array of mosquito-repellent products in the market like mosquito repellent patches, topical lotions, sprays and mosquito coils.
Dealing with mosquitoes has now become easier with many options of products to repel them. You can therefore choose which method is most convenient for your kids. However, convenience is not the only thing that you should look into. It is also important to consider your child’s safety. You want to protect them against mosquitoes while ensuring that they are not at risk in the process too.
Hazards of Mosquito Repellent Products
Mosquito coil is the oldest and number one solution against mosquitoes since they were introduced in the 1950s. The product works by exhibiting fumes that are supposed to repel mosquitoes away. There are several active ingredients contained in each coil but one of the most prominent ingredients used is pyrethrin. This is a chemical compound used in many pesticides.
When the coil is set afire, it melts the coil and releases fumes containing the said pesticide. The fume hangs in the air in order to turn mosquitoes away. The smell of the fume is said to have caused headaches to most people it is exposed to. Therefore, you need to think twice before using a mosquito coil in your kids’ room as it can expose them to the harmful chemical. In fact, studies have shown that mosquito coils have caused severe upper respiratory inflammation and other long term carcinogenic problems to those who regularly use them.
Anti-mosquito lotions and sprays are made with an ingredient known as DEET and citronella. While citronella is safe and natural, DEET has raised safety and health concerns. It is believed to cause skin irritations especially when used in younger children. If you were to use lotions and sprays to fight mosquitoes, it is important to limit usage.
Why Mosquito Repellent Patches Are the Superior Choice?
With all of the risks and health concerns associated with other mosquito repellent products, there is one that doctors would recommend as the best alternative: mosquito repellent patches. Studies have proven that patches are made with natural ingredients that do not irritate the skin or harm your child’s health. It is also very effective and require no to little re-application making it a more economic option for parents without sacrificing protection for their kids.
If you are a parent, you want to protect your kids from insects and other harmful pests. But in an effort to protect them, do not put them in the face of danger too. This is a reminder to put extra caution when choosing mosquito repellent products in the future.
The blood drop which appears when you gargle your teeth with a mouthwash, or brush, has more than one explanation. Bleeding gums may range from a small drop to bleeding that is profuse. It may be accompanied by tenderness, inflammation, redness or pain on the area that is affected. A dentist Calamvale has today will link bleeding gums with certain gum diseases. However, there are many factors that can cause this problem, such as hygienic, lifestyle, environmental, or illness, which can lead to frequent or spontaneous gum bleeding. Before you find dentist Calamvale has to offer, read the below possible causes of bleeding gums.
Poor dental or oral hygiene
You need to practice a regular oral hygiene so as to keep your gum and teeth healthy. You should brush your teeth after every meal so to prevent build up of plagues that can lead to a prolonged damage to the gum and teeth area. Also, habitual and flossing and use of mouthwash are important to prevent inflammation and dental problems. In addition, ensure that a dentist Calamvale has today checks your teeth regularly. Accumulation of bacteria in the mouth leads to build up of plaque that leads to formation of tartar that is not easy to remove from the teeth manually.
Continuous lack of proper oral hygiene leads to a dental problem known as gingivitis, which is the inflammation of gums. It is mostly characterized by frequent redness, swelling and bleeding of the gum. Since the gum is very tender, a slight provocation like brushing the teeth can irritate it leading to bleeding. You should have proper dental checkups by a good dentist in Calamvale, and enhance your oral hygiene to avoid further complications or aggravation, which may require you to undergo a prolonged treatment.
This is a dental disease which is mostly precipitated by gingivitis. It is mostly caused by a bacterium known as periodontal bacteria that naturally live in the mouth since birth. Your mouth is a host of more than seven hundred bacteria that live peacefully when there is no build up of plaque that leads to imbalance and allow harmful multiplication of dangerous bacteria. Poor mouth hygiene is still the largest culprit of periodontal diseases.
