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All of the code used in our", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 463, + 280, + 474 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 463, + 280, + 474 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "experiments is publicly available.1", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + } + ], + "index": 16.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 141, + 277, + 471, + 474 + ] + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 496, + 190, + 510 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 495, + 192, + 512 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 495, + 192, + 512 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "1 Introduction", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 522, + 505, + 599 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 522, + 505, + 535 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 522, + 505, + 535 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Pre-trained language models have become a cornerstone of natural language processing, thanks", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 533, + 506, + 546 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 533, + 506, + 546 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to the fact that they can dramatically improve data efficiency on tasks of interest – i.e., using a", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 543, + 506, + 556 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 543, + 506, + 556 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "pre-trained language model for initialization often produces better results with less labeled data. A", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 555, + 505, + 567 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 555, + 505, + 567 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "historically common approach has been gradient-based fine-tuning on a downstream task of interest", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 565, + 505, + 577 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 565, + 505, + 577 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "with pre-trained parameters as the initialization. While fine-tuning has produced many state-of-the-art", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 577, + 506, + 589 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 577, + 506, + 589 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "results [1], it results in a model specialized for a single task with an entirely new set of parameter", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 587, + 443, + 600 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 587, + 443, + 600 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "values, which can become impractical when fine-tuning on many downstream tasks.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + } + ], + "index": 30, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 522, + 506, + 600 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 604, + 505, + 680 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 603, + 505, + 617 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 603, + 505, + 617 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "An alternative approach popularized by [3, 4] is in-context learning (ICL), which induces a model", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 615, + 506, + 627 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 615, + 506, + 627 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to perform a downstream task by inputting prompted examples. Few-shot prompting converts a", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 35 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 625, + 505, + 639 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 625, + 505, + 639 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "small collection of input-target pairs into (typically) human-understandable instructions and examples", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 36 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 637, + 505, + 649 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 637, + 505, + 649 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "[3, 4], along with a single unlabeled example for which a prediction is desired. 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Left:", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 421, + 159, + 446, + 171 + ], + "score": 0.35, + "content": "( \\mathtt { I A } ) ^ { 3 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 446, + 159, + 505, + 172 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "introduces the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 3 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 171, + 505, + 182 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 171, + 167, + 182 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "learned vectors", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 167, + 171, + 188, + 182 + ], + "score": 0.85, + "content": "l _ { \\mathrm { k } } , l _ { \\mathrm { v } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 188, + 171, + 207, + 182 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 208, + 171, + 218, + 182 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "l _ { \\mathrm { f f } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 218, + 171, + 505, + 182 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "which respectively rescale (via element-wise multiplication, visualized as", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 182, + 505, + 194 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 182, + 116, + 192 + ], + "score": 0.72, + "content": "\\odot", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 116, + 182, + 505, + 194 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ") the keys and values in attention mechanisms and the inner activations in position-wise feed-forward", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 5 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 191, + 506, + 206 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 191, + 346, + 206 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "networks. Right: In addition to a standard cross-entropy loss", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 346, + 192, + 367, + 203 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "L _ { \\mathrm { L M } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 367, + 191, + 506, + 206 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", we introduce an unlikelihood loss", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 203, + 506, + 216 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 203, + 126, + 214 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "L _ { \\mathrm { U L } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 126, + 203, + 429, + 216 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "that lowers the probability of incorrect outputs and a length-normalized loss", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 430, + 204, + 449, + 214 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "L _ { \\mathrm { L N } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 450, + 203, + 506, + 216 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "that applies a", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 214, + 495, + 226 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 214, + 495, + 226 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "standard softmax cross-entropy loss to length-normalized log-probabilities of all output choices.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + } + ], + "index": 5.5 + } + ], + "index": 3.25 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 259, + 505, + 337 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 260, + 505, + 272 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 260, + 505, + 272 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Despite the practical benefits of ICL, it has several major drawbacks. First, processing all prompted", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 271, + 506, + 284 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 271, + 506, + 284 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "input-target pairs every time the model makes a prediction incurs significant compute costs. Second,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 281, + 506, + 295 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 281, + 506, + 295 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "ICL typically produces inferior performance compared to fine-tuning [4]. Finally, the exact formatting", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 293, + 505, + 305 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 293, + 505, + 305 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of the prompt (including the wording [11] and ordering of examples [12]) can have significant and", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 302, + 507, + 317 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 302, + 507, + 317 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "unpredictable impact on the model’s performance, far beyond inter-run variation of fine-tuning.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 315, + 506, + 327 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 315, + 506, + 327 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Recent work has also demonstrated that ICL can perform well even when provided with incorrect", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 325, + 403, + 338 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 325, + 403, + 338 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "labels, raising questions as to how much learning is taking place at all [9].", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + } + ], + "index": 12 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 342, + 505, + 408 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 341, + 507, + 354 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 341, + 507, + 354 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "An additional paradigm for enabling a model to perform a new task with minimal updates is parameter-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 353, + 506, + 366 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 353, + 506, + 366 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "efficient fine-tuning (PEFT), where a pre-trained model is fine-tuned by only updating a small number", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 363, + 505, + 376 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 363, + 505, + 376 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of added or selected parameters. Recent methods have matched the performance of fine-tuning the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 374, + 505, + 387 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 374, + 353, + 387 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "full model while only updating or adding a small fraction (e.g.", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 354, + 375, + 381, + 385 + ], + "score": 0.84, + "content": "0 . 0 1 \\%", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 382, + 374, + 505, + 387 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ") of the full model’s parameters", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 385, + 505, + 397 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 385, + 505, + 397 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "[13, 14]. Furthermore, certain PEFT methods allow mixed-task batches where different examples in", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 396, + 488, + 409 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 396, + 488, + 409 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "a batch are processed differently [14], making both PEFT and ICL viable for multitask models.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + } + ], + "index": 18.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 412, + 505, + 576 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 412, + 505, + 425 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 412, + 505, + 425 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "While the benefits of PEFT address some shortcomings of fine-tuning (when compared to ICL), there", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 424, + 504, + 435 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 424, + 504, + 435 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "has been relatively little focus on whether PEFT methods work well when very little labeled data", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 433, + 506, + 448 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 433, + 506, + 448 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is available. Our primary goal in this paper is to close this gap by proposing a recipe – i.e., a model, a", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 444, + 506, + 459 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 444, + 506, + 459 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "PEFT method, and a fixed set of hyperparameters – that attains strong performance on novel, unseen", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 456, + 505, + 469 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 456, + 505, + 469 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "tasks while only updating a tiny fraction of the model’s parameters. Specifically, we base our approach", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 467, + 506, + 480 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 467, + 506, + 480 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "on the T0 model [1], a variant of T5 [15] fine-tuned on a multitask mixture of prompted datasets.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 478, + 505, + 490 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 478, + 505, + 490 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "To improve performance on classification and multiple-choice tasks, we add unlikelihood [16, 17]", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 488, + 505, + 501 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 488, + 505, + 501 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and length normalization-based [4] loss terms. In addition, we develop (IA)3, a PEFT method", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 499, + 506, + 513 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 499, + 343, + 513 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "that multiplies intermediate activations by learned vectors.", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 343, + 500, + 368, + 511 + ], + "score": 0.82, + "content": "( \\mathtt { I A } ) ^ { 3 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 369, + 499, + 506, + 513 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "attains stronger performance than", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 511, + 505, + 523 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 511, + 288, + 523 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "full-model fine-tuning while updating up to", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 289, + 511, + 325, + 522 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "1 0 { , } 0 0 0 \\times", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 326, + 511, + 505, + 523 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "fewer parameters. Finally, we demonstrate", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 520, + 506, + 535 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 520, + 236, + 535 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the benefits of pre-training the", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 236, + 521, + 261, + 533 + ], + "score": 0.48, + "content": "( \\mathtt { I A } ) ^ { \\tilde { 3 } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 262, + 520, + 506, + 535 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "parameters before fine-tuning [18, 19]. Our overall recipe,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 531, + 506, + 546 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 531, + 423, + 546 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "which we dub “T-Few”, performs significantly better than ICL (even against", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 423, + 533, + 442, + 544 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "1 6 \\times", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 443, + 531, + 506, + 546 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "larger models)", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 544, + 505, + 556 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 544, + 505, + 556 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and outperforms humans for the first time on the real-world few-shot learning benchmark RAFT [2]", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 554, + 505, + 567 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 554, + 505, + 567 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "while requiring dramatically less compute and allowing for mixed-task batches during inference. To", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 35 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 564, + 490, + 578 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 564, + 490, + 578 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "facilitate the use of T-Few on new problems and future research on PEFT, we release our code.1", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 36 + } + ], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 582, + 505, + 615 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 582, + 506, + 594 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 582, + 506, + 594 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "After providing background on ICL and PEFT in the following section, we discuss the design of", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 37 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 592, + 507, + 605 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 592, + 507, + 605 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "T-Few in section 3. 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First, processing all prompted", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 271, + 506, + 284 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 271, + 506, + 284 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "input-target pairs every time the model makes a prediction incurs significant compute costs. Second,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 281, + 506, + 295 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 281, + 506, + 295 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "ICL typically produces inferior performance compared to fine-tuning [4]. 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Recent methods have matched the performance of fine-tuning the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 374, + 505, + 387 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 374, + 353, + 387 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "full model while only updating or adding a small fraction (e.g.", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 354, + 375, + 381, + 385 + ], + "score": 0.84, + "content": "0 . 0 1 \\%", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 382, + 374, + 505, + 387 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ") of the full model’s parameters", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 385, + 505, + 397 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 385, + 505, + 397 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "[13, 14]. Furthermore, certain PEFT methods allow mixed-task batches where different examples in", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 396, + 488, + 409 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 396, + 488, + 409 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "a batch are processed differently [14], making both PEFT and ICL viable for multitask models.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + } + ], + "index": 18.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 341, + 507, + 409 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 412, + 505, + 576 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 412, + 505, + 425 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 412, + 505, + 425 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "While the benefits of PEFT address some shortcomings of fine-tuning (when compared to ICL), there", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 424, + 504, + 435 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 424, + 504, + 435 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "has been relatively little focus on whether PEFT methods work well when very little labeled data", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 433, + 506, + 448 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 433, + 506, + 448 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is available. Our primary goal in this paper is to close this gap by proposing a recipe – i.e., a model, a", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 444, + 506, + 459 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 444, + 506, + 459 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "PEFT method, and a fixed set of hyperparameters – that attains strong performance on novel, unseen", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 456, + 505, + 469 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 456, + 505, + 469 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "tasks while only updating a tiny fraction of the model’s parameters. Specifically, we base our approach", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 467, + 506, + 480 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 467, + 506, + 480 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "on the T0 model [1], a variant of T5 [15] fine-tuned on a multitask mixture of prompted datasets.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 478, + 505, + 490 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 478, + 505, + 490 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "To improve performance on classification and multiple-choice tasks, we add unlikelihood [16, 17]", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 488, + 505, + 501 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 488, + 505, + 501 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and length normalization-based [4] loss terms. In addition, we develop (IA)3, a PEFT method", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 499, + 506, + 513 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 499, + 343, + 513 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "that multiplies intermediate activations by learned vectors.", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 343, + 500, + 368, + 511 + ], + "score": 0.82, + "content": "( \\mathtt { I A } ) ^ { 3 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 369, + 499, + 506, + 513 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "attains stronger performance than", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 511, + 505, + 523 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 511, + 288, + 523 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "full-model fine-tuning while updating up to", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 289, + 511, + 325, + 522 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "1 0 { , } 0 0 0 \\times", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 326, + 511, + 505, + 523 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "fewer parameters. Finally, we demonstrate", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 520, + 506, + 535 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 520, + 236, + 535 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the benefits of pre-training the", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 236, + 521, + 261, + 533 + ], + "score": 0.48, + "content": "( \\mathtt { I A } ) ^ { \\tilde { 3 } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 262, + 520, + 506, + 535 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "parameters before fine-tuning [18, 19]. Our overall recipe,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 531, + 506, + 546 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 531, + 423, + 546 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "which we dub “T-Few”, performs significantly better than ICL (even against", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 423, + 533, + 442, + 544 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "1 6 \\times", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 443, + 531, + 506, + 546 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "larger models)", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 544, + 505, + 556 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 544, + 505, + 556 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and outperforms humans for the first time on the real-world few-shot learning benchmark RAFT [2]", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 554, + 505, + 567 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 554, + 505, + 567 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "while requiring dramatically less compute and allowing for mixed-task batches during inference. To", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 35 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 564, + 490, + 578 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 564, + 490, + 578 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "facilitate the use of T-Few on new problems and future research on PEFT, we release our code.1", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 36 + } + ], + "index": 29, + "bbox_fs": [ + 104, + 412, + 506, + 578 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 582, + 505, + 615 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 582, + 506, + 594 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 582, + 506, + 594 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "After providing background on ICL and PEFT in the following section, we discuss the design of", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 37 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 592, + 507, + 605 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 592, + 507, + 605 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "T-Few in section 3. In section 4, we present experiments comparing T-Few to strong ICL baselines.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 38 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 603, + 392, + 615 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 603, + 392, + 615 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Finally, we discuss related work in section 5 and conclude in section 6.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 39 + } + ], + "index": 38, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 582, + 507, + 615 + ] + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 644, + 189, + 658 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 103, + 642, + 191, + 662 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 103, + 642, + 191, + 662 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "2 Background", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 40 + } + ], + "index": 40 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 677, + 505, + 722 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 677, + 506, + 691 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 677, + 506, + 691 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "In this section, we provide am verview of ICL and PEFT with a focus on characterizing the com-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 41 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 689, + 505, + 701 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 689, + 505, + 701 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "putation, memory, and on-disk storage costs of making a prediction. Real-world costs depend on", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 42 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 700, + 505, + 712 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 700, + 505, + 712 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "implementation and hardware, so we report costs in terms of FLOPs for computation and bytes for", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 43 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 711, + 444, + 722 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 711, + 444, + 722 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "memory and storage, respectively. Additional related work is discussed in section 5.