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Evangelical Free Church can refer to the Evangelical Free Church of America, an evangelical Protestant denomination based in the United States.
Evangelical Free Church may also refer to:
Denominations
Evangelical Free Church of Canada, an evangelical Protestant denomination based in Canada
Evangelical Free Church of China, a Protestant denomination headquartered in Hong Kong
Evangelical Free Church of Malaysia, an evangelical denomination headquartered in Malacca
Japan Evangelical Free Church
Other
Evangelical Free Church (Southbridge, Massachusetts), a historic church in that town | wiki |
Meadow's syndrome or Meadows syndrome can refer to:
Münchausen syndrome by proxy, named for Roy Meadow, who characterized it in 1977
Postpartum cardiomyopathy, named for William Meadows, who characterized it in 1957 | wiki |
Numbers on the Irish telephone numbering plan are regulated and assigned to operators by ComReg.
Overview
Telephone numbers in Ireland are part of an open numbering plan that allows variations in number length. The Irish format is similar to systems used in many parts of Europe, notably the Netherlands, Sweden, Germany, Belgium and France, where geographical numbers are organised using a logic of large regional prefixes, which are then further subdivided into smaller regions. It differs from UK numbering, which originated as alphanumeric codes based on town names.
Irish Mobile and non–geographic numbers are fixed length and do not support local dialling.
The trunk prefix 0 is used to access numbers outside the local area and for all mobile calls. This is followed by an area code, referred to as a National Dialling Code (NDC), the first digit of which indicates the geographical area or type of service (e.g. mobile).
Calls made from mobile phones and some VoIP systems always require the full area code and phone number.
In common with most European countries, the trunk prefix 0 must be omitted when calling Irish numbers from abroad.
General structure of Irish numbering
Irish area codes vary in length, between one and three digits (excluding the leading 0), and subscribers' numbers are between five and seven digits.
As optional local dialling is facilitated, Irish geographic numbers cannot begin with 0 (trunk prefix), 1 (special number prefix) or 999 (emergency services). However, mobile numbers use the full range of digits, as local dialling is not supported on mobile networks, and the area code must always be dialled.
A migration to a standard format, 0xx xxx xxxx, is in progress; however, to avoid disruption, this process is only being carried out as needed, where existing area codes and local numbering systems have reached full capacity. There is currently no plan to move to a closed numbering system.
Number formats
Irish geographic numbers vary in length from area to area, but follow standard formats within each area code.
The area code, or prefix, is normally separated by a space, or less commonly, may be displayed in parentheses (brackets). Numbers are usually grouped into easy to read clusters, separated by spaces or hyphens for ease of use.
The use of spaces is recommended by ComReg for ease of compatibility with online services, such as linking to a phone number in a mobile browser, copying and pasting into mobile diallers etc
Other characters, such as / or . are not used as separators.
Area codes / prefixes are always separated from the subscriber number. Merging or reformatting these tends to cause confusion or make numbers look unfamiliar.
While formats vary, numbers are usually printed (e.g. in telephone directories) as follows:
Geographic:
01 XXX XXXX – Dublin area
0XX XXX XXXX – All other 7-digit areas
0XX XXX XXX – 6-digit areas
0XX XXXXX – 5-digit areas
0X0X XXXXX – 5-digit areas
Non-geographic
1800 XXX XXX – Freephone/Toll Free
0818 XXX XXX – Standard Rate
Mobile
08X XXX XXXX
Mobile M2M (Machine to Machine)
088 XXXXX XXXXX
Alphanumeric dialling, using letters as mnemonics for advertising etc is supported, but is rarely used.
Geographical numbering
Irish geographical numbering is structured on a regional basis and follows a logical hierarchy.
These directory areas correspond approximately to the following geographical regions:
01 – Greater Dublin Area
02 – Cork
04 – Northeast
05 – Southeast
06 – Midwest and Southwest
07 – Northwest
09 – West
The Midlands is covered by several regional codes.
Except for the 01 area, each area is further subdivided into smaller areas (NDCs). Usually, the main city or town in the area is 0x1 e.g. 021 (Cork), 061 (Limerick), 091 (Galway).
Regional overview
ComReg maintains a map of area codes here.
Mobile services
Mobile phone numbers start with the prefix 08x and are part of a closed numbering plan, which means that a mobile phone number must have 10 digits. Calls to landlines and other mobiles require the area code on a mobile phone.
New numbers are assigned on prefixes and ranges managed by a specific operator. However, as full mobile number portability has been in operation since 2003, it is no longer possible to reliably identify which network a particular number is on. For example, a newly assigned Three number would begin with 083, but may have been ported to another operator in the meantime.
Mobile network operators (MNOs)
Mobile virtual network operators (MVNOs)
M2M (Machine to Machine) Communication
Direct to voicemail number
Mobile phone numbers also have their own voicemail number. To access this, the number 5 should be put after the prefix. For example, the mobile number 08x xxx xxxx has the voicemail number 08x 5 xxx xxxx.
On some networks, when the direct to voicemail number is called, the voicemail greeting for that network is played (e.g. Vodafone, eir Mobile), while others request a phone number followed by the voicemail greeting for that number (e.g. Three). Users can press the hash key (#) to gain access to the voicemail box.
Calls to Northern Ireland
Although Northern Ireland is part of the UK numbering plan, a special arrangement exists for calling Northern Irish landlines from the Republic of Ireland.
Calls to Northern Ireland can be dialled using the 048 prefix or by dialling the number in the full international format. Most Irish operators treat calls to Northern Ireland at national or even local rates. Similar charging arrangements apply when calling the Republic of Ireland from Northern Ireland.
For example, to reach Belfast landline 90xx xxxx, subscribers can dial either 048 90xx xxxx or 00 44 28 90xx xxxx.
Northern Ireland mobile phones use the same mobile numbering and networks as other parts of the UK – calls must be dialled using the 00 44 7xxx xxx xxx format.
International calls
In common with all EU countries, the international access code is 00.
Numbers should be dialled as follows: 00 – country code – area code – local number.
All mobile phones and some VoIP services also support the international E.164 number format, so a + may be optionally used instead of 00.
Reserved numbers
03 – reserved for future changes in the numbering plan
07 – all except 0707, 0700, 071, 074 and 076 are reserved without assigned purpose
0707 – reserved for personal numbering
0800 – reserved
Special numbers
00 – international access
020 91x xxxx – drama use (although the rest of 020 is free)
0700 – personal numbering
076 – VoIP services – (being withdrawn.)
080 – mailbox for landline users (formerly access code for Northern Ireland)
089 011 0xxx – drama use
Speed dial short numbers to contact carriers
1901 – eir
1902 – Digiweb
1903 – Tesco Mobile
1904 – BT Ireland
1905 – eir mobile
1907 – Vodafone Ireland
1908 – Virgin Mobile Ireland
1913 – Three Ireland
1910 – Magnet Networks
1977 – NUACOM Ireland
Operator services
General operator assistance no longer exists in Ireland.
118xx – Directory enquiries (multiple commercial providers offer a variety of services in this number range)
Emergency services
The emergency number for Ireland is 112. This is harmonised across the EU.
To avoid confusion, the long–established 999 continues to be advertised alongside 112. Either number can be dialed.
Services provided
Ambulance
Garda Síochána
Fire and rescue
Irish Coast Guard
Cliff and mountain rescue
SMS emergency service
112 can also be contacted by SMS. While the service is open to all users, it is primarily aimed at the deaf community.
Pre-registration used to be required. Further information can be found at .
Premium rate numbers
Premium rate voice
Irish premium rate telephone numbers start with 15 and are read in two-digit blocks e.g. 1550 is "fifteen fifty".
The rates given below are from ComReg and are indicative only. One must check with their specific telephone service provider for exact rates.
Premium rate SMS
A special 50XXX code is used for free–of–charge SMS.
Premium rate services in Ireland are regulated by ComReg.
Non–geographic numbers (Freephone & Standard rate)
Irish non-geographic numbers consist of two national prefixes and the international freephone service.
0818 – Charged as landline call, and are included in bundled minutes. 6-digit numbers in the format 0818 XXX XXX
1800 – Freephone / toll free (from all Irish mobile and landlines. 6-digit numbers in the format 1800 xxx xxx
00 800 – Freephone / toll free (from all Irish mobile and landlines. 8-digit numbers in the format 00 800 xxxx xxxx
Where high volume 'bursty traffic' is anticipated, such as on-air radio competition lines, the first two digits of the phone number are always 71. For example:
1800 71x xxx or 0818 71x xxx. This allows the telephone network to manage traffic during number analysis, even before the call is routed.
Ireland's non-geographic numbers and pricing structures were simplified and old shared-cost prefixes were withdrawn on 1 January 2022.
These changes mean that calls to non-geographic numbers are either freephone, or always included in call bundles, ensuring consumers are not confused by out of bundle, or other unusual charges.
Due to the COVID-19 crisis, several numbers in the 1850 and 1890 ranges will remain in service until 2023. This is to avoid disruption to essential health services during a time of high volumes of calls. These will remain in service until 30 November 2023, alongside new numbers that have replaced them. Advertising of these numbers will cease. Calls to these numbers will be charged on the same basis as calls to landlines or 0818 and included in call bundles.
Freephone numbers are free to call from mobile handsets; however, the recipient can elect to refuse mobile–originated calls or choose to accept calls only from predefined geographical region(s).
NB: 1800 can only be dialled from within Ireland. Numbers should never be printed or presented in the international format +353 1800 as these clash with working Dublin landline numbers in the 01 area +353 1 800 xxxx. Alternative geographic numbers, or an 0818 number should be used instead, if international access is required.
Following a 2019 review of non–geographic numbers Comreg decided to withdraw and close the 1850, 1890 and 076 number ranges by 1 January 2022. During the transition period, these ranges were geo–rated (charged as if they are geographical numbers).
From August 2019, various telecoms providers announced price changes which took effect on, or just before, 1 December 2019, including Virgin Media Business, in2tel, Virgin Media, eir, Tesco Mobile, Three, Digiweb, Pure Telecom, 48 months and Sky.
From 1 January 2022 callers to the withdrawn prefixes receive recorded announcements.
Internet access numbers
1891 – reduced cost internet access (possibly timed)
1892 – local rate internet access (timed)
1893 – variable cost internet access (timed)
Carrier selection (per call)
13xxx – carrier selection (third party long distance, international and internet services). These codes override the default carrier.
Carrier preselect is normally used where the exchange automatically uses the customer's preferred provider(s).
Network engineering codes
199xxx... – network operator-specific engineering codes (undefined length). These codes are generally not published.
Line information codes
These services give the user more information about their phone line (applicable only to lines provided using the OpenEir access network.)
Check phone number associated with line / automatic number announcement circuit (ANAC)
199000 – reads out the subscriber's telephone number.
Check preset carrier
Check which carrier a subscriber is using for each category of call:
19800 – international calls
19822 – local calls
19801 – calls to other parts of the Republic of Ireland, Irish mobile numbers and landlines in Northern Ireland.
Voicemail
171 – used to access voicemail on all networks: fixed line (POTS and Cable), all mobile operators and many VoIP providers.
Call management services / supplementary service codes
Special short codes are used to control various supplementary services offered by digital local exchanges. These services were first introduced as PhonePlus in 1981, on the first generation of Alcatel E10 and Ericsson AXE digital exchanges used in Ireland, and were rolled out nationally throughout the 1980s.
These services are available on all Irish PSTN lines, regardless of operator. There is a more expansive range of services available, but these are the most commonly used. Different codes apply on cable telephony lines, such as those provided by Virgin Media Ireland and on VoIP providers.
PSTN lines and some ISDN services
Caller ID services
141 – caller ID default override – withhold caller ID on this call
142 – caller ID default override – present caller ID on this call
1471 – check last missed call. The system will verbally announce details of the last missed call
#93# – delete missed call information from network memory
Call waiting
*43# – setup
*#43# – check status
#43# – cancel
Answering call waiting
R0 – reject call (or send to voicemail) and temporarily suspend call waiting service for this call.
R1 – answer waiting call and disconnect current call.
R2 – answer waiting call and place current call on hold/or swap between calls.
R3 – merge both calls into a three–way call.
Conference/three–way calling
While on a phone call a subscriber can press the R key on their phone and dial the number they wish to add to the conversation.
Dial R3 to begin conference/three–way call.
R2 allows a subscriber to separate the calls and swap between them.
Call hold / transfer to another extension
R – places call on hold. Hang up and telephone will ring until call on hold is picked up again.
Call forwarding (unconditional)
*21*(phone number)# – forward all calls to (phone number)
*#21# – check status
#21# – deactivate
When this service is active, the dial tone changes to a two–frequency 'siren' tone.
Alarm / reminder call
*55*[time in 4–digit 24h format]# e.g. for 8:30 am dial *55*0830#
*#55# – check status
#55# – cancel
Most exchanges confirm setup with a verbal announcement; however, some exchanges may use a ringing tone to indicate successful service setup and a busy tone to indicate an error/invalid code.
Services on Virgin Media Ireland cable network
(Codes are unique to Virgin Media Ireland and do not follow ETSI guidelines)
Caller ID services
141 – caller ID default override – withhold caller ID on this call
142 – caller ID default override – present caller ID on this call
Call forwarding
Call forwarding (unconditional)
*70 – immediately followed by (phone number)
#70 – deactivate
Forwarding to voicemail
*75 – activate when busy
#75 – deactivate when busy
*77 – forward if unanswered
#77 – deactivate if unanswered
Call waiting
*72 – activate
#72 – deactivate
Answering call waiting
R1 – answer waiting call and disconnect current call.
R2 – answer waiting call and place current call on hold or swap between calls.
Anonymous call rejection
*90 – activate
#90 – deactivate
Redial last number called
##
The subscriber will either hear a tone or a voice message to confirm services have been set up or deactivated.
Mobiles
GSM supplementary service codes – All of Ireland's mobile providers use the standard GSM codes to control special services such as call forwarding, barring, call waiting etc.
Number changes
Several major number changes have occurred since 1990. The telephone number changes in Dublin and Cork took several years to complete, as they were busier area codes with few available lead digits.
Other number changes took place in just one step, with all numbers being changed simultaneously.
To minimise disruption simultaneous working was enabled, allowing old numbers to remain mapped and active for a run-in period of one year. Caller ID only displayed the new numbers. This was followed by recorded announcements which remained active for at least a year, advising callers of the number change. Eventually this would be replaced by a dialling error message.
1990–1994
Dublin (01) changes to 7-digits.
All local numbers with the area code 01 changed from 6–digits to 7–digits in five stages between 1990 and 1994:
On 2 April 1990, numbers beginning with 23, 24, 26, 27, 28, 70 and 79 were prefixed with 6.
On 8 April 1991, numbers beginning with 8 and 69 were prefixed with 2.
On 4 April 1992, numbers beginning with 4 and the remaining 6–digit numbers beginning with 2 were prefixed with 8. Numbers beginning with 95 and 98 were prefixed with 2.
On 24 April 1993, numbers beginning with 75, 780, 781, 782, 783 and 784 were prefixed with 4, while numbers beginning with 60, 61, 68, 71, 76, 77, 785and 789 were prefixed with 6, and numbers beginning with 72, 73, 74, 786, 787 and 788 were prefixed with 8.
On 16 April 1994, numbers beginning with 3 were prefixed with 8, while numbers beginning with 5 and 9 were prefixed with 4.
1998–2000
Cork (021) changes to 7 digits.
All local numbers with the area code 021 changed from 6–digits to 7–digits in two stages.
From September 1998, numbers beginning with 40 were prefixed with 2, while numbers beginning with 43 and 33 were prefixed by 7.
From February 2000, numbers beginning with 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8 or 9 were prefixed with 4.
2000–2001
All local numbers with the area code 041 changed from 5–digit to 7–digit. Numbers in the Drogheda minimum numbering area (MNA) were prefixed by 98 and in the Ardee MNA by 68.
All local numbers with the area code 042 changed from 5–digit to 7–digit. Numbers in the Dundalk MNA were prefixed by 93, in the Carrickmacross MNA by 96 and the Castleblayney MNA by 97.
All local numbers with the area code 049 changed from 5–digit to 7–digit. Numbers in the Cavan MNA were prefixed by 43, in the Cootehill MNA by 55, in the Oldcastle MNA by 85 and the Belturbet MNA by 95.
All local numbers with the area code 065 changed from 5–digit to 7–digit. Numbers in the Ennis MNA were prefixed by 68, in the Ennistymon MNA by 70 and the Kilrush MNA by 90.
All local numbers with the area code 066 changed from 5–digit to 7–digit. Numbers in the Tralee MNA were prefixed by 71, in the Dingle MNA by 91, in the Cahirciveen MNA by 94 and the Killorglin MNA by 97.
The prefix 080 was previously used for calls to Northern Ireland, but this changed to 048 following the Big Number Change.
2002–2003
Area codes in parts of counties Meath and Offaly were merged into the single area code 046, including Navan, Nobber, Kells, Trim, Enfield and Edenderry. The 0405 area code was abolished. All local numbers became 7–digit.
All local numbers with the area code 056 changed from 5–digit to 7–digit. Numbers in the Kilkenny MNA were prefixed by 77, in the Castlecomer MNA by 44 and the Freshford MNA by 88.
Area codes in County Carlow and parts of counties Kildare, Kilkenny, Laois and Wicklow were merged into a new area code 059, including Carlow, Muine Bheag, Athy and Baltinglass. The area codes abolished were 0503, 0507 and 0508. All local numbers became 7–digit.
Area codes in County Sligo and County Leitrim and parts of counties Cavan, Donegal and Roscommon were merged into the single area code 071, including Sligo, Boyle, Carrick-on-Shannon, Drumshanbo, Manorhamilton. The area codes abolished were 072, 078 and 079. All local numbers became 7–digit.
The majority of area codes in County Donegal were merged into the single area code 074, including Letterkenny, Lifford, Ramelton, Buncrana, Dungloe and Donegal. The area codes abolished were 073, 075 and 077. All local numbers became 7–digit.
Area codes in parts of counties Galway, Offaly, Roscommon, Westmeath and Longford were merged into a new area code 090, including Athlone, Banagher (North), Ballinasloe, Roscommon, Portumna. The area codes abolished were 0902, 0903 and 0905. All local numbers became 7–digit.
Area codes in parts of counties Galway, Mayo, Roscommon and Sligo were merged into the single area code 094, including Castlebar, Swinford, Claremorris, Ballinrobe, Castlerea and Ballaghaderreen. The area codes abolished were 0907 and 092. All local numbers became 7–digit.
2005–2007
All local numbers with the area code 044 changed from 5–digit to 7–digit. Numbers in the Rochfortbridge MNA were prefixed by 92, in the Mullingar MNA by 93 and the Castlepollard MNA by 96.
Area codes in County Wexford and parts of counties Carlow and Wicklow were merged into the single area code 053, including Wexford, Enniscorthy, Ferns and Gorey. The area codes abolished were 054and 055. All local numbers became 7–digit.
Area codes in counties Laois and Offaly and parts of counties Galway and Westmeath were merged into the single area code 057, including Portlaoise, Abbeyleix, Tullamore and Birr. The area codes abolished were 0502, 0506 and 0509. All local numbers became 7–digit.
2009–2010
All local numbers with the area code 023 changed from 5–digit to 7–digit. Numbers in the Bandon MNA beginning with 2, 3, 4, 5, 7 and 8 were prefixed by 88, while numbers beginning with 6 were prefixed by 66.
All local numbers with the area code 043 changed from 5–digit to 7–digit. Numbers in the Longford MNA were prefixed by 33 and in the Edgeworthstown MNA by 66.
All local numbers with the area code 052 changed from 5–digit to 7–digit. Numbers in the Clonmel MNA were prefixed by 61, in the Cahir MNA by 74 and the Killenaule MNA by 91.
All local numbers with the area code 064 changed from 5–digit to 7–digit. Numbers in the Killarney MNA were prefixed by 66 and in the Rathmore MNA by 77.
Mobile numbering
Mobile numbering became 7–digit in the mid–1990s
Possible future changes
All local numbers with the area code 01 are currently 7–digits, but may change to 8–digits in the future, although breaking the city into separate area codes would match the rest of the national system.
A review and public consultation on the future of Ireland's numbering plan was undertaken.
Historical numbering
Defunct non-geographic codes
1850 – Local rate, shared cost, untimed
1890 – Local rate, shared cost, timed
076 or +353 76 – VoIP services
All of the above were withdrawn on 1 January 2022.
Defunct access codes
16 – former international access code
03 – formerly used for calls to Great Britain. The format was 03 + NDC code + local number.
08 – formerly used for Northern Ireland landlines
084 – formerly used for Belfast landlines
Defunct operator services
10 – national operator assistance (withdrawn in 2007)
114 – international operator assistance (withdrawn in 2007)
910 – operator-assisted calls to some areas without direct dialling (withdrawn in the early 1980s)
1190 – Telecom Éireann national directory assistance (withdrawn in the early 2000s and replaced with 11811, originally 190)
1197 – Telecom Éireann UK directory assistance (withdrawn in the early 2000s and replaced with 11818, originally 197)
1198 – Telecom Éireann international directory assistance (withdrawn in the early 2000s and replaced with 11818, originally 198)
191 – Telecom Éireann repair services (withdrawn in the late 1990s)
196 – telemessaging services, whereby callers could ask an operator to send a postcard with a printed message (withdrawn in the late 1990s)
A range of numbers from 192, 193 and 194 were once used for various Telecom Éireann customer service and account service lines.
Defunct information services
1191 – speaking clock (withdrawn on 27 August 2018)
Historical Northern Ireland access codes
before 2000: 08 followed by Northern Irish area code and phone number e.g. Belfast 01232 xxx xxx was reached by dialling 08 01232 xxx xxx.
Belfast could previously be reached by dialling 084 in place of the UK area code 0232.
Historical Great Britain access codes
Until the early 1990s, the 03 numbering range was originally used for calls to Great Britain, including the Channel Islands and the Isle of Man, with the Irish prefix 030 replacing the UK trunk code 0.
Calls to British cities using the director telephone system were also possible using shorter codes:
031 – London (01)
032 – Birmingham (021)
033 – Edinburgh (031)
034 – Glasgow (041)
035 – Liverpool (051)
036 – Manchester (061)
031 was replaced with 03071 and 03081 when 01 was split into the area codes 071 and 081 in 1990.
Use of 03 for this purpose was discontinued in 1993, when the international access code changed from 16 to 00, with calls to Great Britain (but not Northern Ireland) requiring the country code +44 and the area code in full.
See also
List of dialling codes in the Republic of Ireland
References
Sources
ITU allocations list
External links
Comreg homepage
Comreg:Geographic Numbering Areas (pdf)
Ireland
Republic of Ireland-related lists | wiki |
A motor fuel is a fuel that is used to provide power to the motor in motor vehicles.
Currently, the majority of motor vehicles worldwide are powered by gasoline or diesel. Other energy sources include ethanol, biodiesel, propane, compressed natural gas (CNG), electric batteries, and hydrogen (either using fuel cells or combustion). There are also cars that use a hybrid of different power sources. The use of alternative fuels is increasing, especially in Europe. Before deciding on a particular fuel type, some factors should be considered:
The profitability of a solution.
The workload in relation to one's own driving performance - if someone drives short distances, he will have very little benefit for himself and the environment.
The refueling / charging infrastructure should be sufficiently developed so that one can use its vehicle flexibly without worry about finding a filling station.
See also
Alternative fuel vehicle
Biofuel
Ethanol fuel
Fuel gas
Fuel oil
Diesel fuel
References
Fuels | wiki |
The Business Court (, , ) in Belgium is a court which deals with commercial litigation that exceeds the competence of the Justice of the Peace and hears appeals against the decisions of the Justice of the Peace in commercial cases. It is not a division of the Court of First Instance because commercial law is not a branch of civil law in Belgium. There is a Commercial Court in each judicial arrondissement of Belgium.
Before 1 November 2018, the court was named the Commercial Court (, and ).
References
Judiciary of Belgium | wiki |
Hitman 2: Silent Assassin is a 2002 stealth video game developed by IO Interactive and published by Eidos Interactive for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 2, Xbox and GameCube. The game was re-released for Windows through the Steam online distribution service, and a DRM-free version was later made available through GOG.com. It is the second installment in the Hitman video game series and the sequel to Hitman: Codename 47. The single-player story once again follows Agent 47, a genetically enhanced human clone who worked for the International Contract Agency (ICA) as an assassin. Following the events of Codename 47, the former contract killer has retired and started a peaceful life at a church, but after his only friend, Reverend Emilio Vittorio, is kidnapped by unknown assailants, 47 resumes work for the ICA in hopes of tracking him down.
Like its predecessor, gameplay focuses on eliminating targets while trying to remain undetected for as long as possible, may it be by taking disguises, avoiding suspicious enemies, or other means. The more action-focused segments from Codename 47 have been removed in favor of entirely stealth-focused missions, though players are free to choose their own style of gameplay. The game introduces the option for a first-person view, the ability to incapacitate enemies instead of killing them, and missions with multiple possible approaches.
Silent Assassin received generally positive reviews from critics, who considered it to be an improvement over its predecessor in every respect. The game was also a commercial success, having sold more than 3.7 million copies as of 23 April 2009, which makes it the best-selling Hitman game in the original series (prior to 2016's Hitman). High-definition ports of Silent Assassin and its successors, Contracts and Blood Money, were released on PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 in January 2013 in the form of the Hitman HD Trilogy.
Gameplay
Hitman 2 features mission-based gameplay and is presented from the third-person perspective, which can optionally be switched to a first-person view. On each level, the main character, a contract killer named Agent 47, is given a set of objectives to complete. Most levels require the assassination of one or more people. The way through which the missions are to be completed is up to the player, and there are often a variety of ways to complete missions. Instead of taking an action-oriented, aggressive approach, one can also set traps, like poisoning a drink, to terminate the target in silence. Some missions have assassination possibilities unique to the level.
Agent 47 can find disguises or remove them from an incapacitated person to blend in with his surroundings and access restricted areas. This plays in with the "suspicion" system; a bar beside the health meter on the HUD represents how much suspicion the player garners. There are multiple ways to blend in more effectively; for example, the player can make sure to carry an AK-47 assault rifle while disguised as a Russian soldier. Despite the usage of a uniform, being near to fellow guards will increase the suspicion as they would have an opportunity to more closely examine 47. Running, climbing and being in restricted places are other ways to garner concern.
Agent 47's cover can be blown if suspicion gets too high, and the disguise will no longer be of any use. It is possible to switch between multiple disguises throughout the level.
Hitman 2 uses the concept of a post-mission ranking system, in which the player is given a status based on how they completed the mission, rated along a stealthy-aggressive axis, between "Silent Assassin", a stealthy player who manages to complete the level without being noticed and only killing two non-targeting people excluding the intended target(s), and "Mass Murderer", a non-stealthy player who kills everyone. The game rewards the player for critical thinking and problem solving, encouraging the player not to treat the game as a simple shooter. Achieving "Silent Assassin" status on multiple missions rewards the player with bonus weapons. These weapons, plus items found in previous levels, can be carried over into future ones, allowing for differing means of accomplishing the tasks. Big weapons like rifles and shotguns cannot be concealed, thus the player has to either be wearing an appropriate disguise to match the weapon, or make sure no one sees the player use it.
Plot
Following the events of Hitman: Codename 47, two men investigate the massacre left by Agent 47 at the facility of his creator, Dr. Ort-Meyer, in Romania. One of them recognizes the former assassin on video footage of the events, and decides that they must "hire" him. Meanwhile, 47, having retired after erasing all evidence of his existence, leads a new life as a humble gardener at a Sicilian church owned by the Reverend Emilio Vittorio. One day, after 47 attends confession to ask for forgiveness for his past, a group of unknown men arrive at the church and abduct Vittorio, leaving behind a ransom note demanding $500,000.
Unable to pay such a sum, 47 contacts his former employers, the International Contract Agency (ICA), for assistance. The organisation agrees to help in exchange for 47 returning to complete several contracts for them. Although he learns that the abduction was conducted by the local Mafia and kills the person who handled it, 47 is unable to find Vittorio, and is left to repay his debt to the ICA. His missions take him to various locations in Russia, Japan, Malaysia, Afghanistan and India, and each require collecting an important item for his client. In time, he eventually gives up his search for Vittorio, who he assumes is dead.
After eliminating his last target, 47 is informed by the ICA that Vittorio's kidnapping was orchestrated by Sergei Zavorotko, the brother of Arkadij Jegorov (one of 47's five genetic donors and targets from the first game), in order to lure 47 out of retirement. In addition, he learns that all the targets were connected to the sale of a nuclear warhead to Sergei, who needed them eliminated in order to conceal the fact that he intended to arm the warheads to missiles that possessed software which would disguise them as American-made, therefore bypassing the American missile defense system, and sell them to interested parties. 47 pursues Sergei, who has taken Vittorio back to his church, and kills him and his men. Concerned for his soul, Vittorio begs 47 to renounce his path of violence and lead a good life, handing him his rosary. Unable to find inner peace, however, 47 leaves the rosary on the church's door, and formally returns to the ICA.
Development
One of the major complaints critics made about the first game was that it was inaccessible to most players due to its unfriendly nature, featuring difficult gameplay and a broken checkpoint system. Improvements were made to the game's AI and many levels were made smaller and more focused. Additional items would be available in the second installment, including chloroform for quietly taking down enemies and a crossbow which could silently kill opponents. The initial story for the game would take place after the events of the first game. After hearing the changes planned for Hitman 2, PC Gamer declared in December 2001 that "Hitman 2 should be everything we wished of its predecessor – and that gives us extremely high hopes."
Reception
Hitman 2: Silent Assassin received "generally positive" reviews, according to review aggregator Metacritic. GameSpot gave it a score of 8.6/10, saying that it "fixes virtually all of the problems of its predecessor" and is still an "outstanding" game. Electronic Gaming Monthly scored Hitman 2s GameCube version 7/8/8.5: the first reviewer criticized its artificial intelligence and mission briefings, but said that "each time I circumvented the immeasurable odds and made the crucial killing blow, Hitman 2 was briefly a blast"; the third reviewer summarized it as "an engaging adventure title that rewards patient players".
Despite the 7/8/8.5 scores given by Electronic Gaming Monthly, the cover of the GameCube release says "9/10 Electronic Gaming Monthly Gold Award". This score is erroneously taken from the magazine's review of the PlayStation 2 version. When confronted with the issue by Electronic Gaming Monthly, Eidos said it would remove the score in future printings.
Hitman 2 has sold more than 3.7 million copies as of 23 April 2009. By July 2006, the PlayStation 2 version of Hitman 2 had sold 1.1 million copies and earned $39 million in the United States. Next Generation ranked it as the 47th-highest-selling game launched for the PlayStation 2, Xbox or GameCube between January 2000 and July 2006 in that country. Combined console sales of Hitman games released in the 2000s reached 2 million units in the United States by July 2006. Hitman 2s PC and Xbox releases each received a "Silver" sales award from the Entertainment and Leisure Software Publishers Association (ELSPA), indicating sales of at least 100,000 copies per version in the United Kingdom. ELSPA gave the game's PlayStation 2 release a "Platinum" certification for sales of at least 300,000 copies in the region.
Hitman 2 was nominated for Computer Gaming Worlds 2002 "Action Game of the Year" award, which ultimately went to Medal of Honor: Allied Assault. The editors wrote, "Hitman 2 is a huge improvement over the original, and it's one of the best games of last year in any genre." GameSpot presented the game with its annual "Most Improved Sequel on PC" award. It was also nominated for GameSpot's "Best Music on PC", "Best Single-Player Action Game on PC", "Best Music on Xbox", "Best Sound on PlayStation 2", "Best Music on PlayStation 2" and "Best Action Adventure Game on Xbox" prizes.
Controversy
The game's release sparked controversy due to a level featuring the killing of Sikhs within a depiction of their most holy site, the Harmandir Sahib, where hundreds of Sikhs were massacred in 1984. In response, the level was edited from the Microsoft Windows and GameCube versions of Silent Assassin, removing all Sikh-related references.
Notes
References
External links
via Internet Archive
2002 video games
Cultural depictions of the Mafia
Eidos Interactive games
2: Silent Assassin
GameCube games
PlayStation 2 games
Stealth video games
Video game sequels
Video games scored by Jesper Kyd
Video games developed in Denmark
Video games set in 2002
Video games set in 2003
Video games set in Afghanistan
Video games set in India
Video games set in Japan
Video games set in Malaysia
Video games set in Saint Petersburg
Video games set in Sicily
Windows games
Xbox games
Obscenity controversies in video games
Fiction about cults
Single-player video games
he:Hitman (סדרת משחקים) | wiki |
Hitman 2 may refer to the following titles in the Hitman franchise:
Hitman 2: Silent Assassin, a 2002 game developed by IO Interactive
Hitman 2 (2018 video game), a 2018 game developed by IO Interactive
Hitman: Agent 47, the second film adaptation of the series
See also
Hitman (disambiguation) | wiki |
Skateboarding sponsorship is the commercial sponsorship of an individual or team of people who participate in skateboarding, competitions or public activities. Typically, the individual or team will receive cash payments, reduced-price or free merchandise or equipment from a sponsor in return for public and in-competition use of that sponsor's merchandise or equipment for promotional purposes and recipient testimonial or endorsement. Skateboarding sponsorship may also extend to the sponsorship of major competitions or venues (like specific skateparks) by larger distributors or manufacturers of skateboarding equipment and merchandise.
Sponsors employ a variety of methods in an effort to "discover" potential sponsorship recipients including word of mouth, the solicitation of "sponsor-me" videos and direct participation in public skateboarding events and competitions, as well as raising awareness through social media websites.
In the United States it is recommended that an organisation wishing to engage with Skateboarders via sponsorship apply to join the IASC. This allows a company to join, take part in and become credible within an already well established industry.
Sponsorship types
There are two generally recognised classes of individual skateboarding sponsorship. Amateur and Professional. Both can come in different variations and can be agreed contractually in both verbal or written form.