Irregular shaped or crooked teeth
Your gum bleeds if irregular or crooked teeth interfere with normal brushing causing undue grazing or friction of the gums and teeth. Also, irregularly shaped teeth may lead to accumulation of food debris between the teeth that can cause swollen and bleeding gums, or even more complicated dental complications requiring the attention of a Calamvale dentist.
Vitamins K or C deficiencies
Some vitamin deficiencies like vitamin C may cause a medical condition known as scurvy that causes gum inflammation, bleeding and pain. Lack of enough servings of vegetables and fresh fruits in your diet is the possible cause of this deficiency. Prolonged intake of antibiotic treatment may also harm micro flora in the intestine that is the main source of vitamin in the body. Vitamin K is the one responsible for blood clotting that prevents bleeding. Check at Aperture Dental
The above are only few possible causes of bleeding teeth. In case you learn that your teeth are bleeding, consider visiting a dentist Calamvalehas, to establish the main cause. The dentist will also offer you advice on the best oral health hygiene practices.
With an expansion in the patient population, it is not just new clinics and doctor offices are increasing, many existing medicinal centers are redesigning strategies as well to better take into account the necessities of the patients. Nevertheless, regardless of the nearness of the offices alongside a Brisbane City GP in various spots, individuals regularly neglect to secure correct treatment for themselves because of their own errors. In this article, these normal missteps that the numerous patients wind up making are discussed when going to a Brisbane city doctor for a consultation:
Withholding Data About Medical Situation
Whether you visit a GP Brisbane city has today or any doctors in Brisbane, not disclosing with regards to your past medical history is most likely the greatest slip-up of all. Going to a facility, for instance, the medical clinic, is not where you hide medical or health conditions, regardless of how awkward you feel. Regularly, patients neglect to comprehend that, by concealing their past records, they are really increasing the threat to their health, as the Brisbane city doctor and specialists will not be able to treat them precisely.
Not Making Any Inquiries through the Consultation Arrangement
Once more, not making any inquiries or not showing your questions to your specialist is another real slip-up that patients should quit making. Medicinal offices or facilities aren’t where you ought to be timid. Rather, it is where you ask your specialists every one of the inquiries you have with respect to your treatment of your health conditions. Doing this will help both the specialist and obviously you to have greater lucidity about your health condition. For more information, visit us at SmartClinics.
Not Minding Your Allergies
Just because the Brisbane city doctor you trust is recommending the drugs, doesn’t mean you agree immediately in case you’re susceptible to allergies. Or maybe you should enlighten your specialist regarding your responses or affectability with the specific sort of medication on the off chance that you have any, so the specialists can endorse substitutes for them. The clinics and facilities are there to help you out, and not make matters worse for your well-being. To guarantee the best treatment for yourself you have to tell your specialist everything, from your dietary patterns to the things you’re allergic to.
Shutting Up when you have Some Worries
It’s essential that you speak up at whatever point you neglect to comprehend anything the Brisbane City GP says to you. Although it has been regularly observed that patients stay quiet all through the whole consultation session, they also return home beginning to get anxious as it wasn’t clear to them on how to take after the guidelines specified on the medicine. Regardless of whether it’s the treatment methodology or the dose of the drugs, if there is anything that you feel that you are confounded about, make a point to speak up and pass on your issues to your specialist.
The more you’ll conceal data or be uncooperative with your specialist, the more distant you’ll get from achieving a sound well-being. To find out about medicinal services or specialists, there are sites like https://www.smartclinics.com.au/location/george-street/ that you may find accommodating in discovering data about the medical clinics and facilities close to your area.
The aged, especially those who have mental conditions like dementia, is one of the most prioritised sectors by the age care industry and the authorities in Australia. In spite of this variety and accessibility, a psychological and financial crisis is still weighing down on the family members, causing a dent to deepen in child-parent relationships.