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 44 + } + ], + "index": 42.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 677, + 506, + 722 + ] + } + ] + }, + { + "preproc_blocks": [ + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 73, + 278, + 84 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 70, + 280, + 87 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 70, + 280, + 87 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "2.1 Few-shot in-context learning (ICL)", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 0 + } + ], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 96, + 505, + 217 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 96, + 505, + 109 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 96, + 505, + 109 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "ICL [3, 4] aims to induce a model to perform a task by feeding in concatenated and prompted", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 1 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 108, + 505, + 120 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 108, + 505, + 120 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "input-target examples (called “shots”) along with an unlabeled query example. Taking the cycled", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 2 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 117, + 506, + 131 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 117, + 506, + 131 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "letter task from Brown et al. [4] as an example, a 4-shot input or context would be “Please", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 3 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 128, + 495, + 142 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 128, + 444, + 142 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "unscramble the letters into a word, and write that word: asinoc", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 445, + 131, + 454, + 139 + ], + "score": 0.79, + "content": "=", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 455, + 128, + 495, + 142 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "casino,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 140, + 505, + 153 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 140, + 141, + 153 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "yfrogg", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 142, + 142, + 151, + 150 + ], + "score": 0.77, + "content": "=", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 151, + 140, + 230, + 153 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "froggy, plesim", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 231, + 141, + 240, + 150 + ], + "score": 0.74, + "content": "=", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 240, + 140, + 324, + 153 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "simple, iggestb", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 325, + 142, + 334, + 150 + ], + "score": 0.78, + "content": "=", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 334, + 140, + 424, + 153 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "biggest, astedro", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 424, + 141, + 436, + 150 + ], + "score": 0.66, + "content": "= ^ { \\ast }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 437, + 140, + 505, + 153 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", for which the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 5 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 151, + 505, + 164 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 151, + 505, + 164 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "desired output would be “roasted”. ICL induces an autoregressive language model to perform", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 162, + 505, + 174 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 162, + 505, + 174 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "this task by feeding in the context and sampling from the model. For classification tasks, each", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 172, + 506, + 186 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 172, + 506, + 186 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "label is associated with a string (e.g. “positive” and “negative” for sentiment analysis) and", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 182, + 507, + 197 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 182, + 507, + 197 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "a label is assigned by choosing the label string that the model assigns the highest probability to.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 194, + 506, + 208 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 194, + 310, + 208 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "For multiple-choice tasks (e.g. choosing between", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 310, + 195, + 321, + 204 + ], + "score": 0.77, + "content": "N", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 321, + 194, + 506, + 208 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "possible answers to a question), the model’s", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 205, + 503, + 219 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 205, + 503, + 219 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "prediction is similarly determined by determining which choice is assigned the highest probability.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 222, + 505, + 266 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 222, + 505, + 234 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 222, + 505, + 234 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "The primary advantage of ICL is that it enables a single model to perform many tasks immediately", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 233, + 505, + 245 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 233, + 505, + 245 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "without fine-tuning. This also enables mixed-task batches, where different examples in a batch of data", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 244, + 505, + 256 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 244, + 505, + 256 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "correspond to different tasks by using different contexts in the input. ICL is also typically performed", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 254, + 506, + 267 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 254, + 506, + 267 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "with only a limited number of labeled examples – called few-shot learning – making it data-efficient.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + } + ], + "index": 13.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 271, + 505, + 391 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 271, + 505, + 284 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 271, + 505, + 284 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Despite these advantages, ICL comes with significant practical drawbacks: First, making a prediction", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 282, + 505, + 294 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 282, + 505, + 294 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is dramatically more expensive because the model needs to process all of the in-context labeled", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 293, + 506, + 306 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 293, + 506, + 306 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "examples. Specifically, ignoring the quadratic complexity of self-attention operations in Transformer", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 304, + 506, + 317 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 304, + 506, + 317 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "language models (which are typically small compared to the costs of the rest of the model [20]),", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 315, + 506, + 328 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 315, + 165, + 328 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "processing the", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 165, + 315, + 172, + 325 + ], + "score": 0.79, + "content": "k", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 173, + 315, + 259, + 328 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "training examples for", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 259, + 315, + 266, + 325 + ], + "score": 0.81, + "content": "k", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 266, + 315, + 506, + 328 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "-shot ICL increases the computational cost by approximately", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 326, + 505, + 339 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 326, + 131, + 336 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "k + 1", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 132, + 326, + 505, + 339 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "times compared to processing the unlabeled example alone. Memory costs similarly scale", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 336, + 505, + 350 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 336, + 218, + 350 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "approximately linearly with", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 218, + 337, + 225, + 347 + ], + "score": 0.79, + "content": "k", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 225, + 336, + 505, + 350 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", though during inference the memory costs are typically dominated by", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 347, + 506, + 360 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 347, + 506, + 360 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "storing the model’s parameters. Separately, there is a small amount of on-disk storage required for", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 358, + 505, + 371 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 358, + 505, + 371 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "storing the in-context examples for a given task. For example, storing 32 examples for a task where", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 370, + 505, + 382 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 370, + 505, + 382 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the prompted input and target for each example is 512 tokens long would require about 66 kilobytes", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 380, + 338, + 393 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 380, + 235, + 393 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of storage on disk (32 examples", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 236, + 380, + 263, + 391 + ], + "score": 0.82, + "content": "\\times \\ 5 1 2", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 263, + 380, + 292, + 393 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "tokens", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 292, + 380, + 314, + 391 + ], + "score": 0.82, + "content": "\\times \\ 3 2", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 315, + 380, + 338, + 393 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "bits).", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + } + ], + "index": 21 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 396, + 505, + 440 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 396, + 505, + 408 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 396, + 505, + 408 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Beyond the aforementioned costs, ICL also exhibits unintuitive behavior. Zhao et al. [12] showed", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 407, + 505, + 419 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 407, + 505, + 419 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "that the ordering of examples in the context heavily influences the model’s predictions. Min et al. [9]", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 418, + 505, + 431 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 418, + 505, + 431 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "showed that ICL can still perform well even if the in-context example labels are swapped (i.e. made", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 429, + 507, + 442 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 429, + 507, + 442 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "incorrect), which raises questions about whether ICL is really “learning” from the labeled examples.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + } + ], + "index": 28.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 446, + 505, + 577 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 446, + 506, + 459 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 446, + 506, + 459 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Various approaches have been proposed to mitigate these issues. One way to decrease computational", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 457, + 506, + 469 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 457, + 506, + 469 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "costs is to cache the key and value vectors for in-context examples. This is possible because decoder-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 468, + 505, + 479 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 468, + 505, + 479 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "only Transformer language models have a causal masking pattern, so the model’s activations for the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 479, + 506, + 490 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 479, + 506, + 490 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "context do not do not depend on the unlabeled example. In an extreme case, 32-shot ICL with 512", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 489, + 506, + 501 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 489, + 506, + 501 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "tokens per in-context example would result in over 144 gigabytes of cached key and value vectors for", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 35 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 500, + 506, + 513 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 500, + 230, + 513 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the GPT-3 model (32 examples", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 233, + 500, + 423, + 511 + ], + "score": 0.27, + "content": "\\times \\ 5 1 2 \\ \\mathrm { t o k e n s \\times 9 6 \\ l a y e r s \\times 1 2 2 8 8 \\mathrm { d _ { m o d e l } \\times 3 2 } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 423, + 500, + 506, + 513 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "bits each for the key", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 36 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 511, + 505, + 524 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 511, + 374, + 524 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and value vectors). Separately, Min et al. [21] proposed ensemble", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 375, + 512, + 392, + 522 + ], + "score": 0.4, + "content": "I C L", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 392, + 511, + 505, + 524 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", where instead of using the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 37 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 522, + 505, + 534 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 522, + 274, + 534 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "output probability from concatenating the", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 274, + 523, + 281, + 532 + ], + "score": 0.8, + "content": "k", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 281, + 522, + 505, + 534 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "training examples, the output probabilities of the model", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 38 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 532, + 505, + 545 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 532, + 335, + 545 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "on each training example (i.e. 1-shot ICL for each of the", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 336, + 533, + 343, + 543 + ], + "score": 0.79, + "content": "k", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 343, + 532, + 505, + 545 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "examples) are multiplied together. This", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 39 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 542, + 505, + 557 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 542, + 325, + 557 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "lowers the non-parameter memory cost by a factor of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 325, + 544, + 342, + 555 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "k / 2", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 342, + 542, + 505, + 557 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "but increases the computational cost by", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 40 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 555, + 505, + 567 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 555, + 505, + 567 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "a factor of 2. In terms of task performance, Min et al. [21] find that ensemble ICL outperforms the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 41 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 566, + 231, + 577 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 566, + 231, + 577 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "standard concatenative variant.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 42 + } + ], + "index": 36.5 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 599, + 261, + 611 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 597, + 263, + 613 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 597, + 263, + 613 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "2.2 Parameter-efficient fine-tuning", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 43 + } + ], + "index": 43 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 623, + 505, + 722 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 622, + 505, + 636 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 622, + 505, + 636 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "While standard fine-tuning updates all parameters of the pre-trained model, it has been demonstrated", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 44 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 635, + 505, + 646 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 635, + 505, + 646 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "that it is possible to instead update or add a relatively small number of parameters. Early methods", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 45 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 644, + 506, + 658 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 644, + 506, + 658 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "proposed adding adapters [22–24], which are small trainable feed-forward networks inserted between", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 46 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 656, + 505, + 668 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 656, + 505, + 668 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the layers in the fixed pre-trained model. Since then, various sophisticated PEFT methods have been", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 47 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 667, + 506, + 680 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 667, + 506, + 680 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "proposed, including methods that choose a sparse subset of parameters to train [25, 26], produce", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 48 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 677, + 505, + 690 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 677, + 505, + 690 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "low-rank updates [13], perform optimization in a lower-dimensional subspace [27], add low-rank", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 49 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 689, + 504, + 701 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 689, + 504, + 701 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "adapters using hypercomplex multiplication [28], and more. Relatedly, prompt tuning [14] and prefix", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 50 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 700, + 505, + 712 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 700, + 505, + 712 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "tuning [29] concatenate learned continuous embeddings to the model’s input or activations to induce", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 51 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 710, + 505, + 723 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 710, + 505, + 723 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "it to perform a task; this can be seen as a PEFT method [30]. 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This also enables mixed-task batches, where different examples in a batch of data", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 244, + 505, + 256 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 244, + 505, + 256 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "correspond to different tasks by using different contexts in the input. ICL is also typically performed", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 254, + 506, + 267 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 254, + 506, + 267 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "with only a limited number of labeled examples – called few-shot learning – making it data-efficient.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + } + ], + "index": 13.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 222, + 506, + 267 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 271, + 505, + 391 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 271, + 505, + 284 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 271, + 505, + 284 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Despite these advantages, ICL comes with significant practical drawbacks: First, making a prediction", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 282, + 505, + 294 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 282, + 505, + 294 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is dramatically more expensive because the model needs to process all of the in-context labeled", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 293, + 506, + 306 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 293, + 506, + 306 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "examples. 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Memory costs similarly scale", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 336, + 505, + 350 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 336, + 218, + 350 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "approximately linearly with", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 218, + 337, + 225, + 347 + ], + "score": 0.79, + "content": "k", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 225, + 336, + 505, + 350 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", though during inference the memory costs are typically dominated by", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 347, + 506, + 360 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 347, + 506, + 360 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "storing the model’s parameters. Separately, there is a small amount of on-disk storage required for", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 358, + 505, + 371 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 358, + 505, + 371 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "storing the in-context examples for a given task. For example, storing 32 examples for a task where", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 370, + 505, + 382 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 370, + 505, + 382 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the prompted input and target for each example is 512 tokens long would require about 66 kilobytes", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 380, + 338, + 393 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 380, + 235, + 393 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of storage on disk (32 examples", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 236, + 380, + 263, + 391 + ], + "score": 0.82, + "content": "\\times \\ 5 1 2", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 263, + 380, + 292, + 393 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "tokens", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 292, + 380, + 314, + 391 + ], + "score": 0.82, + "content": "\\times \\ 3 2", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 315, + 380, + 338, + 393 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "bits).", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + } + ], + "index": 21, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 271, + 506, + 393 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 396, + 505, + 440 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 396, + 505, + 408 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 396, + 505, + 408 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Beyond the aforementioned costs, ICL also exhibits unintuitive behavior. Zhao et al. [12] showed", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 407, + 505, + 419 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 407, + 505, + 419 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "that the ordering of examples in the context heavily influences the model’s predictions. Min et al. [9]", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 418, + 505, + 431 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 418, + 505, + 431 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "showed that ICL can still perform well even if the in-context example labels are swapped (i.e. made", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 429, + 507, + 442 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 429, + 507, + 442 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "incorrect), which raises questions about whether ICL is really “learning” from the labeled examples.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + } + ], + "index": 28.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 396, + 507, + 442 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 446, + 505, + 577 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 446, + 506, + 459 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 446, + 506, + 459 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Various approaches have been proposed to mitigate these issues. One way to decrease computational", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 457, + 506, + 469 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 457, + 506, + 469 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "costs is to cache the key and value vectors for in-context examples. This is possible because decoder-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 468, + 505, + 479 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 468, + 505, + 479 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "only Transformer language models have a causal masking pattern, so the model’s activations for the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 479, + 506, + 490 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 479, + 506, + 490 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "context do not do not depend on the unlabeled example. 