Skate shop sponsorship
Skate shop sponsorship is sponsorship by a local professional skateboarding industry retail company. Obligations under the terms of a shop sponsorship vary but are usually light and the rider usually represents the sponsor by wearing branded apparel and by submitting media (videos and photographs) for use in advertising campaigns. Shops commonly employ skateboarders and sponsor their employees. This occurs along with traditional discounts to subsidise pay or as part of an employment agreement. Some simple sponsorship agreements may involve the provision of discounted merchandise or equipment in exchange for a commitment to use that merchandise or equipment at public skate parks or local competitions.
Skate shops may sponsor both amateur and professional skateboarders.
Amateur sponsorship
Amateur skateboard sponsorship involves the light provision of merchandise and equipment along with the occasional payment of travel and accommodation or living expenses when representing a sponsor in an out of town competition. Amateur skateboarders are not paid to skate and many are too young in any event, as per law.
A sponsored amateur skateboarder may receive some personal promotion as a brand "team member" and will commonly exchange marketing rights to their image for skateboarding equipment and other merchandising and or skateboard products.
Company flow sponsorship
Flow sponsorship is similar to shop sponsorship in that it generally involves the sponsorship of an individual by a small to medium commercial skateboard company or enterprise. However, flow sponsorship usually involves the provision of free merchandise (no cost to the sponsored individual) but the offer is not traditionally consistent or long term. Flow sponsorship is seen as one of the first stepping stones of opportunity which an aspiring professional skateboarder might accept on their journey to become pro. And is often used as an incentive before a skateboarder joins a team whilst they are considering all available offers from interested parties. The trade of goods mostly revolves around featuring in print, online and video based media. Personal appearances are rarely part of any agreement and the aim of a flow sponsorship is to give the skateboarder a hand into the industry to help them on to a path involving a career. By 2003, then-6-year-old Mitchie Brusco was committed to 9 such agreements.
Professional company individual sponsorship
Professional sponsorship is sponsorship attached to royalty payments and comes with a regular salary in all but the worst of contract formats. Contracts vary but coverage of living expenses which allow the skateboarder to travel and practice to be able to compete on a full-time basis without the need to work full-time, may be factored in. Healthcare, image rights, bonuses, product design and art work licensing are commonly covered in professional skateboarding contracts. Sponsored skateboarders receive monthly packages of sponsored merchandise (including additional merchandise for promotional uses) and equipment (including customized "pro model" equipment) as well as branded clothing and other promotional items which feature the sponsored skater's name or personal logo.
Professional skateboarders may receive royalty payments collected against products sold by their sponsor(s) which display the skateboarder's name or logo.
Traditionally endorsed products are professional grade decks, trucks, clothing, shoes and wheels. It is normal for a rider to primarily attach to a single deck manufacturer as a pro and professional model skateboard products tend to display the professional skateboarder's name prominently in painted or transferred graphics. Deck sponsorship is seen as a primary long term goal and a right of passage by aspiring amateur skateboarders. Obtaining one signifies current prominence within the skateboard industry.
Professional skateboarder Tony Hawk signed endorsement and sponsorship deals with a number of major brands worth up to 15 million each, including deals with a number of non-skateboarding brands.
References
Skateboarding companies
Skateboarding
Sports sponsorships | wiki |
Rosalía Vázquez (born 11 October 1985) is a Cuban female discus thrower, who won an individual gold medal at the Youth World Championships.
References
External links
1985 births
Living people
Cuban female discus throwers
21st-century Cuban women | wiki |
Fever Season è l'ottavo EP del girl group sudcoreano GFriend, pubblicato nel 2019.
Tracce
Classifiche
Classifiche settimanali
Classifiche di fine anno
Note
Collegamenti esterni | wiki |
The EF 70–210mm lens is a discontinued telephoto zoom lens made by Canon Inc. It came in two different versions.
Details
The lens has an EF mount and works with EOS film and digital cameras.
The lens comes in two different versions:
Canon EF 70–210mm 4 AFD (1987–1990)
Canon EF 70–210mm 3.5–4.5 USM (introduced 1990)
The variable-aperture USM model utilizes a rotating ring instead of a push-pull system for adjusting zoom.
The lens was superseded by the 80–200mm lens and the 70–200mm lenses.
Specifications
References
External links
Canon EF lenses | wiki |
A glacier head is the top of a glacier. Although glaciers seem motionless to the observer they are in constant motion and the terminus is always either advancing or retreating.
On a glacier, the accumulation zone is the area above the firn line, where snowfall accumulates and exceeds the losses from ablation, (melting, evaporation, and sublimation). The annual equilibrium line separates the accumulation and ablation zone annually. The accumulation zone is also defined as the part of a glacier's surface, usually at higher elevations, on which there is net accumulation of snow, which subsequently turns into firn and then glacier ice. Part of the glacier where snow builds up and turns to ice moves outward from there.
The glacier head is the highest upslope edge of an alpine glacier or the upslope end of the zone of accumulation. The head of the glacier comes up against a steep bedrock cliff called a cirque headwall
Movement and ice loss
The head can come away from the cirque in a downslope movement which can create a large crevasse called a bergschrund. This crevasse can be a major obstacle for mountaineers. The existence of a bergschrund is evidence that ice mass has pulled away from the cirque.
A shrinking glacier thins faster near the terminus than near the head, which explains why glaciers retreat up-valley and the glacier head stays in place
The speed of erosion or accumulation is partly dependent on a shape factor which is the ratio of the change in thickness at the glacier head to the change in the thickness at the terminus.
Notes
attribution:Contains text copied from Accumulation zone and Bergschrund and Terminus.
Glaciers
Bodies of ice | wiki |
American Board of Professional Neuropsychology (ABN) is a free-standing, post-doctoral level (i.e., Ph.D., Psy.D.), Diplomate granting certification board established in 1982. The mission of ABN is to establish and maintain professional standards for expertise in the practice of clinical neuropsychology. ABN recognizes that neuropsychological practitioners at large can be difficult for the lay public to evaluate a priori. The ABN, through its credentialing process, offers to the public and individuals who would have a need for clinical professional neuropsychological services, a means whereby well qualified neuropsychologists can be identified. The ABN Diplomate process involves a rigorous examination of credentials, including education and post doctoral training, a written examination, work sample review, and a two-hour oral examination.
References
http://abn-board.com/ American Board of Professional Neuropsychology (ABN) official website
http://www.theaapn.org American Board of Pediatric Neuropsychology (ABPdN) official website
Neuropsychology
Organizations established in 1982 | wiki |
Espasol is a cylinder-shaped Filipino rice cake. Originating from the province of Laguna, it is traditionally sold during the Christmas season. It is made from rice flour cooked in coconut milk and sweetened coconut strips and, afterwards, dusted with toasted rice flour.
The term espasol is also used to describe a person's excessive make-up.
See also
Baye baye
Puto bumbong
References
Philippine desserts
Rice pudding
Philippine rice dishes
Culture of Laguna (province)
Foods containing coconut
Rice cakes | wiki |
Pepperoni is an American variety of spicy salami made from cured pork and beef seasoned with paprika or other chili pepper.
Prior to cooking, pepperoni is characteristically soft, slightly smoky, and bright red. Thinly sliced pepperoni is one of the most popular pizza toppings in American pizzerias.
Etymology
The term "pepperoni" is a borrowing of peperoni, the plural of peperone, the Italian word for bell pepper. The first use of "pepperoni" to refer to a sausage dates to 1919. In Italian, the word peperoncino refers to hot and spicy chili peppers.
History
Pepperoni, an Italian-American creation, is a cured dry sausage, with similarities to the spicy salamis of southern Italy on which it is based, such as salsiccia or soppressata. The main differences are that pepperoni is less spicy, has a finer grain (akin to spiceless salami from Milan), is usually softer in texture, and is usually produced with the use of an artificial casing.
Production
Pepperoni is made from pork or from a mixture of pork and beef. Turkey meat is also commonly used as a substitute, but the use of poultry in pepperoni must be appropriately labeled in the United States.
Curing with nitrates or nitrites (usually used in modern curing agents to protect against botulism and other forms of microbiological decay) also contributes to pepperoni's reddish color, by reacting with heme in the myoglobin of the proteinaceous components of the meat.
Serving
According to Convenience Store Decisions, Americans consume 251.7 million pounds of pepperoni annually, on 36% of all pizzas produced nationally. Pepperoni has a tendency to curl up from the edges in the heat of a pizza oven. Some pepperoni is produced in thicker slices, so that the edges curl intentionally.
Pepperoni is also used as the filling of the pepperoni roll, a popular regional snack in West Virginia and neighboring areas.
In the Canadian province of Nova Scotia, deep fried pepperoni served on its own (usually with a honey mustard dipping sauce) is common pub food.
See also
Linguiça
List of dried foods
List of sausages
References
Further reading
Smith, Andrew F. (2007) "Pepperoni". The Oxford Companion to American Food and Drink. p. 447. .
Palumbo, S. A., et al. (January 1976). "Microbiology and Technology of the Pepperoni Process" (abstract). Journal of Food Science. Volume 41, Issue 1. pages 12–17.
Palumbo, S. A. et al. (July 1977). "Kinetics of Pepperoni Drying" (abstract). Journal of Food Science. Volume 42, Issue 4. pages 1029–1033.
External links
American sausages
Lunch meat
Fermented sausages
Italian words and phrases
Sliced foods
Toppings | wiki |
Structured data analysis may refer to:
Structured data analysis (statistics) – the search for structure in a dataset
Structured data analysis (systems analysis) – a project management technique
Structured data mining – a machine learning and data analysis technique | wiki |
Kimchi (; , ), is a traditional Korean side dish of salted and fermented vegetables, such as napa cabbage and Korean radish. A wide selection of seasonings are used, including gochugaru (Korean chili powder), spring onions, garlic, ginger, and jeotgal (salted seafood), etc. Kimchi is also used in a variety of soups and stews. As a staple food in Korean cuisine, it is eaten as a side dish with almost every Korean meal.
There are hundreds of different types of kimchi made with different vegetables as the main ingredients. Traditionally, winter kimchi, called kimjang, was stored in large earthenware fermentation vessels, called onggi, in the ground to prevent freezing during the winter months and to keep it cool enough to slow down the fermentation process during summer months. The vessels are also kept outdoors in special terraces called jangdokdae. In contemporary times, household kimchi refrigerators are more commonly used.
Etymology
Ji
The term ji (), which has its origins in archaic Korean dihi (), has been used to refer to kimchi since ancient times. The sound change can be roughly described as:
dihi () > di () > ji ()
The Middle Korean form dihi is found in several books from Joseon (1392–1897). In Modern Korean, the word remains as the suffix -ji in the standard language (as in jjanji, seokbak-ji), and as the suffix -ji as well as the noun ji in Gyeongsang and Jeolla dialects. The unpalatalized form di is preserved in P'yŏngan dialect.
Kimchi
Kimchi () is the accepted word in both North and South Korean standard languages. Earlier forms of the word include timchɑi (), a Middle Korean transcription of the Sino-Korean word (literally "submerged vegetable"). Timchɑi appears in Sohak Eonhae, the 16th century Korean rendition of the Chinese book, Xiaoxue. Sound changes from Middle Korean to Modern Korean regarding the word can be described as:
timchɑi (; ) > dimchɑi () > jimchɑi () > jimchui () > gimchi ()
The aspirated first consonant of timchae became unaspirated in dimchɑe, then underwent palatalization in jimchɑe. The word then became jimchui with the loss of the vowel ɑ () in Korean language, then Kimchi, with the depalatalized word-initial consonant. In Modern Korean, the hanja characters are pronounced chimchae (), and are not used to refer to kimchi, or anything else. The word Kimchi is not considered as a Sino-Korean word. Older forms of the word are retained in many regional dialects: jimchae (Jeolla, Hamgyŏng dialects), jimchi (Chungcheong, Gangwon, Gyeonggi, Gyeongsang, Hamgyŏng, Jeolla dialects), and dimchi (P'yŏngan dialect).
The English word "kimchi" perhaps originated from kimch'i, the McCune–Reischauer transcription of the Korean word Kimchi ().
History
Early history
Samguk Sagi, a historical record of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, mentions the pickle jar used to ferment vegetables, which indicates that fermented vegetables were commonly eaten during this time. During the Silla dynasty (57 BC – AD 935), kimchi became prevalent as Buddhism caught on throughout the nation and fostered a vegetarian lifestyle.
The pickling of vegetables was an ideal method, prior to refrigerators, that helped to preserve the lifespan of foods. In Korea, kimchi was made during the winter by fermenting vegetables, and burying it in the ground in traditional brown ceramic pots called onggi. This labor further allowed a bonding among women within the family. A poem on Korean radish written by Yi Gyubo, a 13th-century literatus, shows that radish kimchi was a commonplace in Goryeo (918–1392).
Kimchi has been a staple in Korean culture, but historical versions were not a spicy dish. Early records of kimchi do not mention garlic or chili pepper. Chili peppers, now a standard ingredient in kimchi, had been unknown in Korea until the early seventeenth century due to its being a New World crop. Chili peppers, originally native to the Americas, were introduced to East Asia by Portuguese traders. The first mention of chili pepper is found in Jibong yuseol, an encyclopedia published in 1614. Sallim gyeongje, a 17‒18th century book on farm management, wrote on kimchi with chili peppers. However, it was not until the 19th century that the use of chili peppers in kimchi was widespread. Recipes from the early 19th century closely resemble today's kimchi.
A 1766 book, Jeungbo sallim gyeongje, reports kimchi varieties made with myriad ingredients, including chonggak-kimchi (kimchi made with chonggak radish), oi-sobagi (with cucumber), seokbak-ji (with jogi-jeot), and dongchimi. However, napa cabbage was introduced to Korea only at the end of 19th century, and whole-cabbage kimchi similar to its current form is described in Siuijeonseo, a cookbook published around that time.
Modern history
During South Korea's involvement in the Vietnam War the industrialization and commercialization of kimchi production became increasingly important because the Korean government wanted to provide rations for its troops. The Korean government requested American help to ensure that South Korean troops, reportedly "desperate" for the food, could obtain it in the field.
In 2008, South Korean scientists created a special low-calorie, vitamin-rich "space kimchi" for Yi So-yeon, the first Korean astronaut, to take to space. It was bacteria-free, unlike normal Kimchi in which bacteria are essential for fermentation. It was feared that cosmic rays might mutate the bacteria.
South Korea developed programs for adult Korean adoptees to return to South Korea and learn about what it means to be Korean. One of these programs was learning how to make kimchi.
1996 kimchi standard dispute with Japan
In 1996, Korea protested against Japanese commercial production of kimchi arguing that the Japanese-produced product (kimuchi, ) was different from kimchi. In particular, Japanese kimchi was not fermented and more similar to asazuke. Korea lobbied for an international standard from the Codex Alimentarius, an organization associated with the World Health Organization that defines voluntary standards for food preparation for international trade purposes. In 2001, the Codex Alimentarius published a voluntary standard defining kimchi as "a fermented food that uses salted napa cabbages as its main ingredient mixed with seasonings, and goes through a lactic acid production process at a low temperature", but which neither specified a minimum amount of fermentation nor forbade the use of any additives. Following the inclusion of the kimchi standard, kimchi exports in Korea did increase, but so did the production of kimchi in China and the import of Chinese kimchi into Korea.
2010 Kimchi ingredient price crisis
Due to heavy rainfall shortening the harvesting time for cabbage and other main ingredients for kimchi in 2010, the price of kimchi ingredients and kimchi itself rose greatly. Korean and international newspapers described the rise in prices as a national crisis. Some restaurants stopped offering kimchi as a free side dish, which The New York Times compared to an American hamburger restaurant no longer offering free ketchup. In response to the kimchi price crisis, the South Korean government announced the temporary reduction of tariffs on imported cabbage to coincide with the kimjang season.
Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity
Kimchi-related items have been inscribed on UNESCO's Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity by both South and North Korea. This makes kimchi the second intangible heritage that was submitted by two countries, the other one being the folk song "Arirang" which was also submitted by both the Koreas.
Submitted by South Korea (inscribed 2013)
Kimjang, the tradition of making and sharing kimchi that usually takes place in late autumn, was added to the list as "Gimjang, making and sharing kimchi in the Republic of Korea". The practice of Gimjang reaffirms Korean identity and strengthens family cooperation. Gimjang is also an important reminder for many Koreans that human communities need to live in harmony with nature.
Submitted by North Korea (inscribed 2015)
North Korean kimchi-making was inscribed on the list in December 2015 as "Tradition of kimchi-making in the Democratic People's Republic of Korea". North Korean kimchi tends to be less spicy and red than South Korean kimchi. Seafood is used less often and less salt is added. Additional sugar is used to help with fermentation in the cold climate.
Kimchi Day
In the United States, states California, Virginia, Maryland and New York, and capital city Washington D.C. have issued proclamations declaring November 22 as 'Kimchi Day' to recognize the importance of the dish as part of Korean culture.
2012 effective ban by China of Korean kimchi imports
Since 2012, the Chinese government has effectively banned the import of Korean kimchi through government regulations. Ignoring the standards of kimchi outlined by the Codex Alimentarius, China defined kimchi as a derivative of one of its own cuisines, called pao cai. However, due to significantly different preparation techniques from pao cai, kimchi has significantly more lactic acid bacteria through its fermentation process, which exceeds China's regulations. Since 2012, commercial exports of Korean kimchi to China has reached zero; the only minor amounts of exports accounting for Korean kimchi are exhibition events held in China.
Boycott in China
A 2017 article in The New York Times said that anti-Korean sentiment in China has risen after South Korea's acceptance of the deployment of THAAD in South Korea, government-run Chinese news media has encouraged the boycott of South Korean goods, and Chinese nationalists have vowed to not eat kimchi. The move was criticized by other Chinese nationalists, who noted that China officially considered Koreans an integral ethnic group in the multinational state, and that kimchi is also indigenous to the Koreans in the Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture.
2020 kimchi origin dispute with China
In November 2020, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) posted ISO 24220:2020, new regulations for the making of pao cai. The same month, BBC News reported that Chinese news organization Global Times claimed the new ISO standard was "an international standard for the kimchi industry led by China" despite the standard clearly stating "this document does not apply to kimchi". This sparked strong anger from South Korean media and people, as well as the responses from some Chinese people who argued China held the right to claim Kimchi as their own.
After the controversy emerged, Global Times explained the controversy as the "misunderstanding in translation", and stated that "Kimchi refers to a kind of fermented cabbage dish that plays an integral role in Korean cuisine, while pàocài, or Sichuan pàocài, refers to pickled vegetables that are popular originally in Southwest China's Sichuan Province, but now in most parts of northern China." Global Times also reported that Baidu Baike, the Chinese online encyclopedia, removed the controversial phrase "Korean kimchi originated from China" after the request. The South Korean Ministry of Culture, Sports and Tourism subsequently presented the guidelines to set the term "xīnqí (辛奇)" as the new proper Chinese translation of Kimchi while "pàocài" was an acceptable translation prior to the controversy.
Ingredients
Kimchi varieties are determined by the main vegetable ingredients and the mix of seasoning used to flavor the kimchi.
Vegetables
For many families, the pungent and often spicy meal is a source of pride and recalls the taste of a good home. Cabbages (napa cabbages, bomdong, headed cabbages) and radishes (Korean radishes, ponytail radishes, gegeol radishes, yeolmu radishes) are the most commonly used kimchi vegetables. Other kimchi vegetables include: aster, balloon flower roots, burdock roots, celery, chamnamul, cilantro, cress, crown daisy greens, cucumber, eggplant, garlic chives, garlic scapes, ginger, Korean angelica-tree shoots, Korean parsley, Korean wild chive, lotus roots, mustard greens, onions, perilla leaves, bamboo shoot, momordica charantia, pumpkins, radish greens, rapeseed leaves, scallions, seaweed, soybean sprouts, spinach, sugar beets, sweet potato vines, and tomatoes.
Seasonings
Brining salt (with a larger grain size compared to kitchen salt) is used mainly for initial salting of kimchi vegetables. Being minimally processed, it serves to help develop flavors in fermented foods. Cabbage is usually salted twice when making spicy kimchi.
Commonly used seasonings include gochugaru (chili powder), scallions, garlic, ginger, and jeotgal (salted seafood) Jeotgal can be replaced with raw seafood in colder Northern parts of the Korean peninsula. If used, milder saeu-jeot (salted shrimp) or jogi-jeot (salted croaker) is preferred and the amount of jeotgal is also reduced in Northern and Central regions. In Southern Korea, on the other hand, generous amount of stronger myeolchi-jeot (salted anchovies) and galchi-jeot (salted hairtail) is commonly used. Raw seafood or daegu-agami-jeot (salted cod gills) are used in the East coast areas.
Salt, scallions, garlic, fish sauce, and sugar are commonly added to flavor the kimchi.
Production
The first step in the making of any kimchi is to slice the cabbage or daikon into smaller, uniform pieces to increase the surface area. The pieces are then coated with salt as a preservative method, as this draws out the water to lower the free water activity. This inhibits the growth of undesirable microorganisms by limiting the water available for them to utilize for growth and metabolism. The salting stage can use 5 to 7% salinity for 12 hours, or 15% for 3 to 7 hours.
The excess water is then drained away, and seasoning ingredients are added. The sugar that is sometimes added also acts to bind free water that still remains, further reducing free water activity. Finally, the brined vegetables are placed into an airtight canning jar and left to sit for 24 to 48 hours at room temperature. The ideal salt concentration during the fermentation process is about 3%.
Since the fermentation process results in the production of carbon dioxide, the jar should be "burped" daily to release the gas. The more fermentation that occurs, the more carbon dioxide will be incorporated, which results in a very carbonated-drink-like effect.
Microorganisms in kimchi
The microorganisms present in kimchi include Bacillus mycoides, B. pseudomycoides, B. subtilis, Lactobacillus brevis, Lb. curvatus, Lb. kimchii, Lb. parabrevis, Lb. pentosus, Lb. plantarum, Lb. sakei, Lb. spicheri, Lactococcus carnosum, Lc. gelidum, Lc. lactis, Leuconostoc carnosum, Ln. citreum, Ln. gasicomitatum, Ln. gelidum, Ln. holzapfelii, Ln. inhae, Ln. kimchii, Ln. lactis, Ln. mesenteroides, Serratia marcescens, Weissella cibaria, W. confusa, W. kandleri, W. kimchii. W. koreensis, and W. soli. Archaea and yeasts, such as Saccharomyces, Candida, Pichia, and Kluyveromyces are also present in kimchi, with the latter being responsible for undesirable white colonies that sometimes form in the product as well as food spoilages and off-flavors.
In early fermentation stages, the Leuconostoc variety is found more dominantly in kimchi fermentation because of its lower acid tolerance and microaerophilic properties; the Leuconostoc variety also grows better at low salt concentrations. Throughout the fermentation process, as acidity rises, the Lactobacillus and Weissella variety become dominant because of their higher acid tolerance. Lactobacillus also grows better in conditions with a higher salt concentration.
These microorganisms are present due to the natural microflora provided by utilizing unsterilized food materials in the production of kimchi. The step of salting the raw materials as well as the addition of red pepper powder inhibit the pathogenic and putrefactive bacteria present in the microflora, allowing the lactic acid bacteria (LAB) to flourish and become the dominant microorganism. These anaerobic microorganisms steadily increase in number during the middle stages of fermentation, and prefer to be kept at low temperatures of about 10℃, pH of 4.2-4, and remain in the presence of 1.5% - 4% NaCl. A faster fermentation at a higher temperature may be chosen as well to accelerate the growth of bacterial cultures for a faster decrease in pH level.
Since the raw cruciferous vegetables themselves are the source of LAB required for fermentation, no starter culture is required for the production of kimchi; rather, spontaneous fermentation occurs. The total population of microorganisms present at the beginning of processing determine the outcome of fermentation, causing the final product to be highly variable in terms of quality and flavor. Currently, there are no recommended approaches to control the microbial community during fermentation to predict the outcome. In the industrial production of kimchi, starter cultures made up of Leu. mesenteroides, Leu. citreum, and Lb. plantarum are used, which are often unsuccessful because they fail to outcompete the naturally occurring cultures on the raw materials.
By-products of microorganisms
The lactic acid bacteria (LAB) produce lactic acid, hydrogen peroxide, and carbon dioxide as by-products during metabolism. Lactic acid quickly lowers the pH, creating an acidic environment that is uninhabitable for most other microorganisms that survived salting. This also modifies the flavor of sub-ingredients and can increase the nutritive value of the raw materials, as the microbial community in the fermentation process can synthesize B vitamins and hydrolyze cellulose in plant tissues to free nutrients that are normally indigestible by the human gastrointestinal tract. Hydrogen peroxide is formed by the oxidation of reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH) and provides an antibiotic to inhibit some undesirable microorganisms. Carbon dioxide functions as a preservative, flushing out oxygen to create an anaerobic environment, as well as creating the desired carbonation in the final product.
Odor
Kimchi is known for its strong, spicy, flavors and odors, although milder varieties exist. Variations in the fermentation process cause the final product to be highly variable in terms of quality and flavor. The strong odor is especially tied to the sulfur compounds from garlic and ginger of kimchi, which can be less appealing to non-Koreans. Thus, scientists are experimenting with the types of bacteria used in its production to minimize the odor to increase the appeal for international markets. These efforts are not universally appreciated by lovers of kimchi, as the flavor is affected in the process, and some see that "South Korea's narrative about its own culinary staple" is being manipulated to suit the foreigners' tastes.
Varieties
Kimchi is one of the most important staples of Korean cuisine. The Korean term "Kimchi" refers to fermented vegetables, and encompasses salt and seasoned vegetables. It is mainly served as a side dish with every meal, but also can be served as a main dish. Kimchi is mainly recognized as a spicy fermented cabbage dish globally.
New variations of kimchi continue to be created, and the taste can vary depending on the region and season. Conventionally, the secret of kimchi preparation was passed down by mothers to their daughters in a bid to make them suitable wives to their husbands. However, with the current technological advancement and increase in social media use, many individuals worldwide can now access recipes for kimchi preparation.
Kimchi can be categorized by main ingredients, regions or seasons. Korea's northern and southern sections have a considerable temperature difference. There are over 180 recognized varieties of kimchi. The most common kimchi variations are:
Baechu-kimchi () spicy napa cabbage kimchi, made from whole cabbage leaves
Baechu-geotjeori () unfermented napa cabbage kimchi
Bossam-kimchi () wrapped kimchi
Baek-kimchi () white kimchi, made without chili pepper
Dongchimi () a non-spicy watery kimchi
Nabak-kimchi () a mildly spicy watery kimchi
Chonggak-kimchi () cubed chonggak "ponytail" radish, a popular spicy kimchi
Kkakdugi () spicy cubed Korean radish strongly-scented kimchi containing fermented shrimp
Oi-sobagi () cucumber kimchi that can be stuffed with seafood and chili paste, and is a popular choice during the spring and summer seasons
Pa-kimchi () spicy green onion kimchi
Yeolmu-kimchi () is also a popular choice during the spring and summer, and is made with yeolmu radishes, and does not necessarily have to be fermented.
Gat-kimchi (), made with Indian mustard
Yangbaechu-kimchi (양배추 김치) spicy cabbage kimchi, made from "headed" cabbage leaves (as opposed to napa cabbage)
Kimchi from the northern parts of Korea tends to have less salt and red chili and usually does not include brined seafood for seasoning. Northern kimchi often has a watery consistency. Kimchi made in the southern parts of Korea, such as Jeolla-do and Gyeongsang-do, uses salt, chili peppers and myeolchijeot (, brined anchovy allowed to ferment) or saeujeot (, brined shrimp allowed to ferment), myeolchiaekjeot (), kkanariaekjeot (), liquid anchovy jeot, similar to fish sauce used in Southeast Asia, but thicker.
Saeujeot () or myeolchijeot is not added to the kimchi spice-seasoning mixture, but is simmered first to reduce odors, eliminate tannic flavor and fats, and then is mixed with a thickener made of rice or wheat starch (). This technique has been falling into disuse in the past 40 years.
Color
White kimchi is neither red nor spicy. It includes white napa cabbage kimchi and other varieties such as white radish kimchi (dongchimi). Watery white kimchi varieties are sometimes used as an ingredient in a number of dishes such as cold noodles in dongchimi brine (dongchimi-guksu).
Age
Geotjeori (): fresh, unfermented kimchi.
Mugeun-ji (), also known as mugeun-kimchi (): aged kimchi
Region
The following regional classification dates to the 1960s. Since then, kimchi-making practices and trends in Korea have diverged from it.
Pyongan-do (North Korea, outside of Pyongyang): Non-traditional ingredients have been adopted in rural areas due to severe food shortages.
Hamgyeong-do (Upper Northeast): Due to its proximity to the ocean, people in this particular region use fresh fish and oysters to season their kimchi.
Hwanghae-do (Midwest): The taste of kimchi in Hwanghae-do is not bland but not extremely spicy. Most kimchi from this region has less color since red chili flakes are not used. The typical kimchi for Hwanghae-do is called hobakji (호박지). It is made with pumpkin (bundi).
Gyeonggi-do (Lower Midwest of Hwanghae-do)
Chungcheong-do (between Gyeonggi-do and Jeolla-do): Instead of using fermented fish, people in the region rely on salt and fermentation to make savory kimchi. Chungcheong-do has the most varieties of kimchi.
Gangwon-do (South Korea)/Kangwon-do (North Korea) (Mideast): In Gangwon-do, kimchi is stored for longer periods. Unlike other coastal regions in Korea, kimchi in this area does not contain much salted fish.
Jeolla-do (Lower Southwest): Salted yellow corvina and salted butterfish are used in this region to create different seasonings for kimchi.
Gyeongsang-do (Lower Southeast): This region's cuisine is saltier and spicier. The most common seasoning components include myeolchijeot () which produce a briny and savory flavor.
Foreign countries: In some places of the world people sometimes make kimchi with western cabbage and many other alternative ingredients such as broccoli.
Seasonal variations
Different types of kimchi were traditionally made at different times of the year, based on when various vegetables were in season and also to take advantage of hot and cold seasons before the era of refrigeration. Although the advent of modern refrigeration – including kimchi refrigerators specifically designed with precise controls to keep different varieties of kimchi at optimal temperatures at various stages of fermentation – has made this seasonality unnecessary, Koreans continue to consume kimchi according to traditional seasonal preferences.
Spring
After a long period of consuming gimjang kimchi () during the winter, fresh potherbs and vegetables were used to make kimchi. These kinds of kimchi were not fermented or even stored for long periods of time but were consumed fresh.
Summer
Yeolmu radishes and cucumbers are summer vegetables made into kimchi, yeolmu-kimchi () which is eaten in several bites. Brined fish or shellfish can be added, and freshly ground dried chili peppers are often used.
Autumn
Baechu kimchi is prepared by inserting blended stuffing materials, called sok (literally inside), between layers of salted leaves of uncut, whole Napa cabbage. The ingredients of sok () can vary, depending on the regions and weather conditions. Generally, baechu kimchi used to have a strong salty flavor until the late 1960s, before which a large amount of myeolchijeot or saeujeot had been used.
Gogumasoon Kimchi is made from sweet potato stems.
Winter
Traditionally, the greatest varieties of kimchi were available during the winter. In preparation for the long winter months, many types of kimjang kimchi () were prepared in early winter and stored in the ground in large kimchi pots. Today, many city residents use modern kimchi refrigerators offering precise temperature controls to store kimjang kimchi. November and December are traditionally when people begin to make kimchi; women often gather together in each other's homes to help with winter kimchi preparations. "Baechu kimchi" is made with salted baechu filled with thin strips of radish, parsley, pine nuts, pears, chestnuts, shredded red pepper, manna lichen (), garlic, and ginger.
Korean preference
As of 2004, the preference of kimchi preparation in Korean households from the most prepared type of kimchi to less prepared types of kimchi was: baechu kimchi, being the most prepared type of kimchi, then kkakdugi, then dongchimi and then chonggak kimchi. Baechu kimchi comprised more than seventy percent of marketed kimchi and radish kimchi comprised about twenty percent of marketed kimchi.
Dishes usually served with kimchi
As a traditional side dish, Kimchi is almost always served along with other side dishes in most Korean family households and restaurants. Kimchi can be eaten alone or with white or brown rice, but it is also included in recipes of other traditional dishes, including porridges, soups, and rice cakes. Kimchi is also the basis for many derivative dishes such as kimchi stew (), kimchi pancake (), kimchi soup (), and kimchi fried rice ().
Army base stew () is a popular dish made with spam, sausage, and kimchi. It originated after the Korean war based on ingredients scrounged from the army.
Nutrition
Kimchi is made of various vegetables and contains a high concentration of dietary fiber, while being low in calories. The vegetables used in kimchi also contribute to intake of vitamin A, thiamine (B1), riboflavin (B2), calcium, and iron.
A 2003 article said that South Koreans consume 18kg (40lbs) of kimchi per person annually. Many credit the Korean Miracle in part to eating the dish. Adult Koreans eat from to of kimchi a day.
Trade
South Korea spent around $129 million in 2017 to purchase 275,000 metric tons of foreign kimchi, more than 11 times the amount it exported, according to data released by the Korea Customs Service in 2017. South Korea consumes 1.85 million metric tons of kimchi annually, or 36.1 kg per person. It imports a significant fraction of that, mostly from China, and runs a $47.3 million kimchi trade deficit.
Food regulations
The Canadian Food Inspection Agency has regulations for the commercial production of kimchi. The final product should have a pH ranging from 4.2 to 4.5. Any low-acidity ingredients with a pH above 4.6, including white daikon and napa cabbage, should not be left under conditions that enable the growth of undesirable microorganisms and require a written illustration of the procedure designed to ensure this is available if requested. This procedural design should include steps that maintain sterility of the equipment and products used, and the details of all sterilization processes. The cutoff pH of 4.6 is a value common to many food safety regulations, initially defined because botulism toxin is not produced below this level.