Dementia – A national responsibility
Even dubbed as an epidemic, dementia is one of the most prevalent diseases in Australia’s aged sector. What’s even more worrying is the rampant spread of stereotyping and misinformation about the disease. Dementia does NOT come with aging, it’s a disease that one catches and
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|Netherlands, also known unofficially as Holland, constitutional monarchy of northwestern Europe, bordered on the north and west by the North Sea, on the east by Germany, and on the south by Belgium. With Belgium and Luxembourg, the Netherlands forms the Low, or Benelux, Countries. The Netherlands Antilles and Aruba, islands in the Caribbean, are part of the Netherlands. The European portion of the Netherlands has a total area of 41,526 sq km (16,033 sq mi), of which 33,939 sq km (13,104 sq mi) is land surface. The country’s capital and largest city is Amsterdam.
In the late 16th century a Dutch revolt against the authority of the king of Spain, at the time ruler of what now constitutes the Low Countries, succeeded in the northern provinces, which later became the Netherlands. The Dutch Republic, officially established in 1648, fell in 1795 when the armies of Revolutionary France imposed a pro-French government. In 1810, France annexed the Netherlands, but with the defeat of Napoleon in 1814 to 1815, the present Dutch state, officially called the Kingdom of the Netherlands, came into being. Originally Belgium was part of this new kingdom, but it seceded in 1830 and formed an independent country. The present boundaries of the Netherlands are essentially those established after the secession of Belgium, although they are similar to the borders of the Dutch Republic.
Land and Resources
The Netherlands, as its name suggests, is a low-lying country. About half of the country’s landmass lies below sea level. This amount would increase should the polar ice caps melt and slowly raise the level of the sea due to global warming. Much of the western part, situated below sea level, is covered with clay and peat soils interspersed with canals, rivers, and arms of the sea. Farther to the east the land lies slightly above sea level and is flat to gently rolling. The elevation rarely exceeds 50 m (164 ft). Most of the land is devoted to agriculture; only small areas of forest and heath remain.
The North Sea coastline of the Netherlands consists mostly of dunes. In the southwest are gaps in the dunes formed by river mouths, creating a delta of islands and waterways. In the north, the dunes were broken through by the sea, thereby creating the West Frisian Islands and behind them a tidal sea called the Waddenzee. Adjacent to the narrow strip of dunes is an area lying below sea level that is protected by dikes and kept dry by continuous mechanical pumping. The former Zuider Zee, a large arm of the sea, is being reclaimed. A dike separating it from the sea was completed in 1932, when work was begun to drain about 225,000 hectares (about 556,000 acres) to form reclaimed land known as polders, such as Flevoland and the Northeast Polder. About three-quarters of the area had been reclaimed by the early 1980s. The remaining freshwater lake is called the IJsselmeer.
On February 1, 1953, the spring tide severely flooded the delta region in the southwest and about 1800 people died. The Delta Plan, launched in 1958 and completed in 1986, was implemented to prevent such flooding. Under the plan, the Dutch shortened the coastline by about 700 km (about 435 mi); developed a system of dikes; and built dams, bridges, locks, and a major canal. The dikes created freshwater lakes and joined some islands.
Most of the eastern half of the Netherlands consists of low-lying land covered by sandy soil deposited by glaciers and rivers. Hilly country (the foothills of the Ardennes) and loam soils are found only in the southern part of Limburg Province. Vaalserberg (321 m/1053 ft), the nation’s highest point, is in this area.
Rivers and Lakes
The major rivers of the Netherlands are the Rhine, flowing from Germany, and its several arms, such as the Waal and Lek rivers; and the Maas (a branch of the Meuse) and the Schelde (Escaut), flowing from Belgium. These rivers and their arms form the delta with its many islands. Together with numerous canals, the rivers give ships access to the interior of Europe.
In the northern and western portions of the Netherlands are many small lakes. Nearly all the larger natural lakes have been pumped dry, but the delta redevelopment program and the reclamation of the Zuider Zee have created numerous new freshwater lakes, the largest being the IJsselmeer.