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[21] proposed ensemble", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 375, + 512, + 392, + 522 + ], + "score": 0.4, + "content": "I C L", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 392, + 511, + 505, + 524 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", where instead of using the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 37 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 522, + 505, + 534 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 522, + 274, + 534 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "output probability from concatenating the", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 274, + 523, + 281, + 532 + ], + "score": 0.8, + "content": "k", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 281, + 522, + 505, + 534 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "training examples, the output probabilities of the model", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 38 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 532, + 505, + 545 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 532, + 335, + 545 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "on each training example (i.e. 1-shot ICL for each of the", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 336, + 533, + 343, + 543 + ], + "score": 0.79, + "content": "k", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 343, + 532, + 505, + 545 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "examples) are multiplied together. This", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 39 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 542, + 505, + 557 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 542, + 325, + 557 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "lowers the non-parameter memory cost by a factor of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 325, + 544, + 342, + 555 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "k / 2", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 342, + 542, + 505, + 557 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "but increases the computational cost by", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 40 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 555, + 505, + 567 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 555, + 505, + 567 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "a factor of 2. In terms of task performance, Min et al. [21] find that ensemble ICL outperforms the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 41 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 566, + 231, + 577 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 566, + 231, + 577 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "standard concatenative variant.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 42 + } + ], + "index": 36.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 104, + 446, + 506, + 577 + ] + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 599, + 261, + 611 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 597, + 263, + 613 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 597, + 263, + 613 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "2.2 Parameter-efficient fine-tuning", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 43 + } + ], + "index": 43 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 623, + 505, + 722 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 622, + 505, + 636 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 622, + 505, + 636 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "While standard fine-tuning updates all parameters of the pre-trained model, it has been demonstrated", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 44 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 635, + 505, + 646 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 635, + 505, + 646 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "that it is possible to instead update or add a relatively small number of parameters. Early methods", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 45 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 644, + 506, + 658 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 644, + 506, + 658 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "proposed adding adapters [22–24], which are small trainable feed-forward networks inserted between", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 46 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 656, + 505, + 668 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 656, + 505, + 668 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the layers in the fixed pre-trained model. Since then, various sophisticated PEFT methods have been", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 47 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 667, + 506, + 680 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 667, + 506, + 680 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "proposed, including methods that choose a sparse subset of parameters to train [25, 26], produce", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 48 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 677, + 505, + 690 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 677, + 505, + 690 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "low-rank updates [13], perform optimization in a lower-dimensional subspace [27], add low-rank", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 49 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 689, + 504, + 701 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 689, + 504, + 701 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "adapters using hypercomplex multiplication [28], and more. Relatedly, prompt tuning [14] and prefix", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 50 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 700, + 505, + 712 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 700, + 505, + 712 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "tuning [29] concatenate learned continuous embeddings to the model’s input or activations to induce", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 51 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 710, + 505, + 723 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 710, + 505, + 723 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "it to perform a task; this can be seen as a PEFT method [30]. State-of-the-art PEFT methods can", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 52 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 72, + 504, + 86 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 72, + 504, + 86 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "match the performance of fine-tuning all of the model’s parameters while updating only a tiny fraction", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + } + ], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 84, + 266, + 96 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 84, + 126, + 96 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "(e.g.", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 126, + 84, + 154, + 95 + ], + "score": 0.82, + "content": "0 . 0 1 \\%", + "type": "inline_equation", + "cross_page": true + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 154, + 84, + 266, + 96 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ") of the model’s parameters.", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + } + ], + "index": 1 + } + ], + "index": 48, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 622, + 506, + 723 + ] + } + ] + }, + { + "preproc_blocks": [ + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 73, + 504, + 95 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 72, + 504, + 86 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 72, + 504, + 86 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "match the performance of fine-tuning all of the model’s parameters while updating only a tiny fraction", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 84, + 266, + 96 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 84, + 126, + 96 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "(e.g.", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 126, + 84, + 154, + 95 + ], + "score": 0.82, + "content": "0 . 0 1 \\%", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 154, + 84, + 266, + 96 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ") of the model’s parameters.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 1 + } + ], + "index": 0.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 100, + 505, + 221 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 100, + 505, + 113 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 100, + 505, + 113 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "PEFT drastically reduces the memory and storage requirements for training and saving the model. In", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 2 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 110, + 505, + 124 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 110, + 505, + 124 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "addition, certain PEFT methods straightforwardly allow mixed-task batches – for example, prompt", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 3 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 121, + 505, + 135 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 121, + 505, + 135 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "tuning enables a single model to perform many tasks simply by concatenating different prompt", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 132, + 505, + 145 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 132, + 505, + 145 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "embeddings to each example in the batch [14]. On the other hand, PEFT methods that re-parameterize", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 5 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 144, + 505, + 156 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 144, + 505, + 156 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the model (e.g. [27, 13]) are costly or onerous for mixed-task batches. Separately, different PEFT", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 154, + 507, + 167 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 154, + 507, + 167 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "methods increase the computation and memory required to perform inference by different amounts.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 166, + 505, + 177 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 166, + 505, + 177 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "For example, adapters effectively add additional (small) layers to the model, resulting in small but", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 176, + 506, + 188 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 176, + 506, + 188 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "non-negligible increases in computational costs and memory. An additional cost incurred by PEFT", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 186, + 506, + 199 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 186, + 506, + 199 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is the cost of fine-tuning itself, which must be performed once and is then amortized as the model", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 198, + 505, + 210 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 198, + 505, + 210 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is used for inference. However, we will show that PEFT can be dramatically more computationally", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 209, + 506, + 222 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 209, + 506, + 222 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "efficient when considering both fine-tuning and inference while achieving better accuracy than ICL.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + } + ], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 236, + 267, + 250 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 234, + 269, + 254 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 234, + 269, + 254 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "3 Designing the T-Few Recipe", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 261, + 505, + 349 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 261, + 505, + 274 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 261, + 505, + 274 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Given that PEFT allows a model to be adapted to a new task with relatively small storage requirements", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 273, + 505, + 285 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 273, + 505, + 285 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and computational cost, we argue that PEFT presents a promising alternative to ICL. Our goal", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 283, + 505, + 295 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 283, + 505, + 295 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is therefore to develop a recipe that allows a model to attain high accuracy on new tasks with", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 295, + 505, + 307 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 295, + 505, + 307 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "limited labeled examples while allowing mixed-task batches during inference and incurring minimal", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 304, + 505, + 319 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 304, + 505, + 319 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "computational and storage costs. By recipe, we mean a specific model and hyperparameter setting", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 315, + 506, + 330 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 315, + 506, + 330 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "that provides strong performance on any new task without manual tuning or per-task adjustments.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 326, + 506, + 340 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 326, + 506, + 340 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "In this way, we can ensure that our approach is a realistic option in few-shot settings where limited", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 338, + 298, + 350 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 338, + 298, + 350 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "labeled data is available for evaluation [31, 32].", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + } + ], + "index": 17.5 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 363, + 214, + 374 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 363, + 216, + 376 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 363, + 216, + 376 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "3.1 Model and Datasets", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 384, + 505, + 536 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 383, + 506, + 396 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 383, + 506, + 396 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "As a first step, we must choose a pre-trained model. Ideally, the model should attain high performance", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 394, + 506, + 407 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 394, + 506, + 407 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "on new tasks after fine-tuning on a limited number of labeled examples. In preliminary experiments", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 405, + 506, + 417 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 405, + 506, + 417 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "applying PEFT methods to different pre-trained models, we attained the best performance with T0", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 416, + 506, + 429 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 416, + 506, + 429 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "[1]. T0 is based on T5 [15], an encoder-decoder Transformer model [33] that was pre-trained via a", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 427, + 506, + 439 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 427, + 506, + 439 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "masked language modeling objective [34] on a large corpus of unlabeled text data. T0 was created by", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 438, + 505, + 450 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 438, + 505, + 450 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "fine-tuning T5 on a multitask mixture of datasets in order to enable zero-shot generalization, i.e. the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 450, + 505, + 461 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 450, + 505, + 461 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "ability to perform tasks without any additional gradient-based training. Examples in the datasets used", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 460, + 505, + 472 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 460, + 505, + 472 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to train T0 were prompted by applying the prompt templates from the Public Pool of Prompts (P3", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 470, + 506, + 483 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 470, + 506, + 483 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "[35]), which convert each example in each dataset to a prompted text-to-text format where each label", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 481, + 506, + 493 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 481, + 506, + 493 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "corresponds to a different string. For brevity, we omit a detailed description of T0 and T5; interested", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 492, + 506, + 505 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 492, + 506, + 505 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "readers can refer to Sanh et al. [1] and Raffel et al. [15]. T0 was released in three billion and eleven", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 503, + 505, + 516 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 503, + 505, + 516 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "billion parameter variants, referred to as “T0-3B” and simply “T0” respectively. In this section (where", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 514, + 505, + 527 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 514, + 505, + 527 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "our goal is to design the T-Few recipe through extensive experimentation), we use T0-3B to reduce", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 35 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 524, + 488, + 538 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 524, + 488, + 538 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "computational costs. For all models and experiments, we use Hugging Face Transformers [36].", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 36 + } + ], + "index": 29.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 541, + 505, + 673 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 540, + 506, + 555 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 540, + 506, + 555 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "While T0 was designed for zero-shot generalization, we will demonstrate that it also attains strong", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 37 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 553, + 506, + 565 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 553, + 506, + 565 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "performance after fine-tuning with only a few labeled examples. To test T0’s generalization, Sanh et al.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 38 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 563, + 505, + 576 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 563, + 505, + 576 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "[1] chose a set of tasks (and corresponding datasets) to hold out from the multitask training mixture", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 39 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 574, + 506, + 587 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 574, + 506, + 587 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "– specifically, sentence completion (COPA [37], H-SWAG [38], and Story Cloze [39] datasets),", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 40 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 585, + 505, + 597 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 585, + 505, + 597 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "natural language inference (ANLI [40], CB [41], and RTE [42]), coreference resolution (WSC [43]", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 41 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 596, + 505, + 608 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 596, + 505, + 608 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and Winogrande [44]), and word sense disambiguation (WiC [45]). Evaluation of generalization", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 42 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 608, + 506, + 620 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 608, + 506, + 620 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "capabilities can then be straightforwardly done by measuring performance on these held-out datasets.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 43 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 617, + 506, + 630 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 617, + 506, + 630 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "We also will later test T-Few’s abilities in the RAFT benchmark [2] in section 4.3, a collection of", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 44 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 629, + 505, + 641 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 629, + 505, + 641 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "unseen “real-world” few-shot tasks with no validation set and a held-out test set. ANLI, WiC, WSC", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 45 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 639, + 506, + 652 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 639, + 506, + 652 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is licensed under a Creative Commons License. Winogrande is licensed under an Apache license.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 46 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 650, + 505, + 663 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 650, + 505, + 663 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "COPA is under a BSD-2 Clause license. We could not find the license of RTE and CB but they are", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 47 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 662, + 461, + 674 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 662, + 461, + 674 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "part of SuperGLUE which mentions the datasets are allowed for use in research context.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 48 + } + ], + "index": 42.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 678, + 504, + 722 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 678, + 505, + 690 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 678, + 505, + 690 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "To ease comparison, we use the same number of few-shot training examples for each dataset as Brown", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 49 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 689, + 505, + 700 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 689, + 505, + 700 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "et al. [4], which varies from 20 to 70. Unfortunately, the few-shot dataset subsets used by Brown", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 50 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 700, + 505, + 712 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 700, + 505, + 712 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "et al. [4] have not been publicly disclosed. To allow for a more robust comparison, we therefore", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 51 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 711, + 505, + 723 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 711, + 505, + 723 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "constructed five few-shot datasets by sampling subsets with different seeds and report the median and", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 52 + } + ], + "index": 50.5 + } + ], + "page_idx": 3, + "page_size": [ + 612, + 792 + ], + "discarded_blocks": [ + { + "type": "discarded", + "bbox": [ + 302, + 742, + 308, + 750 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 301, + 741, + 310, + 752 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 301, + 741, + 310, + 752 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "", + "type": "text", + "height": 11, + "width": 9 + } + ] + } + ] + } + ], + "para_blocks": [ + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 73, + 504, + 95 + ], + "lines": [], + "index": 0.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 72, + 504, + 96 + ], + "lines_deleted": true + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 100, + 505, + 221 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 100, + 505, + 113 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 100, + 505, + 113 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "PEFT drastically reduces the memory and storage requirements for training and saving the model. In", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 2 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 110, + 505, + 124 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 110, + 505, + 124 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "addition, certain PEFT methods straightforwardly allow mixed-task batches – for example, prompt", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 3 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 121, + 505, + 135 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 121, + 505, + 135 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "tuning enables a single model to perform many tasks simply by concatenating different prompt", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 132, + 505, + 145 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 132, + 505, + 145 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "embeddings to each example in the batch [14]. On the other hand, PEFT methods that re-parameterize", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 5 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 144, + 505, + 156 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 144, + 505, + 156 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the model (e.g. [27, 13]) are costly or onerous for mixed-task batches. Separately, different PEFT", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 154, + 507, + 167 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 154, + 507, + 167 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "methods increase the computation and memory required to perform inference by different amounts.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 166, + 505, + 177 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 166, + 505, + 177 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "For example, adapters effectively add additional (small) layers to the model, resulting in small but", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 176, + 506, + 188 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 176, + 506, + 188 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "non-negligible increases in computational costs and memory. An additional cost incurred by PEFT", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 186, + 506, + 199 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 186, + 506, + 199 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is the cost of fine-tuning itself, which must be performed once and is then amortized as the model", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 198, + 505, + 210 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 198, + 505, + 210 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is used for inference. However, we will show that PEFT can be dramatically more computationally", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 209, + 506, + 222 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 209, + 506, + 222 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "efficient when considering both fine-tuning and inference while achieving better accuracy than ICL.