Gallery
See also
– a variety of kimchi made of carrots by Koryo-saram
.
References
Further reading
Banchan
Brassica dishes
Cabbage dishes
Korean cuisine
National dishes
Pickles | wiki |
Tree-kangaroos are marsupials of the genus Dendrolagus, adapted for arboreal locomotion. They inhabit the tropical rainforests of New Guinea and far northeastern Queensland, along with some of the islands in the region. All tree-kangaroos are considered threatened due to hunting and habitat destruction. They are the only true arboreal macropods.
Evolutionary history
The evolutionary history of tree-kangaroos possibly begins with a rainforest floor-dwelling pademelon-like ancestor. This ancestor possibly evolved from an arboreal possum-like ancestor as is suspected of all macropodid marsupials in Australia and New Guinea. During the late Eocene, the Australian/New Guinean continent began a period of drying that caused a retreat in the area of rainforest, which forced the ancestral pademelons to begin living in a drier, rockier environment. After some generations of adaptation to the new environment, the pademelons may have evolved into rock-wallabies (Petrogale spp.), which developed a generalist feeding strategy due to their dependence on a diverse assortment of vegetation refuges. This generalist strategy allowed the rock-wallabies to easily adapt to Malesian rainforest types that were introduced to Australia from Asia during the mid-Miocene. The rock-wallabies that migrated into these introduced forests adapted to spend more time climbing trees. One species in particular, the Proserpine rock-wallaby (Petrogale persephone), displays equal preference for climbing trees as for living in rocky outcrops. During the Late Miocene, the semi-arboreal rock-wallabies could have evolved into the now extinct tree-kangaroo genus Bohra. Global cooling during the Pleistocene caused continent-wide drying and rainforest retractions in Australia and New Guinea.
The rainforest contractions isolated populations of Bohra which resulted in the evolution of today's tree-kangaroos (Dendrolagus spp.), as they adapted to lifestyles in geographically small and diverse rainforest fragments, and became further specialized for a canopy-dwelling lifestyle.
Taxonomy
Species
These species are assigned to the genus Dendrolagus:
Seri's tree-kangaroo (Dendrolagus stellarum) has been described as a subspecies of Doria's tree-kangaroo (D. dorianus stellarum), but some recent authorities have treated it as a separate species based on its absolute diagnostability.
The Wondiwoi tree-kangaroo is among the 25 "most wanted lost" species that are the focus of Global Wildlife Conservation's "Search for Lost Species" initiative.
The extinct species D. noibano from the Pleistocene of Chimbu Province, Papua New Guinea is substantially larger than living species. However, it has since been suggested to be a larger extinct form of Doria's tree-kangaroo.
The case for the golden-mantled tree-kangaroo (D. pulcherrimus) is comparable to that of D. stellarum; it was first described as a subspecies of D. goodfellowi, though recent authorities have elevated it to species status based on its absolute diagnostability. A population of the tenkile (Scott's tree-kangaroo) recently discovered from the Bewani Mountains may represent an undescribed subspecies.
Distribution and habitat
Tree-kangaroos inhabit the tropical rainforests of New Guinea, far northeastern Australia, and some of the islands in the region, in particular, the Schouten Islands and the Raja Ampat Islands. Although most species are found in mountainous areas, several also occur in lowlands, such as the aptly named lowlands tree-kangaroo. Most tree-kangaroos are considered threatened due to hunting and habitat destruction. Because much of their lifestyle involves climbing and jumping between trees, they have evolved an appropriate method of locomotion. Tree-kangaroos thrive in the treetops, as opposed to terrestrial kangaroos which survive on mainland Australia. Two species of tree-kangaroos are found in Australia, Bennett's (D. bennetianus), which is found north of the Daintree River and Lumholtz's (D. lumholtzi). Tree-kangaroos have adapted better to regions of high altitudes. Tree-kangaroos must find places comfortable and well-adapted for breeding, as they only give birth to one joey per year. They are known to have one of the most relaxed and leisurely birthing seasons. They breed cautiously in the treetops during the monsoon season. Their habitats are breeding grounds for danger, as they can easily fall prey to their natural predator, the amethystine python, which also climbs and lives in the treetops. Tree-kangaroos are known to be able to live in both mountainous regions and lowland locations.
Description
Lumholtz's tree-kangaroo is the smallest of all tree-kangaroos. Its body and head length ranges about , and its tail, , with males weighing an average of 7.2 kg (16 lb) and females 5.9 kg (13 lb). The length of Doria's tree-kangaroo is , with a long tail, and weighs . Matschie's tree-kangaroo has a body and head length of 81 cm (20 to 32 inches), adult males weigh 9–11 kg (20-25 lb) and adult females weigh 7–9 kg (15-20 lb). The grizzled tree-kangaroo grows to a length of 75–90 cm (30 to 35 in), with males being considerably larger than females, and its weight is 8–15 kg (18-33 lb).
Tree-kangaroos have several adaptations to an arboreal life-style. Compared to terrestrial kangaroos, tree-kangaroos have longer and broader hind feet with longer, curved nails. They also have a sponge-like grip on their paws and soles of their feet. Tree-kangaroos have a much larger and pendulous tail than terrestrial kangaroos, giving them enhanced balance while moving about the trees. Locomotion on the ground is by hopping, as with true kangaroos. Like terrestrial kangaroos, tree-kangaroos do not sweat to cool their bodies, rather, they lick their forearms and allow the moisture to evaporate in an adaptive form of behavioural thermoregulation.
Behaviour
Locomotion
Tree-kangaroos are slow and clumsy on the ground. They move at approximately human walking pace and hop awkwardly, leaning their body far forward to balance the heavy tail. However, in trees, they are bold and agile. They climb by wrapping their forelimbs around the trunk of a tree and, while allowing the forelimbs to slide, hop up the tree using their powerful hind legs. They are expert leapers; downward jumps from one tree to another have been recorded and they have the extraordinary ability to jump to the ground from or more without being hurt.
Diet
The main diet of the tree-kangaroo is leaves and fruit that it gathers from the trees, but occasionally scavenged from the ground. Tree-kangaroos will also eat grains, flour, various nuts, sap and tree bark. Some captive tree-kangaroos (perhaps limited to New Guinea species) eat protein foods such as eggs, birds and snakes, making them omnivores.
Reproduction
Little is known about the reproduction of tree-kangaroos in the wild. The only published data are from captive individuals. Female tree-kangaroos reach sexual maturity as early as 2.04 years of age and males at 4.6 years. The female's fertile period is estimated to be approximately two months. They have one of the longest marsupial offspring development/maturation periods; pouch life for the young is 246–275 days long and weaning occurs 87–240 days later.
Threats
The two most significant threats to tree-kangaroos are habitat loss and hunting. Tree-kangaroo habitats are being destroyed or replaced by logging and timber production, along with coffee, rice and wheat production. This habitat loss can make tree-kangaroos more exposed to predators such as feral domestic dogs. Being hunted by local community members also contributes markedly to the declines in tree-kangaroo populations. Research conducted on Lumholtz's tree-kangaroo, a species that dwells in the rain forests of northeastern Australia, determined the frequency of causes of death. This showed that of 27 deceased tree-kangaroos, 11 had been killed by vehicles, six by dogs, four by parasites and the remaining six died from other causes.
Captivity
As of 2021 five of the species are held in captivity. These include populations of Goodfellow's (D. goodfellowi) and Matschie's (D. matschiei), with smaller numbers of Lumholtz's (D. lumholtzi), Grizzled (D. inustus), and Doria's (D. dorianus) tree kangaroos. These are being kept in a variety of facilities across North America, Oceania, and Europe, with smaller holdings in Asia. The World Association of Zoos and Aquariums coordinates with regional zoological associations to ensure the coordination of breeding programs to maintain viable breeding populations and genetic diversity outside of the wild populations.
In November 2014 at the Adelaide Zoo, an orphaned tree-kangaroo joey was transferred to the pouch of a yellow-footed rock-wallaby when his mother was killed by a falling branch. The joey survived, having been successfully reared by the surrogate mother rock-wallaby.
Gallery
See also
Fauna of Australia
Fauna of New Guinea
References
External links
Images of Goodfellow's tree-kangaroo (Dendrolagus goodfellowi) – ARKive
Tree-Kangaroo Conservation Program at Woodland Park Zoo
National Geographic coverage of tree-kangaroos
Macropods
Marsupials of Oceania
Marsupials of New Guinea
Mammals of Papua New Guinea
Mammals of Queensland
Mammals of Western New Guinea
Taxa named by Salomon Müller
Miocene marsupials
Pliocene marsupials
Pleistocene marsupials
Extant Pleistocene first appearances | wiki |
Elf is a 1991 video game published by Ocean Software.
Gameplay
Elf is a game in which Cornelius goes on a quest to rescue Elisa.
Reception
Leah Wesolowski reviewed the game for Computer Gaming World, and stated that "While the musical score is nice, it does not make up for Elf'''s lack of finesse. Perhaps a trip to the guillotine is fitting for this Elf."
Tom Malcom for Info remarked on the detail and fast pace of the game, and concluded that "If you appreciate fine graphics and frantic gameplay, you'll love Elf."
Ciaran Brennan for The One for Amiga Games praised the game, calling it "A beautiful puzzle game with astonishing hidden depths".
Ed Ricketts for ST Format enjoyed the graphics and gameplay, and felt that the game kept him occupied.
Damian Slee for Amiga Action liked the graphics and sound, and felt that "If you're after a good action game that requires a little bit of thinking power as well, this is definitely the one for you."
Adrian Price for Amiga Format noted the difficulty and concluded that "It's not too hard for those who fancy the occasional arcade blast, but really challenge the die hard platform freaks."
Fiona Keating for CU Amiga found it "an extremely enjoyable game" thanks to its riddles and conundrums.
Gary Whitta for ACE commented that while not everyone will enjoy it, "it's a quality romp, and one that will keep variety-starved platform fans busy into the small hours".
ReviewsAmiga Power'' - Sep, 1991
References
1991 video games
Amiga games
Atari ST games
DOS games
Fantasy video games
Fictional elves
Platform games
Side-scrolling video games
Video games developed in the United Kingdom | wiki |
Knödel (; and ) or Klöße (; ) are boiled dumplings commonly found in Central European and East European cuisine. Countries in which their variant of Knödel is popular include Austria, Germany, Hungary, Poland, Romania, Bosnia, Croatia, Serbia, Slovenia, Slovakia, Bulgaria and Czechia. They are also found in Scandinavian, Romanian, northeastern Italian cuisine, Ukrainian and Belarusian cuisines. Usually made from flour, bread or potatoes, they are often served as a side dish, but can also be a dessert such as plum dumplings, or even meat balls in soup. Many varieties and variations exist.
Etymology
The word is German and is cognate with the English word knot and the Latin word 'knot'. Through the Old High German and the Middle High German it finally changed to the modern expression. Knödel in Hungary are called or ; in Slovenia, or (less specifically) ; in the Czech Republic, (singular ); in Slovakia, (singular ); in Luxembourg, ; in Bosnia, Croatia, Poland and Serbia, ; in Bukovina, or ; and, in Italy, . In some regions of the United States, klub is used to refer specifically to potato dumplings. A similar dish is known in Sweden ( or ) and in Norway ( or ), filled with salty meat; and in Canada ().
Varieties
Knödel are used in various dishes in Austrian, German, Slovak and Czech cuisine. From these regions, Knödel spread throughout Europe.
Leberknödel are large dumplings made of ground liver and a batter made of bread soaked in milk and seasoned with nutmeg or other spices, boiled in beef stock and served as a soup.
Klöße are also large dumplings, steamed or boiled in hot water, made of dough from grated raw or mashed potatoes, eggs and flour. Similar semolina crack dumplings are made with semolina, egg and butter called Grießklößchen (Austrian Grießnockerl, Hungarian grízgaluska, Silesian "gumiklyjza"). Thüringer Klöße are made from raw or boiled potatoes, or a mixture of both, and are often filled with croutons or ham.
Bread dumplings (Semmelknödel) are made with dried white bread, milk and egg yolks (are sometimes shaped like a loaf of bread, and boiled in a napkin, in which case they are known as napkin dumplings or Serviettenknödel). If bacon is added they are called Speckknödel.
Plum dumplings (, Slavic: knedle), popular over Central Europe, are large sweet dumplings made with flour and potato batter, by wrapping the potato dough around whole plums (or apricots), boiled and rolled in hot buttered caramelized bread crumbs.
Dumplings made with quark cheese (, ), traditionally topped with cinnamon sugar and served with apple sauce or with streusel.
In Brazil, German immigrants traditionally make Klöße with white rice, wheat flour and eggs, mixing them into a sturdy dough, shaping them in dumplings and boiling them.
Königsberger Klopse are, unlike regular dumplings, made from ground meat and are related to Frikadeller.
Frankenburger Bratknödel, are unique to the market town of Frankenburg am Hausruck and filled with a saucy meatball.
Matzah balls could be considered Knödel made from matzah meal. The Yiddish word for Matzah balls, (kneydl), is cognate to Knödel. Matzah balls originated among Ashkenazi Jewish groups in Eastern or Central Europe.
Lithuanian Cepelinai.
Polish Knedle.
Marillenknödel apricot dumplings in Austrian cuisine
Germknödel filled with spiced powidl, topped with sugar, poppy seeds and butter
Gallery
See also
References
Further reading
External links
Klöße/Dumplings
Dumplings
Potato dishes
German cuisine
Luxembourgian cuisine
Austrian cuisine
Czech cuisine
Slovak cuisine
Hungarian cuisine
Plum dishes | wiki |
A United Nations Security Council resolution (UNSCR) is a United Nations resolution adopted by the fifteen members of the Security Council (UNSC); the United Nations (UN) body charged with "primary responsibility for the maintenance of international peace and security".
The UN Charter specifies (in Article 27) that a draft resolution on non-procedural matters is adopted if nine or more of the fifteen Council members vote for the resolution, and if it is not vetoed by any of the five permanent members. Draft resolutions on "procedural matters" can be adopted on the basis of an affirmative vote by any nine Council members. The five permanent members are the People's Republic of China (which replaced the Republic of China in 1971), France, Russia (which replaced the defunct Soviet Union in 1991), the United Kingdom, and the United States.
, the Security Council has passed 2672 resolutions.
Terms and functions mentioned in the UN Charter
The term "resolution" does not appear in the text of the United Nations Charter. It contains numerous formulations, such as "decision" or "recommendation", which imply the adoption of resolutions which do not specify the method to be used.
The UN Charter is a multilateral treaty. It is the constitutional document that distributes powers and functions among the various UN organs. It authorizes the Security Council to take action on behalf of the members, and to make decisions and recommendations. The Charter mentions neither binding nor non-binding resolutions. The International Court of Justice (ICJ) advisory opinion in the 1949 "Reparations" case indicated that the United Nations Organization had both explicit and implied powers. The Court cited Articles 104 and 2(5) of the Charter, and noted that the members had granted the Organization the necessary legal authority to exercise its functions and fulfill its purposes as specified or implied in the Charter, and that they had agreed to give the United Nations every assistance in any action taken in accordance with the Charter.
Article 25 of the Charter says that "The Members of the United Nations agree to accept and carry out the decisions of the Security Council in accordance with the present Charter". The Repertory of Practice of United Nations Organs, a UN legal publication, says that during the United Nations Conference on International Organization which met in San Francisco in 1945, attempts to limit obligations of Members under Article 25 of the Charter to those decisions taken by the Council in the exercise of its specific powers under Chapters VI, VII and VIII of the Charter failed. It was stated at the time that those obligations also flowed from the authority conferred on the Council under Article 24(1) to act on the behalf of the members while exercising its responsibility for the maintenance of international peace and security. Article 24, interpreted in this sense, becomes a source of authority which can be drawn upon to meet situations which are not covered by the more detailed provisions in the succeeding articles. The Repertory on Article 24 says: "The question whether Article 24 confers general powers on the Security Council ceased to be a subject of discussion following the advisory opinion of the International Court of Justice rendered on 21 June 1971 in connection with the question of Namibia (ICJ Reports, 1971, page 16)".
In exercising its powers the Security Council seldom bothers to cite the particular article or articles of the UN Charter that its decisions are based upon. In cases where none are mentioned, a constitutional interpretation is required. This sometimes presents ambiguities as to what amounts to a decision as opposed to a recommendation, and also the relevance and interpretation of the phrase "in accordance with the present Charter".
If the Security Council cannot reach consensus or a passing vote on a resolution, they may choose to produce a non-binding presidential statement instead of a Resolution. These are adopted by consensus. They are meant to apply political pressure—a warning that the Council is paying attention and further action may follow.
Press statements typically accompany both resolutions and presidential statements, carrying the text of the document adopted by the body and also some explanatory text. They may also be released independently, after a significant meeting.
See also
United Nations Security Council resolutions by topic
United Nations General Assembly resolution
List of vetoed United Nations Security Council resolutions
Notes
External links
UN Security Council Official Website including full text of all resolutions
How to Find General Assembly and Security Council Resolutions and Voting Records
de:UN-Resolution#Resolutionen des UN-Sicherheitsrats | wiki |
Richard Petty Motorsports was a NASCAR auto racing team which operated from 2009–2021.
Richard Petty Motorsports may also refer to:
Petty GMS Motorsports, a NASCAR team now named Legacy Motor Club
Petty Enterprises, a defunct NASCAR team which operated from 1949–2008 | wiki |
Royal Route may refer to:
, Czech Republic
Royal Road, Persia
, Poland
Royal Road, Kraków, Poland
, Poland
Royal Route, Warsaw, Poland
, Poland
Via Regia (Royal Highway): name of several historic European roads | wiki |
State Road 101 (SR 101) (also known as Mayport Road) is a state highway in Duval County, in the First Coast part of the U.S. state of Florida. It connects SR A1A to the south side of Naval Station Mayport on Maine Street. Along its route, SR 101 meets the east end of SR 116 (Wonderwood Drive). At the south end of SR 101, Mayport Road continues on SR A1A to Atlantic Boulevard (SR 10). After going under the SR A1A/SR 10 bridge, Mayport Road becomes Florida Boulevard.
There is an erroneous exit sign on SR 10 east for the southern end of Mayport Road. It says the exit is for SR 101, however the road is actually SR A1A north at this point; SR 101 does not start until about farther to the north.
Route description
SR 101 begins at an intersection with SR A1A at the northern end of Atlantic Beach, heading north on four-lane divided Mayport Road through a portion of Jacksonville. The road passes through areas of homes and businesses before becoming a five-lane road with a center left-turn lane and coming to an intersection with the eastern terminus of SR 116. Following this, the state road heads between wetlands to the west and wooded neighborhoods to the east as a four-lane undivided road. SR 101 reaches its northern terminus at the entrance to Naval Station Mayport.
History
Mayport Road was added to the state highway system in the 1940s as State Road 560. In the 1945 renumbering it was assigned the State Road 101 designation. Later, when SR A1A was realigned from its original northern terminus of Jacksonville to cross the Mayport Ferry, SR 101 was truncated.
Major intersections
References
101
101
101 | wiki |
Rolls-Royce Phantom kan syfta på flera bilmodeller från Rolls-Royce
Rolls-Royce Phantom I – 1925–1931
Rolls-Royce Phantom II – 1929–1936
Rolls-Royce Phantom III – 1936–1939
Rolls-Royce Phantom IV – 1950–1959
Rolls-Royce Phantom V – 1959–1968
Rolls-Royce Phantom VI – 1969–1991
Rolls-Royce Phantom VII – 2003–2017
Rolls-Royce Phantom Drophead Coupé – 2007–2016
Rolls-Royce Phantom Coupé – 2008–2016
Rolls-Royce Phantom VIII – 2017– | wiki |
Dispensation may refer to:
Dispensation (Catholic canon law), the suspension, by competent authority, of general rules of law in particular cases in the Catholic Church
(Common law) The former power of an English king to not apply a law in individual cases. See Sir Edward Hales, 3rd Baronet.
Dispensation (period), a period in history according to various religions
Dispensation (album), an album by Jimsaku
Dispensation of the fulness of times, a concept in Mormon doctrine
Dispensationalism
See also
Classification of Pharmaco-Therapeutic Referrals
Dispenser (disambiguation)
Dispensing (disambiguation) | wiki |
Mochi ice cream is a confection made from Japanese mochi (pounded sticky rice) with an ice cream filling. It was invented by Japanese-American businesswoman and community activist Frances Hashimoto.
Description
Mochi ice cream is a small, round confection consisting of a delicious soft, pounded sticky rice dumpling (mochi) formed around an ice cream filling. The ice cream adds flavor and creaminess to the confection while the mochi adds sweetness and texture. The traditional ice cream flavors used are vanilla, chocolate and strawberry. Other flavors, such as Kona coffee, plum wine, green tea, and red bean, are also widely used. Mochi can also be flavored as a complement to the ice cream filling. When making mochi, it is dusted with either potato or cornstarch to keep it from caking while being formed and handled.
History
Japanese daifuku and manjū are the predecessors to mochi ice cream, commonly featuring adzuki bean filling. Due to the temperature and consistency of mochi and ice cream, both components must be modified. This is to achieve the right viscosity that will remain constant regardless of changes in temperature.
An early predecessor form of the dessert was originally produced by Lotte, as Yukimi Daifuku in 1981. The company first made the product by using a rice starch instead of sticky rice and a rice milk instead of real ice cream.
Frances Hashimoto, the former president and CEO of Mikawaya, is credited as the inventor of mochi ice cream. Hashimoto's husband, Joel Friedman, conceived the idea of taking small orbs of ice cream and wrapping them in a Japanese traditional mochi rice cake. Frances Hashimoto expanded on her husband's idea, inventing the fusion dessert now popular in the United States and elsewhere. Hashimoto introduced seven flavors in the mochi product line.
Mikawaya began production of mochi ice cream in the United States in 1993. Research and development took over a decade to evolve into the mass production form used today, due to the complex interactions of the ingredients. Trial and error was used in order to successfully pull the delicate mochi dough over the ice cream without leaving a sodden mess. Friedman explained that in order to conduct production of the ice cream, experts ranging from construction to microbiology were brought in to perfect the state-of-the-art production building.
Mikawaya debuted their Mochi Ice Cream in Hawaii in 1994. The frozen treat was so popular, it captured 15% of the novelty frozen treat market during its first four months.
Mochi ice cream gained huge popularity in the UK following a viral TikTok trend, which began in January 2021. The trend of ‘Looking for Little Moons in Big Tesco’ became a sensation, receiving 341.8M views and a surge in sales of 1400% in Tesco alone.
See also
My/Mochi
Bubbies
Yukimi Daifuku
Snow skin mooncake
Cream puff
References
External links
Mikawaya's official site
Lotte's official site (Japanese)
The joy of mochi — June 14, 2006 Honolulu Weekly article, featuring Bubbies Homemade Ice Cream of Honolulu
Maeda-en Mochi Ice Cream site
Little Moons official website
Food and drink in California
Ice cream
Japanese desserts and sweets
Rice dishes | wiki |
Gruff may refer to:
Gruff, harsh and surly in nature and/or tone of voice
Gruffs, servants of the Summer Faerie Court in Jim Butcher's The Dresden Files series
The Three Billy Goats Gruff, Norwegian folk-tale The Three Billy Goats Gruff
Gruff, a character in Legend of the NeverBeast from Disney
Gruff, a diminutive of Welsh name Gruffudd | wiki |
In the United States, a Designated Pilot Examiner (DPE) is a senior pilot who examines applicants for a Pilot Certificate on behalf of the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). The DPE must check applicants’ qualifications, conduct an oral test of their mental skills and judgment, and perform a practical test in flight.
Authority
A Designated Pilot Examiner (commonly referred to as a DPE) is a senior pilot designated by the FAA to conduct oral examinations and inflight or flight simulator checkrides (collectively called "practical tests") with pilot applicants to determine their suitability to be issued a Pilot Certificate or additional rating on their Pilot Certificate. Certain DPEs also have authority to issue Flight Instructor Certificates and associated additional ratings. At the completion of the testing procedures, DPEs issue a "Temporary Airman Certificate" (pilot certificate) with the new qualifications or ratings, to be followed by a regular, credit-card-like certificate from FAA Airman Records following review of the certification file.
The process to become a DPE involves joining a waiting list with the FAA, sometimes for 10 years or longer depending on the need of the local FAA Flight Standards District Office (FSDO). Once the FSDO accepts an applicant he/she travels to an FAA training facility (usually a course at the FAA Academy in Oklahoma City) for training and testing.
DPEs are required to attend biennial recurrent training conducted by the FAA, and annual standardization meetings with their supervising FSDOs—as well as being examined regularly by FAA Aviation Safety Inspectors conducting "ridealong" flights or oral reviews.
The general guidelines by which DPEs examine pilots are called Airman Certification Standards, which began replacing the Practical Test Standards system in 2016. DPEs are not FAA employees and charge fees for their services, but they "act for the Administrator (of the FAA)" to augment the limited availability of FAA Aviation Safety Inspectors; more than 90 percent of pilot certification checkrides in the U.S. are conducted by DPEs.
The quality of the DPE system is assured by constant FAA oversight and annual re-certification of all Pilot Examiners. The FAA maintains a list of all Designated Pilot Examiners and the tests they are qualified to accomplish. The FAA tries to assure that no applicant need wait more than a week or travel more than to obtain their flight test. The majority of pilot examiners make their living flying in some capacity (flight instructor, airline or charter flight) and often perform the duties of DPE as a service to the industry.
Duties
The first step in the examination process is making sure the applicant is qualified for the flight evaluation. The DPE will check photo identification, student certificate and all the instructor recommendations for accuracy. In addition, all of the FAA experience requirements must be verified before any evaluation can begin.
The discussion (oral) portion of a flight evaluation precedes any flight per FAA requirements. If correctly performed, this is a scenario-based discussion that leads the applicant through mental challenges similar to what any pilot may encounter later in their flying career. The DPE is to test the applicant's thinking and judgment skills. Many tasks in the FAA evaluation are mandated due to previous accident analysis of pilot errors. Since over 80% of aircraft accidents are caused by pilot error, the knowledge and judgment of a pilot must be carefully tested.
Once the oral is successfully completed, the DPE will perform the flight part of the test. Many eager pilot applicants forget at this point that they are the ultimate arbiters of acceptable flight conditions. Every flight evaluation by the FAA may result in a "discontinuance" if the weather is deemed unacceptable by the applicant. Trying to prove extraordinary skills in a hurricane-force wind is not required (or advisable). The pilot examiner should be watching for good judgment on the part of the pilot applicant when evaluating the weather conditions.
Acceptable tolerances for every flight maneuver are carefully stated in each of the FAA Practical Test Standards. The DPE must determine the applicant's skill; perfection is not the standard but the DPE should watch for prompt correction if a deviation occurs.
References
External links
FAA requirements for DPEs
Aviation licenses and certifications
Occupations in aviation | wiki |
Erika Lauriola – calciatrice italiana
Pierpaolo Lauriola – cantautore e chitarrista italiano | wiki |
Racetrack is a paper and pencil game that simulates a car race, played by two or more players. The game is played on a squared sheet of paper, with a pencil line tracking each car's movement. The rules for moving represent a car with a certain inertia and physical limits on traction, and the resulting line is reminiscent of how real racing cars move. The game requires players to slow down before bends in the track, and requires some foresight and planning for successful play. The game is popular as an educational tool teaching vectors.
The game is also known under names such as Vector Formula, Vector Rally, Vector Race, Graph Racers, PolyRace, Paper and pencil racing, or the Graph paper race game.
The basic game
The rules are here explained in simple terms. As will follow from a later section, if the mathematical concept of vectors is known, some of the rules may be stated more briefly. The rules may also be stated in terms of the physical concepts velocity and acceleration.
The track
On a sheet of quadrille paper ("quad pad", e.g. Letter preprinted with a 1/4" square grid, or A4 with a 5 mm square grid), a freehand loop is drawn as the outer boundary of the racetrack. A large ellipse will do for a first game, but some irregularities are needed to make the game interesting. Another freehand loop is drawn inside the first. It can be more or less parallel with the outer loop, or the track can have wider and narrower spots (pinch spots), with usually at least two squares between the loops. A straight starting and finishing line is drawn across the two loops, and a direction for the race is chosen (e.g., counter clockwise).
Preparing to play
The order of players is agreed upon. Each player chooses a color or mark (such as x and o) to represent the player's car. Each player marks a starting point for his or her car - a grid intersection at or behind the starting line.
The moves
All moves will be from one grid point to another grid point. Each grid point has eight neighbouring grid points: Up, down, left, right, and the four diagonal directions. Players take turns to move their cars according to some simple rules. Each move is marked by drawing a line from the starting point of this move to a new point.
Each player's first move must be to one of the eight neighbours of their starting position. (The player can also choose to stand still.)
On each turn after that, the player can choose to move the same number of squares in the same direction as on the previous turn; the grid point reached by this move is called the principal point for this turn. (E.g., if the previous move was four squares to the right and two squares upwards, then the principal point is found by moving another four squares to the right and two more squares upwards.) However, the player also has the choice of any of the eight neighbours of this principal point.
Cars must stay within the boundaries of the racetrack; otherwise they crash.
Finding a winner
The winner is the first player to complete a lap (cross the finish line).
Additional and alternative rules
Combining the following rules in various ways, there are many variants of the game.
The track
The track need not be a closed curve; the starting and finishing lines could be different.
Before starting to play, the players may go over the track, agreeing in advance about each grid point near the boundaries as to whether that point is inside or outside the track.
Alternatively, the track may be drawn with straight lines only, with corners at grid points only. This removes the need to decide dubious points. Players may or may not be allowed to touch the walls, but not to cross them.
The moves
Instead of allowing moves to any of eight neighbours of the principal point, one may use the four neighbours rule, limiting moves to the principal point or any of its four nearest neighbours.
When drawing the track, slippery regions with oil spill may be marked, wherein the cars cannot change velocity at all, or only according to the four neighbours rule. The rule may e.g. apply to all moves beginning in the slippery region.
On the track there may be also some turbo areas marked with an arrow with a specific length and direction. When a vehicle goes through this area, the principal point is moved as indicated by the arrow.
Collisions and crashes
Usually, cars are required to stay on the track for the entire length of the move, not just the start and end. On heavily convoluted racetracks, allowing the line segment representing a move to cross the boundary twice (with start and end points inside the track), some unreasonable shortcuts may be allowed.
Several cars may be allowed to occupy the same point simultaneously. However, the most common and entertaining rule is that while the line segments are allowed to intersect, a car cannot move to or through a grid point that is occupied by another car, as they would collide.
If a player is unable to move according to these rules, the player has crashed. A crashed car may leave the game, or various systems for penalizing crashes can be devised.
A player running off the track may be allowed to continue, but is required to brake and turn around, and re-enter the track again crossing the boundary at a point behind the point where it left. At high speeds, this will take a considerable number of moves.
Another possibility is to penalize a car with "damage points" for each crash. E.g., if it runs off the track or collides, it receives 1 damage point for each square of the last movement, and comes to an immediate stand-still. A car with 5 damage points, say, cannot run anymore.
Finding a winner
At the end of the game, one may complete a round. E.g., with three players A, B and C (starting on that order), if B is the first to cross the finish line, C is allowed one more move to complete the A-B-C cycle. The winner is the player whose car is the greatest distance beyond the finish line.
If the collision rule mentioned above is used, there is still a considerable advantage in moving first. This may be partially counterbalanced by having the players choose their individual starting points in reverse order. E.g., first C chooses a start point, then B, then A. Then, A makes the first move, followed by B, then C.
Another possible rule is to let the loser move first in the next game.
Mathematics and physics
Each move may be represented by a vector. E.g., a move four squares to the right and two up may be represented by the vector (4,2).
The eight neighbour rule allows changing each coordinate of the vector by ±1. E.g., if the previous move was (4,2), the next one may be any of the following nine:
(3,3) (4,3) (5,3)
(3,2) (4,2) (5,2)
(3,1) (4,1) (5,1)
If each round represents 1 second and each square represents 1 metre, the vector representing each move is a velocity vector in metres per second. The four neighbour rule allows accelerations up to 1 metre per second squared, and the eight neighbours rule allows accelerations up to metres per second squared. A more realistic maximum acceleration for car racing would be 10 metres per second squared, e.g. corresponding to assuming each round to represent a reaction time of 0.5 seconds, and each square to represent 2.5 metres (using 4 neighbour rule).
The speed built up by acceleration can only be reduced at the same rate. This restriction reflects the inertia or momentum of the car. Note that in physics, speeding, braking, and turning right or left all are forms of acceleration, represented by one vector. For a sports car, having the same maximum acceleration without loss of traction in all directions is not unrealistic; see Circle of forces. Note, however, that the circle of forces strictly applies to an individual tyre rather than an entire vehicle, that a slightly elongated ellipse would be more realistic than a circle, and that the theory of traction involving this circle or ellipse is quite simplified.
History and contemporary use
The origins of the game are unknown, but it certainly existed as early as the 1960s. The rules for the game, and a sample track game was published by Martin Gardner in January 1973 in his "Mathematical Games" column in Scientific American; and it was again described in Car and Driver magazine, in July 1973, page 65. Today, the game is used by math and physics teachers around the world when teaching vectors and kinematics. However, the game has a certain charm of its own, and may be played as a pure recreation.
Martin Gardner noted that the game was "virtually unknown" in the United States, and called it "a truly remarkable simulation of automobile racing". He mentions having learned the game from Jürg Nievergelt, "a computer scientist at the University of Illinois who picked it up on a recent trip to Switzerland". Car and Driver described it as having an "almost supernatural" resemblance to actual racing, commenting that "If you enter a turn too rapidly, you will spin. If you "brake" too early, it will take you longer to accelerate out of the turn."
Triplanetary was a science fiction rocket ship racing game that was sold commercially between 1973 and 1981. It used similar rules to Racetrack but on a hexagonal grid and with the spaceships being placed in the center of the grid cells rather than at the vertices. The game used a laminated board which could be written on with a grease pencil.