The Netherlands shares the temperate maritime climate common to much of northern and western Europe. The average temperature range in Vlissingen in the coastal region is 1° to 5° C (34° to 41° F) in January and 14° to 21° C (57° to 69° F) in July. In De Bilt, in the densely populated central region of the country, the average range is -1° to 4° C (31° to 40° F) in January and 13° to 22° C (55° to 72° F) in July. Annual precipitation averages 690 mm (27 in) in Vlissingen and 770 mm (30 in) in De Bilt. Cloudless days are uncommon, as is prolonged frost. Because the Netherlands has few natural barriers, such as high mountains, the climate varies little from region to region.
Vegetation and Animal Life
The natural landscape of the Netherlands has been altered by humans in many ways over the centuries. Because land is scarce and fully exploited, areas of natural vegetation are not extensive. The tall grasses of the dunes and the heather of the heaths continue to provide habitats for rabbits, but larger wildlife, such as deer, have disappeared except in parks. The remnants of oak, beech, ash, and pine forests are carefully managed. Land reclamation projects have created new habitats for many species of migratory birds.
The Netherlands was long thought to be poor in mineral resources. Peat, used as fuel, was dug in several regions, and southern Limburg Province was known to contain coal deposits. Salt also was produced. In the 1950s and 1960s great natural-gas reserves were discovered in Groningen Province. Smaller deposits of crude petroleum are located in the northeastern and western parts of the country.
The natural environment of the Netherlands is vulnerable to pollution and destruction. A number of national parks and nature preserves have been established to preserve portions of the natural landscape. The Netherlands is active in international efforts to clean the waters of the Rhine River, and some citizens seek to prevent land reclamation and the building of dikes in an effort to preserve natural environments.
The great majority of inhabitants of the Netherlands are Dutch. They are mainly descended from Franks, Frisians, and Saxons. Most residents of Friesland Province are Frisian, a distinct cultural group with its own language. Fearing overpopulation, the government encouraged Dutch emigration after World War II (1939-1945), and some 500,000 people left. But an even larger number of people entered the Netherlands—Europeans and Asians from the former Netherlands Indies dependency (now part of Indonesia); industrial workers from Turkey, Morocco, and other Mediterranean countries; and, more recently, residents of Suriname, also a former Dutch dependency, and the Netherlands Antilles. Consequently, the country’s population, particularly in the large cities, now includes several ethnic minorities.
According to a 1995 estimate, the Netherlands has a population of about 15,499,000. The overall population density is about 373 persons per sq km (about 967 per sq mi), making the Netherlands one of the most densely populated countries in the world. The nation is heavily urbanized, with about 89 percent of the population living in urban areas. The largest cities are Amsterdam (population, 1993 estimate, 719,856), the country’s capital; Rotterdam (596,023), one of the world’s leading seaports; The Hague (444,661), the nation’s seat of government; and Utrecht (234,170), a manufacturing hub. Sixteen other cities had between 100,000 and 200,000 inhabitants. Many of these cities are concentrated in the western provinces of Noord-Holland (North Holland), Zuid-Holland (South Holland), and Utrecht, comprising the large urban region called Randstad.
The official language of the Netherlands is Dutch, which is spoken throughout the country. In the province of Friesland, however, a large percentage of the population speaks another Germanic language, Frisian, as its first language. See Dutch Language; Frisian Language.
Roman Catholics constitute about 33 percent and Protestants 23 percent of the Dutch population. About 3 percent are adherents of Islam, and the country also has a small Jewish community. About 39 percent of the people do not belong to a religious body. The Roman Catholics are concentrated in the southern part of the country. The Protestants are divided among several denominations, the largest being the Dutch Reformed church. The
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1991,
1990,
1992,
1993,
1994,
1995,
1996,
1998,
1997,
1999,
2000,
2002,
2003,
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2019,
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2022,
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2032,
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] |
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[
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2,048
| 1.902125
|
Irish cuisine – Introduction to Cuisine of Ireland
Irish cuisine is the style of cooking that originated from Ireland, or was developed by the Irish people. It has evolved from centuries of social and political change, and the mixing of the different cultures in Ireland, predominantly the English and Irish (and, in Ulster, the Scottish). The cuisine is founded upon the crops and animals farmed in its temperate climate.