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + } + ], + "index": 7, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 100, + 507, + 222 + ] + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 236, + 267, + 250 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 234, + 269, + 254 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 234, + 269, + 254 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "3 Designing the T-Few Recipe", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 261, + 505, + 349 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 261, + 505, + 274 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 261, + 505, + 274 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Given that PEFT allows a model to be adapted to a new task with relatively small storage requirements", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 273, + 505, + 285 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 273, + 505, + 285 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and computational cost, we argue that PEFT presents a promising alternative to ICL. Our goal", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 283, + 505, + 295 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 283, + 505, + 295 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is therefore to develop a recipe that allows a model to attain high accuracy on new tasks with", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 295, + 505, + 307 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 295, + 505, + 307 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "limited labeled examples while allowing mixed-task batches during inference and incurring minimal", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 304, + 505, + 319 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 304, + 505, + 319 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "computational and storage costs. By recipe, we mean a specific model and hyperparameter setting", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 315, + 506, + 330 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 315, + 506, + 330 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "that provides strong performance on any new task without manual tuning or per-task adjustments.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 326, + 506, + 340 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 326, + 506, + 340 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "In this way, we can ensure that our approach is a realistic option in few-shot settings where limited", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 338, + 298, + 350 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 338, + 298, + 350 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "labeled data is available for evaluation [31, 32].", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + } + ], + "index": 17.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 261, + 506, + 350 + ] + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 363, + 214, + 374 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 363, + 216, + 376 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 363, + 216, + 376 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "3.1 Model and Datasets", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 384, + 505, + 536 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 383, + 506, + 396 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 383, + 506, + 396 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "As a first step, we must choose a pre-trained model. Ideally, the model should attain high performance", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 394, + 506, + 407 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 394, + 506, + 407 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "on new tasks after fine-tuning on a limited number of labeled examples. In preliminary experiments", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 405, + 506, + 417 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 405, + 506, + 417 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "applying PEFT methods to different pre-trained models, we attained the best performance with T0", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 416, + 506, + 429 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 416, + 506, + 429 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "[1]. T0 is based on T5 [15], an encoder-decoder Transformer model [33] that was pre-trained via a", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 427, + 506, + 439 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 427, + 506, + 439 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "masked language modeling objective [34] on a large corpus of unlabeled text data. T0 was created by", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 438, + 505, + 450 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 438, + 505, + 450 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "fine-tuning T5 on a multitask mixture of datasets in order to enable zero-shot generalization, i.e. the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 450, + 505, + 461 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 450, + 505, + 461 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "ability to perform tasks without any additional gradient-based training. Examples in the datasets used", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 460, + 505, + 472 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 460, + 505, + 472 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to train T0 were prompted by applying the prompt templates from the Public Pool of Prompts (P3", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 470, + 506, + 483 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 470, + 506, + 483 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "[35]), which convert each example in each dataset to a prompted text-to-text format where each label", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 481, + 506, + 493 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 481, + 506, + 493 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "corresponds to a different string. For brevity, we omit a detailed description of T0 and T5; interested", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 492, + 506, + 505 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 492, + 506, + 505 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "readers can refer to Sanh et al. [1] and Raffel et al. [15]. T0 was released in three billion and eleven", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 503, + 505, + 516 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 503, + 505, + 516 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "billion parameter variants, referred to as “T0-3B” and simply “T0” respectively. In this section (where", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 514, + 505, + 527 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 514, + 505, + 527 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "our goal is to design the T-Few recipe through extensive experimentation), we use T0-3B to reduce", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 35 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 524, + 488, + 538 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 524, + 488, + 538 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "computational costs. For all models and experiments, we use Hugging Face Transformers [36].", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 36 + } + ], + "index": 29.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 383, + 506, + 538 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 541, + 505, + 673 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 540, + 506, + 555 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 540, + 506, + 555 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "While T0 was designed for zero-shot generalization, we will demonstrate that it also attains strong", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 37 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 553, + 506, + 565 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 553, + 506, + 565 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "performance after fine-tuning with only a few labeled examples. To test T0’s generalization, Sanh et al.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 38 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 563, + 505, + 576 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 563, + 505, + 576 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "[1] chose a set of tasks (and corresponding datasets) to hold out from the multitask training mixture", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 39 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 574, + 506, + 587 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 574, + 506, + 587 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "– specifically, sentence completion (COPA [37], H-SWAG [38], and Story Cloze [39] datasets),", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 40 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 585, + 505, + 597 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 585, + 505, + 597 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "natural language inference (ANLI [40], CB [41], and RTE [42]), coreference resolution (WSC [43]", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 41 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 596, + 505, + 608 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 596, + 505, + 608 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and Winogrande [44]), and word sense disambiguation (WiC [45]). Evaluation of generalization", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 42 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 608, + 506, + 620 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 608, + 506, + 620 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "capabilities can then be straightforwardly done by measuring performance on these held-out datasets.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 43 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 617, + 506, + 630 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 617, + 506, + 630 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "We also will later test T-Few’s abilities in the RAFT benchmark [2] in section 4.3, a collection of", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 44 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 629, + 505, + 641 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 629, + 505, + 641 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "unseen “real-world” few-shot tasks with no validation set and a held-out test set. ANLI, WiC, WSC", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 45 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 639, + 506, + 652 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 639, + 506, + 652 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is licensed under a Creative Commons License. Winogrande is licensed under an Apache license.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 46 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 650, + 505, + 663 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 650, + 505, + 663 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "COPA is under a BSD-2 Clause license. We could not find the license of RTE and CB but they are", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 47 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 662, + 461, + 674 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 662, + 461, + 674 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "part of SuperGLUE which mentions the datasets are allowed for use in research context.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 48 + } + ], + "index": 42.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 540, + 506, + 674 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 678, + 504, + 722 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 678, + 505, + 690 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 678, + 505, + 690 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "To ease comparison, we use the same number of few-shot training examples for each dataset as Brown", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 49 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 689, + 505, + 700 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 689, + 505, + 700 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "et al. [4], which varies from 20 to 70. Unfortunately, the few-shot dataset subsets used by Brown", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 50 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 700, + 505, + 712 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 700, + 505, + 712 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "et al. [4] have not been publicly disclosed. To allow for a more robust comparison, we therefore", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 51 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 711, + 505, + 723 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 711, + 505, + 723 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "constructed five few-shot datasets by sampling subsets with different seeds and report the median and", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 52 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 73, + 505, + 85 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 73, + 505, + 85 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "interquartile range. We prompt examples using a randomly-sampled prompt template from P3 Bach", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + } + ], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 84, + 505, + 96 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 84, + 505, + 96 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "et al. [35] for each example at each step. Unless otherwise stated, we train our model for 1K steps", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + } + ], + "index": 1 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 94, + 378, + 107 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 94, + 378, + 107 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "with a batch size of 8 and report performance at the end of training.", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + } + ], + "index": 2 + } + ], + "index": 50.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 678, + 505, + 723 + ] + } + ] + }, + { + "preproc_blocks": [ + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 72, + 505, + 106 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 73, + 505, + 85 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 73, + 505, + 85 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "interquartile range. We prompt examples using a randomly-sampled prompt template from P3 Bach", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 84, + 505, + 96 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 84, + 505, + 96 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "et al. [35] for each example at each step. Unless otherwise stated, we train our model for 1K steps", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 1 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 94, + 378, + 107 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 94, + 378, + 107 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "with a batch size of 8 and report performance at the end of training.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 2 + } + ], + "index": 1 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 110, + 505, + 199 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 110, + 505, + 123 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 110, + 505, + 123 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "For evaluation, we use “rank classification”, where the model’s log-probabilities for all possible label", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 3 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 122, + 505, + 133 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 122, + 505, + 133 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "strings are ranked and the model’s prediction is considered correct if the highest-ranked choice is the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 133, + 506, + 144 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 133, + 506, + 144 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "correct answer. Rank classification evaluation is compatible with both classification and multiple-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 5 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 144, + 506, + 156 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 144, + 506, + 156 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "choice tasks. Since model performance can vary significantly depending on the prompt template used,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 155, + 506, + 167 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 155, + 506, + 167 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "we report the median accuracy across all prompt templates from P3 and across few-shot data subsets", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 165, + 506, + 178 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 165, + 506, + 178 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "for each dataset. For all datasets, we report the accuracy on the test set or validation set when the test", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 176, + 505, + 189 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 176, + 505, + 189 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "labels are not public (e.g. SuperGLUE datasets). In the main text, we report median accuracy across", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 187, + 504, + 200 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 187, + 504, + 200 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the nine datasets mentioned above. Detailed results on each dataset are provided in the appendices.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + } + ], + "index": 6.5 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 212, + 341, + 224 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 211, + 340, + 226 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 211, + 340, + 226 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "3.2 Unlikelihood Training and Length Normalization", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + } + ], + "index": 11 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 232, + 505, + 277 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 232, + 505, + 244 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 232, + 505, + 244 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Before investigating PEFT methods, we first explore two additional loss terms to improve the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 243, + 505, + 256 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 243, + 505, + 256 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "performance of few-shot fine-tuning of language models. Language models are normally trained", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 253, + 505, + 267 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 254, + 202, + 267 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "with cross-entropy loss", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 202, + 253, + 333, + 267 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\begin{array} { r } { L _ { \\mathrm { L M } } = - \\frac { 1 } { T } \\sum _ { t } \\log \\bar { p } ( y _ { t } | \\mathbf { x } , y _ { < t } ) } \\end{array}", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 333, + 254, + 505, + 267 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "where the model is trained to increase the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 265, + 470, + 279 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 265, + 272, + 279 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "probability of the correct target sequence", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 272, + 266, + 357, + 277 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "\\mathbf { y } = ( y _ { 1 } , y _ { 2 } , \\dots y _ { T } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 357, + 265, + 459, + 279 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "given the input sequence", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 459, + 267, + 467, + 275 + ], + "score": 0.41, + "content": "\\mathbf { x }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 467, + 265, + 470, + 279 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ".", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + } + ], + "index": 13.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 281, + 504, + 315 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 280, + 506, + 293 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 280, + 506, + 293 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "For evaluation, we use rank classification (described in section 3.1) which depends on both the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 292, + 506, + 304 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 292, + 506, + 304 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "probabilities that the model assigns to the correct choice as well as the incorrect choices. To account", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 303, + 352, + 315 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 303, + 352, + 315 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "for this during training, we add an unlikelihood loss [16, 17]:", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 206, + 320, + 404, + 355 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 206, + 320, + 404, + 355 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 206, + 320, + 404, + 355 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "L _ { \\mathrm { U L } } = - \\frac { \\sum _ { n = 1 } ^ { N } \\sum _ { t = 1 } ^ { T ^ { ( n ) } } \\log ( 1 - p ( \\hat { y } _ { i } ^ { ( n ) } | \\mathbf { x } , \\hat { y } _ { < t } ^ { ( n ) } ) ) } { \\sum _ { n = 1 } ^ { N } T ^ { ( n ) } }", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "09597e6adfa17b86f3b9c5cf1f08d608571afbd01f372ddf3b09c30cd5f1d152.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 19.5, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 206, + 320, + 404, + 337.5 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 206, + 337.5, + 404, + 355.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 20 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 361, + 505, + 405 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 360, + 505, + 374 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 360, + 474, + 374 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "which discourages the model from predicting tokens from incorrect target sequences, where", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 474, + 360, + 505, + 372 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "\\hat { \\mathbf { y } } ^ { ( n ) } =", + "type": "inline_equation" + } + ], + "index": 21 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 372, + 506, + 385 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 372, + 181, + 384 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "\\left( \\hat { y } _ { 1 } , \\hat { y } _ { 2 } , \\dots , \\hat { y } _ { T ^ { ( n ) } } \\right)", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 181, + 372, + 205, + 385 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is the", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 206, + 374, + 213, + 382 + ], + "score": 0.77, + "content": "n", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 213, + 372, + 236, + 385 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "-th of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 236, + 372, + 246, + 382 + ], + "score": 0.84, + "content": "N", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 246, + 372, + 466, + 385 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "incorrect target sequences. We hypothesize that adding", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 467, + 372, + 486, + 383 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "L _ { \\mathrm { U L } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 486, + 372, + 506, + 385 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "will", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 383, + 505, + 395 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 383, + 505, + 395 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "improve results on rank classification because the model will be trained to assign lower probabilities", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 394, + 473, + 406 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 394, + 473, + 406 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to incorrect choices, thereby improving the chance that the correct choice is ranked highest.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + } + ], + "index": 22.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 410, + 506, + 522 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 410, + 506, + 423 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 410, + 506, + 423 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "The possible target sequences for a given training example can have significantly different lengths,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 420, + 507, + 434 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 420, + 507, + 434 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "especially in multiple-choice tasks. Ranking each choice based on probability can therefore “favor”", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 432, + 506, + 445 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 432, + 416, + 445 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "shorter choices because the model’s assigned probability to each token is", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 416, + 433, + 435, + 443 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "\\leq 1", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 435, + 432, + 506, + 445 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". To rectify this,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 443, + 506, + 455 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 443, + 506, + 455 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "we consider using length normalization when performing rank classification, which divides the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 454, + 506, + 466 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 454, + 506, + 466 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "model’s score on each possible answer choice by the number of tokens in the choice (as used in", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 465, + 506, + 478 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 465, + 506, + 478 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "GPT-3 [4]). When using length normalization during evaluation, we introduce an additional loss", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 476, + 505, + 487 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 476, + 505, + 487 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "term during training that more closely reflects length-normalized evaluation. First, we compute the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 103, + 483, + 506, + 506 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 103, + 483, + 358, + 506 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "length-normalized log probability of a given output sequence", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 358, + 486, + 503, + 502 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\begin{array} { r } { \\beta ( \\mathbf { x } , \\mathbf { y } ) = \\frac { 1 } { T } \\sum _ { t = 1 } ^ { T } \\log p ( y _ { t } | \\mathbf { \\bar { x } } , y _ { < t } ) } \\end{array}", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 504, + 483, + 506, + 506 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ".", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 498, + 506, + 514 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 498, + 506, + 514 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Then, we maximize the length-normalized log probability of the correct answer choice by minimizing", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 510, + 235, + 524 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 510, + 235, + 524 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the softmax cross-entropy loss:", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + } + ], + "index": 29.5 + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 195, + 527, + 415, + 558 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 195, + 527, + 415, + 558 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 195, + 527, + 415, + 558 + ], + "score": 0.94, + "content": "L _ { \\mathrm { L N } } = - \\log \\frac { \\exp ( \\beta ( \\mathbf { x } , \\mathbf { y } ) ) } { \\exp ( \\beta ( \\mathbf { x } , \\mathbf { y } ) ) + \\sum _ { n = 1 } ^ { N } \\exp ( \\beta ( \\mathbf { x } , \\hat { \\mathbf { y } } ^ { ( n ) } ) ) }", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "6bebee14ad649a0aab42ace70b0e9e373d5e77b5b6427bc54162cd106dc05588.