References
External links
Graph racers
Racetrack
"Racetrack, as it was played in the 1960s."
Vector Racer (aka Racetrack) online
karopapier.de or graphracer.com Online game to race against others (currently German only, translations available)
See also
Paper soccer
Mathematical games
Paper-and-pencil games
Racing games | wiki |
Carenum subplanatum is een keversoort uit de familie van de loopkevers (Carabidae). De wetenschappelijke naam van de soort is voor het eerst geldig gepubliceerd in 1874 door Bates.
subplanatum | wiki |
Aloe modesta is a species of flowering plant in the family Asphodelaceae. This plant is rare and only known in Mpumalanga and northern KwaZulu-Natal in South Africa.
References
modesta | wiki |
Classifications of snow describe and categorize the attributes of snow-generating weather events, including the individual crystals both in the air and on the ground, and the deposited snow pack as it changes over time. Snow can be classified by describing the weather event that is producing it, the shape of its ice crystals or flakes, how it collects on the ground, and thereafter how it changes form and composition. Depending on the status of the snow in the air or on the ground, a different classification applies.
Snowfall arises from a variety of events that vary in intensity and cause, subject to classification by weather bureaus. Some snowstorms are part of a larger weather pattern. Other snowfall occurs from lake effects or atmospheric instability near mountains. Falling snow takes many different forms, depending on atmospheric conditions, especially vapor content and temperature, as it falls to the ground. Once on the ground, snow crystals metamorphose into different shapes, influenced by wind, freeze-thaw and sublimation. Snow on the ground forms a variety of shapes, formed by wind and thermal processes, all subject to formal classifications both by scientists and by ski resorts. Those who work and play in snowy landscapes have informal classifications, as well.
There is a long history of northern and alpine cultures describing snow in their different languages, including Inupiat, Russian and Finnish. However, the lore about the multiplicity of Eskimo words for snow originates from controversial scholarship on a topic that's difficult to define, because of the structures of the languages involved.
Classification of snow events
Snow events reflect the type of storm that generates them and the type of precipitation that results. Classification systems use rates of deposition, types of precipitation, visibility, duration and wind speed to characterize such events.
Snow-producing events
The following terms are consistent with the classifications of United States National Weather Service and the Meteorological Service of Canada:
Blizzard — Characterized by sustained wind or frequent gusts of or greater and falling or blowing snow that frequently lowers visibility to less than over a period of 3 hours or longer.
Cold front — The leading edge of unstable cold air, replacing warmer, circulating around an extratropical cyclone, which may cause instability snow showers or squalls.
Extratropical cyclone (also nor'easter when in the North Atlantic) — May cause snow in the winter, especially in its northwest quadrant (in the Northern Hemisphere) where the wind comes from the northeast.
Lake-effect snow (also ocean-effect snow) — Occurs when relatively cold air flows over warm lake (or ocean) water to cause localized, convective snow bands.
Mountain snow — Orographic lift causes moist air to rise upslope on mountains to where freezing temperatures cause orographic snow.
Snow flurry — An intermittent, light snowfall event of short duration with only a trace level of accumulation.
Snowsquall — A brief but intense period of moderate to heavy snowfall with strong, gusty surface winds and measurable snowfall.
Thundersnow — Occurs when a snowstorm generates lightning and thunder. It may occur in areas that are prone to a combination of wind and moisture triggers that promote instability, often downwind of lakes or in mountainous terrain. It may occur with intensifying extratropical cyclones. Such events are often associated with intense snowfall.
Warm front — Snow may fall as warm air initially over-rides cold in a warm front, circulating around an extratropical cyclone.
Winter storm — May constitute any combination of sleet, snow, ice, and wind that accumulates or more of snow in 12 hours or less; or or more in 24 hours or of ice.
Precipitation
Precipitation may be characterized by type and intensity.
Type
Frozen precipitation includes snow, snow pellets, snow grains, ice crystals, ice pellets, and hail. Falling snow comprises ice crystals, growing in a hexagonal pattern and combining as snowflakes. Ice crystals may be "any one of a number of macroscopic, crystalline forms in which ice appears, including hexagonal columns, hexagonal platelets, dendritic crystals, ice needles, and combinations of these forms". Terms that refer to falling snow particles include:
Ice crystals (also diamond dust) – Suspended in the atmosphere as needles, columns or plates at very low temperatures in a stable atmosphere.
Ice pellets – Two manifestations, sleet and small hail, that result in irregular spherical particles, which typically bounce upon impact. Sleet comprises grains of ice that form from refreezing of largely melted snowflakes when falling through into a frozen layer of air near the surface. Small hail forms from snow pellets encased in a thin layer of ice caused either by accretion of droplets or by refreezing of each particle's surface.
Hail – Forms in cumulonimbus clouds as irregular spheres of ice (hailstones) with a diameter of 5 mm or more.
Snowflake – Grows from a single ice crystal and may have agglomerated with other crystals as it falls.
Snow grain (also granular snow) – Flattened and elongated agglomerations of crystals, typically less than 1 mm diameter, that include a range of crystal sizes and complexities to include a rime core and glaze coating. They typically originate in stratus clouds or from fog and fall in small quantities, not in showers.
Snow pellets (also soft hail, graupel, tapioca snow) – Spherical or conical ice particles, based on a snowlike structure, with diameters between 2 mm and 5 mm. They form by accretion of supercooled droplets near or slightly below the freezing point and rebound off hard surfaces upon landing.
Intensity
In the US, the intensity of snowfall is characterized by visibility through the falling precipitation, as follows:
Light snow: visibility of or greater
Moderate snow: visibility between and
Heavy snow: visibility of less than
Snow crystal classification
Ice approximates hexagonal symmetry in most of its atmospheric manifestations of a crystal lattice as snow. Temperature and vapor pressure determine the growth of the hexagonal crystal lattice in different forms that include columnar growth in the axis perpendicular to the hexagonal plane to form snow crystals. Ukichiro Nakaya developed a crystal morphology diagram, relating crystal shape to the temperature and moisture conditions under which they formed. Magono and Lee devised a classification of freshly formed snow crystals that includes 80 distinct shapes. They are summarized in the following principal snow crystal categories (with symbol):
Needle (N): Snow crystals may be simple or a combination of needles.
Column (C): Snow crystals may be simple or a combination of columns.
Plate (P): Snow crystals may be a regular crystal in one plane, a plane crystal with extensions (dendrites), a crystal with irregular number of branches, crystal with 12 branches, malformed crystal, radiating assemblage of plane branches.
Column and plate combination (CP): Snow crystals may be a column with plane crystal at both ends, a bullet with plane crystals, a plane crystal with spatial extensions at ends.
Side plane (S): Snow crystals may have extended side planes, some scalelike side planes, and some a combination of side planes, bullets, and columns.
Rime (R): Rimed crystals may be densely rimed crystals, graupellike crystals, or graupel.
Irregular (I): Snow crystals include ice particles, rimed particles, broken pieces from a crystal, and miscellaneous crystals.
Germ (G): Crystals may be a minute column, hexagonal plate, stellar crystal, assemblage of plates, irregular germ, or other skeletal form.
Classifications of snow on the ground
Classification of snow on the ground comes from two sources: the science community and the community of those who encounter it in their daily lives. Snow on the ground exists both as a material with varying properties and as a variety of structures, shaped by wind, sun, temperature, and precipitation.
Classification of snowpack material properties
The International Classification for Seasonal Snow on the Ground describes snow crystal classification, once it is deposited on the ground, that include grain shape and grain size. The system also characterizes the snowpack, as the individual crystals metamorphize and coalesce. It uses the following characteristics (with units) to describe deposited snow: microstructure, grain shape, grain size (mm), snow density (kg/m3), snow hardness, liquid water content, snow temperature (°C), impurities (mass fraction), and layer thickness (cm). The grain shape is further characterized, using the following categories (with code): precipitation particles (PP), machine-made snow (MM), decomposing and fragmented precipitation particles (DF), rounded grains (RG), faceted crystals (FC), depth hoar (DH), surface hoar (SH), melt forms (MF), and ice formations (IF). Other measurements and characteristics are used as well, including a snow profile of a vertical section of the snowpack. Some snowpack features include:
Crust – A variety of processes can create a crust, a layer of snow on the surface of the snowpack that is stronger than the snow below, which may be powder snow. Crusts often result from partial melting of the snow surface by direct sunlight or warm air followed by re-freezing, but can also be created by wind or by surface water. Snow travelers consider the thickness and resulting strength of a crust to determine whether it is "unbreakable", meaning that they will support the weight of the traveler or "breakable", meaning that it will not.
Depth hoar – Depth hoar comprises faceted snow crystals, usually poorly or completely unbonded (unsintered) to adjacent crystals, creating a weak zone in the snowpack. Depth hoar forms from metamorphism of the snowpack in response to a large temperature gradient between the warmer ground beneath the snowpack and the surface. The relatively high porosity (percentage of air space), relatively warm temperature (usually near freezing point), and unbonded weak snow in this layer can allow various organisms to live in it.
Machine-made – Machine-made artificial snow has two classifications: round, polycrystalline particles, which are produced by the freezing of water droplets expelled from a snow cannon, and shard-like ice plates, which are produced by the shaving of ice.
Surface hoar – Surface hoar is manifest as striated, usually flat, sometimes needle-like crystals, usually deposited as frost on a snow surface that is colder than the air. Crystals grow rapidly by transfer of moisture from the atmosphere onto the snow surface, which is cooled below ambient temperature by radiational cooling. Subsequent snowfall can bury layers of surface hoar, incorporating them into the snowpack where they can form a weak layer.
Classifications of snowpack surface and structure
In addition to having material properties, snowpacks have structure which can be characterized. These properties are primarily determined through the actions of wind, sun, and temperature. Such structures have been described by mountaineers and others encountering frozen landscapes, as follows:
Wind-induced
Cornice – Wind blowing over a ridge can create a compacted snowdrift with an overhanging top, called a cornice. Cornices present a hazard to mountaineers, because they are prone to break off.
Finger drift – A finger drift is a narrow snow drift (30 cm to 1 metre in width) crossing a roadway. Several finger drifts in succession resemble the fingers of a hand.
Pillow drift – A pillow drift is a snow drift crossing a roadway and usually 3 to 4.5 metres (10–15 feet) in width and 30 cm to 90 cm (1–3 feet) in depth.
Sastrugi – Sastrugi are snow surface features sculpted by wind into ridges and grooves up to 3 meters high, with the ridges facing into the prevailing wind.
Snowdrift – Snowdrifts are wind-driven accumulations of snow deposited downwind of obstructions.
Wind crust – A layer of relatively stiff, hard snow formed by deposition of wind blown snow on the windward side of a ridge or other sheltered area. Wind crusts generally bond better to snowpack layers below and above them than wind slabs.
Wind slab – A layer of relatively stiff, hard snow formed by deposition of wind blown snow on the leeward side of a ridge or other sheltered area. Wind slabs can form over weaker, softer freshly fallen powder snow, creating an avalanche hazard on steep slopes.
Sun or temperature-induced
Firn – Firn is dense, granular snow, which has been in place for multiple years but which has not yet consolidated into glacial ice.
Névé – Névé is a young, granular type of snow which has been partially melted, refrozen and compacted, yet precedes the form of ice. This type of snow is associated with glacier formation through the process of nivation. Névé that survives a full season of ablation turns into firn, which is both older and slightly denser.
Penitentes – Penitentes are snow formations, found at high elevations, which form of elongated, thin blades of hardened snow or ice up to 5 meters in height, closely spaced and pointing towards the general direction of the sun. They are evolved suncups.
Suncups – Suncups are polygonal depressions in a snow surface that form patterns with sharp narrow ridges separating smoothly concave quasi-periodic hollows. They form during the ablation (melting away) of snow from incident solar radiation in bright sunny conditions, sometimes enhanced by the insulating presence of dirt along the ridges.
Yukimarimo – Yukimarimo are balls of fine frost, formed at low temperatures on the Antarctic Plateau during light or calm winds.
Ski resort classification
Ski resorts use standardized terminology to describe their snow conditions. In North America terms include:
Base snow – Snow that has been thoroughly consolidated.
Frozen granular – Snow whose granules have frozen together.
Loose granular – Snow with incohesive granules.
Machine-made – Produced by snow cannons, and typically denser than natural snow.
New snow – Snow that has fallen since the previous day's report.
Packed powder – Powder snow that has been compressed by grooming or by ski traffic.
Powder – Freshly fallen, uncompacted snow. The density and moisture content of powder snow can vary widely; snowfall in coastal regions and areas with higher humidity is usually heavier than a similar depth of snowfall in an arid or continental region. Light, dry (low moisture content, typically 4–7% water content) powder snow is prized by skiers and snowboarders. It is often found in the Rocky Mountains of North America and in most regions in Japan.
Spring conditions – A variety of melting snow surfaces, including mushy powder or granular snow, which refreeze at night.
Wet – Warm snow with a high moisture content.
Informal classification
Skiers and others living with snow provide informal terms for snow conditions that they encounter.
Corn snow – Corn snow is coarse, granular snow, subject to freeze-thaw.
Crud – Crud covers varieties of snow that all but advanced skiers find impassable. Subtypes are (a) windblown powder with irregularly shaped crust patches and ridges, (b) heavy tracked spring snow re-frozen to leave a deeply rutted surface strewn with loose blocks, (c) a deep layer of heavy snow saturated by rain (although this may go by another term).
Packing snow – Packing snow is at or near the melting point, so that it can easily be packed into snowballs and thrown or used in the construction of a snowman, or a snow fort.
Slush – Slush is substantially melted snow with visible water in it.
Snirt – Snirt is an informal term for snow covered with dirt, especially where strong winds pick up topsoil from uncovered farm fields and blow it into nearby snowy areas. Also, dirty snow left over from plowing operations.
Spring snow – Spring snow describes a variety of temperature and moisture conditions with corn snow.
Watermelon snow – Watermelon snow is reddish pink, caused by a red-colored green algae called Chlamydomonas nivalis.
In various cultures
Not surprisingly, in languages and cultures where snow is common, having different words for distinct weather conditions and types of snowfall is desirable for efficient communication. Finnish, Icelandic, Norwegian, Russian, and Swedish have multiple words and phrases relating to snow and snowfall, in some cases dozens or even hundreds, depending upon how one counts.
Studies of the Sámi languages of Norway, Sweden and Finland, conclude that the languages have anywhere from 180 snow- and ice-related words and as many as 300 different words for types of snow, tracks in snow, and conditions of the use of snow.
The claim that Eskimo–Aleut languages (specifically, Yupik and Inuit) have an unusually large number of words for "snow", has been attributed to the work of anthropologist Franz Boas. Boas, who lived among Baffin islanders and learnt their language, reportedly included "only words representing meaningful distinctions" in his account. A 2010 study follows the sometimes questionable scholarship regarding the question whether these languages have many more root words for "snow" than the English language.
See also
— a format for reporting weather information
References
Further reading
Why and How to Study a Snowcover – contains an extensive taxonomy of show terminology borrowed from Inuit and some other languages
Fierz, C., Armstrong, R.L., Durand, Y., Etchevers, P., Greene, E., McClung, D.M., Nishimura, K., Satyawali, P.K. and Sokratov, S.A.; The International Classification for Seasonal Snow on the Ground. IHP-VII Technical Documents in Hydrology N°83, IACS Contribution N°1, UNESCO-IHP, Paris, 2009.
Precipitation
Forms of water
Snow | wiki |
Ever Since Eve is a 1934 American drama film directed by George Marshall and written by Stuart Anthony and Henry Johnson. The film stars George O'Brien, Mary Brian, Herbert Mundin, Betty Blythe, Roger Imhof and Russell Simpson. The film was released on March 25, 1934, by Fox Film Corporation.
Plot
Cast
George O'Brien as Neil Rogers
Mary Brian as Elizabeth Vandergrift
Herbert Mundin as Horace Saunders
Betty Blythe as Mrs. Vandergrift
Roger Imhof as Dave Martin
Russell Simpson as Jim Wood
George Meeker as Philip Baxter
References
External links
1934 films
Fox Film films
American drama films
1934 drama films
Films directed by George Marshall
American black-and-white films
1930s English-language films
1930s American films | wiki |
In geology, metasedimentary rock is a type of metamorphic rock. Such a rock was first formed through the deposition and solidification of sediment. Then, the rock was buried underneath subsequent rock and was subjected to high pressures and temperatures, causing the rock to recrystallize. The overall composition of a metasedimentary rock can be used to identify the original sedimentary rock, even where they have been subject to high-grade metamorphism and intense deformation.
Types of metasedimentary rocks
See also
References
Metamorphic petrology | wiki |
Brechmorhoga innupta is een libellensoort uit de familie van de korenbouten (Libellulidae), onderorde echte libellen (Anisoptera).
De wetenschappelijke naam Brechmorhoga innupta is voor het eerst geldig gepubliceerd in 1954 door Rácenis.
Korenbouten
IUCN-status onzeker | wiki |
5-Methylcytidine is a modified nucleoside derived from 5-methylcytosine. It is found in ribonucleic acids of animal, plant, and bacterial origin.
References
Nucleosides
Pyrimidones
Hydroxymethyl compounds | wiki |
Barbara Lazotti – soprano, musicologa e musicista italiana
Gianfrancesco Lazotti – regista e sceneggiatore italiano
Fausto Lazotti – calciatore italiano
Tommaso Lazotti – attore italiano | wiki |
The Best American Poetry 2008, a volume in The Best American Poetry series, was edited by poet Charles Wright, guest editor, who made the final selections, and David Lehman, the general editor for the series.
This book is the 21st volume in the most popular annual poetry anthology in the United States.
See also
2008 in poetry
Notes
External links
Web page for the book
Best American Poetry series
2008 poetry books
Poetry
American poetry anthologies | wiki |
This article provides details of international football games played by the Israel national football team from 1934 to 1959.
Results
1934
1938
1940
1948
1949
1950
1953
1954
1956
1957
1958
1959
See also
Israel national football team results (2020–present)
Israel national football team results (1990–2019)
Israel national football team results (1960–1989)
References
External links
Football in Israel
1934
1940s in Israeli sport
1950s in Israeli sport
1930s in Mandatory Palestine | wiki |
Sam Miller is an English television director.
Sam Miller may also refer to:
Sam Miller (cricketer) (born 1988), Australian cricketer
Sam Miller (journalist) (born 1962), journalist and writer
Sam J. Miller, science fiction author
Sam Miller (businessman) (1921-2019), American businessman
See also
Samuel Miller (disambiguation)
Sam Millar, crime writer | wiki |
80th Street may refer to:
80th Street (IND Fulton Street Line), a New York City Subway station in Queens, New York
80th Street (IRT Second Avenue Line), a former elevated train station in Manhattan, New York
80th Street (Manhattan)
80th Street-Eastwick station, a SEPTA trolley station in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania | wiki |
Rich people may refer to:
Rich People (EP)
Rich People (film)
See also
High-net-worth individual, financial industry term for people whose investible assets exceed some threshold
Lists of people by net worth
Rich People Problems, 2017 novel by Singaporean writer Kevin Kwan
Rich (disambiguation) | wiki |
Starkiller, born Galen Marek and also known as The Apprentice, is the fictional protagonist of the Star Wars: The Force Unleashed video games and literature, part of the now non-canonical Star Wars Legends expanded universe; however, his first appearance was as a guest character, alongside Darth Vader and Yoda, in the fighting video game Soulcalibur IV. He is voiced by and modeled after actor Sam Witwer, who would go on to voice other characters in Star Wars expanded media, most notably Darth Maul and Emperor Palpatine.
Within the fictional Star Wars universe, Galen Marek was born as the son of a fugitive Jedi during the early reign of the Galactic Empire. When his father is tracked down and killed by Darth Vader as part of the Empire's "Great Jedi Purge", the latter discovers Galen and, recognizing his potential as a powerful Force user, takes him to be raised and trained as his secret apprentice, giving him the codename "Starkiller". Years later, Vader uses Starkiller as his personal assassin, sending him on missions to benefit the Empire, as well as his own plans to overthrow Palpatine. Once Starkiller outlives his usefulness for Vader, he is betrayed and left for dead, prompting him to become a Jedi and join the recently-formed Rebel Alliance. Although the first The Force Unleashed game ends with Starkiller sacrificing himself for the Rebellion, the sequel reveals that Vader later cloned him in an attempt to create the perfect, obedient apprentice. The Force Unleashed II follows a clone of the original Starkiller who escapes Vader's restraints and goes on to join the Rebellion in the fight against the Empire.
The first game's downloadable content follows a different incarnation of Starkiller, continuing from the events of the game's non-canonical ending. In this alternate timeline, rather than giving his life for the Rebellion, Starkiller murders Vader and is severely injured during a confrontation with Palpatine. The latter saves his life by putting him in a suit similar to Vader's, but only so that he could serve as his new apprentice. Now known as Lord Starkiller, he becomes instrumental in helping the Empire eliminate the Rebellion over the following years, during alternate depictions of the events from the original Star Wars trilogy. Similarly, the second game features an expansion in which an evil Starkiller clone loyal to Vader and dubbed "the Dark Apprentice" hunts down the Rebellion's leaders during an alternate depiction of Return of the Jedi.
Starkiller's character was conceived as a powerful Force user, with abilities that far exceed those seen in the Star Wars films. His annihilative nature has earned him the description of a "Force wrecking ball". The character's name is taken from Luke Skywalker's original name, "Luke Starkiller". Starkiller has had a mostly positive reception from fans and critics.
Concept and creation
George Lucas motivated the team working on Star Wars: The Force Unleashed to make a brand-new character. Before deciding on Starkiller's character, other ideas for the main character included a Han Solo-like smuggler, a superheroic Rebel Wookiee, "the last Skywalker" and a gadget-wielding mercenary. The developers used feedback from focus test respondents and executives at LucasArts in order to make Starkiller. The developers consciously decided not to give him a name in the game, but as the novel's author Sean Williams said he needed a name, "Galen Marek" was given in the novel.
Starkiller was designed as Luke Skywalker's photo-negative, and is named after "Annikin Starkiller" (Luke or Anakin Skywalker's original name in the early Star Wars scripts). The developers tried to avoid making Starkiller too rigidly defined while keeping the character developed. The developers also wanted to avoid making Starkiller seem irredeemably evil, and used elements of his backstory and his relationships with other characters to balance it, while trying not to explain too much of his backstory. In order to avoid the character being over emotional, they tried to let short pieces of dialogue and looks carry scenes so that the player could interpret how Starkiller felt. They attempted to make Starkiller feel like he would belong in the classic Star Wars trilogy by making his actions faster and more intense. During an interview to Haden Blackman by The Guardian, he claimed that most of the testing players wanted the character to be ultimately redeemed by the end of the game.
Starkiller was voiced by and given the likeness of Samuel Witwer. According to Blackman, the staff were very hard on Witwer when casting him, but claimed he was far above the other candidates and that "he was already inhabiting the mind of this character". Starkiller's expressions are based on Witwer's, which Blackman described as "a new approach for LucasArts", noting that it "affected the way we handled casting for The Force Unleashed" and comparing it to how people see Bill Nighy as Davy Jones in the Pirates of the Caribbean movies. Blackman noted that Witwer brought new ideas and a sense of humanity to Starkiller. Sam Witwer has said that Starkiller would be a character he wouldn't mind revisiting.
During the concept stages of Star Wars: The Force Unleashed II, the developers considered replacing the character with either a new Force wielder or a previously named Star Wars character; however, they decided to keep Starkiller as the player character as they were fond of and attached to him. Also, the development team felt that there was more story that he could supply, and that a franchise could be built around him. Blackman commented that after deciding how to have Starkiller return, he felt "it all made sense and fell into place". Developers tried to make The Force Unleashed more personal to Starkiller, with the game focusing on Starkiller's search for the truth of his identity.
Characterization
Witwer compared him as being "two parts Han Solo, one part Darth Maul, one part Indiana Jones [...] and then one essential part Luke Skywalker", noting that in the character's development "behind it all, there had to be this wide-eyed kid who was trying to figure out what the hell to do". According to Witwer, Starkiller's characteristics and personality depended on who he was talking to and what circumstances he is in. Witwer called him "a really interesting guy, speaking of layered characters". Although acting as a villain in the beginning of the first game, Blackman has commented how Starkiller is "really just this damaged kid."
Haden Blackman noted that in the first Starkiller was a hunter, while in the second Starkiller is more a fugitive. Matt Filbrandt, one of the producers of The Force Unleashed II, said that the Starkiller in the second game is trying to find out "who he is" and "what it means to be human".
Fictional history
In the Star Wars series
The Force Unleashed
In the Star Wars: The Force Unleashed video game, Darth Vader dispatches Starkiller to kill a number of Jedi who have survived the Great Jedi Purge. Starkiller is initially kept in secret, but he is discovered by Emperor Palpatine, he is seemingly betrayed and killed by Vader. His master later resurrects him, and assigns him a new mission: to find and unite the Galactic Empire's enemies. Vader later betrays Starkiller a second time and attempts to kill those he united, but Starkiller sacrifices himself for the Rebel Alliance, becoming a martyr to inspire the rebels. During the game, he falls in love with Captain Juno Eclipse, an ex-Imperial Shuttle Pilot and his own ship's pilot. If Starkiller chooses to kill Vader rather than the Emperor at the end of the game, Starkiller becomes a minion of the Emperor and is put into a suit similar to Vader's. Starkiller reappears in this suit in the game's Ultimate Sith Edition, which continues the dark-side path as a "what if" story. However, the light-side ending is the canon ending, and is used in the novel adaption and sequels.
The Force Unleashed II
In the Star Wars: The Force Unleashed II video game and comic, as well as the novel, Starkiller is cloned by Darth Vader. Starkiller's clone is haunted by visions of the original Starkiller's life. After escaping Kamino, Starkiller goes on a quest to find out who he is and to find Juno Eclipse who has been kidnapped by Vader. At the end of the game, if the player chooses the light-side ending, Starkiller spares Vader, capturing him, and rescues Juno. But in the dark side ending, Starkiller is stabbed just before he can kill Vader by the Dark Apprentice (another successful clone) trained by Vader. Starkiller's dark side clone reappeared in downloadable content for the video game, which takes place on Endor, during an alternate depiction of Return of the Jedi. The light side ending is also used in the novel adaptation, though the dark side ending is used as a vision Starkiller sees on Juno's ship, the Salvation.
Attempted canon reintroduction
After the Unleashed franchise was discontinued following Disney's decision to reboot the Star Wars canon in favor of producing a sequel trilogy, Sam Witwer, Marek's voice actor, revealed that Dave Filoni, the creator of the Star Wars Rebels animated series, considered bringing Marek back into the new canon and having him appear in that series as a member of the Sith Inquisitorius, but ultimately decided against it because he could not find a way to do so without compromising either the new canon's quality or the character's unique distinctions.
In novels
Sean Williams' novelization was released in the United States on 19 August 2008. It spent one week as #1 on both Publishers Weeklys and The New York Times hardcover fiction bestsellers lists, slipping to #7 and #9, respectively, the following week. It also reached #15 on USA Todays bestsellers list.
Williams took on the writing project in part because of the "catchy description" of The Force Unleashed being "Episode 3.5" of the Star Wars saga. The novel focuses on the dark side of the Force and its practitioners; Williams found it "interesting" to portray the Jedi as "bad guys." The author most enjoyed developing the character of Juno Eclipse, exploring the "feminine" side of The Force Unleashed in a way the video game does not. Williams also said that while the game allows the player to "do" Starkiller's actions, the novel allows readers to experience Starkiller's thoughts about those actions, adding another dimension to the story.
Dark Horse's The Force Unleashed graphic novel was published 18 August 2008. Newsarama called the graphic novel a "solid story" that matches the video game source material in both structure and plot. IGN gave the graphic novel a score of 6.9/10 (6.4/10 for art, 7.5/10 for the writing), praising the overall story but faulting inconsistency in the art and questioning whether the comic medium was the best way to convey the story.
Other appearances
Outside of Star Wars, Starkiller made his debut as a fighter in Soulcalibur IV, alongside Darth Vader and Yoda. In this game, he is known as "The Apprentice". After Vader sends him to investigate a dimensional rift that seems to be growing, he passes through to the Soulcalibur universe. The Apprentice defeats Algol and returns to Vader without either the Soul Edge or the Soul Calibur, due to perceiving them as worthless. Vader Force Chokes the Apprentice for disobeying him, causing the Apprentice to draw his lightsaber and prepare to fight Vader. Starkiller also appears in Star Wars: Visions of the Blade, an Infinities comic focusing on the Soulcalibur and Star Wars crossover. Starkiller was also added as a playable character in Electronic Arts' free-to-play mobile turn-based role-playing game Star Wars: Galaxy of Heroes, along with several other memorable characters from the now non-canon Star Wars expanded universe, to celebrate Lucasfilm's 50th anniversary in 2021. He also appears as a secret playable character in Lego Star Wars III: The Clone Wars, and can only be obtained by collecting all ten Minikits in the level “Defenders of Peace”. He is classified as a “Classic” character, despite not originating from the Star Wars films.
Reception
Promotion
Various types of merchandising have been released based on Starkiller. Hasbro has made multiple action figures of Starkiller, along with the rest of the characters in Star Wars: The Force Unleashed. A Lego version of Starkiller was released as one of the three figures in the Rogue Shadow Lego set. At Toy Fair 2007, Hasbro also showed seven figures from their action figure line based on the game. Lego released a model of the main character's ship, the Rogue Shadow.
Critical response
Overall, critics and fans have generally praised the character. GamesRadar staff ranked Starkiller 60th place in a list of the 100 best heroes in video games, published in 2013. UGO Networks chose the character as the 50th top Star Wars Expanded Universe character. IGNs Jesse Schedeen called Starkiller's appearance in Soulcalibur IV the second best bonus character in the series, complementing his inclusion from a story standpoint as "[Soulcalibur IV] is about the dichotomy between good and evil, corruption and redemption, [...] Starkiller is a Dark Jedi who finds himself at a crossroads. He can either follow his master and take control of the galaxy, or break away and seek out his own destiny", with Schedeen later including Starkiller in a list of characters that would make up their idea of the ultimate fighting game. Chris Buffa also put the character as the 24th top gaming hunk, saying that "nothing compares to a bad boy". Jesse Schedeen called Starkiller one of the most promising player characters to be released during fall 2008. After the release of The Force Unleashed, Robert Workman, also from GameDaily, put the character as one of his favorite Star Wars video game characters. Buffa chose Starkiller as one of the top double-crossing characters. Jesse Schedeen of IGN has listed Starkiller as one of the best video game entertainers of 2008, commenting that "Starkiller unleashed the Force in ways the movies never showed us". Some publications and critics have labelled Starkiller as "comically" and "ridiculously" overpowered due to his extraordinary prowess as a Force wielder. TheGamer wrote how the character was able to achieve "crushing AT-STs into balls like tin foil", while Polygon highlighted that he "survives a Vader stab-wound and being hurled into the vacuum of space before pulling a Star Destroyer to the ground with his Force mojo."
UGO Networks listed Sam Witwer's performance as Starkiller as one of their top 11 celebrity voice actors in video games. Chris Buffa put Starkiller as the 19th top anti-hero, commenting that "the thought of cutting through good guys as a Sith filled us with murderous joy", also praising his eventual turn to good. Jesse Schedeen also thought that it would be best if the character was not revisited in the upcoming live-action TV series after the first The Force Unleashed as "his story arc was nice and complete". Starkiller was voted the top 10th Star Wars character by IGNs readers. IGN later claimed Starkiller as the 34th top Star Wars character. GameSpot listed Starkiller, as "The Apprentice", in a vote for the all-time greatest video game character. Starkiller was eliminated in the first round after being put against Niko Bellic, the main character of Grand Theft Auto IV, with Starkiller garnering 44.9% of the votes. Starkiller was also voted as the 17th top video game character by Game Informer's readers. Game Informer listed him sixth on their list of the "Top 10 Dorks", saying "The words "jedi" and "dork" rarely go together, but Starkiller is the Chosen One to unite them".
References
External links
Fictional assassins in video games
Action-adventure game characters
Clone characters in video games
Fictional space pilots
Fictional characters with electric or magnetic abilities
Fictional revolutionaries
Fictional defectors
Fictional swordfighters in video games
Fictional henchmen in video games
Male characters in video games
Orphan characters in video games
Star Wars characters who are Force-sensitive
Science fiction video game characters
Star Wars Legends characters
Star Wars video game characters
Video game characters introduced in 2008
Video game protagonists
Video game characters who can move at superhuman speeds
Video game characters who have mental powers
Video game characters with electric or magnetic abilities | wiki |
Twin-scaling is a method of propagating plant bulbs that have a basal plate, such as:
Hippeastrum, Narcissus, Galanthus and other members of the Amaryllidaceae;
some members of the lily family Liliaceae;
Lachenalia, Veltheimia and other members of the Hyacinthaceae.
Purpose
Twin-scaling is practiced by professional growers and skilled amateurs to increase bulbs that would naturally propagate very slowly, or to speed up the production of desirable cultivars. Using twin-scaling, it is possible to multiply one bulb into 16 to 32 (or more) viable bulbs in a couple of years, whereas natural propagation might only lead to a doubling every two years or so. It is one of a number of propagation techniques (such as "scooping", "scoring" and "chipping") based on the fact that an accidentally damaged bulb will often regenerate by forming small bulblets or bulbils on the damaged surface. Commercial growers have obtained as many as 100 twin-scales from a single bulb.
Method
The dormant bulb which is to be twin-scaled has its surface sterilized by removing its dry tunic and carefully trimming off its roots and any dead tissue, while leaving a layer of sound basal plate intact, then dipping the clean bulb in dilute bleach (or another suitable disinfectant). The bulb is then sliced cleanly from top to bottom several times, creating 8 or 16 segments, depending on the size of the bulb. At this stage, the segments are called "chips" (many growers are content with simply chipping a bulb into 4 or 8 and do not divide the bulb further).