- 1. GEOGRAPHIC SETTING AND ENVIRONMENT
- 2. HISTORY AND FOOD
- 3. FOODS OF THE IRISH
- 4. FOOD FOR RELIGIOUS AND HOLIDAY CELEBRATIONS
- 5. MEALTIME CUSTOMS
- 6. POLITICS, ECONOMICS, AND NUTRITION
- 7. FURTHER STUDY
1. GEOGRAPHIC SETTING AND ENVIRONMENT
Ireland, or officially the Republic of Ireland, is an island nation in the North Atlantic Ocean. (The northernmost part of the island is Northern Ireland, which is part of the United Kingdom.) Almost 20 percent of the land is devoted to farming. Less than 10 percent of farmland is used to grow crops and the majority is used as grazing land for livestock.
2. HISTORY AND FOOD
The arrival of the Anglo-Normans in Ireland in 1169 affected both farming and diet in Ireland. (Anglo-Normans are the Normans who remained in England after the Norman Conquest. Led by William the Conqueror, the Normans came from the Normandy region of France in 1066.) Wheat, peas, and beans became staple foods and people began preparing more elaborate dishes. Food customs were also changing, as French and Italian cooking customs influenced the upper-class cuisine.
The potato was introduced to Ireland by the late 1500s. Within 200 years it had replaced older staples, including oats and dairy products. The potato became the mainstay of the Irish diet. In the 1840s, the country’s heavy reliance on potatoes led to the disaster known as the Irish Potato Famine. Most Irish farmers grew one particular variety of
potato, which turned out to be highly sensitive to disease. A potato blight that had started in Belgium swept the country. It destroyed one-third of Ireland’s potato crop in 1845 and triggered widespread famine. In the next two years, two-thirds of the crop was destroyed.
More than one million people died as a result of the potato blight, and two million emigrated (moved away) to other countries. Even though they had suffered through the Irish Potato Famine (also called the Great Famine), Irish people continued to love potatoes. As soon as the spread of the disease stopped, the potato returned its place as the staple food in the Irish diet. Farmers began to spray their crops with chemicals to protect them from disease. As of 2001 the Irish were consuming more potatoes than most
countries in the world.
3. FOODS OF THE IRISH
Irish food is known for the quality and freshness of its ingredients. Most cooking is done without herbs or spices, except for salt and pepper. Foods are usually served without sauce or gravy.
The staples of the Irish diet have traditionally been potatoes, grains (especially oats), and dairy products. Potatoes still appear at most Irish meals, with potato scones, similar to biscuits or muffins, a specialty in the north.
The Irish have also been accomplished cheesemakers for centuries. Ireland makes about fifty types of homemade “farmhouse” cheeses, which are considered delicacies.
Soups of all types, seafood, and meats also play important roles in the Irish diet. Irish soups are thick, hearty, and filling, with potatoes, seafood, and various meats being common ingredients. Since their country is surrounded by water, the Irish enjoy many types of seafood, including salmon, scallops, lobster, mussels, and oysters.
However, meat is eaten more frequently at Irish meals. The most common meats are beef, lamb, and pork. A typical Irish dinner consists of potatoes (cooked whole), cabbage, and meat.
Irish stew has been recognized as the national dish for at least two centuries. A poem from the early 1800s praised Irish stew for satisfying the hunger of anyone who ate it:
Then hurrah for an Irish Stew
That will stick to your belly like glue.
Bread is an important part of Irish culture. Fresh soda bread, a crusty brown bread made from whole-wheat flour and buttermilk, is a national dish of Ireland. Irish bakers don’t stop with soda bread, however. They bake a wide variety of other hearty breads and cakes.
The most common everyday beverage in Ireland is tea. Popular alcoholic beverages include whiskey, beer, and ale. Coffee mixed with whiskey and whipped cream is known throughout the world as “Irish coffee.”