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 35.5, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 195, + 527, + 415, + 542.5 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 35 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 195, + 542.5, + 415, + 558.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 36 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 562, + 504, + 596 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 560, + 506, + 576 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 560, + 218, + 576 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "When training a model with", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 219, + 562, + 263, + 573 + ], + "score": 0.29, + "content": "L _ { \\mathrm { L M } } , L _ { \\mathrm { U L } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 263, + 560, + 283, + 576 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 283, + 562, + 302, + 573 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "L _ { \\mathrm { L N } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 302, + 560, + 506, + 576 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", we simply sum them. This avoids introducing any", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 37 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 573, + 505, + 585 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 573, + 505, + 585 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "hyperparameters that would be problematic to tune in the few-shot setting (where realistically-sized", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 38 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 584, + 289, + 596 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 584, + 289, + 596 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "validation sets are tiny by necessity [31, 32]).", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 39 + } + ], + "index": 38 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 600, + 505, + 655 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 600, + 505, + 613 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 600, + 505, + 613 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "We report the results of fine-tuning all of T0-3B’s parameters with and without length normalization", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 40 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 609, + 505, + 625 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 609, + 303, + 625 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "on all datasets in appendix B. We find that adding", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 303, + 611, + 323, + 622 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "L _ { \\mathrm { L N } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 323, + 609, + 435, + 625 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "improves the accuracy from", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 435, + 611, + 462, + 622 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "6 0 . 7 \\%", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 462, + 609, + 473, + 625 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 473, + 611, + 505, + 622 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "6 2 . 7 1 \\%", + "type": "inline_equation" + } + ], + "index": 41 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 622, + 506, + 635 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 622, + 184, + 635 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and including both", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 185, + 622, + 204, + 633 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "L _ { \\mathrm { U L } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 204, + 622, + 222, + 635 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 222, + 622, + 241, + 633 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "L _ { \\mathrm { L N } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 241, + 622, + 382, + 635 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "provides a further improvement to", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 383, + 622, + 410, + 633 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "6 3 . 3 \\%", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 410, + 622, + 506, + 635 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". Since these loss terms", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 42 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 633, + 505, + 645 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 633, + 505, + 645 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "improve performance without introducing any additional hyperparameters, we include them in our", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 43 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 644, + 305, + 657 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 644, + 305, + 657 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "recipe and use them in all following experiments.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 44 + } + ], + "index": 42 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 668, + 310, + 680 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 667, + 311, + 682 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 667, + 311, + 682 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "3.3 Parameter-efficient fine-tuning with (IA)3", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 45 + } + ], + "index": 45 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 688, + 505, + 722 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 687, + 505, + 702 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 687, + 505, + 702 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "In order to compare favorably to few-shot ICL, we need a PEFT method that has the following", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 46 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 700, + 505, + 713 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 700, + 505, + 713 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "properties: First, it must add or update as few parameters as possible to avoid incurring storage", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 47 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 711, + 507, + 723 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 711, + 507, + 723 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and memory costs. Second, it should achieve strong accuracy after few-shot training on new tasks.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 48 + } + ], + "index": 47 + } + ], + "page_idx": 4, + "page_size": [ + 612, + 792 + ], + "discarded_blocks": [ + { + "type": "discarded", + "bbox": [ + 302, + 741, + 308, + 750 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 302, + 740, + 309, + 753 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 302, + 740, + 309, + 753 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "5", + "type": "text" + } + ] + } + ] + } + ], + "para_blocks": [ + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 72, + 505, + 106 + ], + "lines": [], + "index": 1, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 73, + 505, + 107 + ], + "lines_deleted": true + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 110, + 505, + 199 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 110, + 505, + 123 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 110, + 505, + 123 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "For evaluation, we use “rank classification”, where the model’s log-probabilities for all possible label", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 3 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 122, + 505, + 133 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 122, + 505, + 133 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "strings are ranked and the model’s prediction is considered correct if the highest-ranked choice is the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 133, + 506, + 144 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 133, + 506, + 144 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "correct answer. Rank classification evaluation is compatible with both classification and multiple-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 5 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 144, + 506, + 156 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 144, + 506, + 156 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "choice tasks. Since model performance can vary significantly depending on the prompt template used,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 155, + 506, + 167 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 155, + 506, + 167 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "we report the median accuracy across all prompt templates from P3 and across few-shot data subsets", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 165, + 506, + 178 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 165, + 506, + 178 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "for each dataset. For all datasets, we report the accuracy on the test set or validation set when the test", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 176, + 505, + 189 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 176, + 505, + 189 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "labels are not public (e.g. SuperGLUE datasets). In the main text, we report median accuracy across", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 187, + 504, + 200 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 187, + 504, + 200 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the nine datasets mentioned above. Detailed results on each dataset are provided in the appendices.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + } + ], + "index": 6.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 110, + 506, + 200 + ] + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 212, + 341, + 224 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 211, + 340, + 226 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 211, + 340, + 226 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "3.2 Unlikelihood Training and Length Normalization", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + } + ], + "index": 11 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 232, + 505, + 277 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 232, + 505, + 244 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 232, + 505, + 244 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Before investigating PEFT methods, we first explore two additional loss terms to improve the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 243, + 505, + 256 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 243, + 505, + 256 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "performance of few-shot fine-tuning of language models. Language models are normally trained", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 253, + 505, + 267 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 254, + 202, + 267 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "with cross-entropy loss", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 202, + 253, + 333, + 267 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\begin{array} { r } { L _ { \\mathrm { L M } } = - \\frac { 1 } { T } \\sum _ { t } \\log \\bar { p } ( y _ { t } | \\mathbf { x } , y _ { < t } ) } \\end{array}", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 333, + 254, + 505, + 267 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "where the model is trained to increase the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 265, + 470, + 279 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 265, + 272, + 279 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "probability of the correct target sequence", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 272, + 266, + 357, + 277 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "\\mathbf { y } = ( y _ { 1 } , y _ { 2 } , \\dots y _ { T } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 357, + 265, + 459, + 279 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "given the input sequence", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 459, + 267, + 467, + 275 + ], + "score": 0.41, + "content": "\\mathbf { x }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 467, + 265, + 470, + 279 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ".", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + } + ], + "index": 13.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 232, + 505, + 279 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 281, + 504, + 315 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 280, + 506, + 293 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 280, + 506, + 293 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "For evaluation, we use rank classification (described in section 3.1) which depends on both the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 292, + 506, + 304 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 292, + 506, + 304 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "probabilities that the model assigns to the correct choice as well as the incorrect choices. To account", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 303, + 352, + 315 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 303, + 352, + 315 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "for this during training, we add an unlikelihood loss [16, 17]:", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + } + ], + "index": 17, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 280, + 506, + 315 + ] + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 206, + 320, + 404, + 355 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 206, + 320, + 404, + 355 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 206, + 320, + 404, + 355 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "L _ { \\mathrm { U L } } = - \\frac { \\sum _ { n = 1 } ^ { N } \\sum _ { t = 1 } ^ { T ^ { ( n ) } } \\log ( 1 - p ( \\hat { y } _ { i } ^ { ( n ) } | \\mathbf { x } , \\hat { y } _ { < t } ^ { ( n ) } ) ) } { \\sum _ { n = 1 } ^ { N } T ^ { ( n ) } }", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "09597e6adfa17b86f3b9c5cf1f08d608571afbd01f372ddf3b09c30cd5f1d152.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 19.5, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 206, + 320, + 404, + 337.5 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 206, + 337.5, + 404, + 355.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 20 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 361, + 505, + 405 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 360, + 505, + 374 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 360, + 474, + 374 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "which discourages the model from predicting tokens from incorrect target sequences, where", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 474, + 360, + 505, + 372 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "\\hat { \\mathbf { y } } ^ { ( n ) } =", + "type": "inline_equation" + } + ], + "index": 21 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 372, + 506, + 385 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 372, + 181, + 384 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "\\left( \\hat { y } _ { 1 } , \\hat { y } _ { 2 } , \\dots , \\hat { y } _ { T ^ { ( n ) } } \\right)", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 181, + 372, + 205, + 385 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is the", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 206, + 374, + 213, + 382 + ], + "score": 0.77, + "content": "n", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 213, + 372, + 236, + 385 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "-th of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 236, + 372, + 246, + 382 + ], + "score": 0.84, + "content": "N", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 246, + 372, + 466, + 385 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "incorrect target sequences. We hypothesize that adding", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 467, + 372, + 486, + 383 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "L _ { \\mathrm { U L } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 486, + 372, + 506, + 385 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "will", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 383, + 505, + 395 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 383, + 505, + 395 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "improve results on rank classification because the model will be trained to assign lower probabilities", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 394, + 473, + 406 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 394, + 473, + 406 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to incorrect choices, thereby improving the chance that the correct choice is ranked highest.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + } + ], + "index": 22.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 104, + 360, + 506, + 406 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 410, + 506, + 522 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 410, + 506, + 423 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 410, + 506, + 423 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "The possible target sequences for a given training example can have significantly different lengths,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 420, + 507, + 434 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 420, + 507, + 434 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "especially in multiple-choice tasks. Ranking each choice based on probability can therefore “favor”", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 432, + 506, + 445 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 432, + 416, + 445 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "shorter choices because the model’s assigned probability to each token is", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 416, + 433, + 435, + 443 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "\\leq 1", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 435, + 432, + 506, + 445 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". To rectify this,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 443, + 506, + 455 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 443, + 506, + 455 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "we consider using length normalization when performing rank classification, which divides the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 454, + 506, + 466 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 454, + 506, + 466 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "model’s score on each possible answer choice by the number of tokens in the choice (as used in", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 465, + 506, + 478 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 465, + 506, + 478 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "GPT-3 [4]). When using length normalization during evaluation, we introduce an additional loss", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 476, + 505, + 487 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 476, + 505, + 487 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "term during training that more closely reflects length-normalized evaluation. First, we compute the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 103, + 483, + 506, + 506 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 103, + 483, + 358, + 506 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "length-normalized log probability of a given output sequence", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 358, + 486, + 503, + 502 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\begin{array} { r } { \\beta ( \\mathbf { x } , \\mathbf { y } ) = \\frac { 1 } { T } \\sum _ { t = 1 } ^ { T } \\log p ( y _ { t } | \\mathbf { \\bar { x } } , y _ { < t } ) } \\end{array}", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 504, + 483, + 506, + 506 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ".", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 498, + 506, + 514 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 498, + 506, + 514 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Then, we maximize the length-normalized log probability of the correct answer choice by minimizing", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 510, + 235, + 524 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 510, + 235, + 524 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the softmax cross-entropy loss:", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + } + ], + "index": 29.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 103, + 410, + 507, + 524 + ] + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 195, + 527, + 415, + 558 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 195, + 527, + 415, + 558 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 195, + 527, + 415, + 558 + ], + "score": 0.94, + "content": "L _ { \\mathrm { L N } } = - \\log \\frac { \\exp ( \\beta ( \\mathbf { x } , \\mathbf { y } ) ) } { \\exp ( \\beta ( \\mathbf { x } , \\mathbf { y } ) ) + \\sum _ { n = 1 } ^ { N } \\exp ( \\beta ( \\mathbf { x } , \\hat { \\mathbf { y } } ^ { ( n ) } ) ) }", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "6bebee14ad649a0aab42ace70b0e9e373d5e77b5b6427bc54162cd106dc05588.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 35.5, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 195, + 527, + 415, + 542.5 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 35 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 195, + 542.5, + 415, + 558.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 36 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 562, + 504, + 596 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 560, + 506, + 576 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 560, + 218, + 576 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "When training a model with", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 219, + 562, + 263, + 573 + ], + "score": 0.29, + "content": "L _ { \\mathrm { L M } } , L _ { \\mathrm { U L } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 263, + 560, + 283, + 576 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 283, + 562, + 302, + 573 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "L _ { \\mathrm { L N } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 302, + 560, + 506, + 576 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", we simply sum them. This avoids introducing any", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 37 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 573, + 505, + 585 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 573, + 505, + 585 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "hyperparameters that would be problematic to tune in the few-shot setting (where realistically-sized", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 38 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 584, + 289, + 596 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 584, + 289, + 596 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "validation sets are tiny by necessity [31, 32]).", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 39 + } + ], + "index": 38, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 560, + 506, + 596 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 600, + 505, + 655 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 600, + 505, + 613 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 600, + 505, + 613 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "We report the results of fine-tuning all of T0-3B’s parameters with and without length normalization", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 40 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 609, + 505, + 625 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 609, + 303, + 625 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "on all datasets in appendix B. We find that adding", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 303, + 611, + 323, + 622 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "L _ { \\mathrm { L N } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 323, + 609, + 435, + 625 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "improves the accuracy from", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 435, + 611, + 462, + 622 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "6 0 . 7 \\%", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 462, + 609, + 473, + 625 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 473, + 611, + 505, + 622 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "6 2 . 7 1 \\%", + "type": "inline_equation" + } + ], + "index": 41 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 622, + 506, + 635 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 622, + 184, + 635 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and including both", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 185, + 622, + 204, + 633 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "L _ { \\mathrm { U L } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 204, + 622, + 222, + 635 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 222, + 622, + 241, + 633 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "L _ { \\mathrm { L N } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 241, + 622, + 382, + 635 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "provides a further improvement to", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 383, + 622, + 410, + 633 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "6 3 . 3 \\%", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 410, + 622, + 506, + 635 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". Since these loss terms", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 42 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 633, + 505, + 645 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 633, + 505, + 645 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "improve performance without introducing any additional hyperparameters, we include them in our", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 43 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 644, + 305, + 657 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 644, + 305, + 657 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "recipe and use them in all following experiments.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 44 + } + ], + "index": 42, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 600, + 506, + 657 + ] + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 668, + 310, + 680 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 667, + 311, + 682 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 667, + 311, + 682 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "3.3 Parameter-efficient fine-tuning with (IA)3", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 45 + } + ], + "index": 45 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 688, + 505, + 722 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 687, + 505, + 702 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 687, + 505, + 702 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "In order to compare favorably to few-shot ICL, we need a PEFT method that has the following", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 46 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 700, + 505, + 713 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 700, + 505, + 713 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "properties: First, it must add or update as few parameters as possible to avoid incurring storage", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 47 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 711, + 507, + 723 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 711, + 507, + 723 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and memory costs. Second, it should achieve strong accuracy after few-shot training on new tasks.