True twin-scaling involves further subdivision of the chips to create pairs of scales, joined by a small part of the basal plate. The twin-scales are then treated with fungicide before being mixed with moist, sterile Vermiculite, sealed in plastic bags and left in a fairly warm, dark location until new bulblets form. Some species may require alternate periods of warm and cool storage to initiate bulblet growth.
The tiny bulbs are planted into pots or trays of compost and allowed to grow on for a year or more, until they are large enough to survive in individual pots or the open ground. They usually take several years to reach flowering size, although some bulblets of Galanthus have been known to flower in their first year.
References
External links
A step by step illustration of the twin-scaling technique
Horticulture | wiki |
The Cat's Meow is a lost 1924 American silent comedy short film directed by Roy Del Ruth and starring Harry Langdon. It was distributed through the Pathé Exchange company.
Cast
Harry Langdon -
Alice Day as Ida Downe
Kalla Pasha as Bull Dakota
Lucille Thorndyke as Mrs. Downe, Ida's Mother
Bud Ross as Mr. Downe, Ida's Father
Tiny Ward as Downe's Butler
Madeline Hurlock as The Butler's Wife
Cecille Evans as Apache Dancer
Louise Carver as Anti-Slum Committee Woman
Marvin Loback as Bartender
References
External links
Lobby poster and image
1924 films
American silent short films
American black-and-white films
Films directed by Roy Del Ruth
Lost American films
1924 comedy films
Silent American comedy films
1924 lost films
Lost comedy films
1920s American films
1920s English-language films | wiki |
Canada Post Corporation (), trading as Canada Post (), is a Crown corporation that functions as the primary postal operator in Canada. Originally known as Royal Mail Canada (the operating name of the Post Office Department of the Canadian government founded in 1867, ), rebranding was done to the "Canada Post" name in the late 1960s, even though it had not yet been separated from the government. On October 16, 1981, the Canada Post Corporation Act came into effect. This abolished the Post Office Department and created the present-day Crown corporation which provides postal service. The act aimed to set a new direction for the postal service by ensuring the postal service's financial security and independence.
Canada Post provided service to more than 16 million addresses and delivered nearly 8.4 billion items in 2016 and consolidated revenue from operations reached $7.88 billion. Delivery takes place via traditional "to the door" service and centralized delivery by 25,000 letter carriers, through a 13,000 vehicle fleet. There are more than 6,200 post offices across the country, a combination of corporate offices and private franchises that are operated by retailers, such as drugstores. In terms of area serviced, Canada Post delivers to a larger area than the postal service of any other nation, including Russia (where Russian Post service in Siberia is limited largely to communities along the railway). As of 2004, nearly 843,000 rural Canadian customers received residential mail delivery services.
Canada Post operates as a group of companies called The Canada Post Group. It employs approximately 64,000 full and part-time employees. The Corporation holds an interest in Purolator Courier, Innovapost, Progistix-Solutions and Canada Post International Limited. In 2000, Canada Post created a company called Epost, allowed customers to receive their bills from participating merchants and institutions online for free. In 2007, Epost was absorbed into Canada Post. In early 2022, Canada Post announced that the Epost service would be discontinued at the end of the year.
Canada Post (French: Postes Canada) is the Federal Identity Program name. The legal name is Canada Post Corporation in English and Société canadienne des postes in French. During the late 1980s and much of the 1990s, the short forms used in the corporation's logo were "Mail" (English) and "Poste" (French), rendered as "Poste Mail" in Québec and "Mail Poste" in the other provinces. Although English-language advertising also still referred to the corporation as "Canada Post".
History
On August 3, 1527, in St. John's, Newfoundland, the first known letter was sent from present day Canada. While in St. John's, John Rut wrote a letter to King Henry VIII about his findings and planned voyage. Mail delivery within Canada first started in 1693 when the Portuguese-born Pedro da Silva was paid to deliver between Québec City and Montréal. Official postal services began in 1775, under the control of the British Government up to 1851. The first postage stamp (designed by Sandford Fleming) went into circulation in Canada that same year. It was not until 1867 when the newly formed Canada created the Post Office Department as a federal government department (The Act for the Regulation of the Postal Service) headed by a Cabinet minister, the Postmaster General of Canada. The Act took effect on April 1, 1868, providing uniform postal service throughout the newly established dominion. The Canadian post office was designed around the British service as created by Rowland Hill, who introduced the concept of charging mail by weight and not destination along with creating the concept of the postage stamp. The new service traded under the name The Royal Mail Canada.
Prior to rural mail delivery, many Canadians living outside major cities and towns had little communication with the outside world. On October 10, 1908 the first free rural mail delivery service was instituted in Canada. The extension of residential mail delivery services to all rural Canadian residents was a major achievement for the Post Office Department.
The Post Office Department was an early pioneer of airmail delivery, with the first airmail flight taking place on June 24, 1918, carrying mail from Montreal to Toronto. A modern plaque at the site of Leaside Aerodrome reads: "At 10:12 a.m. on June 24, 1918, Captain Brian Peck of the Royal Air Force (RAF) and mechanic Corporal C.W. Mathers took off from the Bois Franc Polo Grounds in Montreal in a JN-4 Curtiss two-seater airplane. They had with them the first bag of mail to be delivered by air in Canada. Wind and rain buffeted the small plane and forced it to make refuelling stops at Kingston and Deseronto. Finally, at 4:55 p.m., Peck and Mathers landed at the Leaside Aerodrome (immediately southwest of here). The flight had been arranged by a civilian organization, the Aerial League of the British Empire, to demonstrate that aviation was the way of the future." A regular air express service began in 1928.
The Post Office Savings Bank system, an agency created by the April 1868 Post Office Act, was phased out in 1968–69.
The 1970s was a difficult decade for the Post Office, with major strikes combined with annual deficits that had hit $600 million by 1981. This state of affairs made politicians want to rethink their strategy for the federal department. It resulted in two years of public debate and input into the future of mail delivery in Canada. The government sought to give the post office more autonomy, in order to make it more commercially viable and to compete against the new threat of private courier services. On October 16, 1981, the Federal Parliament passed the "Canada Post Corporation Act", which transformed Canada Post into a Crown corporation to create the Canada Post Corporation (CPC). The legislation also includes a measure that legally guarantees basic postal service to all Canadians. It stipulates that all Canadians have the right to expect mail delivery, regardless of where they live.
Several historical sites related to the history of the Post Office Department of Canada can be visited today. In Ontario, the first Toronto Post Office is still in operation. The site of Scotiabank Arena was once the Canada Post Delivery Building. Also notable are the Vancouver Main Post Office and the Dawson, Yukon, Post Office, a National Historic Site of Canada. In Peggys Cove, Nova Scotia, a nineteenth-century lighthouse acts as a seasonal post office for the tiny coastal community.
Timeline
Mail format
Any letter sent within Canada has the destination address on the centre of its envelope, with a stamp, postal indicia, meter label, or frank mark on the top-right corner of the envelope to acknowledge payment of postage. A return address, although it is not required, can be put on the top-left corner or the back of the envelope in smaller type than the destination address.
Official addressing protocol is for the address to be in block letters, using a fixed-pitch typeface (such as Courier). The first line(s) of the address contain(s) the personal name and internal address of the recipient. The second-to-last line is the post office box, general delivery indicator, or street address, using the shortened name of the street type and no punctuation. The last line consists of the legal place name, a single space, the two-letter province abbreviation, two full spaces, and then the postal code. The country designation is unnecessary if mailed within Canada.
Fictitious examples:
Major products and services
The Corporation has a directory of all its products and services called the Postal Guide and has divided its range of services into three main categories: Transaction Mail, Parcels and Direct Marketing.
Transaction mail
The lettermail service allows the transmission of virtually any paper document. The 2015 to 2018 rate was 85 cents for a standard letter (30 g or less) and $1.20 for a letter between 30 g and 50 g. Proposed change for 2019 is 90 cents and $1.27 for these rates. Rates usually increase in mid-January of each year; for ordinary letters (30 g or less). The rate was regulated by a price-cap formula, linked to the inflation rate. The Corporation now has a "permanent" stamp that is valued at the domestic rate forever, eliminating the need to buy 1 cent stamps after a rate increase. The rates for lettermail are based on weight and size and determine whether the article falls into the aforementioned standard format or in the oversize one.
The Canada Post website documents standards for delivery within Canada:
Lettermail
Priority™ Delivery Standards
Daily cross-country airmail services were introduced in 1939. Canadian municipal delivery service standards are two days, as seen on the Lettermail Delivery Standards Grid.
Mail sent internationally is known as letter-post. It can only contain paper documents (See "Small Packet" below). From 2015 to 2018 the rate for a standard letter is $1.20 if sent to the United States and $2.50 if sent to any other destination.
Parcels
Domestic
Canada Post offers four domestic parcel services. The rates are based on distance, weight, and size. The maximum acceptable weight is 30 kg.
International
Small Packet
Air and surface services are available.
Maximum weight is 1 kg (USA) and 2 kg (International).
No on time guarantee
No ability to make a trace or investigation if it is lost or delayed
Expedited Parcel USA
Available for items sent to the United States only.
Despite its name, does not provide any service guarantee.
The maximum acceptable weight is 30 kg
It is cheaper than the standard international rate.
Handed off to the USPS as Priority Mail.
Xpresspost-USA and International
Provides speedy and guaranteed delivery to addresses in the United States.
Provides accelerated delivery to certain countries.
Maximum weight is 30 kg (USA) and 20 to 30 kg (depending on the international destination).
Handed off to the USPS / other postal administrations as Priority Mail Express / EMS.
International Parcel
Air and surface service available
Provides delivery to countries to which Xpresspost is not available
No on time guarantee
Priority Worldwide
Partnered with FedEx Corporation
Delivers overnight to the US and to more than 220 countries in 2–3 business days with detailed tracking
Direct marketing
Personalized Mail
Promotional mailings targeted to specific residents.
Minimum quantity of 1,000 articles.
Neighbourhood Mail
Consists of printed matter and product samples that are not addressed to specific delivery addresses in Canada, but to specific neighbourhoods or cities.
Snap Admail
On September 22, 2014, Canada Post unveiled Snap Admail™, an all-in-one online tool that is aimed to support small businesses in the creation and execution of direct-marketing campaigns.
E-Commerce
Canada Post store
Canada Post operates a store front that sells a variety of stamps, and postal supplies to the public. The personal shop is focused on nominal postage, shipping supplies, and prepaid envelopes while the collectors shop has a selection of limited edition definitive and commemorative stamps as well as coins.
Comparison shopping
On October 26, 2010, Canada Post launched a comparison shopping service for Canadians. This service, Canada Post Comparison Shopper, allowed shoppers to find and compare product available to Canadians from over 500 stores across the USA and Canada. Notable features included price comparison, store policy information, cross-border shipping, duties and fees estimation, price history charts, reviews and color search ability. As of October 2012 the Comparison Shopper service is no longer available.
Issue of stamps
Although Canada Post is responsible for stamp design and production, the corporation does not actually choose the subjects or the final designs that appear on stamps. That task falls under the jurisdiction of the Stamp Advisory Committee. Their objective is to recommend a stamp program that will have broad-based appeal, regionally and culturally, reflecting Canadian history, heritage, and tradition.
Before Canada Post calls a meeting of the committee, it also welcomes suggestions for stamp subjects from Canadian citizens. Ideas for subjects that have recently appeared on a stamp are declined. The committee works two years in advance and can approve approximately 20 subjects for each year.
Once a stamp subject is selected, Canada Post's Stamp Products group conducts research. Designs are commissioned from two firms, both chosen for their expertise. The designs are presented anonymously to the committee. The committee's process and selection policy have changed little in the thirty years since it was introduced.
Notable stamps include Canadian definitive postage stamps like the Queen Elizabeth II definitive stamps, the Canada Post millennium stamps, and an assortment of ice hockey and Olympic stamps.
Tracking numbers and barcodes
Canada Post use 13 digit alphanumeric tracking numbers / barcodes for their pre-printed labels. Bar codes consist of two letters, followed by eight sequence digits, and a ninth digit which is the check digit. The first two letters are the type of service (RN for registered mail, PG for express post envelopes). The last two characters are the letters CA. The check digit ignores the letters and only concern itself with the first 8 numeric digits. The scheme is to multiply each of those 8 digits by a different weighting factor, (8 6 4 2 3 5 9 7). Add up the total of all of these multiplications and divide by 11. The remainder after dividing by 11 gives a number from 0 to 10. Subtracting this from 11 gives a number from 1 to 11. That result is the check digit, except in the two cases where it is 10 or 11. If 10 it is then changed to a 0, and if 11 then it is changed to a 5. The check digit may be used to verify if a barcode scan is correct, or if a manual entry of the barcode is correct. The system of barcode digit checking is referred to as Modulo 11 or Modulus 11 digit calculation.
Canada Post use 16 digit numeric tracking numbers / barcodes for parcels that originate from a Canada Post post office. The first 7 digits are the reference numbers for the specific post office that the package originated. A Modulus 10 digit calculation is used to verify that the barcode has been read correctly, also referred to as the Luhn algorithm. USPS and Canada Post both use the same system to verify the barcodes, with a difference that USPS uses a 20 digit numeric tracking number. These types of barcodes are referred to as GS1-128.
Management and organization
In 1981, Canada Post became a Crown Corporation with a CEO and President:
Michael Warren
1981-1985 - appointed by Pierre Trudeau
Donald Harley Lander
1986-1992 - Chair 1993-? - appointed by Mulroney and business executive; deceased (2010)
Georges Clermont
1993-1998 - appointed by Campbell; now CEO of International Post
André Ouellet
1999–2004 - appointed by Jean Chretien and former Minister in charge of Canada Post (as Postmaster General); Chair 1996-2004
Moya Greene
2004–2010 - appointed by Paul Martin and left to become CEO of Royal Mail.
Stewart Bacon
2010 - appointed interim CEO by Stephen Harper following Greene's departure
Deepak Chopra
2011–2018 - appointed by Stephen Harper
Jessica McDonald
April 2, 2018 -March 4, 2019- Interim appointment by the Canada Post Board of Directors
Doug Ettinger
March 4, 2019 - Present
Ombudsman
The Office of the Ombudsman at Canada Post was created in October 1997 as a result of the 1995 Canada Post Mandate Review conducted by an Advisory Panel appointed by the Canadian government.
The Ombudsman is the final appeal authority in resolving postal service complaints. If a complaint is not resolved to the customer's satisfaction by Canada Post, the customer can appeal to the Ombudsman. Although the Ombudsman has no legislative power over the Corporation, the recommendations that the office makes to Canada Post can help improve company processes, amend policies and reinforce compliance with procedures.
The Ombudsman is independent of Canada Post staff and management, reporting directly to the Chairman of the Board of Directors. Mrs. Francine Conn was appointed on July 11, 2011, as the fourth and current Ombudsman at Canada Post. The services offered by the Office of the Ombudsman are free of charge.
Organizational issues
Attempt to phase out door-to-door delivery
In 2014, Canada Post began to phase out door-to-door service in urban centres, in favour of community mailboxes—a process that was estimated to affect 32% of Canadian addresses (subdivisions built after 1985 already use community mailboxes, and customers using rural mailboxes would not be affected). This change was instituted by Stephen Harper's Conservative government, and was meant to be a cost-cutting measure in the face of financial losses, due primarily to the decreased use of traditional mail in favour of electronic alternatives.
The plan proved controversial, and the CUPW criticized the move, which was expected to result in the loss of at least 8,000 jobs, by arguing that Canada Post should have attempted to expand its services to include new offerings, such as postal banking, rather than cutting jobs and reducing services. In 2015, the CUPW filed a federal lawsuit demanding that the roll-out be suspended—an action endorsed by Mayor of Montreal Denis Coderre. Concerns were also raised about the effect of the change on seniors and people with disabilities. During the 2015 Canadian federal election campaign, Liberal leader Justin Trudeau promised to halt the cutbacks at Canada Post and the shift to community mailboxes.
On October 26, 2015, following Trudeau's victory in the election, Canada Post announced that it would place the discontinuation of door-to-door delivery "on hold in an orderly fashion" and that it would collaborate with the government on evaluating the future of the mail system in Canada. On January 24, 2018, the Liberal government announced that it had officially halted the future deployment of community mailboxes, and will focus on finding other methods of expanding Canada Post's services in the future. Canada Post will not reintroduce door-to-door delivery in areas where it was discontinued prior to April 15, 2016, but stated that an advisory panel would assist in addressing related accessibility issues.
Labour relations
Canada Post has a history of troubled labour relations with its trade unions, particularly the Canadian Union of Postal Workers (CUPW) and the Letter Carriers Union of Canada (which merged with CUPW in 1989), culminating in periodic strike action that has halted mail service in Canada on different occasions. There have been at least 19 strikes, lockouts, and walkouts between 1965 and 1997, including several wildcat strikes. A number of these strikes since the 1970s have seen the corporation employ strikebreakers, resulting in back-to-work legislation being passed by the Canadian parliament.
In 2007, Canada Post was able to sign a 4-year agreement with CUPW without any labour disruptions. For 2007, 2008, and 2009 the corporation was named one of Canada's Top 100 Employers, as published in Maclean's magazine. In 2008, however, it endured a long strike by its administrative worker union — Public Service Alliance of Canada (PSAC) - which compromised customer service.
Nearly all Canada Post employees who are not in the CUPW belong to one of three smaller trade unions. The Canadian Postmasters and Assistants Association covers 12,000 rural workers, the Association of Postal Officials of Canada has 3,400 supervisors and the Union of Postal Communications Employees represents 2,600 technical workers.
On June 2, 2011, a labour action involving rotating strikes (the first strike to affect Canada Post in 14 years) commenced with CUPW members striking in Winnipeg, Manitoba and in Hamilton, Ontario on June 3. On June 14, 2011, Canada Post management locked out CUPW members, marking the 20th work stoppage in the 46-year relationship between CUPW and Canada Post. Back to work legislation was passed in the Canadian Legislature which also mandated arbitration by a government-appointed arbitrator. This back to work legislation was challenged in court by CUPW for violating their constitutional right to strike. CUPW won this case in 2016 and the back to work legislation was ruled in violation of the constitution by the Superior Court of Ontario. However, following the legislation, a new collective agreement was signed in 2012 which included major concessions by the employees, such as a $4 per hour reduction in starting wages and the complete elimination of bankable sick days Since this agreement was signed and agreed to by the membership of CUPW, the court ruling on the back to work legislation was of no effect.
In 2016, Canada Post and CUPW negotiated a two-year agreement without a labour disruption. This agreement expired January 31, 2018.
Starting October 22, 2018, Canada Post workers have organized rotating strikes nationwide, the major friction points being major processing centers, including Toronto and Richmond. In mid-November, annual Black Friday and Cyber Monday online purchases, and even Christmas holiday deliveries, appeared at risk. With a 30-day backlog of mail stored in 600 trailers at distribution centers, CP appealed to the 190 Universal Postal Union (UPU) countries to hold Canada-bound mail.
Modernization
Moya Greene, former Canada Post CEO, was quoted as saying that years of under-investment to improve the company had hurt its efficiency and its financial performance. In September 2007, she estimated that modernizing the corporation would cost $2.7 billion over five to seven years for new buildings, equipment, technology and training.
The initiative, called Postal Transformation, has been rolled out across the country from 2010 to 2017. The transformation saw a fundamental change in the work duties of letter carriers. Previously, the delivery of parcels, clearance and transfers to retail postal outlets and collection of mail from street letter boxes was carried out by the separate position of a mail service courier, while letter carriers delivered the mail through walking routes, utilizing public transit and taxis to travel to their work locations. Today, many letter carrier routes are motorized and they are responsible for delivering parcels, mail, clearing and transfers at retail postal outlets, and collection of mail from street letter boxes. The additional duties have led to increased overtime, work stress, and injuries to employees who are facing greater fatigue and delivering mail in the dark; with many complaining that regular routes can no longer be completed in 8 hours, resulting in forced overtime and undelivered mail.
Profitability
For 16 years until 2011, Canada Post realized an annual profit, and it has since had several profitable years. In 2011, Canada Post posted a pretax loss of $253 million, due in part to a 25-day employee lockout, and a $150 million pay equity class action lawsuit. In 2012, Canada Post rebounded to post a profit of $98 million before tax. In 2013, Canada Post lost $37 million overall. The Canada Post group's gross profit in 2014 was $269 million. In 2015, the corporation continued to remain profitable, posting a $136 million profit before tax. In 2016, Canada Post recorded its 3rd consecutive profitable year, making $114 million before tax ($81 million after taxes). In total, Canada Post has made a net profit of $266 million since 2012. In 2017, the Corporation posted $144 million after tax profit.
In 2018: "Canada Post is reporting a loss before tax of $270 million for 2018. Three main non-recurring items factor into the result: the $280 million cost of resolving pay equity and the estimated $135 million net impact of the labour disruption in the fall, partially offset by a $48 million gain after an actuarial update to workers compensation liabilities. Had it not been for these non-recurring factors, Canada Post would have recorded a profit in 2018."
asterisk indicates year with labour disruption and pay equity lawsuit
Rural mail
Safety of rural mobile delivery personnel on busy roads has been an ongoing concern. Canada Post launched the Rural Mail Safety Review as rural and suburban mail carriers across the country, supported by their union, raised complaints about workplace safety. As of March 2008, there have been more than 1,400 such complaints. In some cases, the union staged protests in delivering mail, even after Canada Post tests showed there was no undue traffic safety risk at a particular mail box. Such cases were referred to Labour Canada, who in several instances asked Canada Post to cease delivery to mailboxes. In December 2006, the Canadian government ordered that Canada Post maintain rural delivery wherever possible. On January 1, 2004, rural route contractors became employees of Canada Post and joined the Canadian Union of Postal Workers.
Letters to Santa Claus
Canada Post receives millions of letters addressed to Santa Claus each year, with a special dedicated postal code, H0H 0H0. About 15,000 current and retired employees respond in many languages to each letter received on behalf of Santa. Over the past 27 years, more than 15 million letters were written by volunteers.
In 2001, Canada Post started accepting e-mail messages to Santa. In 2006, more than 44,000 email messages were responded to.
In 1974, three Canada Post employees started to respond to mail addressed to Santa in Montreal, Quebec. In 1982, Canada Post rolled out the initiative across Canada and pledged that every letter sent in would receive a reply. A stamp is not required when sending a letter to Santa Claus. Canada Post also receives letters to God and, on occasion, the Easter Bunny.
See also
List of postal entities
Postal Union of the Americas, Spain and Portugal
Royal Philatelic Society of Canada
References
Bibliography
External links
Lettermail Delivery Standards Grid (see Table 9)
Priority™ Delivery Standards Grid (see Table 12)
Snap Admail from Canada Post
Canadian Postal Archives - History site run by the Government of Canada
Library and Archives Canada - Various links to history of Canada Post websites (Run by the Government of Canada)
(Contains reference articles on Canadian Stamps)
Website shows way to stop Canada Post junk mail
Red Dot Campaign - website to stop junk mail
London Mail Processing Plant history
Canadian federal Crown corporations
Companies based in Ottawa
Federal departments and agencies of Canada
Philately of Canada
Postal organizations
Transport companies established in 1867
1867 establishments in Canada
Uniformed services of Canada | wiki |
Infertility is the inability of a person, animal or plant to reproduce by natural means. It is usually not the natural state of a healthy adult, except notably among certain eusocial species (mostly haplodiploid insects). It is the normal state of a human child or other young offspring, because they have not undergone puberty, which is the body's start of reproductive capacity.
In humans, infertility is the inability to become pregnant after one year of unprotected and regular sexual intercourse involving a male and female partner. There are many causes of infertility, including some that medical intervention can treat. Estimates from 1997 suggest that worldwide about five percent of all heterosexual couples have an unresolved problem with infertility. Many more couples, however, experience involuntary childlessness for at least one year: estimates range from 12% to 28%.
The main cause of infertility in humans is age, and an advanced maternal age can raise the probability of suffering a spontaneous abortion during pregnancy.
Male infertility is responsible for 20–30% of infertility cases, while 20–35% are due to female infertility, and 25–40% are due to combined problems in both parts. In 10–20% of cases, no cause is found. The most common cause of female infertility is the age, which generally manifest themselves by sparse or absent menstrual periods. Male infertility is most commonly due to deficiencies in the semen, and semen quality is used as a surrogate measure of male fecundity.
Women who are fertile experience a period of fertility before and during ovulation, and are infertile for the rest of the menstrual cycle. Fertility awareness methods are used to discern when these changes occur by tracking changes in cervical mucus or basal body temperature.
Definition
"Demographers tend to define infertility as childlessness in a population of women of reproductive age," whereas the epidemiological definition refers to "trying for" or "time to" a pregnancy, generally in a population of women exposed to a probability of conception. Currently, female fertility normally peaks in young adulthood and diminishes after 35 with pregnancy occurring rarely after age 50. A female is most fertile within 24 hours of ovulation. Male fertility peaks usually in young adulthood and declines after age 40.
The time needed to pass (during which the couple tries to conceive) for that couple to be diagnosed with infertility differs between different jurisdictions. Existing definitions of infertility lack uniformity, rendering comparisons in prevalence between countries or over time problematic. Therefore, data estimating the prevalence of infertility cited by various sources differ significantly. A couple that tries unsuccessfully to have a child after a certain period of time (often a short period, but definitions vary) is sometimes said to be subfertile, meaning less fertile than a typical couple. Both infertility and subfertility are defined as the inability to conceive after a certain period of time (the length of which vary), so often the two terms overlap.
World Health Organization
The World Health Organization defines infertility as follows:
United States
One definition of infertility that is frequently used in the United States by reproductive endocrinologists, doctors who specialize in infertility, to consider a couple eligible for treatment is:
a woman under 35 has not conceived after 12 months of contraceptive-free intercourse. Twelve months is the lower reference limit for Time to Pregnancy (TTP) by the World Health Organization.
a woman over 35 has not conceived after six months of contraceptive-free sexual intercourse.
These time intervals would seem to be reversed; this is an area where public policy trumps science. The idea is that for women beyond age 35, every month counts and if made to wait another six months to prove the necessity of medical intervention, the problem could become worse. The corollary to this is that, by definition, failure to conceive in women under 35 is not regarded with the same urgency as it is in those over 35.
United Kingdom
In the UK, previous NICE guidelines defined infertility as failure to conceive after regular unprotected sexual intercourse for two years in the absence of known reproductive pathology. Updated NICE guidelines do not include a specific definition, but recommend that "A woman of reproductive age who has not conceived after 1 year of unprotected vaginal sexual intercourse, in the absence of any known cause of infertility, should be offered further clinical assessment and investigation along with her partner, with earlier referral to a specialist if the woman is over 36 years of age."
Other definitions
Researchers commonly base demographic studies on infertility prevalence over a five-year period. Practical measurement problems, however, exist for any definition, because it is difficult to measure continuous exposure to the risk of pregnancy over a period of years.
Primary vs. secondary infertility
Primary infertility is defined as the absence of a live birth for women who desire a child and have been in a union for at least 12 months, during which they have not used any contraceptives. The World Health Organisation also adds that 'women whose pregnancy spontaneously miscarries, or whose pregnancy results in a still born child, without ever having had a live birth would present with primarily infertility'.
Secondary infertility is defined as the absence of a live birth for women who desire a child and have been in a union for at least 12 months since their last live birth, during which they did not use any contraceptives.
Thus the distinguishing feature is whether or not the couple have ever had a pregnancy that led to a live birth.
Effects
Psychological
The consequences of infertility are manifold and can include societal repercussions and personal suffering. Advances in assisted reproductive technologies, such as IVF, can offer hope to many couples where treatment is available, although barriers exist in terms of medical coverage and affordability. The medicalization of infertility has unwittingly led to a disregard for the emotional responses that couples experience, which include distress, loss of control, stigmatization, and a disruption in the developmental trajectory of adulthood. One of the main challenges in assessing the distress levels in women with infertility is the accuracy of self-report measures. It is possible that women "fake good" in order to appear mentally healthier than they are. It is also possible that women feel a sense of hopefulness/increased optimism prior to initiating infertility treatment, which is when most assessments of distress are collected. Some early studies concluded that infertile women did not report any significant differences in symptoms of anxiety and depression than fertile women. The further into treatment a patient goes, the more often they display symptoms of depression and anxiety. Patients with one treatment failure had significantly higher levels of anxiety, and patients with two failures experienced more depression when compared with those without a history of treatment. However, it has also been shown that the more depressed the infertile woman, the less likely she is to start infertility treatment and the more likely she is to drop out after only one cycle. Researchers have also shown that despite a good prognosis and having the finances available to pay for treatment, discontinuation is most often due to psychological reasons. Fertility does not seem to increase when the women takes antioxidants to reduce the oxidative stress brought by the situation.
Infertility may have psychological effects. Parenthood is one of the major transitions in adult life for both men and women. The stress of the non-fulfilment of a wish for a child has been associated with emotional consequences such as anger, depression, anxiety, marital problems and feelings of worthlessness.
Partners may become more anxious to conceive, increasing sexual dysfunction. Marital discord often develops, especially when they are under pressure to make medical decisions. Women trying to conceive often have depression rates similar to women who have heart disease or cancer. Emotional stress and marital difficulties are greater in couples where the infertility lies with the man.
Male and female partner respond differently to infertility problems. In general, women show higher depression levels than their male partners when dealing with infertility. A possible explanation may be that women feel more responsible and guilty than men during the process of trying to conceive. On the other hand, infertile men experience a psychosomatic distress.
Social
Having a child is considered to be important in most societies. Infertile couples may experience social and family pressure leading to a feeling of social isolation. Factors of gender, age, religion, and socioeconomic status are important influences. Societal pressures may affect a couple's decision to approach, avoid, or experience an infertility treatment.
Moreover, the socioeconomic status influences the psychology of the infertile couples: low socioeconomic status is associated with increased chances of developing depression.
In many cultures, inability to conceive bears a stigma. In closed social groups, a degree of rejection (or a sense of being rejected by the couple) may cause considerable anxiety and disappointment. Some respond by actively avoiding the issue altogether; middle-class men are the most likely to respond in this way.
In the United States some treatments for infertility, including diagnostic tests, surgery and therapy for depression, can qualify one for Family and Medical Leave Act leave. It has been suggested that infertility be classified as a form of disability.
Causes
Male infertility is responsible for 20–30% of infertility cases, while 20–35% are due to female infertility, and 25–40% are due to combined problems in both parts. In 10–20% of cases, no cause is found. The most common cause of female infertility is the are ovulation problems, usually manifested by scanty or absent menstrual periods.. Male infertility is most commonly due to deficiencies in the semen, and semen quality is used as a surrogate measure of male fecundity.
Iodine Deficiency
Iodine deficiency may lead to infertility.
Natural infertility
Before puberty, humans are naturally infertile; their gonads have not yet developed the gametes required to reproduce: boys' testicles have not developed the sperm cells required to impregnate a female; girls have not begun the process of ovulation which activates the fertility of their egg cells (ovulation is confirmed by the first menstrual cycle, known as menarche, which signals the biological possibility of pregnancy). Infertility in children is commonly referred to as prepubescence (or being prepubescent, an adjective used to also refer to humans without secondary sex characteristics).
The absence of fertility in children is considered a natural part of human growth and child development, as the hypothalamus in their brain is still underdeveloped and cannot release the hormones required to activate the gonads' gametes. Fertility in children before the ages of eight or nine is considered a disease known as precocious puberty. This disease is usually triggered by a brain tumor or other related injury.
Delayed puberty
Delayed puberty, puberty absent past or occurring later than the average onset (between the ages of ten and fourteen), may be a cause of infertility. In the United States, girls are considered to have delayed puberty if they have not started menstruating by age 16 (alongside lacking breast development by age 13). Boys are considered to have delayed puberty if they lack enlargement of the testicles by age 14. Delayed puberty affects about 2% of adolescents.
Most commonly, puberty may be delayed for several years and still occur normally, in which case it is considered constitutional delay of growth and puberty, a common variation of healthy physical development. Delay of puberty may also occur due to various causes such as malnutrition, various systemic diseases, or defects of the reproductive system (hypogonadism) or the body's responsiveness to sex hormones.
Immune infertility
Antisperm antibodies (ASA) have been considered as infertility cause in around 10–30% of infertile couples. In both men and women, ASA production are directed against surface antigens on sperm, which can interfere with sperm motility and transport through the female reproductive tract, inhibiting capacitation and acrosome reaction, impaired fertilization, influence on the implantation process, and impaired growth and development of the embryo. The antibodies are classified into different groups: There are IgA, IgG and IgM antibodies. They also differ in the location of the spermatozoon they bind on (head, mid piece, tail). Factors contributing to the formation of antisperm antibodies in women are disturbance of normal immunoregulatory mechanisms, infection, violation of the integrity of the mucous membranes, rape and unprotected oral or anal sex. Risk factors for the formation of antisperm antibodies in men include the breakdown of the blood‑testis barrier, trauma and surgery, orchitis, varicocele, infections, prostatitis, testicular cancer, failure of immunosuppression and unprotected receptive anal or oral sex with men.
Sexually transmitted infections
Infections with the following sexually transmitted pathogens have a negative effect on fertility: Chlamydia trachomatis and Neisseria gonorrhoeae. There is a consistent association of Mycoplasma genitalium infection and female reproductive tract syndromes. M. genitalium infection is associated with increased risk of infertility.
Genetic
Mutations to NR5A1 gene encoding steroidogenic factor 1 (SF-1) have been found in a small subset of men with non-obstructive male factor infertility where the cause is unknown. Results of one study investigating a cohort of 315 men revealed changes within the hinge region of SF-1 and no rare allelic variants in fertile control men. Affected individuals displayed more severe forms of infertility such as azoospermia and severe oligozoospermia.