Traditional Irish Stew
- 4 potatoes, thinly sliced
- 4 medium onions, thinly sliced
- 6 carrots, sliced
- 1 pound Canadian bacon, chopped
- 3 pounds lamb chops, 1-inch thick, trimmed, and cut into small pieces
- Salt and pepper to taste
- 2½ cups water
- 4 potatoes, halved
- Fresh parsley, finely chopped
- To make Irish stew, all the ingredients are assembled in layers in a large stew pot.
- Begin with layers of sliced potatoes, onions, and carrots.
- Top with a layer of Canadian bacon and lamb.
- Sprinkle liberally with salt and pepper.
- Repeat these steps until all the ingredients are used.
- Add enough water to just cover the ingredients.
- Arrange the halved potatoes on top of the stew, but not in contact with the water, so they can steam as the rest is cooking.
- Simmer over a very low heat for about 2 hours.
- Sprinkle liberally with the chopped parsley and serve in soup bowls.
Makes 4 to 6 servings.
Irish Soda Bread, loaded with raisins and caraway seeds, is cut into wedges and served with sweet butter.
Irish Soda Bread
- 4 cups flour
- 1 teaspoon baking soda
- 1 teaspoon salt
- ¾ cup raisins
- 2 Tablespoons caraway seeds
- 1 cup buttermilk
- Preheat oven to 425°F.
- Mix flour, baking soda, and salt in a bowl. Add raisins and caraway seeds.
- Add buttermilk all at once and mix.
- Knead the dough on a lightly floured board. (To knead, press the dough flat, fold it in half, turn the dough, and repeat.) Form into a round loaf on a well-greased baking sheet.
- With a knife, carefully mark an X across the top of the loaf. Lay a piece of foil over the loaf. Bake for 5 minutes.
- Lower heat to 250°F and bake 30 minutes more. Remove foil and bake another 10 minutes, until the loaf is slightly browned.
- Cut into wedges and serve with butter.
Serves 10 to 12.
Corned Beef with Cabbage
- 4 pounds corned brisket of beef
- 3 large carrots, cut into large chunks
- 6 to 8 small onions
- 1 teaspoon dry mustard
- ¼ teaspoon thyme
- ¼ teaspoon parsley
- 1 head of cabbage (remove two layers of outer leaves)
- Salt and pepper
- Boiled potatoes as accompaniment
- Place brisket in a large pot. Top with carrots, onions, mustard, thyme, and parsley.
- Cover with cold water, and heat until the water just begins to boil.
- Cover the pot with the lid, lower the heat, and simmer the mixture for 2 hours.
- Using a large knife, cut the cabbage into quarters, and add the cabbage wedges to the pot.
- Cook for another 1 to 2 hours or until the meat and vegetables are soft and tender.
- Remove the vegetables to a platter or bowl, cover with foil, and keep them warm.
- Remove the brisket, place it on a cutting board, and slice it.
- Serve the corned beef slices on a platter, surrounded by the vegetables.
- Ladle a little of the cooking liquid over the meat and vegetables.
Serves 12 to 16.
This is one of the most widely eaten potato dishes in Ireland.
- 6 to 8 baking potatoes, unpeeled
- 1 bunch scallions
- 1½ cups milk
- 4 to 8 Tablespoons butter (to taste)
- Salt and pepper
- Scrub potatoes (do not peel), place them in a pot, and cover them with water.
- Heat the water to boiling, and cook the potatoes until they can be pierced with a fork (about 25 minutes).
- Finely chop the scallions (use both the white bulbs and the green stems) and put them in a small saucepan.
- Cover the scallions with the milk and bring slowly just to a boil.
- Simmer for about 3 to 4 minutes, stirring constantly with a wooden spoon. Turn off the heat and let the mixture stand.
- Peel and mash the hot boiled potatoes in a saucepan. Add the milk and scallions mixture and beat well.
- Beat in the butter. Season to taste with salt and pepper.
- Serve in 1 large or 4 individual bowls with a pat of butter melting in the center of each serving. May be reheated.
Serves 4 to 6.
4. FOOD FOR RELIGIOUS AND HOLIDAY CELEBRATIONS
The most festive
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]
] |
[
2048
] |
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