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 48 + } + ], + "index": 47, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 687, + 507, + 723 + ] + } + ] + }, + { + "preproc_blocks": [ + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 72, + 505, + 193 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 73, + 505, + 85 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 73, + 505, + 85 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Finally, it must allow for mixed-task batches, since that is a capability of ICL. In order to easily", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 83, + 506, + 96 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 83, + 506, + 96 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "enable mixed-task batches, a PEFT method should ideally not modify the model itself. Otherwise,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 1 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 94, + 506, + 107 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 94, + 506, + 107 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "each example in a batch would effectively need to be processed by a different model or computational", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 2 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 105, + 506, + 118 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 105, + 506, + 118 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "graph. A more convenient alternative is provided by methods that directly modify the activations of", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 3 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 115, + 506, + 130 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 115, + 506, + 130 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the model since this can be done independently and cheaply to each example in the batch according", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 127, + 506, + 140 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 127, + 506, + 140 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to which task the example corresponds to. Prompt tuning and prefix tuning methods [14, 29] work by", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 5 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 138, + 506, + 150 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 138, + 506, + 150 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "concatenating learned vectors to activation or embedding sequences and are therefore examples of", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 149, + 505, + 162 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 149, + 505, + 162 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "activation-modifying PEFT methods that allow for mixed-task batches. However, as we will discuss", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 160, + 505, + 172 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 160, + 505, + 172 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "later, we were unable to attain reasonable accuracy with prompt tuning and found that the more", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 171, + 505, + 183 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 171, + 505, + 183 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "performant PEFT methods did not allow for mixed-task batches. We therefore developed a new PEFT", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 182, + 243, + 194 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 182, + 243, + 194 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "method that meets our desiderata.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + } + ], + "index": 5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 198, + 505, + 308 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 198, + 505, + 210 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 198, + 505, + 210 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "As an alternative, we explored element-wise multiplication (i.e. rescaling) of the model’s activations", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 208, + 506, + 222 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 208, + 406, + 222 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "against a learned vector. 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We call our", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 410, + 506, + 423 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 410, + 140, + 423 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "method", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 410, + 165, + 421 + ], + "score": 0.62, + "content": "( \\mathtt { I A } ) ^ { 3 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 165, + 410, + 506, + 423 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", which stands for “Infused Adapter by Inhibiting and Amplifying Inner Activations”.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 426, + 505, + 504 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 426, + 505, + 439 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 426, + 132, + 438 + ], + "score": 0.33, + "content": "( \\mathtt { I A } ) ^ { 3 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 132, + 426, + 505, + 439 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "makes mixed-task batches possible because each sequence of activations in the batch can be", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 438, + 505, + 450 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 438, + 505, + 450 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "separately and cheaply multiplied by its associated learned task vector. We also note that, in the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 448, + 506, + 462 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 448, + 462, + 462 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "event that a model will only be used on a single task, the modifications introduced by", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 462, + 448, + 487, + 460 + ], + "score": 0.68, + "content": "( \\mathtt { I A } ) ^ { 3 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 487, + 448, + 506, + 462 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "can", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 460, + 505, + 472 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 460, + 505, + 472 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "also be applied to weight matrices permanently so that no elementwise multiplication is required and", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 470, + 505, + 483 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 470, + 505, + 483 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the model’s architecture remains unchanged. This possible because element-wise multiplications", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 481, + 506, + 494 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 481, + 162, + 494 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "performed in", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 162, + 481, + 187, + 492 + ], + "score": 0.32, + "content": "( \\mathtt { I A } ) ^ { 3 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 187, + 481, + 387, + 494 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "always co-occur with a matrix multiplication, and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 388, + 481, + 473, + 493 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "l \\odot W x = ( l \\odot W ) x", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 474, + 481, + 506, + 494 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". In this", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 35 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 493, + 466, + 505 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 493, + 466, + 505 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "case, our method incurs no additional computational cost compared to the original model.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 36 + } + ], + "index": 33 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 508, + 506, + 662 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 507, + 506, + 522 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 507, + 506, + 522 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "To validate (IA)3, we compare it to a large variety of existing adaptation methods in our setting of", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 37 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 519, + 506, + 533 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 519, + 506, + 533 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "fine-tuning T0-3B on few-shot datasets from held-out tasks. 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Additionally, we", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 46 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 617, + 507, + 631 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 617, + 507, + 631 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "include the baselines of full-model fine-tuning and updating only the layer normalization parameters.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 47 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 628, + 506, + 643 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 628, + 506, + 643 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "For certain methods that allow changing the parameter efficiency, we report results for different", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 48 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 639, + 506, + 653 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 639, + 144, + 653 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "budgets:", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 144, + 640, + 167, + 650 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "0 . 2 \\%", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 167, + 639, + 185, + 653 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 185, + 640, + 213, + 650 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "0 . 0 2 \\%", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 213, + 639, + 506, + 653 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "sparsity for FISH Mask, 10 and 100 learned prompt vectors for prompt", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 49 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 650, + 405, + 663 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 650, + 405, + 663 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "tuning, and 20,000- or 500,000-dimensional subspaces for Intrinsic SAID.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 50 + } + ], + "index": 43.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 667, + 505, + 722 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 666, + 505, + 680 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 666, + 505, + 680 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "The results are shown in fig. 2, with detailed per-dataset results in appendix C. We find that (IA)3", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 51 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 678, + 505, + 690 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 678, + 505, + 690 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is the only method that attains higher accuracy than the full-model-fine-tuning baseline. While", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 52 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 688, + 507, + 702 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 688, + 507, + 702 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "other PEFT methods (e.g. Intrinsic SAID and prompt tuning) update or introduce fewer parameters,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 53 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 699, + 505, + 713 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 699, + 132, + 711 + ], + "score": 0.62, + "content": "( \\mathtt { I A } ) ^ { 3 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 133, + 699, + 505, + 713 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "performs considerably better. Our results and setting differ with some past work on the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 54 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 710, + 506, + 724 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 710, + 506, + 724 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "PEFT methods we compare against. Mahabadi et al. [28] report that Compacter and Compacter++", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 55 + } + ], + "index": 53 + } + ], + "page_idx": 5, + "page_size": [ + 612, + 792 + ], + "discarded_blocks": [ + { + "type": "discarded", + "bbox": [ + 302, + 742, + 308, + 750 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 302, + 741, + 309, + 752 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 302, + 741, + 309, + 752 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "6", + "type": "text" + } + ] + } + ] + } + ], + "para_blocks": [ + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 72, + 505, + 193 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 73, + 505, + 85 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 73, + 505, + 85 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Finally, it must allow for mixed-task batches, since that is a capability of ICL. In order to easily", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 83, + 506, + 96 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 83, + 506, + 96 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "enable mixed-task batches, a PEFT method should ideally not modify the model itself. Otherwise,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 1 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 94, + 506, + 107 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 94, + 506, + 107 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "each example in a batch would effectively need to be processed by a different model or computational", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 2 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 105, + 506, + 118 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 105, + 506, + 118 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "graph. A more convenient alternative is provided by methods that directly modify the activations of", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 3 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 115, + 506, + 130 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 115, + 506, + 130 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the model since this can be done independently and cheaply to each example in the batch according", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 127, + 506, + 140 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 127, + 506, + 140 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to which task the example corresponds to. Prompt tuning and prefix tuning methods [14, 29] work by", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 5 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 138, + 506, + 150 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 138, + 506, + 150 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "concatenating learned vectors to activation or embedding sequences and are therefore examples of", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 149, + 505, + 162 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 149, + 505, + 162 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "activation-modifying PEFT methods that allow for mixed-task batches. However, as we will discuss", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 160, + 505, + 172 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 160, + 505, + 172 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "later, we were unable to attain reasonable accuracy with prompt tuning and found that the more", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 171, + 505, + 183 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 171, + 505, + 183 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "performant PEFT methods did not allow for mixed-task batches. We therefore developed a new PEFT", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 182, + 243, + 194 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 182, + 243, + 194 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "method that meets our desiderata.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + } + ], + "index": 5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 73, + 506, + 194 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 198, + 505, + 308 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 198, + 505, + 210 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 198, + 505, + 210 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "As an alternative, we explored element-wise multiplication (i.e. rescaling) of the model’s activations", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 208, + 506, + 222 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 208, + 406, + 222 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "against a learned vector. 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We use “broadcasting notation” [46] so that the", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 388, + 231, + 416, + 243 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "( i , j ) ^ { \\mathrm { t h } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 417, + 227, + 450, + 247 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "entry of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 450, + 231, + 470, + 242 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "l \\odot x", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 470, + 227, + 479, + 247 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 480, + 231, + 503, + 243 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "l _ { j } x _ { i , j }", + "type": "inline_equation" + } + ], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 242, + 506, + 254 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 242, + 506, + 254 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "In preliminary experiments, we found it was not necessary to introduce a learned rescaling vector", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 252, + 505, + 266 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 252, + 505, + 266 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "for each set of activations in the Transformer model. 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We call our", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 410, + 506, + 423 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 410, + 140, + 423 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "method", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 410, + 165, + 421 + ], + "score": 0.62, + "content": "( \\mathtt { I A } ) ^ { 3 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 165, + 410, + 506, + 423 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", which stands for “Infused Adapter by Inhibiting and Amplifying Inner Activations”.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + } + ], + "index": 26, + "bbox_fs": [ + 104, + 344, + 506, + 423 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 426, + 505, + 504 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 426, + 505, + 439 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 426, + 132, + 438 + ], + "score": 0.33, + "content": "( \\mathtt { I A } ) ^ { 3 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 132, + 426, + 505, + 439 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "makes mixed-task batches possible because each sequence of activations in the batch can be", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 438, + 505, + 450 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 438, + 505, + 450 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "separately and cheaply multiplied by its associated learned task vector. We also note that, in the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 448, + 506, + 462 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 448, + 462, + 462 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "event that a model will only be used on a single task, the modifications introduced by", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 462, + 448, + 487, + 460 + ], + "score": 0.68, + "content": "( \\mathtt { I A } ) ^ { 3 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 487, + 448, + 506, + 462 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "can", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 460, + 505, + 472 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 460, + 505, + 472 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "also be applied to weight matrices permanently so that no elementwise multiplication is required and", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 470, + 505, + 483 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 470, + 505, + 483 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the model’s architecture remains unchanged. 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[18], Vu et al. [19] showed that pre-training the prompt embeddings in", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 52 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 491, + 506, + 503 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 491, + 506, + 503 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "prompt tuning can improve performance when fine-tuning on downstream few-shot tasks. For pre-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 53 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 502, + 505, + 514 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 502, + 490, + 514 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "training, Gu et al. [18] use a suite of self-supervised tasks applied to unlabeled text data, and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 491, + 502, + 505, + 512 + ], + "score": 0.45, + "content": "\\mathrm { V u }", + "type": "inline_equation" + } + ], + "index": 54 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 512, + 506, + 525 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 512, + 506, + 525 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "et al. 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[18], Vu et al. [19] showed that pre-training the prompt embeddings in", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 52 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 491, + 506, + 503 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 491, + 506, + 503 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "prompt tuning can improve performance when fine-tuning on downstream few-shot tasks. For pre-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 53 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 502, + 505, + 514 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 502, + 490, + 514 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "training, Gu et al. [18] use a suite of self-supervised tasks applied to unlabeled text data, and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 491, + 502, + 505, + 512 + ], + "score": 0.45, + "content": "\\mathrm { V u }", + "type": "inline_equation" + } + ], + "index": 54 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 512, + 506, + 525 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 512, + 506, + 525 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "et al. [19] consider using embeddings from a separate task or multitask mixture. We follow Vu et al.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 55 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 523, + 506, + 536 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 523, + 352, + 536 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "[19] and simply pre-train the new parameters introduced by", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 353, + 523, + 378, + 534 + ], + "score": 0.67, + "content": "( \\mathtt { I A } ) ^ { 3 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 378, + 523, + 506, + 536 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "on the same multitask mixture", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 56 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 534, + 504, + 546 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 534, + 158, + 546 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "used to train", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 158, + 534, + 170, + 545 + ], + "score": 0.29, + "content": "\\mathrm { T 0 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 171, + 534, + 479, + 546 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". We pre-train for 100,000 steps with a batch size of 16 before fine-tuning the", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 479, + 534, + 504, + 545 + ], + "score": 0.43, + "content": "( \\mathtt { I A } ) ^ { 3 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + } + ], + "index": 57 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 545, + 505, + 557 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 545, + 505, + 557 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "parameters on each individual downstream dataset. A full comparison of accuracy with and without", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 58 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 555, + 505, + 569 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 555, + 157, + 569 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "pre-training", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 157, + 556, + 182, + 567 + ], + "score": 0.54, + "content": "( \\mathtt { I A } ) ^ { 3 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 182, + 555, + 505, + 569 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is detailed in appendix D. We find that pre-training improves fine-tuned accuracy", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 59 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 566, + 314, + 580 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 566, + 314, + 580 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "from 64.6 to 65.8 and therefore add it to our recipe.