Small supernumerary marker chromosomes are abnormal extra chromosomes; they are three times more likely to occur in infertile individuals and account for 0.125% of all infertility cases. See Infertility associated with small supernumerary marker chromosomes and Genetics of infertility#Small supernumerary marker chromosomes and infertility.
Other causes
Factors that can cause male as well as female infertility are:
DNA damage
DNA damage reduces fertility in female ovocytes, as caused by smoking, other xenobiotic DNA damaging agents (such as radiation or chemotherapy) or accumulation of the oxidative DNA damage 8-hydroxy-deoxyguanosine
DNA damage reduces fertility in male sperm, as caused by oxidative DNA damage, smoking, other xenobiotic DNA damaging agents (such as drugs or chemotherapy) or other DNA damaging agents including reactive oxygen species, fever or high testicular temperature. The damaged DNA related to infertility manifests itself by the increased susceptibility to denaturation inducible by heat or acid or by the presence of double-strand breaks that can be detected by the TUNEL assay. In this assay, the sperm's DNA will be denaturated and renatured. If DNA fragmentation occurs (double and single-strand-breaks) a halo will not appear surrounding the spermatozoas, but if the spermatozoa does not have DNA damaged, a halo surrounding the spermatozoa could be visualized under the microscope.
General factors
Diabetes mellitus, thyroid disorders, undiagnosed and untreated coeliac disease, adrenal disease
Hypothalamic-pituitary factors
Hyperprolactinemia
Hypopituitarism
The presence of anti-thyroid antibodies is associated with an increased risk of unexplained subfertility with an odds ratio of 1.5 and 95% confidence interval of 1.1–2.0.
Environmental factors
Toxins such as glues, volatile organic solvents or silicones, physical agents, chemical dusts, and pesticides. Tobacco smokers are 60% more likely to be infertile than non-smokers.
German scientists have reported that a virus called adeno-associated virus might have a role in male infertility, though it is otherwise not harmful. Other diseases such as chlamydia, and gonorrhea can also cause infertility, due to internal scarring (fallopian tube obstruction).
Alimentary habits
Obesity: Obesity can have a significant impact on male and female fertility. BMI (body mass index) may be a significant factor in fertility, as an increase in BMI in the male by as little as three units can be associated with infertility. Several studies have demonstrated that an increase in BMI is correlated with a decrease in sperm concentration, a decrease in motility and an increase in DNA damage in sperm. A relationship also exists between obesity and erectile dysfunction (ED). ED may be the consequence of the conversion of androgens to estradiol. The enzyme aromatase is responsible for this conversion and is found primarily in adipose tissue. As the number of adipose tissue increases, there is more aromatase available to convert androgens, and serum estradiol levels increase. Other hormones including inhibin B and leptin, may also be affected by obesity. Inhibin B levels have been reported to decrease with increasing weight, which results in decreased Sertoli cells and sperm production. Leptin is a hormone associated with numerous effects including appetite control, inflammation, and decreased insulin secretion, according to many studies. Obese women have a higher rate of recurrent, early miscarriage compared to non-obese women.
Low weight: Obesity is not the only way in which weight can impact fertility. Men who are underweight tend to have lower sperm concentrations than those who are at a normal BMI. For women, being underweight and having extremely low amounts of body fat are associated with ovarian dysfunction and infertility and they have a higher risk for preterm birth. Eating disorders such as anorexia nervosa are also associated with extremely low BMI. Although relatively uncommon, eating disorders can negatively affect menstruation, fertility, and maternal and fetal well-being.
Females
The following causes of infertility may only be found in females.
For a woman to conceive, certain things have to happen: vaginal intercourse must take place around the time when an egg is released from her ovary; the system that produces eggs has to be working at optimum levels; and her hormones must be balanced.
For women, problems with fertilization arise mainly from either structural problems in the Fallopian tube or uterus or problems releasing eggs. Infertility may be caused by blockage of the Fallopian tube due to malformations, infections such as chlamydia or scar tissue. For example, endometriosis can cause infertility with the growth of endometrial tissue in the Fallopian tubes or around the ovaries. Endometriosis is usually more common in women in their mid-twenties and older, especially when postponed childbirth has taken place.
Another major cause of infertility in women may be the inability to ovulate. Ovulatory disorders make up 25% of the known causes of female infertility. Oligo-ovulation or anovulation results in infertility because no oocyte will be released monthly. In the absence of an oocyte, there is no opportunity for fertilization and pregnancy. World Health Organization subdivided ovulatory disorders into four classes:
Hypogonadotropic hypogonadal anovulation: i.e., hypothalamic amenorrhea
Normogonadotropic normoestrogenic anovulation: i.e., polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS)
Hypergonadotropic hypoestrogenic anovulation: i.e., premature ovarian failure
Hyperprolactinemic anovulation: i.e., pituitary adenoma
Malformation of the eggs themselves may complicate conception. For example, polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS) is when the eggs only partially develop within the ovary and there is an excess of male hormones. Some women are infertile because their ovaries do not mature and release eggs. In this case, synthetic FSH by injection or Clomid (Clomiphene citrate) via a pill can be given to stimulate follicles to mature in the ovaries.
Other factors that can affect a woman's chances of conceiving include being overweight or underweight, or her age as female fertility declines after the age of 30.
Sometimes it can be a combination of factors, and sometimes a clear cause is never established.
Common causes of infertility of females include:
ovulation problems (e.g. PCOS, the leading reason why women present to fertility clinics due to anovulatory infertility)
tubal blockage
pelvic inflammatory disease caused by infections like tuberculosis
age-related factors
uterine problems
previous tubal ligation
endometriosis
advanced maternal age
immune infertility
Males
Male infertility is defined as the inability of a male to make a fertile female pregnant, for a minimum of at least one year of unprotected intercourse. There are multiple causes for male infertility. These include endocrine disorders (usually due to hypogonadism) at an estimated 2% to 5%, sperm transport disorders (such as vasectomy) at 5%, primary testicular defects (which includes abnormal sperm parameters without any identifiable cause) at 65% to 80% and idiopathic (where an infertile male has normal sperm and semen parameters) at 10% to 20%.
The main cause of male infertility is low semen quality. In men who have the necessary reproductive organs to procreate, infertility can be caused by low sperm count due to endocrine problems, drugs, radiation, or infection. There may be testicular malformations, hormone imbalance, or blockage of the man's duct system. Although many of these can be treated through surgery or hormonal substitutions, some may be indefinite.
Infertility associated with viable, but immotile sperm may be caused by primary ciliary dyskinesia. The sperm must provide the zygote with DNA, centrioles, and activation factor for the embryo to develop. A defect in any of these sperm structures may result in infertility that will not be detected by semen analysis. Antisperm antibodies cause immune infertility. Cystic fibrosis can lead to infertility in men.
Combined infertility
In some cases, both the man and woman may be infertile or sub-fertile, and the couple's infertility arises from the combination of these conditions. In other cases, the cause is suspected to be immunological or genetic; it may be that each partner is independently fertile but the couple cannot conceive together without assistance.
Unexplained infertility
In the US, up to 20% of infertile couples have unexplained infertility. In these cases, abnormalities are likely to be present but not detected by current methods. Possible problems could be that the egg is not released at the optimum time for fertilization, that it may not enter the fallopian tube, sperm may not be able to reach the egg, fertilization may fail to occur, transport of the zygote may be disturbed, or implantation fails. It is increasingly recognized that egg quality is of critical importance and women of advanced maternal age have eggs of reduced capacity for normal and successful fertilization. Also, polymorphisms in folate pathway genes could be one reason for fertility complications in some women with unexplained infertility. However, a growing body of evidence suggests that epigenetic modifications in sperm may be partially responsible.
Diagnosis
If both partners are young and healthy and have been trying to conceive for one year without success, a visit to a physician or women's health nurse practitioner (WHNP) could help to highlight potential medical problems earlier rather than later. The doctor or WHNP may also be able to suggest lifestyle changes to increase the chances of conceiving.
Women over the age of 35 should see their physician or WHNP after six months as fertility tests can take some time to complete, and age may affect the treatment options that are open in that case.
A doctor or WHNP takes a medical history and gives a physical examination. They can also carry out some basic tests on both partners to see if there is an identifiable reason for not having achieved a pregnancy. If necessary, they refer patients to a fertility clinic or local hospital for more specialized tests. The results of these tests help determine the best fertility treatment.
Treatment
Treatment depends on the cause of infertility, but may include counselling, fertility treatments, which include in vitro fertilization. According to ESHRE recommendations, couples with an estimated live birth rate of 40% or higher per year are encouraged to continue aiming for a spontaneous pregnancy. Treatment methods for infertility may be grouped as medical or complementary and alternative treatments. Some methods may be used in concert with other methods. Drugs used for both women and men include clomiphene citrate, human menopausal gonadotropin (hMG), follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) analogues, aromatase inhibitors, and metformin.
Medical treatments
Medical treatment of infertility generally involves the use of fertility medication, medical device, surgery, or a combination of the following. If the sperm is of good quality and the mechanics of the woman's reproductive structures are good (patent fallopian tubes, no adhesions or scarring), a course of ovulation induction may be used. The physician or WHNP may also suggest using a conception cap cervical cap, which the patient uses at home by placing the sperm inside the cap and putting the conception device on the cervix, or intrauterine insemination (IUI), in which the doctor or WHNP introduces sperm into the uterus during ovulation, via a catheter. In these methods, fertilization occurs inside the body.
If conservative medical treatments fail to achieve a full-term pregnancy, the physician or WHNP may suggest the patient to undergo in vitro fertilization (IVF). IVF and related techniques (ICSI, ZIFT, GIFT) are called assisted reproductive technology (ART) techniques.
ART techniques generally start with stimulating the ovaries to increase egg production. After stimulation, the physician surgically extracts one or more eggs from the ovary, and unites them with sperm in a laboratory setting, with the intent of producing one or more embryos. Fertilization takes place outside the body, and the fertilized egg is reinserted into the woman's reproductive tract, in a procedure called embryo transfer.
Other medical techniques are e.g. tuboplasty, assisted hatching, and preimplantation genetic diagnosis.
In vitro fertilization
IVF is the most commonly used ART. It has been proven useful in overcoming infertility conditions, such as blocked or damaged tubes, endometriosis, repeated IUI failure, unexplained infertility, poor ovarian reserve, poor or even nil sperm count.
Intracytoplasmic sperm injection
ICSI technique is used in case of poor semen quality, low sperm count or failed fertilization attempts during prior IVF cycles. This technique involves an injection of a single healthy sperm directly injected into mature egg. The fertilized embryo is then transferred to womb.
Tourism
Fertility tourism is the practice of traveling to another country for fertility treatments. It may be regarded as a form of medical tourism. The main reasons for fertility tourism are legal regulation of the sought procedure in the home country, or lower price. In-vitro fertilization and donor insemination are major procedures involved.
Stem cell therapy
Nowadays, there are several treatments (still in experimentation) related to stem cell therapy. It is a new opportunity, not only for partners with lack of gametes, but also for same-sex couples and single people who want to have offspring. Theoretically, with this therapy, we can get artificial gametes in vitro. There are different studies for both women and men.
Spermatogonial stem cells transplant: it takes places in the seminiferous tubule. With this treatment, the patient experience spermatogenesis, and therefore, it has the chance to have offspring if he wants to. It is specially oriented for cancer patients, whose sperm is destroyed due to the gonadotoxic treatment they are submitted to.
Ovarian stem cells: it is thought that women have a finite number of follicles from the very beginning. Nevertheless, scientists have found these stem cells, which may generate new oocytes in postnatal conditions. Apparently there are only 0.014% of them (this could be an explanation of why they were not discovered until now). There is still some controversy about their existence, but if the discoveries are true, this could be a new treatment for infertility.
Stem cell therapy is really new, and everything is still under investigation. Additionally, it could be the future for the treatment of multiple diseases, including infertility. It will take time before these studies can be available for clinics and patients.
Epidemiology
Prevalence of infertility varies depending on the definition, i.e. on the time span involved in the failure to conceive.
Infertility rates have increased by 4% since the 1980s, mostly from problems with fecundity due to an increase in age.
Fertility problems affect one in seven couples in the UK. Most couples (about 84%) who have regular sexual intercourse (that is, every two to three days) and who do not use contraception get pregnant within a year. About 95 out of 100 couples who are trying to get pregnant do so within two years.
Women become less fertile as they get older. For women aged 35, about 94% who have regular unprotected sexual intercourse get pregnant after three years of trying. For women aged 38, however, only about 77%. The effect of age upon men's fertility is less clear.
In people going forward for IVF in the UK, roughly half of fertility problems with a diagnosed cause are due to problems with the man, and about half due to problems with the woman. However, about one in five cases of infertility have no clear diagnosed cause.
In Britain, male factor infertility accounts for 25% of infertile couples, while 25% remain unexplained. 50% are female causes with 25% being due to anovulation and 25% tubal problems/other.
In Sweden, approximately 10% of couples wanting children are infertile. In approximately one-third of these cases the man is the factor, in one third the woman is the factor, and in the remaining third the infertility is a product of factors on both parts.
In many lower-income countries, estimating infertility is difficult due to incomplete information and stigma.
Society and culture
Perhaps except for infertility in science fiction, films and other fiction depicting emotional struggles of assisted reproductive technology have had an upswing first in the latter part of the 2000s decade, although the techniques have been available for decades. Yet, the number of people that can relate to it by personal experience in one way or another is ever-growing, and the variety of trials and struggles is huge.
Pixar's Up contains a depiction of infertility in an extended life montage that lasts the first few minutes of the film.
Other individual examples are referred to individual sub-articles of assisted reproductive technology
Ethics
There are several ethical issues associated with infertility and its treatment.
High-cost treatments are out of financial reach for some couples.
Debate over whether health insurance companies (e.g. in the US) should be required to cover infertility treatment.
Allocation of medical resources that could be used elsewhere
The legal status of embryos fertilized in vitro and not transferred in vivo. (See also beginning of pregnancy controversy).
Opposition to the destruction of embryos not transferred in vivo.
IVF and other fertility treatments have resulted in an increase in multiple births, provoking ethical analysis because of the link between multiple pregnancies, premature birth, and a host of health problems.
Religious leaders' opinions on fertility treatments; for example, the Roman Catholic Church views infertility as a calling to adopt or to use natural treatments (medication, surgery, or cycle charting) and members must reject assisted reproductive technologies.
Infertility caused by DNA defects on the Y chromosome is passed on from father to son. If natural selection is the primary error correction mechanism that prevents random mutations on the Y chromosome, then fertility treatments for men with abnormal sperm (in particular ICSI) only defer the underlying problem to the next male generation.
Specific procedures, such as gestational surrogacy, have led to numerous ethical issues, particularly when people living in one country contract for surrogacy in another (transnational surrogacy).
Many countries have special frameworks for dealing with the ethical and social issues around fertility treatment.
One of the best known is the HFEA – The UK's regulator for fertility treatment and embryo research. This was set up on 1 August 1991 following a detailed commission of enquiry led by Mary Warnock in the 1980s
A similar model to the HFEA has been adopted by the rest of the countries in the European Union. Each country has its own body or bodies responsible for the inspection and licensing of fertility treatment under the EU Tissues and Cells directive
Regulatory bodies are also found in Canada and in the state of Victoria in Australia
See also
Advanced maternal age
Age and female fertility
Antinatalism
Birth control
Childlessness
Conception device
Mossman–Pacey paradox
Oncofertility, fertility in cancer patients
Population control
Sterility
Surrogate marriage
Voluntary childlessness
References
Further reading
Lock, Margaret and Vinh-Kim Nguyen. 2011. An anthropology of biomedicine: Wiley-Blackwell.
RCOG clinical guidelines for infertility (concise guidelines)
Fertility: Assessment and Treatment for People with Fertility Problems, 2004 (extensive guidelines)
GeneReviews/NCBI/NIH/UW entry on CATSPER-Related Male Infertility
Infertility not just a Female Problem
Assisted Reproduction in Judaism
Facing Life Without Children When It Isn't by Choice
Patient Voices – Infertility
Fertility medicine
Women's health
Mycoplasma | wiki |
Pablo César López (né en 1998), joueur de football mexicain ;
(né en 1982), joueur de football argentin ;
(né en 1984), chanteur espagnol ;
(né en 1996), joueur de baseball vénézuélien. | wiki |
The old-fashioned doughnut is a term used for a variety of cake doughnut prepared in the shape of a ring with a cracked surface and tapered edges around it. Nineteenth century recipes for "old-fashioned donuts" are made with yeast, but in modern doughnut shops an "old-fashioned doughnut" is usually a cake doughnut. Cake doughnuts made with chemical leavener originated in the United States circa 1829. Primary ingredients in the old-fashioned doughnut include flour, sugar, butter, eggs, sour cream or buttermilk, and chemical leavener. It is typically deep fried, may have a crunchier or crisper texture compared to other styles of cake doughnuts, and typically has cracks and pores on its surface. After being fried, it is glazed, dusted with sugar, or served plain.
Commercially prepared old-fashioned doughnuts may be prepared using a batter mix that is made with the addition of water. Such mixes are used by some doughnut shops. Some variations are prepared by various companies using unique ingredients, and some old-fashioned doughnuts are produced as doughnut holes.
History
Nineteenth century recipes for "old-fashioned donuts" are made with yeast, but in modern doughnut shops an "old-fashioned doughnut" is usually a cake doughnut. Historically, the terms are used imprecisely, and some controversy has arisen over the meaning of the terms doughnut, cruller and fry cake. Old-fashioned cake doughnuts were called sometimes called "fry cakes" back then:
Doughnuts are made of pieces of raised dough, cut into circular pieces and set to rise. After rising they are dropped into a kettle of hot fat, where they puff up into balls and become brown on the surface. Crullers and fried cakes, on the other hand, are made of dough leavened with baking powder—in colonial times soda served instead. For fried cakes, frequently misnamed as doughnuts and crullers, the dough is rolled out and cut into circles, and then a smaller circle is cut out of the center of each cake. It is the fried cake that has the hole.
In the present day, the old-fashioned doughnut is most commonly a type of cake doughnut, and has been described as a "subset" of the cake doughnut. The cake doughnut itself originated in the United States circa 1829, when the increased availability of pearlash in the U.S., a type of leavener that preceded baking powder, led to the increase of cake doughnut consumption. It is unclear when the old-fashioned doughnut itself was invented, but this very likely occurred after the cake doughnut was invented. Prior to circa 1829, doughnuts were typically the yeast-risen variety in the U.S. Circa the 1830s, the leaveners baking soda and baking powder began to be available to U.S. consumers, which is around the same time that cake doughnut recipes first appeared in U.S. cookbooks.
Preparation
Primary ingredients in an old-fashioned doughnut include flour, sugar, eggs, sour cream or buttermilk, and leavening agents such as baking powder or baking soda. Additional ingredients may include milk, butter, vanilla extract and salt. Some recipes use vegetable shortening. The use of buttermilk or sour cream may impart a rich flavor to the doughnut. It is typically deep-fried, and may be deep fried at a lower temperature compared to other doughnut styles, having a crunchier texture compared to other cake doughnut styles. Frying at a lower temperature contributes to its rough, cracked texture. Being turned several times while cooking in the oil also contributes to its texture.
It may be prepared with toppings such as sugar, chocolate or maple glazes, dusted with granulated sugar or cinnamon-sugar, or served plain without any topping. The shape of the doughnut can lend to the retention of a greater amount of glaze or other toppings compared to other doughnut styles. The old-fashioned doughnut may have a similar texture to that of a buttermilk doughnut, may be crisp in texture, and typically has cracks and pores on its surface.
Commercial preparation
Commercially prepared old-fashioned doughnut batter mixes are mass-produced in the United States, which may be prepared by simply adding cold water to the mix. Prepared mixes are used by some doughnut shops. Doughnut shops may prepare old-fashioned doughnuts by loading the batter into the hopper of a doughnut maker, which upon turning a hand crank, drops a formed doughnut into a deep fryer. Doughnut makers are also used for other doughnut varieties, such as cake doughnuts, yeast doughnuts, cream filled, and jelly filled doughnuts.
Nutrition information
One glazed old-fashioned doughnut contains approximately 420 calories, 21 grams of fat, 10 grams of saturated fat, 260 milligrams of sodium, 57 grams of carbohydrate, 34 grams of sugar, 4 grams of protein and less than one gram of dietary fiber.
Variations
Several companies produce old-fashioned doughnuts that differ from standard preparations. Starbucks Corporation, based in Seattle, Washington, purveys an old-fashioned doughnut that is prepared using batter infused with chocolate. The U.S. company Trader Joe's purveys a mass-produced product named "Old-Fashioned Doughnut O's", which are miniature-sized old-fashioned doughnuts. In September 2015, Do-Rite Donuts in Chicago, Illinois, created limited-edition custom doughnuts in collaboration with various celebrities, which included an old-fashioned doughnut with maple glaze garnished with candied Fresno chili peppers. The company Glazed and Infused in Chicago, Illinois, serves customers the traditional glazed old-fashioned as well as a unique twist on the doughnut they call the lemon poppy seed old-fashioned doughnut. The doughnut at Glazed and Infused is covered with lemon-flavored glaze, and topped with poppy seeds and lemon zest.
Top Pot Doughnuts in Seattle, Washington, prepares both vanilla- and chocolate-based old-fashioned doughnuts. Each flavor can be dipped in glaze, raspberry glaze, chocolate icing, maple icing, or sugared pumpkin (in season). The restaurant Nopa in San Francisco, California, has prepared a dessert using old-fashioned doughnut holes along with Asian pears, crème anglaise, pear butter and cardamaro liqueur. The doughnuts at Nopa are prepared using a sour cream base.
Gallery
See also
List of doughnut varieties
List of doughnut shops
Sour cream doughnut
References
External links
Old Fashioned Sour Cream Doughnuts: An Exercise in Experimentation
American doughnuts
American snack foods
American desserts | wiki |
This is a list of intellectuals from the Age of Enlightenment.
See also
Age of Enlightenment
References
1700s
Enlightenment philosophy
Lists related to the history of philosophy
Enlightenment
Secularism | wiki |
The gastropods (), commonly known as slugs and snails, belong to a large taxonomic class of invertebrates within the phylum Mollusca called Gastropoda ().
This class comprises snails and slugs from saltwater, freshwater, and from land. There are many thousands of species of sea snails and slugs, as well as freshwater snails, freshwater limpets, and land snails and slugs.
The class Gastropoda contains a vast total of named species, second only to the insects in overall number. The fossil history of this class goes back to the Late Cambrian. , 721 families of gastropods are known, of which 245 are extinct and appear only in the fossil record, while 476 are currently extant with or without a fossil record.
Gastropoda (previously known as univalves and sometimes spelled "Gasteropoda") are a major part of the phylum Mollusca, and are the most highly diversified class in the phylum, with 65,000 to 80,000 living snail and slug species. The anatomy, behavior, feeding, and reproductive adaptations of gastropods vary significantly from one clade or group to another, so stating many generalities for all gastropods is difficult.
The class Gastropoda has an extraordinary diversification of habitats. Representatives live in gardens, woodland, deserts, and on mountains; in small ditches, great rivers, and lakes; in estuaries, mudflats, the rocky intertidal, the sandy subtidal, the abyssal depths of the oceans, including the hydrothermal vents, and numerous other ecological niches, including parasitic ones.
Although the name "snail" can be, and often is, applied to all the members of this class, commonly this word means only those species with an external shell big enough that the soft parts can withdraw completely into it. Those gastropods without a shell, and those with only a very reduced or internal shell, are usually known as slugs; those with a shell into which they can partly but not completely withdraw are termed semislugs.
The marine shelled species of gastropods include species such as abalone, conches, periwinkles, whelks, and numerous other sea snails that produce seashells that are coiled in the adult stage—though in some, the coiling may not be very visible, for example in cowries. In a number of families of species, such as all the various limpets, the shell is coiled only in the larval stage, and is a simple conical structure after that.
Etymology
In the scientific literature, gastropods were described as "gasteropodes" by in 1795. The word gastropod comes from Greek ( 'stomach') and ( 'foot'), a reference to the fact that the animal's "foot" is positioned below its guts.
The earlier name "univalve" means one valve (or shell), in contrast to bivalves, such as clams, which have two valves or shells.
Diversity
At all taxonomic levels, gastropods are second only to the insects in terms of their diversity.
Gastropods have the greatest numbers of named mollusc species. However, estimates of the total number of gastropod species vary widely, depending on cited sources. The number of gastropod species can be ascertained from estimates of the number of described species of Mollusca with accepted names: about 85,000 (minimum 50,000, maximum 120,000). But an estimate of the total number of Mollusca, including undescribed species, is about 240,000 species. The estimate of 85,000 molluscs includes 24,000 described species of terrestrial gastropods.
Different estimates for aquatic gastropods (based on different sources) give about 30,000 species of marine gastropods, and about 5,000 species of freshwater and brackish gastropods. Many deep-sea species remain to be discovered, as only 0.0001% of the deep-sea floor has been studied biologically. The total number of living species of freshwater snails is about 4,000.
Recently extinct species of gastropods (extinct since 1500) number 444, 18 species are now extinct in the wild (but still exist in captivity), and 69 species are "possibly extinct".
The number of prehistoric (fossil) species of gastropods is at least 15,000 species.
In marine habitats, the continental slope and the continental rise are home to the highest diversity, while the continental shelf and abyssal depths have a low diversity of marine gastropods.
Habitat
Some of the more familiar and better-known gastropods are terrestrial gastropods (the land snails and slugs). Some live in fresh water, but most named species of gastropods live in a marine environment.
Gastropods have a worldwide distribution, from the near Arctic and Antarctic zones to the tropics. They have become adapted to almost every kind of existence on earth, having colonized nearly every available medium.
In habitats where not enough calcium carbonate is available to build a really solid shell, such as on some acidic soils on land, various species of slugs occur, and also some snails with thin, translucent shells, mostly or entirely composed of the protein conchiolin.
Snails such as Sphincterochila boissieri and Xerocrassa seetzeni have adapted to desert conditions. Other snails have adapted to an existence in ditches, near deepwater hydrothermal vents, the pounding surf of rocky shores, caves, and many other diverse areas.
Gastropods can be accidentally transferred from one habitat to another by other animals, e.g. by birds.
Anatomy
Snails are distinguished by an anatomical process known as torsion, where the visceral mass of the animal rotates 180° to one side during development, such that the anus is situated more or less above the head. This process is unrelated to the coiling of the shell, which is a separate phenomenon. Torsion is present in all gastropods, but the opisthobranch gastropods are secondarily untorted to various degrees.
Torsion occurs in two stages. The first, mechanistic stage, is muscular, and the second is mutagenetic. The effects of torsion are primarily physiological; the organism develops an asymmetrical growth, with the majority occurring on the left side. This leads to the loss of right-paired appendages (e.g., ctenidia (comb-like respiratory apparatus), gonads, nephridia, etc.). Furthermore, the anus becomes redirected to the same space as the head. This is speculated to have some evolutionary function, as prior to torsion, when retracting into the shell, first the posterior end would get pulled in, and then the anterior. Now, the front can be retracted more easily, perhaps suggesting a defensive purpose.
However, this "rotation hypothesis" is being challenged by the "asymmetry hypothesis" in which the gastropod mantle cavity originated from one side only of a bilateral set of mantle cavities.
Gastropods typically have a well-defined head with two or four sensory tentacles with eyes, and a ventral foot, which gives them their name (Greek gaster, stomach, and pous, foot). The foremost division of the foot is called the propodium. Its function is to push away sediment as the snail crawls. The larval shell of a gastropod is called a protoconch.
The principal characteristic of the Gastropoda is the asymmetry of their principal organs. The essential feature of this asymmetry is that the anus generally lies to one side of the median plane.; The ctenidium (gill-combs), the osphradium (olfactory organs), the hypobranchial gland (or pallial mucous gland), and the auricle of the heart are single or at least are more developed on one side of the body than the other ; Furthermore, there is only one genital orifice, which lies on the same side of the body as the anus.
Shell
Most shelled gastropods have a one piece shell (with exceptional bivalved gastropods), typically coiled or spiraled, at least in the larval stage. This coiled shell usually opens on the right-hand side (as viewed with the shell apex pointing upward). Numerous species have an operculum, which in many species acts as a trapdoor to close the shell. This is usually made of a horn-like material, but in some molluscs it is calcareous. In the land slugs, the shell is reduced or absent, and the body is streamlined.
Some gastropods have adult shells which are bottom heavy due to the presence of a thick, often broad, convex ventral callus deposit on the inner lip and adapical to the aperture which may be important for gravitational stability.
Body wall
Some sea slugs are very brightly colored. This serves either as a warning, when they are poisonous or contain stinging cells, or to camouflage them on the brightly colored hydroids, sponges and seaweeds on which many of the species are found.
Lateral outgrowths on the body of nudibranchs are called cerata. These contain an outpocketing of digestive gland called the diverticula.
Sensory organs and nervous system
The sensory organs of gastropods include olfactory organs, eyes, statocysts and mechanoreceptors. Gastropods have no hearing.
In terrestrial gastropods (land snails and slugs), the olfactory organs, located on the tips of the four tentacles, are the most important sensory organ. The chemosensory organs of opisthobranch marine gastropods are called rhinophores.
The majority of gastropods have simple visual organs, eye spots either at the tip or base of the tentacles. However, "eyes" in gastropods range from simple ocelli that only distinguish light and dark, to more complex pit eyes, and even to lens eyes. In land snails and slugs, vision is not the most important sense, because they are mainly nocturnal animals.
The nervous system of gastropods includes the peripheral nervous system and the central nervous system. The central nervous system consists of ganglia connected by nerve cells. It includes paired ganglia: the cerebral ganglia, pedal ganglia, osphradial ganglia, pleural ganglia, parietal ganglia and the visceral ganglia. There are sometimes also buccal ganglia.
Digestive system
The radula of a gastropod is usually adapted to the food that a species eats. The simplest gastropods are the limpets and abalones, herbivores that use their hard radula to rasp at seaweeds on rocks.
Many marine gastropods are burrowers, and have a siphon that extends out from the mantle edge. Sometimes the shell has a siphonal canal to accommodate this structure. A siphon enables the animal to draw water into their mantle cavity and over the gill. They use the siphon primarily to "taste" the water to detect prey from a distance. Gastropods with siphons tend to be either predators or scavengers.
Respiratory system
Almost all marine gastropods breathe with a gill, but many freshwater species, and the majority of terrestrial species, have a pallial lung. The respiratory protein in almost all gastropods is hemocyanin, but one freshwater pulmonate family, the Planorbidae, have hemoglobin as the respiratory protein.
In one large group of sea slugs, the gills are arranged as a rosette of feathery plumes on their backs, which gives rise to their other name, nudibranchs. Some nudibranchs have smooth or warty backs with no visible gill mechanism, such that respiration may likely take place directly through the skin.
Circulatory system
Gastropods have open circulatory system and the transport fluid is hemolymph. Hemocyanin is present in the hemolymph as the respiratory pigment.
Excretory system
The primary organs of excretion in gastropods are nephridia, which produce either ammonia or uric acid as a waste product. The nephridium also plays an important role in maintaining water balance in freshwater and terrestrial species. Additional organs of excretion, at least in some species, include pericardial glands in the body cavity, and digestive glands opening into the stomach.
Reproductive system
Courtship is a part of mating behavior in some gastropods, including some of the Helicidae. Again, in some land snails, an unusual feature of the reproductive system of gastropods is the presence and utilization of love darts.
In many marine gastropods other than the opisthobranchs, there are separate sexes (dioecious/gonochoric); most land gastropods, however, are hermaphrodites.
Life cycle
Courtship is a part of the behavior of mating gastropods with some pulmonate families of land snails creating and utilizing love darts, the throwing of which have been identified as a form of sexual selection.
The main aspects of the life cycle of gastropods include:
Egg laying and the eggs of gastropods
The embryonic development of gastropods
The larvae or larval stadium: some gastropods may be trochophore and/or veliger
Estivation and hibernation (each of these are present in some gastropods only)
The growth of gastropods
Courtship and mating in gastropods: fertilization is internal or external according to the species. External fertilization is common in marine gastropods.
Feeding behavior
The diet of gastropods differs according to the group considered. Marine gastropods include some that are herbivores, detritus feeders, predatory carnivores, scavengers, parasites, and also a few ciliary feeders, in which the radula is reduced or absent. Land-dwelling species can chew up leaves, bark, fruit and decomposing animals while marine species can scrape algae off the rocks on the seafloor. Certain species such as the Archaeogastropda maintain horizontal rows of slender marginal teeth. In some species that have evolved into endoparasites, such as the eulimid Thyonicola doglieli, many of the standard gastropod features are strongly reduced or absent.
A few sea slugs are herbivores and some are carnivores. The carnivorous habit is due to specialisation. Many gastropods have distinct dietary preferences and regularly occur in close association with their food species.
Some predatory carnivorous gastropods include, for example: Cone shells, Testacella, Daudebardia, Turrids, Ghost slug and others.
Genetics
Gastropods exhibit an important degree of variation in mitochondrial gene organization when compared to other animals. Main events of gene rearrangement occurred at the origin of Patellogastropoda and Heterobranchia, whereas fewer changes occurred between the ancestors of Vetigastropoda (only tRNAs D, C and N) and Caenogastropoda (a large single inversion, and translocations of the tRNAs D and N). Within Heterobranchia, gene order seems relatively conserved, and gene rearrangements are mostly related with transposition of tRNA genes.
Geological history and evolution
The first gastropods were exclusively marine, with the earliest representatives of the group appearing in the Late Cambrian (Chippewaella, Strepsodiscus), though their only gastropod character is a coiled shell, so they could lie in the stem lineage, if they are gastropods at all. Earliest Cambrian organisms like Helcionella, Barskovia and Scenella are no longer considered gastropods, and the tiny coiled Aldanella of earliest Cambrian time is probably not even a mollusk.
As such, it's not until the Ordovician that the first crown-group members arise. By the Ordovician period the gastropods were a varied group present in a range of aquatic habitats. Commonly, fossil gastropods from the rocks of the early Palaeozoic era are too poorly preserved for accurate identification. Still, the Silurian genus Poleumita contains fifteen identified species. Fossil gastropods were less common during the Palaeozoic era than bivalves.
Most of the gastropods of the Palaeozoic era belong to primitive groups, a few of which still survive. By the Carboniferous period many of the shapes seen in living gastropods can be matched in the fossil record, but despite these similarities in appearance the majority of these older forms are not directly related to living forms. It was during the Mesozoic era that the ancestors of many of the living gastropods evolved.
One of the earliest known terrestrial (land-dwelling) gastropods is Anthracopupa (=Maturipupa), which is found in the Coal Measures of the Carboniferous period in Europe, but relatives of the modern land snails are rare before the Cretaceous period, when the familiar Helix first appeared.
In rocks of the Mesozoic era, gastropods are slightly more common as fossils; their shells are often well preserved. Their fossils occur in ancient beds deposited in both freshwater and marine environments. The "Purbeck Marble" of the Jurassic period and the "Sussex Marble" of the early Cretaceous period, which both occur in southern England, are limestones containing the tightly packed remains of the pond snail Viviparus.
Rocks of the Cenozoic era yield very large numbers of gastropod fossils, many of these fossils being closely related to modern living forms. The diversity of the gastropods increased markedly at the beginning of this era, along with that of the bivalves.
Certain trail-like markings preserved in ancient sedimentary rocks are thought to have been made by gastropods crawling over the soft mud and sand. Although these trace fossils are of debatable origin, some of them do resemble the trails made by living gastropods today.
Gastropod fossils may sometimes be confused with ammonites or other shelled cephalopods. An example of this is Bellerophon from the limestones of the Carboniferous period in Europe, the shell of which is planispirally coiled and can be mistaken for the shell of a cephalopod.
Gastropods are one of the groups that record the changes in fauna caused by the advance and retreat of the Ice Sheets during the Pleistocene epoch.
Cladogram
A cladogram showing the phylogenic relationships of Gastropoda with example species:
Cocculiniformia, Neomphalina and Lower Heterobranchia are not included in the above cladogram.
Taxonomy
Since Darwin, biological taxonomy has attempted to reflect the phylogeny of organisms, i.e., the tree of life. The classifications used in taxonomy attempt to represent the precise interrelatedness of the various taxa. However, the taxonomy of the Gastropoda is constantly being revised and so the versions shown in various texts can differ in major ways.
In the older classification of the gastropods, there were four subclasses:
Opisthobranchia (gills to the right and behind the heart).
Gymnomorpha (no shell)
Prosobranchia (gills in front of the heart).
Pulmonata (with a lung instead of gills)
The taxonomy of the Gastropoda is still under revision, and more and more of the old taxonomy is being abandoned, as the results of DNA studies slowly become clearer. Nevertheless, a few of the older terms such as "opisthobranch" and "prosobranch" are still sometimes used in a descriptive way.
New insights based on DNA sequencing of gastropods have produced some revolutionary new taxonomic insights. In the case of the Gastropoda, the taxonomy is now gradually being rewritten to embody strictly monophyletic groups (only one lineage of gastropods in each group). Integrating new findings into a working taxonomy remain challenging. Consistent ranks within the taxonomy at the level of subclass, superorder, order, and suborder have already been abandoned as unworkable. Ongoing revisions of the higher taxonomic levels are expected in the near future.
Convergent evolution, which appears to exist at especially high frequency in gastropods, may account for the observed differences between the older phylogenies, which were based on morphological data, and more recent gene-sequencing studies.
Bouchet & Rocroi (2005) made sweeping changes in the systematics, resulting in a taxonomy that is a step closer to the evolutionary history of the phylum. The Bouchet & Rocroi classification system is based partly on the older systems of classification, and partly on new cladistic research.
In the past, the taxonomy of gastropods was largely based on phenetic morphological characters of the taxa. The recent advances are more based on molecular characters from DNA and RNA research. This has made the taxonomical ranks and their hierarchy controversial. The debate about these issues is not likely to end soon.
In the Bouchet, Rocroi et al. taxonomy, the authors have used unranked clades for taxa above the rank of superfamily (replacing the ranks suborder, order, superorder and subclass), while using the traditional Linnaean approach for all taxa below the rank of superfamily. Whenever monophyly has not been tested, or is known to be paraphyletic or polyphyletic, the term "group" or "informal group" has been used. The classification of families into subfamilies is often not well resolved, and should be regarded as the best possible hypothesis.
In 2004, Brian Simison and David R. Lindberg showed possible diphyletic origins of the Gastropoda based on mitochondrial gene order and amino acid sequence analyses of complete genes.
In the 2017 issue of the Malacologia journal (available online from 4 January 2018), a significantly updated version of the 2005 "Bouchet & Rocroi" taxonomy was published in the paper "Revised Classification, Nomenclator and Typification of Gastropod and Monoplacophoran Families".
References
This article incorporates CC-BY-2.0 text from the reference.
Abbott, R. T. (1989): Compendium of Landshells. A color guide to more than 2,000 of the World's Terrestrial Shells. 240 S., American Malacologists. Melbourne, Fl, Burlington, Ma.
Abbott, R. T. & Dance, S. P. (1998): Compendium of Seashells. A full-color guide to more than 4,200 of the world's marine shells. 413 S., Odyssey Publishing. El Cajon, Calif.
Parkinson, B., Hemmen, J. & Groh, K. (1987): Tropical Landshells of the World. 279 S., Verlag Christa Hemmen. Wiesbaden.
Ponder, W. F. & Lindberg, D. R. (1997): Towards a phylogeny of gastropod molluscs: an analysis using morphological characters. Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 119 83–265.
Robin, A. (2008): Encyclopedia of Marine Gastropods. 480 S., Verlag ConchBooks. Hackenheim.
External links
Gastropod reproductive behavior
2004 Linnean taxonomy of gastropods
- An article about social learning also in gastropods.
Gastropod photo gallery, mostly fossils, a few modern shells
A video of a crawling Garden Snail (Cornu aspersum), YouTube
Grove, S.J. (2018). A Guide to the Seashells and other Marine Molluscs of Tasmania: Molluscs of Tasmania with images
Mollusc classes
Asymmetry
Articles containing video clips
Extant Cambrian first appearances
Taxa named by Georges Cuvier | wiki |
The 6209/6210 Harbin-Suihua Through Train (Chinese:6209/6210次哈尔滨到绥化普通旅客列车) is a Chinese passenger train service running between Harbin to Suihua express passenger trains by the Harbin Railway Bureau, Harbin passenger segment responsible for passenger transport task, Habin originating on the Suihua train. 25B Type Passenger trains running along the Binbei Railway across Heilongjiang provinces, the entire 125 km. Harbin Railway Station to Suihua Railway Station running 2 hours and 39 minutes, use trips for 6209; Suihua Railway Station to Harbin Railway Station to run 3 hours and 19 minutes, use trips for 6210.
See also
K7031/7032 Harbin-Suihua Through Train
References
Passenger rail transport in China
Rail transport in Heilongjiang | wiki |
The Presidents Cup is a biennial men's golf competition between a team representing the United States and an International Team representing the rest of the world without Europe. The first Presidents Cup took place in 1994.
For details of individual players' complete Presidents Cup records see: List of American Presidents Cup golfers and List of International Presidents Cup golfers.
Summary
There have been a total of 452 individual matches played in the 14 Presidents Cups. Of these the United States has won 220, the International team has won 173 with 59 matches halved. Thus the United States have scored a total of 249 points to the International team's 202.
Holes-in-one
No golfer has achieved a hole-in-one during the Presidents Cup.
Largest margins of victory in a match
All victories completed with 5 or more holes left to play are listed.
United States
International
Pairings
Most frequent pairings
Pairings used 5 or more times are listed.
United States
International
Age-related records
The ages given are on the first day of the Presidents Cup. Generally the leading 5 in each category are given.
Youngest players
United States
International
Oldest players
United States
Hale Irwin in 1994 and Fred Funk in 2003 were rookies.
International
Masashi Ozaki in 1996 and Thongchai Jaidee in 2015 were rookies.
Captains
Youngest Presidents Cup captain: Tiger Woods – in 2019
Youngest International team captain: Trevor Immelman – in 2022
Youngest non-playing United States captain: Fred Couples – in 2009
Oldest Presidents Cup captain: Gary Player – in 2007
Oldest United States captain: Ken Venturi – in 2000
References
Records | wiki |
The Port of Longkou is an artificial deep-water international seaport on the coast of Longkou, Yantai Prefecture, Shandong, People's Republic of China. It is located on the northern shore of Shandong Peninsula, opening to the Laizhou Bay of the Bohai Sea.
The port has been growing rapidly in the last decade, and it reached 70.6 million tons of total cargo throughput in 2013.
History
The Port of Longkou was founded in 1914 by the Beiyang Government. The first concrete pier was built in 1918–19, a minor landmark in the history of Chinese harbor engineering.
Layout
The jurisdictional area of the port is 170 km2.
As of 2012, the Port of Longkou had 15,000 m of quayside and 29 production berths, of which 7 were capable of handling 100,000 DWT, 5 could handle 50,000 DWT, and 7 could handle 10,000 DWT. The main fairway has a depth of 15.5 m, width of 200 m, and it's capable of handling ships of up to 100,000 DWT.
Administration
While located in Yantai Prefecture, the Port of Longkou is administered independently from the Port of Yantai.
Operations
References
External links
Port of Longkou website
Ports and harbours of China | wiki |
Suburbia refers to the suburbs of a metropolitan area.
Suburbia may also refer to:
Film and theater
Suburbia (film), a 1984 film by Penelope Spheeris
subUrbia (play), a 1994 play by Eric Bogosian
subUrbia (film), a 1996 adaptation of Bogosian's play, directed by Richard Linklater
Songs
"Suburbia" (song), by Pet Shop Boys, 1986
"Suburbia", by Kelly Osbourne from Sleeping in the Nothing, 2005
"Suburbia", by the Matthew Good Band from Beautiful Midnight, 1999
"Suburbia", by Troye Sivan from Blue Neighbourhood, 2015
"Suburbia", by the Wonder Years from Suburbia I've Given You All and Now I'm Nothing, 2011
Other uses
Suburbia (board game), a city-building board game designed by Ted Alspach
Suburbia (book), a 1973 photojournalism monograph by Bill Owens
Suburbia (department store), a chain of department stores in Mexico
Suburbia Roller Derby, a roller derby league based in Yonkers, New York, US
See also
Suburban (disambiguation)
The Suburbs (disambiguation) | wiki |
Patricia Soman (born 12 August 1981) is a Côte d'Ivoire long jumper.
Achievements
Personal bests
Long jump - 6.38 m (2003)
Triple jump - 13.02 m (2003)
External links
1981 births
Living people
Ivorian female long jumpers | wiki |
Hurdling is the act of jumping over an obstacle at a high speed or in a sprint. In the early 19th century, hurdlers ran at and jumped over each hurdle (sometimes known as 'burgles'), landing on both feet and checking their forward motion. Today, the dominant step patterns are the 3-step for high hurdles, 7-step for low hurdles, and 15-step for intermediate hurdles. Hurdling is a highly specialized form of obstacle racing, and is part of the sport of athletics. In hurdling events, barriers known as hurdles are set at precisely measured heights and distances. Each athlete must pass over the hurdles; passing under or intentionally knocking over hurdles will result in disqualification.
Accidental knocking over of hurdles is not cause for disqualification, but the hurdles are weighted to make doing so disadvantageous. In 1902 Spalding equipment company sold the Foster Patent Safety Hurdle, a wood hurdle. In 1923 some of the wood hurdles weighed each. Hurdle design improvements were made in 1935, when they developed the L-shaped hurdle. With this shape, the athlete could hit the hurdle and it will tip down, clearing the athlete's path. The most prominent hurdles events are 110 meters hurdles for men, 100 meters hurdles for women, and 400 meters hurdles (both sexes) – these three distances are all contested at the Summer Olympics and the World Athletics Championships. The two shorter distances take place on the straight of a running track, while the 400 m version covers one whole lap of a standard oval track. Events over shorter distances are also commonly held at indoor track and field events, ranging from 50 meters hurdles upwards. Women historically competed in the 80 meters hurdles at the Olympics in the mid-20th century. Hurdles race are also part of combined events contests, including the decathlon and heptathlon.
In track races, hurdles are normally in height, depending on the age and sex of the hurdler. Events from 50 to 110 meters are technically known as high hurdles races, while longer competitions are low hurdles races. The track hurdles events are forms of sprinting competitions, although the 400 m version is less anaerobic in nature and demands athletic qualities similar to the 800 meters flat race.
A hurdling technique can also be found in the steeplechase, although in this event athletes are also permitted to step on the barrier to clear it. Similarly, in cross country running athletes may hurdle over various natural obstacles, such as logs, mounds of earth, and small streams – this represents the sporting origin of the modern events. Horse racing has its own variant of hurdle racing, with similar principles.
Distances
The standard sprint or short hurdle race is 110 meters for men and 100 meters for women. The standard number of steps to the first hurdle should be 8. The standard long hurdle race is 400 meters for both men and women. Each of these races is run over ten hurdles and they are all Olympic events.
The men's 200 meters low hurdles event was on the Olympic athletics programme for the 1900 and 1904 Summer Olympics. These low hurdles events were widely participated in the early part of the 20th century, particularly in North America. However, beyond these two Olympic outings, they never gained a consistent place at international competitions and became increasingly rare after the 1960s. This 10-hurdle race continues to be run in places such as Norway.
Other distances are run, particularly indoors but occasionally outdoors. The sprint hurdle race indoors is usually 60 meters for both men and women, although races 55 meters or 50 meters long are sometimes run, especially in the United States. A 60-meter indoor race is run over 5 hurdles. A shorter race may occasionally have only 4 hurdles. Outdoors, a long hurdle race is sometimes shortened to 300 meters for younger participants, who run over 8 hurdles. For example, high school and middle school athletes in California, Minnesota, and Pennsylvania run the 300 meter hurdles instead of running the 400 meter hurdles, like the majority of state competitors run today. The distance the hurdles are spaced is identical to the beginning of a standard 400 meter race which would have 10 hurdles. There are also 200 meter races for middle school and younger divisions over 5 hurdles (spaced in the same position as the last 5 hurdles of a standard 400 meter race).
Height and spacing
There are five hurdle heights on most standard hurdles. The highest position (sometimes "college high" or "open high") is used for men's sprint hurdle races (60 m, and 110 m), which are . The next highest, (sometimes "high school high"
) is used by veteran men under age 50, and younger boys. The middle position of 36 inches (91.44 cm), (sometimes "intermediate") which is used for men's long hurdle races (400 m) plus some youth and veteran age divisions. The next lower position, is called the "women's high" used for women's short hurdle races. The lowest position, called the "low hurdle" is used for women's long hurdles plus many youth and veteran races. Some races call for for youth or veteran events. Hurdles that go to this position are rare and are notable by having a sixth position.
In sprint hurdle races for men, regardless of the length of the race, the first hurdle is from the starting line and the distance between hurdles is . In sprint hurdle races for women, the first hurdle is from the starting line and the distance between hurdles is . In long hurdle events, whether for men or women, the first hurdle is from the starting line and the distance between hurdles is . Most races which are shorter than the standard distance (such as indoor races) are simply run over fewer hurdles but use the same distances from the starting line. There are variations on hurdle height and spacing for the age groups of athletes competing. See Masters athletics (track and field) and Youth athletics.
Technique
In order to obtain the optimal hurdling technique, one must first learn the proper running techniques. It is important that the runner stays on the balls of his or her feet for the entirety of the race. This makes a fluid movement between each stage of the race.
There is a technique that is desirable to accomplish efficient hurdling action during a race. Many runners rely mainly on raw speed, but proper technique and well-planned steps leading up to and between each hurdle can allow an efficient hurdler to outrun faster opponents. Generally, the efficient hurdler spends the minimum amount of time and energy going vertically over the hurdle, thus achieving maximum speed in the horizontal race direction down the track.
When approaching the first hurdle, athletes try to avoid stutter stepping (a term used to refer to the cutting of stride length before reaching a hurdle). This cuts the runner's momentum and costs valuable time. Athletes attack the hurdle by launching at it from 6–7 feet away (depending on the runner's closing speed); the lead leg extended yet slightly bent (because a straight leg leads to more time over the hurdle) so that the heel just narrowly clears the barrier's height. After launching, the trail leg is tucked in horizontally and flat, close to the side of the hip. The objective is to minimize center-of-gravity deviation from normal sprinting and reduce time spent flying through the air.
In order to hurdle properly and not simply jump over it, a runner must adjust his or her hips to raise them over the hurdles. This involves the correct use of the lead leg, trail leg, and arm positions. The lead leg is the leg that goes over the hurdle first and should remain fairly straight. Upon crossing over the hurdle barrier, the runner's lead leg snaps down quickly landing roughly beyond the hurdle. The trail leg follows the lead leg. The trail leg drives forward at the knee (not swinging, as swinging causes the trunk to straighten up), and pulls through to maintain stride length. An effective trail leg will be parallel to the top of the hurdle and will be as close to the top of the hurdle as possible. As the lead leg is being lifted over the hurdle, the opposite arm should cross the body parallel to the ground. This helps with the runner's balance and rhythm throughout the race.
In men's hurdles, it is usually necessary to straighten the leg at the top of the flight path over the hurdle, although a partial bend in the knee gains a faster push-off when the athlete hits the ground. The ability to do this depends on the runner's leg length. As soon as the foot has cleared the hurdle, the knee starts bending again to lessen the effect of a long, slow pendulum. In women's hurdles, the lead leg is usually straight and the center of gravity does not rise relative to a normal running stride. Another way to view it is the “foot-path”: "shortest path up and the shortest path down". The opposite arm reaches farther forward and the elbow travels out to the side and then behind to make room for the trailing leg. The trailing leg also leads with the knee, but the foot and knee are horizontal, tucked up as tight as possible into the armpit.
As soon as the lead leg begins its descent, a strong downward push is exerted to enable the trailing leg's knee to come up under the armpit and in front of the chest. This enables the recovery of some of the energy expended in the flight. As the lead leg touches down to the ground, it is critical that the runner remains in a sprint. As soon as his or her lead leg touches down, the trail leg arm drives the rest of the body forward.
In the 100 and 110-meter hurdle events, the fastest hurdlers use the three-step technique. This means that three large steps are taken in between all of the hurdles. In order to do this efficiently, hurdlers must take long strides and maintain their speed for the entire race. If a hurdler begins to slow down while three-stepping, they may not be able to make it through all of the hurdles and may have to switch to a four-stepping or five-stepping technique. When three- or five-stepping, a hurdler will use the same lead leg for all of the hurdles. If a hurdler four steps, they will have to switch lead legs at each hurdle.
A modern hurdle will fall over if a runner hits it. There is no penalty for hitting a hurdle (provided this is not judged deliberate). The misconception is based on old rules before the hurdles were weighted. In the 1932 Olympics, Bob Tisdall famously won the Olympic gold medal in the 400-meter hurdles in World Record time, but was not credited with the record due to knocking over a hurdle. There can be a disqualification if a hurdler knocks a hurdle into an opponent's lane and it is judged to have interfered with the opponent's ability to run the race. There are now specifications for the tipping weight of a hurdle (the weights need to be adjusted to correspond with the height of the hurdle) so hitting a hurdle theoretically slows down the rhythm of the hurdler. However, pushing the hurdle with one's hands or running out of one's lane as a result of hitting the hurdle is cause for disqualification. While hitting hurdles is not generally considered desirable, a few sprint hurdlers have succeeded despite knocking over many hurdles. Contact with hurdles can decrease speed and also result in disruption of a hurdler's technique. Some coaches suggest if you lightly "kiss" the hurdle with the side of the leg closest to the hurdle, it can help with the runner's speed by keeping the runner closer to the ground.
Variants
There are also shuttle hurdle relay races, although they are rarely run. They are usually only found at track meets that consist entirely of relay races. In a shuttle hurdle relay, each of four hurdlers on a team runs the opposite direction from the preceding runner. The standard races correspond to the standard sprint hurdle races: 4 × 110 m for men and 4 × 100 m for women.
The shuttle hurdle relay has a maximum of only 4 teams, since most tracks only have 8 lanes. Two lanes will be taken up by one team. The #1 and #3 runners on the team will run in one direction down one specific lane and the #2 and #4 runners will run in the opposite direction in the other lane. The runners on each team go in sequence from 1 to 4.
Instead of using batons, the runners waiting for their teammate to finish must wait until their teammate gets to a certain point to begin their part of the race. There will be an official looking to see if they take off too early. If they do so, then they will be disqualified; if they take off late then it will just hurt their time and chances of winning the event.
In the United States, the men's team of Aries Merritt, Jason Richardson, Aleec Harris, and David Oliver, set the world record in the 440m shuttle hurdle relay race at a time of 52.94 seconds (set on April 25, 2015). On the women's side, Brianna Rollins, Dawn Harper-Nelson, Queen Harrison, Kristi Castlin, together ran a 400m shuttle hurdle race at a world record time of 50.50 seconds on August 24, 2015.
Shuttle hurdle relay was introduced at the 2019 IAAF World Relays, it consist of a race in which two men and two women on each team are running a 110 m hurdles.
See also
List of hurdlers
Women's 100 metres hurdles world record progression
Women's 400 metres hurdles world record progression
Men's 110 metres hurdles world record progression
Men's 400 metres hurdles world record progression
Steeplechase (athletics)
References
External links
Trackinfo explanation of hurdles
IAAF list of hurdles-records in XML
00. The Hurdler's Bible 2 by Wilbur L. Ross and Norma Hernandez de Ross, PH.D. Copyrighted 1966, 1978, and 1997.
Running by type
Athletics by type
Jumping sports
Track relay races | wiki |
Distichlis bajaensis is a rare species of grass known by the common name Baja grass.
Distribution
Distichlis bajaensis is endemic to Baja California, Mexico, where it is known from only one location in a salt marsh just outside Rosarito. The habitat is an arroyo with saline and alkaline soils which is grazed by goats and burros.
The grass grows alongside other halophytes including spiny rush (Juncus acutus), iodinebush (Allenrolfea occidentalis), and pickleweed (Salicornia sp.). Genetic and morphological analyses show that the plant is not any other Distichlis, nor a hybrid of the two most closely related Distichlis, and it was described to science as a new species in 2010.
Description
Distichlis bajaensis is a rhizomatous perennial grass growing in short clumps and spreading via stolons. The leaf blades are no more than 1.5 centimeters long and are slightly bent; this bend is a good characteristic for identifying this grass in the field. Like other Distichlis, Baja grass is dioecious, with male and female inflorescences; only the male inflorescence has been included in the official description because no good female specimens have been collected.
References
Chloridoideae
Endemic flora of Mexico
Flora of Baja California
Grasses of Mexico
Halophytes
Salt marsh plants
Plants described in 2010 | wiki |
The Taming of the Shrew is an opera in three acts by composer Vittorio Giannini. The work uses an English language libretto by Dorothy Fee and the composer which is based on William Shakespeare's play of the same name. The opera premiered at the Cincinnati Music Hall on January 31, 1953 in a concert performance starring Dorothy Short as Katharina, Robert Kircher as Petruchio, the Cincinnati Symphony Orchestra, and conductor Thor Johnson. Considered Giannini's most popular work, it was one of three finalists named for the Pulitzer Prize for Music in 1953.
Composition and later performances
Giannini began composing The Taming of the Shrew in 1938 while finishing work on his earlier opera, The Scarlet Letter. He worked sporadically on the opera over the next 12 years; often interrupted by a variety of other music projects and distractions related to World War II that took his attention away from the project. He completed The Taming of the Shrew in 1950.
In 1954 the NBC Opera Theater filmed a shortened 90 minute version of the opera for television starring John Raitt as Petruchio and Susan Yager as Katharina under the baton of Peter Herman Adler. It was broadcast nationwide in the United States on March 13, 1954 and was notably the first opera to be telecast in color. The production was an award from the New York Film Critics Circle for this technical achievement.
In 1958 the New York City Opera became the first company to stage a full production of the opera with director Margaret Webster and Adler as conductor. Phyllis Curtin and Walter Cassel led the cast. In 1971 the Lyric Opera of Kansas City staged and recorded the opera for New World Records under music director Russell Patterson. In 1979 the Wolf Trap Opera staged the work with singers Julian Patrick (Petruchio) and Anna Moffo (Katharina).
Roles
Recordings
Vittorio Giannini: The Taming of the Shrew; Lyric Opera of Kansas City Orchestra and Chorus, conductor Russell Patterson; Mary Jennings (Katharina), Adair McGowen (Petruchio), J. B. Davis (Baptista), Lowell Harris (Lucentio), Walter Hook (Hortensio), Catherine Christensen (Bianca); (New World Records, 1971)
References
Operas
1953 operas
English-language operas
Operas based on The Taming of the Shrew | wiki |
Harrison Smith (born 1989) is an American football player.
Harrison Smith may also refer to:
Harrison Smith (runner) (1876–1947), American track and field athlete
Harrison Smith, founder of publishers Smith and Haas, bought by Random House in 1936
See also
Harry Smith (disambiguation) | wiki |
Mr. Monk Is Open For Business is the eighteenth novel based on the television series Monk. It was published on June 3, 2014. Like the other novels, the story is narrated by Natalie Teeger, Monk's assistant. It is the third novel in the series to be written by Hy Conrad.
Plot summary
Natalie rents an office for herself and Adrian Monk to make their positions as consulting detectives official. Lieutenant Amy Devlin soon comes to them asking for help finding a man who shot and killed three people and managed to elude the police.
List of characters
Characters from the television series
Adrian Monk: The titular detective, played in the series by Tony Shalhoub
Natalie Teeger: Monk's loyal assistant and the narrator of the book, played on the series by Traylor Howard
Original characters
Amy Devlin: A lieutenant who is Stottlemeyer's right hand in the San Francisco Police Department
References
2014 American novels
Monk (novel series)
Signet Books books | wiki |
Toyota concept vehicles are concept vehicles from Toyota, and may refer to:
Toyota concept vehicles (1935–1969)
Toyota concept vehicles (1970–1979)
Toyota concept vehicles (1980–1989)
Toyota concept vehicles (1990–1999)
Toyota concept vehicles (2000–2009)
Toyota concept vehicles (2010–2019)
Toyota concept vehicles (2020–2029)
See also
List of Toyota vehicles | wiki |
The 2010 NRW Trophy was held in two parts, with ice dancers competing separately from the singles disciplines and pair skating. Both competitions were held at the Eissportzentrum Westfalenhalle in Dortmund. The ice dancing competition was held between November 5 and 7, 2010, and the other disciplines between December 2 and 5, 2010. Skaters competed in the disciplines of men's singles, ladies' singles, pair skating, and ice dancing across the levels of senior, junior, and novice. In addition, the ice dancing competition includes a pre-novice division.
Senior results
Men
WD = Withdrawn
Ladies
WD = Withdrawn
Pairs
Ice dancing
WD = Withdrawn
Junior results
Ice dancing
+ 19 other couples.
Ice dancing (Basic junior)
Pattern dance 1: Viennese Waltz
Pattern dance 2: Silver Samba
Novice results
Ice dancing (Advanced novice)
Pattern dance 1: Starlight Waltz
Pattern dance 2: Tango
Ice dancing (Basic novice)
Pattern dance 1: Fourteenstep
Pattern dance 2: European Waltz
External links
Singles and pairs results
Ice dance results
2010
2010 in figure skating | wiki |
Linbrook Lake, also called Linbrook East, is a lake located just west of the New Forest National Park in Hampshire, England with the village of Blashford extending further west toward the A338 road. The nearest sizable town to this lake is Ringwood, which lies approximately 1.2 miles (2.3 km) south-west. This area is frequented by bird watchers, and the lake can be viewed from the Avon Valley Path.
The lake is about , with thick weeds and depths up to . It is a top tench fishery, and is also known for bream and carp, and occasional rudd.
This lake is adjacent to the Blashford Lakes Nature Reserve.
Footnotes
Lakes of Hampshire | wiki |
Pad printing (also called tampography) is a printing process that can transfer a 2-D image onto a 3-D object (e.g. a ceramic pottery). This is accomplished using an indirect offset (gravure) printing process that involves an image being transferred from the cliché via a silicone pad onto a substrate. Pad printing is used for printing on otherwise difficult to print on products in many industries including medical, automotive, promotional, apparel, and electronic objects, as well as appliances, sports equipment and toys. It can also be used to deposit functional materials such as conductive inks, adhesives, dyes and lubricants.
Physical changes within the ink film both on the cliché and on the pad allow it to leave the etched image area in favor of adhering to the pad, and to subsequently release from the pad in favor of adhering to the substrate.
The unique properties of the silicone pad enable it to pick the image up from a flat plane and transfer it to a variety of surfaces, such as flat, cylindrical, spherical, compound angles, textures, concave, or convex surfaces.
History
While crude forms of pad printing have existed for centuries, it was not until the twentieth century that the technology became suitable for widespread use. First gaining a foothold in the watch-making industry following World War II, developments in the late 60s and early 70s, such as silicone pads and more advanced equipment, made the printing method far more practical. The ability to print on formerly unprintable surfaces caught the imaginations of engineers and designers, and as a result pad printing exploded into the mass production marketplace.
Today, pad printing is a well established technology covering a wide spectrum of industries and applications.
Process
Cycle
From the home position, the sealed ink cup (an inverted cup containing ink) sits over the etched artwork area of the printing plate, covering the image and filling it with ink.
The sealed ink cup moves away from the etched artwork area, taking all excess ink and exposing the etched image, which is filled with ink. The top layer of ink becomes tacky as soon as it is exposed to the air; that is how the ink adheres to the transfer pad and later to the substrate.
The transfer pad presses down onto the printing plate momentarily. As the pad is compressed, it pushes air outward and causes the ink to lift (transfer) from the etched artwork area onto the pad.
As the transfer pad lifts away, the tacky ink film inside the etched artwork area is picked up on the pad. A small amount of ink remains in the printing plate.
As the transfer pad moves forward, the ink cup also moves to cover the etched artwork area on the printing plate. The ink cup again fills the etched artwork image on the plate with ink in preparation for the next cycle.
The transfer pad compresses down onto the substrate, transferring the ink layer picked up from the printing plate to the substrate surface. Then, it lifts off the substrate and returns to the home position, thus completing one print cycle.
Plate and ink interface technologies
Open inkwell system
Open ink well systems, the older method of pad printing, used an ink trough for the ink supply, which was located behind the printing plate. A flood bar pushed a pool of ink over the plate, and a doctor blade removes the ink from the plate surface, leaving ink on the etched artwork area ready for the pad to pick up.
Sealed ink cup system
Sealed ink cup systems employ a sealed container which acts as the ink supply, flood bar and doctor blade all at the same time. A ceramic ring with a highly polished working edge provides the seal against the printing plate.
Printing pad
Pads are three-dimensional objects typically molded of silicone rubber. They function as a transfer vehicle, picking up ink from the printing plate, and transferring it to the part (substrate). They vary in shape and diameter depending on the application.
There are two main shape groups: "round pads" and long narrow pads called "bar pads". Pads are also made in other shapes, called "loaf pads". Within each group there are three size categories: small, medium, and large size pads. It is also possible to engineer custom-shaped pads to meet special application requirements.
Image plate
Image plates (also called clichés or print plates) are used to contain the desired artwork "image" etched in its surface. Their function is to hold ink in this etched cavity, allowing the pad to pick up this ink as a film in the shape of the artwork, which is then transferred to the substrate.
There are two main types of printing plate materials: photopolymer and steel. Photopolymer plates are the most popular, as they are easy to use. These are typically used in short to medium production runs. Steel plates come in two forms: thin steel for medium to long runs, and thick steel for very long runs. Both steel plate types are generally processed by the plate supplier as it involves the use of specialized equipment.
Multicolor applications can be executed by the coordinated use of several clichés. One image can contain several contrast colors (monochrome) by applying different engraving depths and/or grid resolutions.
Printing ink
Ink is used to mark or decorate parts. It comes in different chemical families to match the type of material to be printed (please consult the substrate compatibility chart for selection).
Pad printing inks are often "solvent-based" and require mixing with additives before use. They typically seem dry to the touch within seconds although complete drying (cure) might take a substantially longer period of time. There are FDA approved edible variants that have been developed for human consumption and more ecological variants to reduce the environmental impact.
There are many more options. Inks that cure via the use of ultraviolet light are convenient for certain applications. UV inks will not fully cure until UV light hits the ink. UV curable ink can be wiped off many substrates when mistakes are made. They can be cured with UV light in as fast as 1 second of light exposure. This depends on the ink, substrate and the light power and spectrum. UV inks can be reused as the pot life can be high as long as the ink stays clean, blocked from UV light and hasn't broken down from sitting. This same feature makes it easier to clean than some solvent and epoxy like two part component inks. Also there are heat curable inks, which work in much the same way as UV in the sense that there is a "trigger" that cures the ink when pulled. Two-component inks usually have a pot life of only a few hours or so. They must be disposed of when they cannot be revived (by means of retarders etc.)
Climatic conditions will significantly affect the performance of any pad printing ink, especially the open ink well style printers. Too dry conditions can lead to faster evaporation of solvents causing the ink to thicken prematurely and too much moisture can lead to ink issues of "clumping" or something similar. Also the climate can affect other aspects of the printing process such as ink pick up and release from the plate to the pad to the substrate, as well as polymer plate to blade chattering or binding due to humidity.
Substrate
Substrate is the technical term used to address any parts or materials to be printed. Fixtures vary in materials and complexity depending on the application. Substrates need to be clean and free from surface contamination to allow proper ink adhesion.
Making of printing plates
There are two main techniques used to create a printing plate. The traditional technique requires a UV exposure unit and involves photo exposure with film positives and chemical etching. A second technique known as "computer to plate" requires a laser engraver and involves automated laser etching. The latter technique is more convenient for short production delays, high precision, stable quality control.