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 60 + } + ], + "index": 56, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 480, + 506, + 580 + ] + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 592, + 244, + 604 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 590, + 245, + 606 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 590, + 245, + 606 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "3.5 Combining the ingredients", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 61 + } + ], + "index": 61 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 612, + 505, + 722 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 613, + 505, + 624 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 613, + 505, + 624 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "In summary, the T-Few recipe is defined as follows: We use the T0 model as a backbone. We add", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 62 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 622, + 506, + 636 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 623, + 132, + 635 + ], + "score": 0.46, + "content": "( \\mathtt { I A } ) ^ { 3 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 133, + 622, + 452, + 636 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "for downstream task adaptation and use parameters initialized from pre-training", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 452, + 623, + 477, + 635 + ], + "score": 0.48, + "content": "( \\mathtt { I A } ) ^ { 3 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 478, + 622, + 506, + 636 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "on the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 63 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 633, + 505, + 648 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 633, + 218, + 648 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "same multitask mixture for", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 219, + 635, + 232, + 645 + ], + "score": 0.3, + "content": "\\mathrm { T 0 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 232, + 633, + 505, + 648 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". As an objective, we use the sum of a standard language modeling", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 64 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 645, + 506, + 658 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 645, + 125, + 658 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "loss", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 125, + 646, + 145, + 656 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "L _ { \\mathrm { L M } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 146, + 645, + 234, + 658 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", an unlikelihood loss", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 235, + 646, + 254, + 657 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "L _ { \\mathrm { U L } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 254, + 645, + 464, + 658 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "for incorrect choices, and a length-normalized loss", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 465, + 645, + 484, + 656 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "L _ { \\mathrm { L N } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 484, + 645, + 506, + 658 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". We", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 65 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 655, + 506, + 668 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 655, + 506, + 668 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "train for 1,000 steps with a batch size of 8 sequences using the Adafactor optimizer [49] with a", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 66 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 665, + 506, + 680 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 665, + 168, + 680 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "learning rate of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 168, + 667, + 190, + 677 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "3 e ^ { - 3 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 190, + 665, + 506, + 680 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and a linear decay schedule with a 60-step warmup. We apply prompt templates", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 67 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 678, + 505, + 690 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 678, + 505, + 690 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to downstream datasets during training and inference to convert each example into an instructive", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 68 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 688, + 506, + 702 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 688, + 506, + 702 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "text-to-text format. Importantly, we apply this recipe to every downstream dataset in exactly the same", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 69 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 700, + 506, + 712 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 700, + 506, + 712 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "way without per-dataset hyperparameter tuning or modifications. This makes the recipe a realistic", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 70 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 711, + 462, + 723 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 711, + 462, + 723 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "option for few-shot learning settings where validation sets are tiny by definition [31, 32].", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 71 + } + ], + "index": 66.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 613, + 506, + 723 + ] + } + ] + }, + { + "preproc_blocks": [ + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 70, + 288, + 85 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 70, + 290, + 87 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 70, + 290, + 87 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "4 Outperforming ICL with T-Few", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 0 + } + ], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 95, + 505, + 129 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 95, + 505, + 108 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 95, + 505, + 108 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Having designed and established the T-Few recipe on T0-3B, we now apply it to T0 (with 11 billion", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 1 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 106, + 506, + 119 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 106, + 506, + 119 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "parameters) and compare performance to strong few-shot ICL baselines. From this point onwards,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 2 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 118, + 382, + 129 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 118, + 382, + 129 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "we use exactly the same recipe and hyperparameters across all tasks.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 3 + } + ], + "index": 2 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 141, + 237, + 153 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 141, + 237, + 154 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 141, + 237, + 154 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "4.1 Performance on T0 tasks", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + } + ], + "index": 4 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 161, + 505, + 271 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 160, + 505, + 174 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 160, + 505, + 174 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "First, we evaluate T-Few on the datasets that were held out from T0’s training mixture. We compare", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 5 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 172, + 507, + 185 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 172, + 507, + 185 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "against zero-shot learning with T0 [1] (since we found few-shot ICL to performed worse than zero-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 182, + 506, + 197 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 182, + 307, + 197 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "shot for T0, see appendix E); few-shot ICL with", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 307, + 183, + 342, + 194 + ], + "score": 0.58, + "content": "_ { \\mathrm { T 5 + L M } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 342, + 182, + 506, + 197 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "[14] (the next-step-prediction language", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 194, + 506, + 207 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 194, + 506, + 207 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "model upon which T0 is based); and few-shot ICL with the 6.7, 13, and 175 billion parameter variants", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 205, + 506, + 218 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 205, + 506, + 218 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of GPT-3. See appendix E for more details on these baselines. The accuracy on the held-out T0", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 216, + 506, + 228 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 216, + 506, + 228 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "datasets (described in section 3.1) is shown in table 1 and fig. 3, with per-dataset results reported", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 226, + 507, + 240 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 226, + 507, + 240 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "in appendix E. We find that T-Few outperforms all other methods by a substantial margin. Notably,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 237, + 504, + 250 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 237, + 177, + 250 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "T-Few achieves a", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 178, + 238, + 192, + 248 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "6 \\%", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 193, + 237, + 484, + 250 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "higher accuracy than few-shot ICL with GPT-3 175B despite being about", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 485, + 238, + 504, + 249 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "1 6 \\times", + "type": "inline_equation" + } + ], + "index": 12 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 248, + 505, + 262 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 248, + 505, + 262 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "smaller and outperforms the smaller GPT-3 variants by an even larger margin. T-Few also attains", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 259, + 502, + 272 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 259, + 464, + 272 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "significantly higher accuracy than both zero-shot learning with T0 and few-shot ICL with", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 465, + 260, + 498, + 270 + ], + "score": 0.76, + "content": "_ { \\mathrm { T 5 + L M } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 498, + 259, + 502, + 272 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ".", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + } + ], + "index": 9.5 + }, + { + "type": "table", + "bbox": [ + 372, + 276, + 504, + 355 + ], + "blocks": [ + { + "type": "table_body", + "bbox": [ + 372, + 276, + 504, + 355 + ], + "group_id": 1, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 372, + 276, + 504, + 355 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 372, + 276, + 504, + 355 + ], + "score": 0.969, + "html": "
MethodAcc.
T-Few75.8%
Human baseline [2]73.5%
PET[50]69.6%
SetFit [51]66.9%
GPT-3 [4]62.7%
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MethodInference FLOPsTraining FLOPsDisk spaceAcc.
T-Few1.1e122.7e164.2 MB72.4%
T0[1]1.1e120OB66.9%
T5+LM[14]4.5e13016 kB49.6%
GPT-3 6.7B [4]5.4e13016 kB57.2%
GPT-3 13B [4]1.0e14016 kB60.3%
GPT-3 175B[4]1.4e15016 kB66.6%
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T-Few is", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 371, + 382, + 505, + 393 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 371, + 382, + 505, + 393 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the first method to outperform the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 371, + 393, + 505, + 405 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 371, + 393, + 505, + 405 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "human baseline and achieves over", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 371, + 403, + 506, + 416 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 371, + 404, + 386, + 415 + ], + "score": 0.82, + "content": "6 \\%", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 387, + 403, + 506, + 416 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "higher accuracy than the next-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 371, + 415, + 425, + 426 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 371, + 415, + 425, + 426 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "best method.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + } + ], + "index": 24.0 + } + ], + "index": 20.0 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 381, + 362, + 437 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 381, + 363, + 394 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 381, + 363, + 394 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Table 1: Accuracy on held-out T0 tasks and computational costs", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 392, + 363, + 405 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 392, + 363, + 405 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "for different few-shot learning methods and models. T-Few", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 403, + 362, + 416 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 403, + 243, + 416 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "attains the highest accuracy with", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 243, + 404, + 275, + 414 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "1 { , } 0 0 0 \\times", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 275, + 403, + 362, + 416 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "lower computational", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 414, + 363, + 426 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 414, + 363, + 426 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "cost than ICL with GPT-3 175B. Fine-tuning with T-Few costs", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 425, + 336, + 437 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 425, + 336, + 437 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "about as much as ICL on 20 examples with GPT-3 175B.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 450, + 266, + 461 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 448, + 267, + 464 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 448, + 267, + 464 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "4.2 Comparing computational costs", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 469, + 505, + 688 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 469, + 505, + 483 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 469, + 505, + 483 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Having established that T-Few significantly outperforms ICL-based models, we now compare the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 480, + 506, + 494 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 480, + 506, + 494 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "relative costs of each few-shot learning approach. For simplicity, we use the FLOPs-per-token", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 492, + 505, + 504 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 492, + 505, + 504 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "estimates for Transformer-based language models introduced by Kaplan et al. [20]. Specifically, we", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 502, + 505, + 515 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 502, + 379, + 515 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "estimate that a decoder-only Transformer (e.g. the GPT series) with", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 380, + 503, + 390, + 513 + ], + "score": 0.75, + "content": "N", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 390, + 502, + 457, + 515 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "parameters uses", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 457, + 502, + 473, + 513 + ], + "score": 0.68, + "content": "2 N", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 473, + 502, + 505, + 515 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "FLOPs", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 35 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 513, + 506, + 526 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 513, + 217, + 526 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "per token for inference and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 217, + 514, + 233, + 524 + ], + "score": 0.74, + "content": "6 N", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 233, + 513, + 506, + 526 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "FLOPs per token for training. Encoder-decoder models like T0 and", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 36 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 524, + 505, + 537 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 524, + 505, + 537 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "T5 (where the encoder and decoder have the same number of layers and layer sizes) only process", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 37 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 535, + 505, + 547 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 535, + 505, + 547 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "each token with either the encoder or decoder (each having roughly half the parameters of the full", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 38 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 546, + 505, + 559 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 546, + 323, + 559 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "model), so the FLOPs per token estimates are halved to", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 324, + 547, + 334, + 556 + ], + "score": 0.81, + "content": "N", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 334, + 546, + 351, + 559 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 351, + 546, + 367, + 556 + ], + "score": 0.74, + "content": "3 N", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 367, + 546, + 505, + 559 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "FLOPs per token for inference and", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 39 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 557, + 505, + 570 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 557, + 505, + 570 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "training. We note that FLOPs are not a direct measurement of real-world computational cost because", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 40 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 568, + 505, + 580 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 568, + 505, + 580 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "latency, power usage, and other costs can vary significantly depending on hardware and other factors", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 41 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 578, + 505, + 591 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 578, + 505, + 591 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "[52]. However, we focus on FLOPs because it is a hardware-independent metric that closely with", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 42 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 590, + 505, + 602 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 590, + 505, + 602 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "real-world costs the hardware setup used for running the different methods we consider would likely", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 43 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 601, + 505, + 612 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 601, + 505, + 612 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "vary significantly across methods. We summarize the costs in table 1 and discuss them below. For all", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 44 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 612, + 505, + 624 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 612, + 505, + 624 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "estimates, we use the median number of shots (41) across the datasets we consider. Rank evaluation", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 45 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 622, + 505, + 635 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 622, + 505, + 635 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and our unlikelihood loss both require processing every possible output choice to attain a prediction", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 46 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 633, + 505, + 645 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 633, + 505, + 645 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "for an unlabeled example. The median combined tokenized sequence length for the input and all", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 47 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 644, + 506, + 657 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 644, + 506, + 657 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "possible targets is 103 for the datasets we consider. For in-context examples processed for few-shot", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 48 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 655, + 505, + 668 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 655, + 505, + 668 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "ICL, only the correct target is required, producing a median sequence length of 98. Assuming that", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 49 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 664, + 506, + 680 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 664, + 506, + 680 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "key and value vectors are cached, processing a single example with ICL therefore involves processing", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 50 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 676, + 423, + 689 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 677, + 167, + 687 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "4 1 \\times 9 8 + 1 0 3", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 167, + 676, + 423, + 689 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "tokens. A summary of our cost estimates is provided in table 1.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 51 + } + ], + "index": 41.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 700, + 502, + 722 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 699, + 505, + 713 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 699, + 505, + 713 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Inference cost. Beyond improved accuracy, the primary advantage of avoiding few-shot ICL is", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 52 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 711, + 504, + 723 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 711, + 504, + 723 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "dramatically lower inference costs. Processing a single input and all target choices with T-Few", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 53 + } + ], + "index": 52.5 + } + ], + "page_idx": 7, + "page_size": [ + 612, + 792 + ], + "discarded_blocks": [ + { + "type": "discarded", + "bbox": [ + 302, + 742, + 308, + 750 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 302, + 741, + 309, + 752 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 302, + 741, + 309, + 752 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "8", + "type": "text" + } + ] + } + ] + } + ], + "para_blocks": [ + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 70, + 288, + 85 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 70, + 290, + 87 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 70, + 290, + 87 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "4 Outperforming ICL with T-Few", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 0 + } + ], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 95, + 505, + 129 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 95, + 505, + 108 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 95, + 505, + 108 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Having designed and established the T-Few recipe on T0-3B, we now apply it to T0 (with 11 billion", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 1 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 106, + 506, + 119 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 106, + 506, + 119 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "parameters) and compare performance to strong few-shot ICL baselines. From this point onwards,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 2 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 118, + 382, + 129 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 118, + 382, + 129 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "we use exactly the same recipe and hyperparameters across all tasks.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 3 + } + ], + "index": 2, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 95, + 506, + 129 + ] + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 141, + 237, + 153 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 141, + 237, + 154 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 141, + 237, + 154 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "4.1 Performance on T0 tasks", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + } + ], + "index": 4 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 161, + 505, + 271 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 160, + 505, + 174 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 160, + 505, + 174 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "First, we evaluate T-Few on the datasets that were held out from T0’s training mixture. We compare", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 5 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 172, + 507, + 185 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 172, + 507, + 185 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "against zero-shot learning with T0 [1] (since we found few-shot ICL to performed worse than zero-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 182, + 506, + 197 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 182, + 307, + 197 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "shot for T0, see appendix E); few-shot ICL with", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 307, + 183, + 342, + 194 + ], + "score": 0.58, + "content": "_ { \\mathrm { T 5 + L M } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 342, + 182, + 506, + 197 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "[14] (the next-step-prediction language", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 194, + 506, + 207 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 194, + 506, + 207 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "model upon which T0 is based); and few-shot ICL with the 6.7, 13, and 175 billion parameter variants", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 205, + 506, + 218 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 205, + 506, + 218 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of GPT-3. See appendix E for more details on these baselines. The accuracy on the held-out T0", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 216, + 506, + 228 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 216, + 506, + 228 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "datasets (described in section 3.1) is shown in table 1 and fig. 3, with per-dataset results reported", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 226, + 507, + 240 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 226, + 507, + 240 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "in appendix E. We find that T-Few outperforms all other methods by a substantial margin. Notably,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 237, + 504, + 250 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 237, + 177, + 250 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "T-Few achieves a", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 178, + 238, + 192, + 248 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "6 \\%", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 193, + 237, + 484, + 250 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "higher accuracy than few-shot ICL with GPT-3 175B despite being about", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 485, + 238, + 504, + 249 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "1 6 \\times", + "type": "inline_equation" + } + ], + "index": 12 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 248, + 505, + 262 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 248, + 505, + 262 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "smaller and outperforms the smaller GPT-3 variants by an even larger margin. T-Few also attains", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 259, + 502, + 272 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 259, + 464, + 272 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "significantly higher accuracy than both zero-shot learning with T0 and few-shot ICL with", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 465, + 260, + 498, + 270 + ], + "score": 0.76, + "content": "_ { \\mathrm { T 5 + L M } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 498, + 259, + 502, + 272 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ".", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + } + ], + "index": 9.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 104, + 160, + 507, + 272 + ] + }, + { + "type": "table", + "bbox": [ + 372, + 276, + 504, + 355 + ], + "blocks": [ + { + "type": "table_body", + "bbox": [ + 372, + 276, + 504, + 355 + ], + "group_id": 1, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 372, + 276, + 504, + 355 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 372, + 276, + 504, + 355 + ], + "score": 0.969, + "html": "
MethodAcc.