Both techniques can be applied on a specialized polymer or steel plate. The standard cycle life that can be expected out of a polymer plate is quite low (50,000 impressions on the high end). By comparison, a hardened steel plate can easily last for over 1 million impressions.
Printing application examples
Pad printing is typically used for applications where print quality, precision or a complex shape are involved.
Medical devices (syringes, surgical instruments, etc.)
Implantable & in body medical items (catheter tubes, contact lenses, etc.)
Pharmaceutics (pills)
Candy
Cosmetic packaging (eyeliner, perfume bottles, etc.)
Caps and closures (drink bottle caps, etc.)
Golf ball logos/graphics
Hockey pucks
Decorative designs/graphics appearing on toys (Hot Wheels or Matchbox toy cars, balls, etc.)
Automotive parts (turn signal indicators, panel controls, etc.)
Letters on computer keyboards and calculator keys
TV and computer monitors
Identification labels and serial numbers for many applications
Apparel industry for printing labels directly on clothing
Promotional gifts and give-aways
Shoe heels
References
External links
Printing | wiki |
The Idaho ground squirrel has been split into the following species:
Northern Idaho ground squirrel, Urocitellus brunneus
Southern Idaho ground squirrel, Urocitellus endemicus | wiki |
The Haowhenua (Māori for 'land swallower') earthquake was a large earthquake that occurred around 1460 AD causing uplift to parts of Wellington, New Zealand.
In his 1923 work Miramar Island and its History, Elsdon Best recounted Māori stories handed down through generations about early settlement in Wellington and the uplifting of Miramar. The present entrance to Wellington Harbour was called Te Au-a-Tane and the western channel (now the Rongotai isthmus) was called Te-Awa-a-Taia. Between the two channels sat the island of Motu-Kairangi (present day Miramar Peninsula). Elsdon stated:I obtained from Maori sources a story to the effect that, in the time of Te Ao-haere-tahi, who flourished eighteen generations ago, a violent earthquake-shock so lifted these lands that the Awa-a-Taia channel became dry, and Motu-kairangi a part of the mainland. We have no means of verifying such oral traditions, but it may be correct, and the shock may have been the cause of the raised beaches that form so marked and interesting a feature of the adjacent coast-line. The earthquake referred to, if it occurred in the time of Te Ao-haere-tahi, must have occurred in the fifteenth century.A study published in 2015 showed evidence of two large earthquakes on the southern Hikurangi Margin, the area where the Pacific tectonic plate is pushed under the Australian plate. The later of these earthquakes happened between 1430 and 1480 AD and could be the Haowhenua earthquake of Māori oral history, which described land uplift in Wellington. The earthquake probably also caused a tsunami: tsunami deposits dating from the 15th century have been found at many locations around the top of the South Island and up to Okupe Lagoon on Kapiti Island, and other research links evidence of a huge tsunami around 1450 AD with the Haowhenua earthquake. Shells and a boulder beach found above current sea level around the Miramar Peninsula and around Turakirae Head offer supporting evidence of a large earthquake in the 15th century.
References
Earthquakes in New Zealand
15th-century earthquakes
Māori history
History of Wellington | wiki |
Incontinence or Incontinent may refer to:
Fecal incontinence, the involuntary excretion of bowel contents
Urinary incontinence, the involuntary excretion of urine
Lack of moderation or self-control, especially related to sexual desire - see Incontinence (philosophy)
Incontinent (album), a 1981 album by Fad Gadget
See also | wiki |
The Downtown Loop may refer to:
Downtown Loop (Kansas City)
Atlanta Streetcar
See also
Chicago Loop
Delmar Loop, Missouri, U.S. | wiki |
Lost for Words may refer to:
Music
Lost for Words (Acceptance album)
"Lost for Words" (Pink Floyd song)
"Lost for Words" (Ronan Keating song)
"Lost for Words", a song by Saga from their 2012 album 20/20
Film and literature
Lost for Words (1999 film), a British TV film
Lost for Words, a 1991 autobiography by Deric Longden, basis for the 1999 film
Lost for Words, a 2004 book on language by John Humphrys
Lost for Words (2013 film)
Lost for Words, a 2014 novel by Edward St Aubyn
See also
A Loss for Words, American pop punk band from Massachusetts | wiki |
Rapid Trauma Assessment is a quick method (usually 60 to 90 seconds), most commonly used by Emergency Medical Services (EMS), to identify hidden and obvious injuries in a trauma victim.
The goal is to identify and treat immediate threats to life that may not have been obvious during an initial assessment. After an initial assessment involving basic checks on airway, breathing and circulation, the caregiver considers things like mechanism of injury (how the person was hurt) to determine if a more rapid diagnostic approach is indicated than might otherwise be used.
Indications for rapid trauma assessment
Generally, rapid trauma assessment is indicated if:
There was a significant mechanism of injury (for example, a high-speed car accident, falls >20 ft); OR
The patient has an altered mental status; OR
The medical responder suspects that the patient has multi-systems trauma
If NONE of these criteria are met, the medical provider may go through a slower or more focused trauma assessment.
Identifying life threats
A standard rapid trauma assessment will check for each of the following life threats, and provide some forms of basic treatment. Treatment that would not be life-saving is not conducted until after the rapid trauma assessment. For each area of the body assessed, it is helpful to review them while addressing the different parts of the mnemonic "DCAP-BTLS." This stands for: Deformities, Contusions, Abrasions, Punctures/Penetrations, Burns, Tenderness, Lacerations, and Swelling.
A rapid trauma assessment goes from head to toe to find these life threats:
Cervical spinal injury
Level of consciousness
Skull fractures, crepitus, and signs of brain injury
Airway problems (although these were checked during the initial assessment, they are rechecked during the rapid trauma assessment) such as tracheal deviation
Penetrating trauma to the neck, distention of the jugular veins, or a break in the tracheal-bronchial tree
Signs of serious chest injuries, including penetrating trauma to the chest, which can cause a sucking chest wound; flail chest; tension pneumothorax; and cardiac tamponade
Breathing problems (like airway problems, these are also rechecked during the rapid trauma assessment by listening to breath sounds with a stethoscope)
Signs of serious abdominal injuries, including evisceration; penetrating or blunt force trauma; or peritonitis from bleeding into the abdomen
A fractured pelvis (a person can exsanguinate from a fractured pelvis)
Bilateral femur fractures (a person can also exsanguinate from bilateral femur fractures)
Lower spinal injury or any other trauma to the back
See also
SAMPLE history
DCAP-BTLS
Advanced Trauma Life Support
References
Emergency medical services
First aid | wiki |
Aviation Academy halt (, ) is a railway station on the Suphanburi Line located in Kamphaeng Saen Aviation Academy, Amphoe Kamphaeng Saen, Nakhon Pathom Province, Thailand. There are two platforms, on both sides of the track. The station is now operational and two trains stop at it.
References
Railway stations in Thailand | wiki |
Rex Gene Foods was a United States supermarket chain of stores located in New Jersey from 1957 until the late 1990s. Rex Gene Foods competed directly with Foodtown, Pathmark and ShopRite in New Jersey until it went bankrupt toward the late 1990s.
Rex Gene Food was involved in controversy during its later years.
References
Defunct supermarkets of the United States | wiki |
Coke Studio may refer to:
Coke Studio (Pakistani TV program), a Pakistani television series featuring live music performances
Coke Studio (Indian TV program), an Indian television series featuring live music performances
Coke Studio Bangla, a Bangladeshi television series featuring live music performances
Coke Studio Bel 3arabi, a music television series in the Middle East and North Africa
Coke Studio Philippines, a Philippines television series featuring live music performances
Coke Studios, or MyCoke, a defunct online chat game used for marketing the Coca-Cola brand | wiki |
All the Hits is an album by Keith Martin, released in 2003 on Blockbuster.
Track listing
2003 albums
Keith Martin (musician) albums | wiki |
Elkin Municipal Airport is a public airport in Surry County, North Carolina, United States, three miles northeast of Elkin. It is owned by the Town of Elkin; the National Plan of Integrated Airport Systems for 2011–2015 called it a general aviation facility.
Most U.S. airports use the same three-letter location identifier for the FAA and IATA, but Elkin is assigned ZEF by the FAA and has no IATA identifier. The airport's ICAO identifier is KZEF.
Facilities and aircraft
Elkin Municipal Airport covers 91 acres (37 ha) at an elevation of 1,067 feet (325 m) above mean sea level. Its one runway, 7/25, is 4,001 by 75 feet (1,220 x 23 m) asphalt.
In the year ending July 24, 2009 the airport had 13,350 aircraft operations, average 36 per day: 97% general aviation and 3% military. 17 aircraft were then based at this airport: 88% single-engine and 12% multi-engine.
References
External links
at North Carolina DOT airport guide
Aerial image as of March 1998 from USGS The National Map
Airports in North Carolina
Transportation in Surry County, North Carolina
Buildings and structures in Surry County, North Carolina | wiki |
Agnes of Aquitaine may refer to:
Agnes of Burgundy, Duchess of Aquitaine, (c. 995–1068), wife of William V, Duke of Aquitaine
Agnes of Poitou, (c. 1025–1077), wife of Henry III, Holy Roman Emperor
Agnes of Aquitaine, Queen of León and Castile, (died c. 1078), wife of Alfonso VI of Castile
Agnes of Aquitaine, Countess of Savoy, (died c. 1097), wife of Peter I of Savoy
Agnes of Aquitaine, Queen of Aragon and Navarre, (1072–1097), wife of King Peter I of Aragon and Navarre
Agnes of Aquitaine, wife of Ramiro II of Aragon, (c. 1105 – c. 1159) wife of Aimery V of Thours and Ramiro II of Aragon
See also
Agnes, wife of Ramiro I of Aragon, (fl. 1054–1062), perhaps of Aquitaine, perhaps identical to the Countess of Savoy | wiki |
Being lovestruck means having mental and physical symptoms associated with falling in love: "Love-struck ... means to be hit by love ... you are hit in your heart by the emotion of love".
While being lovestruck has historically been viewed as a short-lived mental illness brought on by the intense changes associated with romantic love, this view has been out of favor since the humoral model was abandoned, and since the advent of modern scientific psychiatry.
Metaphors
The concept is associated with a set of metaphors attempting to convey the speed and intensity of falling in love by describing it as a physical process of falling or being struck.
Alternately, falling in love is often described with reference to Cupid's arrow. Other sources, such as Tristram Shandy, describe the process by referring to it as the act of being shot with a gun: "I am in love with Mrs Wadman, quoth my uncle Toby She has left a ball here added my uncle Toby pointing to his breast".
Psychoanalysis
The twentieth-century saw the concept of love-sickness reconceptualised by psychoanalysis. As early as 1915, Freud asked rhetorically, "Isn't what we mean by 'falling in love' a kind of sickness and craziness, an illusion, a blindness to what the loved person is really like?" Half a century later, in 1971, Hans Loewald took up the theme, comparing being in analysis "to the passions and conflicts stirred up anew in the state of being in love which, from the point of view of the ordinary order and emotional tenor and discipline of life, feels like an illness, with all its deliciousness and pain".
Symptoms
A 2005 article by Frank Tallis suggested that being utterly romantically lovestruck should be taken more seriously by professionals.
"For love-struck victims, the world appears altered. Replacing the flatness of ordinary experience is a fullness".
According to Tallis, some of the symptom clusters shared with being lovestruck include:
Euphoria, that is, abnormally elevated mood, inflated self-esteem, extravagant gift giving
Tearfulness
Loss of concentration and difficulty sleeping
Lack of appetite
Stress high blood pressure, pain in chest and heart, acute insomnia; sometimes brought on by a "crush"
Obsessive–compulsive disorder Preoccupation and hoarding valueless but superstitiously resonant items
Psychologically created physical symptoms, such as upset stomach, change in appetite, insomnia, dizziness, and confusion.
More substantively, the estimated serotonin levels of people falling in love were observed to drop to levels found in patients with OCD. Brain-scan investigations of individuals who professed to be "truly, madly, deeply" in love showed activity in several structures in common with the neuroanatomy of obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD), for example, the anterior cingulate cortex and caudate nucleus.
Criticism
Some who would "disagree with Frank Tallis's fundamental thesis that love should be seen as a mental illness ... concur that at the extreme and under certain circumstances love sickness can drive a person to despair".
They would suggest however that "'disordered love' ... can be understood more clearly in terms of attachment theory".
Literary examples
The character of Romeo fits the archetype of a lovestruck youth that he has become the very model of Cupid himself.
In Possession, the hero's ex quotes Robert Graves to her new lover: "Oh Love, be fed by apples while you may", echoing the Song of Solomon: "comfort me with apples: for I am sick of love".
See also
References
Further reading
Frank Tallis, Love Sick: Love as a Mental Illness (2005)
Anxiety disorders
Emotion
Emotional issues
Love
Psychodynamics | wiki |
{{DISPLAYTITLE:C3H2ClF5O}}
The molecular formula C3H2ClF5O (molar mass: 184.49 g/mol, exact mass: 183.9714 u) may refer to:
Enflurane (2-chloro-1,1,2,-trifluoroethyl-difluoromethyl ether)
Isoflurane | wiki |
The 2017 Women's Indoor African Cup of Nation was held in Swakopmund, Namibia. It was originally scheduled from 23 to 25 June 2017.
The competition featured three teams, with the winner securing a place in the 2018 Women's Indoor Hockey World Cup. The defending champions Namibia won the title by defeating the hosts South Africa 3(2)–3(1) in the final.
Results
Standings
Fixtures
All times are local (UTC+2).
Final
Statistics
Final standings
Awards
The following awards were given at the conclusion of the tournament.
Goalscorers
See also
2017 Men's African Hockey Indoor Cup of Nations
References
Indoor African Cup
indoor hockey
International sports competitions hosted by Namibia
Swakopmund
Indoor African Cup
Africa Cup | wiki |
A directional well is an oil industry term for an oil well with a borehole that deviates from a vertically straight line. This is normally done with the intention of hitting several target sands, for instance.
References
External links
Directional well, Oilfield Glossary, Schlumberger
Petroleum engineering
Oilfield terminology
Drilling technology | wiki |
Knoephla, also spelled knephla , is a type of dumpling, commonly used in soups. The word is related to the modern German dialect word Knöpfle, meaning little knob/button. Traditional knoephla soup is a thick chicken and potato soup, almost to the point of being a stew. It is particularly common in the U.S. states of Minnesota, South Dakota, and North Dakota, where there was significant settlement of German emigrants from the Russian Empire. There are different iterations known throughout, though the North Dakotan iteration typically contains just potatoes and dumplings.
See also
Schupfnudel
Klöße, larger dumplings
Halušky, eastern European equivalent of spätzle
Gnocchi, similar Italian pasta/dumplings
Passatelli, similar Italian pasta made with bread crumbs in place of flour
Spätzle
External links
Knoephla Soup Recipe By Mike Tifft
The Taste of Home online recipe:
The Dakota Memories Heritage Tour listing knoephla as one of the ethnic foods to be served:
Dumplings
Cuisine of the Midwestern United States
German-American cuisine
German-Russian culture in the United States | wiki |
Firetail is a common name for several bird species:
Red-browed firetail, Neochmia temporalis, or red-browed finch
Red-faced firetail, Neochmia ruficauda, star finch
Beautiful firetail, Stagonopleura bella
Diamond firetail, Stagonopleura guttata
Red-eared firetail or Western firetail, Stagonopleura oculata
Finches
Birds by common name | wiki |
MESM (Ukrainian: MEOM, Мала Електронна Обчислювальна Машина; Russian: МЭСМ, Малая Электронно-Счетная Машина; 'Small Electronic Calculating Machine') was the first universally programmable electronic computer in the Soviet Union. By some authors it was also depicted as the first one in continental Europe, even though the electromechanical computers Zuse Z4 and the Swedish BARK preceded it.
Overview
MESM was created by a team of scientists under the direction of Sergei Alekseyevich Lebedev from the Kiev Institute of Electrotechnology in the Ukrainian SSR, at Feofaniya (near Kyiv).
Initially, MESM was conceived as a layout or model of a Large Electronic Calculating Machine and letter "M" in the title meant "model" (prototype).
Work on the machine was research in nature, in order to experimentally test the principles of constructing universal digital computers. After the first successes and in order to meet the extensive governmental needs of computer technology, it was decided to complete the layout of a full-fledged machine capable of "solving real problems". MESM became operational in 1950. It had about 6,000 vacuum tubes and consumed 25 kW of power. It could perform approximately 3,000 operations per minute.
Creation and operation history
Principal computer architecture scheme was ready by the end of 1949. As well as a few schematic diagrams of an individual blocks.
In 1950 the computer was mounted in a two-story building of the former hostel of a convent in Feofania, where a psychiatric hospital was located before the second world war.
November 6, 1950 - team performed the first test launch. Test task is:
January 4, 1951. First useful calculations performed. Calculate the factorial of a number, raise number in a power. Computer was shown to special commission of the USSR State Academy of Sciences. Team was led by Mstislav Keldysh
December 25, 1951. Official government testing passed successfully. USSR Academy of Sciences and Mstislav Keldysh began regular operation of the MESM.
It was operated until 1957, and then transferred to Kyiv Polytechnic Institute for training purposes
1959, MESM dismantled.
“Computer was split into pieces, which were used to build series of stands, after all all of them was thrown away.” recalled Boris Malinovsky.
Many of the electron tubes and other components left from MESM are stored in the Foundation for the History and Development of Computer Science and Technology in the Kiev House of Scientists of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine.
System specification
Arithmetic Logic Unit
universal
parallel action
flip-flop based
Number representation
binary
fixed points 16-n bits per number plus with one sign bit
Instructions
20 binary bits per command
The first 4 bits - operation code
The next 5 bits - first operand address another 5 it the second operand address
The last 6 bits - operation result address
Following instruction types supported
addition
add with carry
subtraction
multiplication
division
binary shifts
comparison taking into account mark
absolute value comparison
transfer of control
magnetic drum read
stop
RAM
Flip-flop based
Data and code separated
31 machine words for data
63 machine words for code
ROM
31 machine words for data
63 machine words for code
Clock rate
5 kHz
Performance
About 3000 operations per minute (total time of one cycle is 17.6 ms; division operation takes from 17.6 to 20.8 ms)
Computer was built using 6000 vacuum tubes where about 3500 of triodes and 2500 of diodes. System occupies 60 m² (646 square feet) of space and uses about 25 kW of power.
Data was read from punched cards or typed using a plug switch. In addition, computer can use a magnetic drum that stores up to 5000 codes of numbers or commands.
An electromechanical printer or photo device was used for output.
See also
History of computing in the Soviet Union
References
Soviet computer systems
One-of-a-kind computers
Vacuum tube computers
1950s computers
1950 in the Soviet Union | wiki |
The Daily World is the name of various newspapers:
The Daily World (Aberdeen), Washington
Atlanta Daily World
Greene County (Indiana) Daily World
Daily World (Opelousas), Louisiana
The Vancouver Daily World
Atlantic City Daily World
See also
World (disambiguation)#Periodicals | wiki |
The lists of aircraft are sorted in alphabetical order.
Further reading
The following reference sources, among many others, have been used to compile this list:
See also
List of most-produced aircraft
List of aircraft type designators
List of civil aircraft
List of airliners by maximum takeoff weight
List of Bushplanes
List of light transport aircraft
List of racing aircraft
List of regional airliners
List of STOL aircraft
List of VTOL aircraft
List of flying boats and floatplanes
List of ground effect vehicles
List of large aircraft
External links
Searchable database of aircraft
FAA Aircraft Characteristics Database
Aircraft Bluebook. Performance & Specifications | wiki |
Round Mound of Sound may refer to a nickname for:
Al Hirt (1922–1999), American trumpeter and bandleader.
Kenny Price (1931–1987), American singer, songwriter, and actor
Joe Pedicino (born 1949), American professional wrestling announcer
Kris Johnson (basketball) (born 1975), American basketball player | wiki |
Eora is a name given to a group of Aboriginal Australian people by the early settlers of what is now New South Wales.
Eora may also refer to:
Eora Centre for the Visual and Performing Arts, Sydney, now part of TAFE NSW, formerly often referred to as simply Eora
Eora Creek, Papua New Guinea
Eora language, former name for the Dharug language | wiki |
Space compression may refer to:
data compression
space folding (disambiguation)
time-space compression | wiki |
Trafford steht für:
Trafford, Metropolitan Borough in England
Trafford (Alabama), Stadt im Jefferson County
Trafford (Pennsylvania), Gemeinde im Westmoreland County und Allegheny County
Trafford Centre, Einkaufszentrum in Dumplington, England
Trafford ist der Familienname folgender Personen:
Anthony Trafford, Baron Trafford (1932–1989), britischer Arzt, Politiker und Life Peer
Humphrey de Trafford, 4. Baronet (1891–1971), britischer Adliger und Pferderennstallbesitzer
Mason Trafford (* 1986), kanadisch-amerikanischer Fußballspieler
Rudolph de Trafford, 5. Baronet (1894–1983), britischer Adliger und Banker | wiki |
The term Total Experience (abbreviation TX) describes all aspects of the impressions and the experience of all users, in the context of an organization. In particular, this includes the previously separate disciplines of customer experience (CX), employee experience (EX), user experience (UX) and multi-experience (MX).
TX has been identified as an important trend for 2021 by analysts Gartner and KPMG, among others.
See also
Digital transformation
References
Human–computer interaction
User interfaces
Usability | wiki |
Developer may refer to:
Computers
Software developer, a person or organization who develop programs/applications
Video game developer, a person or business involved in video game development, the process of designing and creating games
Web developer, a programmer who specializes in, or is specifically engaged in, the development of World Wide Web applications
Other uses
Developer (album), the fifth album by indie rock band Silkworm
Photographic developer, chemicals that convert the latent image to a visible image
In real estate development, one who builds on land or alters the use of an existing building for some new purpose
See also
Game designer
Developer! Developer! Developer!, a series of community conferences aimed at software developers | wiki |
/s/ may refer to:
Signature, a mark that a person writes on documents as a proof of identity and intent
Voiceless alveolar sibilant, a type of voiceless alveolar fricative
"Sexy Beautiful Women", a forum of 4chan | wiki |
Tom Burke (1890-1969), chanteur d'opéra britannique ;
Tom Burke (1890-1969), acteur britannique ;
Tom Burke (né en 1981), acteur britannique. | wiki |
"Loneliness" is a short-story by Charles Bukowski collected in his 1973 collection South of No North, originally published by John Martin's Black Sparrow Press. It's the first short-story of the book.
Plot
A lonely middle-aged woman responds to a personal ad, but the man who posted it, overwhelmed by lust, will not take things in moderation, and their date goes very badly.
See also
Charles Bukowski
South of No North
References
Works by Charles Bukowski
1973 short stories | wiki |
The Tottenham é um prédio listado e public house situado na 6 Oxford Street, Fitzrovia, Londres.
Faz parte do Campaign for Real Ale e National Inventory of Historic Pub Interiors. Foi construído no século 19 , sendo o último pub remanescente da Oxford Street.
Pubs de Westminster
Fitzrovia | wiki |
Two-dimensional chromatography is a type of chromatographic technique in which the injected sample is separated by passing through two different separation stages. Two different chromatographic columns are connected in sequence, and the effluent from the first system is transferred onto the second column. Typically the second column has a different separation mechanism, so that bands that are poorly resolved from the first column may be completely separated in the second column. (For instance, a C18 reversed-phase chromatography column may be followed by a phenyl column.) Alternately, the two columns might run at different temperatures. During the second stage of separation the rate at which the separation occurs must be faster than the first stage, since there is still only a single detector. The plane surface is amenable to sequential development in two directions using two different solvents.
History
Modern two-dimensional chromatographic techniques are based on the results of the early developments of Paper chromatography and Thin-layer chromatography which involved liquid mobile phases and solid stationary phases. These techniques would later generate modern Gas chromatography and Liquid chromatography analysis. Different combinations of one dimensional GC and LC produced the analytical chromatographic technique that is known as two-dimensional chromatography.
The earliest form of 2D-chromatography came in the form of a multi-step TLC separation in which a thin sheet of cellulose is used first with one solvent in one direction, then, after the paper has been dried, another solvent is run in a direction at right angles to the first. This methodology first appeared in the literature with a 1944 publication by A. J. P. Martin and coworkers detailing an efficient method for separating amino acids- "...but the two-dimensional chromatogram is especially convenient, in that it shows at a glance information that can be gained otherwise only as the result of numerous experiments" (Biochem J., 1944, 38, 224).
Examples
Two-dimensional separations can be carried out in gas chromatography or liquid chromatography. Various different coupling strategies have been developed to "resample" from the first column into the second. Some important hardware for two-dimensional separations are Deans' switch and Modulator, which selectively transfer the first dimension eluent to second dimension column
The chief advantage of two-dimensional techniques is that they offer a large increase in peak capacity, without requiring extremely efficient separations in either column. (For instance, if the first column offers a peak capacity (k1)of 100 for a 10-minute separation, and the second column offers a peak capacity of 5 (k2) in a 5-second separation, then the combined peak capacity may approach k1 × k2=500, with the total separation time still ~ 10 minutes). 2D separations have been applied to the analysis of gasoline and other petroleum mixtures, and more recently to protein mixtures.
Tandem mass spectrometry
Tandem mass spectrometry (Tandem MS or MS/MS) uses two mass analyzers in sequence to separate more complex mixtures of analytes. The advantage of tandem MS is that it can be much faster than other two-dimensional methods, with times ranging from milliseconds to seconds. Because there is no dilution with solvents in MS, there is less probability of interference, so tandem MS can be more sensitive and have a higher signal-to-noise ratio compared to other two-dimensional methods. The main disadvantage associated with tandem MS is the high cost of the instrumentation needed. Prices can range from $500,000 to over $1 million. Many form of tandem MS involve a mass selection step and a fragmentation step. The first mass analyzer can be programmed to only pass molecules of a specific mass-to-charge ratio. Then the second mass analyzer can fragment the molecule to determine its identity. This can be especially useful for separating molecules of the same mass (i.e. proteins of the same mass or molecular isomers). Different types of mass analyzers can be coupled to achieve varying effects. One example would be a TOF-Quadrupole system. Ions can be sequentially fragmented and/or analyzed in a quadrupole as they leave the TOF in order of increasing m/z. Another prevalent tandem mass spectrometer is the quadrupole-quadrupole-quadrupole (Q-Q-Q) analyzer. The first quadrupole separates by mass, collisions take place in the second quadrupole, and the fragments are separated by mass in the third quadrupole.
Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry
Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) is a two-dimensional chromatography technique that combines the separation technique of gas chromatography with the identification technique of mass spectrometry. GC-MS is the single most important analytical tool for the analysis of volatile and semi-volatile organic compounds in complex mixtures. It works by first injecting the sample into the GC inlet where it is vaporized and pushed through a column by a carrier gas, typically helium. The analytes in the sample are separated based upon their interaction with the coating of the column, or the stationary phase, and the carrier gas, or the mobile phase. The compounds eluted from the column are converted into ions via electron impact (EI) or chemical ionization (CI) before traveling through the mass analyzer. The mass analyzer serves to separate the ions on a mass-to-charge basis. Popular choices perform the same function but differ in the way that they accomplish the separation. The analyzers typically used with GC-MS are the time-of-flight mass analyzer and the quadrupole mass analyzer. After leaving the mass analyzer, the analytes reach the detector and produce a signal that is read by a computer and used to create a gas chromatogram and mass spectrum. Sometimes GC-MS utilizes two gas chromatographers in particularly complex samples to obtain considerable separation power and be able to unambiguously assign the specific species to the appropriate peaks in a technique known as GCxGC-(MS). Ultimately, GC-MS is a technique utilized in many analytical laboratories and is a very effective and adaptable analytical tool.
Liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry
Liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC/MS) couples high resolution chromatographic separation with MS detection. As the system adopts the high separation of HPLC, analytes which are in the liquid mobile phase are often ionized by various soft ionization methods including atmospheric pressure chemical ionization (APCI), electrospray ionization (ESI) or matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization (MALDI), which attains the gas phase ionization required for the coupling with MS. These ionization methods allow the analysis of a wider range of biological molecules, including those with larger masses, thermally unstable or nonvolatile compounds where GC-MS is typically incapable of analyzing.
LC-MS provides high selectivity as unresolved peaks can be isolated by selecting a specific mass. Furthermore, better identification is also attained by mass spectra and the user does not have to rely solely on the retention time of analytes. As a result, molecular mass and structural information as well as quantitative data can all be obtained via LC-MS. LC-MS can therefore be applied to various fields, such as impurity identification and profiling in drug development and pharmaceutical manufacturing, since LC provides efficient separation of impurities and MS provides structural characterization for impurity profiling.
Common solvents used in normal or reversed phase LC such as water, acetonitrile, and methanol are all compatible with ESI, yet a LC grade solvent may not be suitable for MS. Furthermore, buffers containing inorganic ions should be avoided as they may contaminate the ion source. Nonetheless, the problem can be resolved by 2D LC-MS, as well as other various issues including analyte coelution and UV detection responses.
Liquid chromatography-liquid chromatography
Two dimensional liquid chromatography (2D-LC) combines two separate analyses of liquid chromatography into one data analysis. Modern 2-D liquid chromatography has its origins in the late 1970s to early 1980s. During this time, the hypothesized principles of 2D-LC were being proven via experiments conducted along with supplementary conceptual and theoretical work. It was shown that 2D-LC could offer quite a bit more resolving power compared to the conventional techniques of one-dimensional liquid chromatography. In the 1990s, the technique of 2D-LC played an important role in the separation of extremely complex substances and materials found in the proteomics and polymer fields of study. Unfortunately, the technique had been shown to have a significant disadvantage when it came to analysis time. Early work with 2D-LC was limited to small portion of liquid phase separations due to the long analysis time of the machinery. Modern 2D-LC techniques tackled that disadvantage head on, and have significantly reduced what was once a damaging feature. Modern 2D-LC has an instrumental capacity for high resolution separations to be completed in an hour or less. Due to the growing need for instrumentation to perform analysis on substances of growing complexity with better detection limits, the development of 2D-LC pushes forward. Instrumental parts have become a mainstream industry focus and are much easier to attain then before. Prior to this, 2D-LC was performed using components from 1D-LC instruments, and would lead to results of varying degrees in both accuracy and precision. The reduced stress on instrumental engineering has allowed for pioneering work in the field and technique of 2D-LC.
The purpose of employing this technique is to separate mixtures that one dimensional liquid chromatography otherwise cannot separate effectively. Two dimensional liquid chromatography is better suited to analyzing complex mixtures samples such as urine, environmental substances and forensic evidence such as blood.
Difficulties in separating mixtures can be attributed to the complexity of the mixture in the sense that separation cannot occur due to the number of different effluents in the compound. Another problem associated with one dimensional liquid chromatography involves the difficulty associated to resolving closely related compounds. Closely related compounds have similar chemical properties that may prove difficult to separate based on polarity, charge, etc. Two dimensional liquid chromatography provides separation based on more than one chemical or physical property. Using an example from Nagy and Vekey, a mixture of peptides can be separated based on their basicity, but similar peptides may not elute well. Using a subsequent LC technique, the similar basicity between the peptides can be further separated by employing differences in apolar character.
As a result, to be able to separate mixtures more efficiently, a subsequent LC analysis must employ very different separation selectivity relative to the first column. Another requirement to effectively use 2D liquid chromatography, according to Bushey and Jorgenson, is to employ highly orthogonal techniques which means that the two separation techniques must be as different as possible.
There are two major classifications of 2D liquid chromatography. These include: Comprehensive 2D liquid chromatography (LCxLC) and Heart-cutting 2D liquid chromatography (LC-LC). In comprehensive 2D-LC, all the peaks from a column elution are fully sampled, but it has been deemed unnecessary to transfer the entire sample from the first to the second column. A portion of the sample is sent to waste while the rest is sent to the sampling valve. In heart-cutting 2D-LC specific peaks are targeted with only a small portion of the peak being injected onto a second column. Heart-cutting 2D-LC has proven to be quite useful for sample analysis of substances that are not very complex provided they have similar retention behavior. Compared to comprehensive 2D-LC, heart-cutting 2D-LC provides an effective technique with much less system setup and a much lower operating cost. Multiple heart-cutting (mLC-LC) may be utilized to sample multiple peaks from first dimensional analysis without risking temporary overlap of second dimensional analysis. Multiple heart-cutting (mLC-LC) utilizes a setup of multiple sampling loops.
For 2D-LC, peak capacity is a very important issue. This can be generated using gradient elution separation with much greater efficiency than an isocratic separation given a reasonable amount of time. While isocratic elution is much easier on a fast time scale, it is preferable to perform a gradient elution separation in the second dimension. The mobile phase strength is varied from a weak eluent composition to a stronger one. Based on linear solvent strength theory (LSST) of gradient elution for reversed phase chromatography, the relationship between retention time, instrumental variables and solute parameters is shown below.
tR=t0 +tD + t0/b*ln(b*(k0-td/t0) + 1)
While a lot of pioneering work has been completed in the years since 2D-LC became a major analytical chromatographic technique, there are still many modern problems to be considered. Large amounts of experimental variables have yet to be decided on, and the technique is constantly in a state of development.
Gas chromatography - gas chromatography
Comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography is an analytical technique that separates and analyzes complex mixtures. It has been utilized in fields such as: flavor, fragrance, environmental studies, pharmaceuticals, petroleum products and forensic science. GCxGC provides a high range of sensitivity and produces a greater separation power due to the increased peak capacity.
See also
Two-dimensional gel electrophoresis
References
Chromatography
Analytical chemistry | wiki |
John B. Preston was the first Surveyor General of the Oregon Territory in the Western United States.
Preston was appointed by President Millard Fillmore to create a system for surveying land in the territory; Preston lost his position in 1853, and "drifted into obscurity."
References
External links
People from Oregon
American surveyors
Year of birth missing
Year of death missing | wiki |
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