T-Few75.8%
Human baseline [2]73.5%
PET[50]69.6%
SetFit [51]66.9%
GPT-3 [4]62.7%
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MethodInference FLOPsTraining FLOPsDisk spaceAcc.
T-Few1.1e122.7e164.2 MB72.4%
T0[1]1.1e120OB66.9%
T5+LM[14]4.5e13016 kB49.6%
GPT-3 6.7B [4]5.4e13016 kB57.2%
GPT-3 13B [4]1.0e14016 kB60.3%
GPT-3 175B[4]1.4e15016 kB66.6%
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T-Few is", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 371, + 382, + 505, + 393 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 371, + 382, + 505, + 393 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the first method to outperform the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 371, + 393, + 505, + 405 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 371, + 393, + 505, + 405 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "human baseline and achieves over", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 371, + 403, + 506, + 416 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 371, + 404, + 386, + 415 + ], + "score": 0.82, + "content": "6 \\%", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 387, + 403, + 506, + 416 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "higher accuracy than the next-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 371, + 415, + 425, + 426 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 371, + 415, + 425, + 426 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "best method.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + } + ], + "index": 24.0 + } + ], + "index": 20.0 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 381, + 362, + 437 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 381, + 363, + 394 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 381, + 363, + 394 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Table 1: Accuracy on held-out T0 tasks and computational costs", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 392, + 363, + 405 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 392, + 363, + 405 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "for different few-shot learning methods and models. T-Few", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 403, + 362, + 416 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 403, + 243, + 416 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "attains the highest accuracy with", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 243, + 404, + 275, + 414 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "1 { , } 0 0 0 \\times", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 275, + 403, + 362, + 416 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "lower computational", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 414, + 363, + 426 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 414, + 363, + 426 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "cost than ICL with GPT-3 175B. Fine-tuning with T-Few costs", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 425, + 336, + 437 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 425, + 336, + 437 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "about as much as ICL on 20 examples with GPT-3 175B.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + } + ], + "index": 26, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 381, + 363, + 437 + ] + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 450, + 266, + 461 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 448, + 267, + 464 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 448, + 267, + 464 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "4.2 Comparing computational costs", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 469, + 505, + 688 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 469, + 505, + 483 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 469, + 505, + 483 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Having established that T-Few significantly outperforms ICL-based models, we now compare the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 480, + 506, + 494 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 480, + 506, + 494 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "relative costs of each few-shot learning approach. For simplicity, we use the FLOPs-per-token", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 492, + 505, + 504 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 492, + 505, + 504 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "estimates for Transformer-based language models introduced by Kaplan et al. [20]. Specifically, we", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 502, + 505, + 515 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 502, + 379, + 515 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "estimate that a decoder-only Transformer (e.g. the GPT series) with", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 380, + 503, + 390, + 513 + ], + "score": 0.75, + "content": "N", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 390, + 502, + 457, + 515 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "parameters uses", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 457, + 502, + 473, + 513 + ], + "score": 0.68, + "content": "2 N", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 473, + 502, + 505, + 515 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "FLOPs", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 35 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 513, + 506, + 526 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 513, + 217, + 526 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "per token for inference and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 217, + 514, + 233, + 524 + ], + "score": 0.74, + "content": "6 N", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 233, + 513, + 506, + 526 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "FLOPs per token for training. Encoder-decoder models like T0 and", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 36 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 524, + 505, + 537 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 524, + 505, + 537 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "T5 (where the encoder and decoder have the same number of layers and layer sizes) only process", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 37 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 535, + 505, + 547 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 535, + 505, + 547 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "each token with either the encoder or decoder (each having roughly half the parameters of the full", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 38 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 546, + 505, + 559 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 546, + 323, + 559 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "model), so the FLOPs per token estimates are halved to", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 324, + 547, + 334, + 556 + ], + "score": 0.81, + "content": "N", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 334, + 546, + 351, + 559 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 351, + 546, + 367, + 556 + ], + "score": 0.74, + "content": "3 N", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 367, + 546, + 505, + 559 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "FLOPs per token for inference and", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 39 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 557, + 505, + 570 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 557, + 505, + 570 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "training. We note that FLOPs are not a direct measurement of real-world computational cost because", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 40 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 568, + 505, + 580 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 568, + 505, + 580 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "latency, power usage, and other costs can vary significantly depending on hardware and other factors", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 41 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 578, + 505, + 591 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 578, + 505, + 591 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "[52]. However, we focus on FLOPs because it is a hardware-independent metric that closely with", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 42 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 590, + 505, + 602 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 590, + 505, + 602 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "real-world costs the hardware setup used for running the different methods we consider would likely", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 43 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 601, + 505, + 612 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 601, + 505, + 612 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "vary significantly across methods. We summarize the costs in table 1 and discuss them below. For all", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 44 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 612, + 505, + 624 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 612, + 505, + 624 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "estimates, we use the median number of shots (41) across the datasets we consider. Rank evaluation", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 45 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 622, + 505, + 635 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 622, + 505, + 635 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and our unlikelihood loss both require processing every possible output choice to attain a prediction", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 46 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 633, + 505, + 645 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 633, + 505, + 645 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "for an unlabeled example. The median combined tokenized sequence length for the input and all", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 47 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 644, + 506, + 657 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 644, + 506, + 657 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "possible targets is 103 for the datasets we consider. For in-context examples processed for few-shot", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 48 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 655, + 505, + 668 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 655, + 505, + 668 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "ICL, only the correct target is required, producing a median sequence length of 98. Assuming that", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 49 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 664, + 506, + 680 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 664, + 506, + 680 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "key and value vectors are cached, processing a single example with ICL therefore involves processing", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 50 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 676, + 423, + 689 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 677, + 167, + 687 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "4 1 \\times 9 8 + 1 0 3", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 167, + 676, + 423, + 689 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "tokens. A summary of our cost estimates is provided in table 1.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 51 + } + ], + "index": 41.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 104, + 469, + 506, + 689 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 700, + 502, + 722 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 699, + 505, + 713 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 699, + 505, + 713 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Inference cost. Beyond improved accuracy, the primary advantage of avoiding few-shot ICL is", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 52 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 711, + 504, + 723 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 711, + 504, + 723 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "dramatically lower inference costs. Processing a single input and all target choices with T-Few", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 53 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 73, + 505, + 85 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 73, + 140, + 85 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "requires", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 73, + 227, + 83 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "1 1 \\mathrm { { e 9 \\times 1 0 3 = 1 . 1 \\mathrm { { e 1 2 } } } }", + "type": "inline_equation", + "cross_page": true + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 227, + 73, + 453, + 85 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "FLOPs, whereas few-shot ICL with GPT-3 175B requires", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 454, + 73, + 505, + 83 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "2 \\times 1 7 5 \\mathrm { e 9 \\times }", + "type": "inline_equation", + "cross_page": true + } + ], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 83, + 505, + 95 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 84, + 213, + 95 + ], + "score": 0.66, + "content": "( 4 1 \\times 9 8 + 1 0 3 ) = 1 . 4 \\mathrm { { e } 1 5 }", + "type": "inline_equation", + "cross_page": true + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 213, + 83, + 505, + 95 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "FLOPs – more than 3 orders of magnitude more. Inference costs with ICL", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + } + ], + "index": 1 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 95, + 505, + 106 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 95, + 505, + 106 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "using the smaller GPT-3 variants are also dramatically higher than the inference cost of T-Few. As", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + } + ], + "index": 2 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 105, + 505, + 118 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 105, + 505, + 118 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "discussed in section 2.1, caching the key and value vectors of the in-context examples can reduce", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + } + ], + "index": 3 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 116, + 506, + 129 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 116, + 443, + 129 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the computational cost of ICL. However, this would only result in an approximately", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 443, + 117, + 462, + 127 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "4 1 \\times", + "type": "inline_equation", + "cross_page": true + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 463, + 116, + 506, + 129 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "reduction,", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + } + ], + "index": 4 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 127, + 433, + 139 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 127, + 433, + 139 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "which is not nearly enough to make any of the GPT-3 ICL costs as low as T-Few.", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + } + ], + "index": 5 + } + ], + "index": 52.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 699, + 505, + 723 + ] + } + ] + }, + { + "preproc_blocks": [ + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 72, + 505, + 138 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 73, + 505, + 85 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 73, + 140, + 85 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "requires", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 73, + 227, + 83 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "1 1 \\mathrm { { e 9 \\times 1 0 3 = 1 . 1 \\mathrm { { e 1 2 } } } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 227, + 73, + 453, + 85 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "FLOPs, whereas few-shot ICL with GPT-3 175B requires", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 454, + 73, + 505, + 83 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "2 \\times 1 7 5 \\mathrm { e 9 \\times }", + "type": "inline_equation" + } + ], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 83, + 505, + 95 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 84, + 213, + 95 + ], + "score": 0.66, + "content": "( 4 1 \\times 9 8 + 1 0 3 ) = 1 . 4 \\mathrm { { e } 1 5 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 213, + 83, + 505, + 95 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "FLOPs – more than 3 orders of magnitude more. Inference costs with ICL", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 1 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 95, + 505, + 106 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 95, + 505, + 106 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "using the smaller GPT-3 variants are also dramatically higher than the inference cost of T-Few. As", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 2 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 105, + 505, + 118 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 105, + 505, + 118 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "discussed in section 2.1, caching the key and value vectors of the in-context examples can reduce", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 3 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 116, + 506, + 129 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 116, + 443, + 129 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the computational cost of ICL. However, this would only result in an approximately", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 443, + 117, + 462, + 127 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "4 1 \\times", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 463, + 116, + 506, + 129 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "reduction,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 127, + 433, + 139 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 127, + 433, + 139 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "which is not nearly enough to make any of the GPT-3 ICL costs as low as T-Few.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 5 + } + ], + "index": 2.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 151, + 505, + 238 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 150, + 505, + 163 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 150, + 505, + 163 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Training cost. Since T-Few is the only method that involves updating parameters, it is the only", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 162, + 506, + 174 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 162, + 506, + 174 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "method that incurs a training cost. Training an eleven billion parameter encoder-decoder model for", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 172, + 506, + 186 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 172, + 419, + 186 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "1,000 steps with a batch size of 8 length-103 sequences requires approximately", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 420, + 173, + 506, + 184 + ], + "score": 0.63, + "content": "3 \\times 1 1 { \\mathrm { e 9 } } \\times 1 , 0 0 0 \\times", + "type": "inline_equation" + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 184, + 505, + 196 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 184, + 181, + 194 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "8 \\times 1 0 3 = 2 . 7 { \\mathrm { e 1 6 } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 181, + 184, + 505, + 196 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "FLOPs. While not insignificant, this is only about 20 times larger than the FLOPs", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 193, + 506, + 208 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 193, + 506, + 208 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "required to process a single example with few-shot ICL using GPT-3 175B. In other words, training", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 205, + 505, + 218 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 205, + 505, + 218 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "T-Few costs as much as using GPT-3 175B to process 20 examples with few-shot ICL. We also", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 216, + 505, + 229 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 216, + 505, + 229 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "found that fine-tuning T0 with T-Few on a single dataset only takes about a half an hour on a single", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 227, + 473, + 239 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 227, + 339, + 239 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "NVIDIA A100 GPU. As of writing, this would cost about", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 339, + 227, + 351, + 238 + ], + "score": 0.85, + "content": "\\$ 2", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 351, + 227, + 473, + 239 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "USD using Microsoft Azure.2", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + } + ], + "index": 9.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 251, + 505, + 317 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 250, + 505, + 263 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 250, + 505, + 263 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Storage cost. T-Few also incurs the largest storage cost. When stored as single-precision floats, the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 261, + 505, + 276 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 261, + 192, + 276 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "parameters added by", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 192, + 261, + 218, + 273 + ], + "score": 0.7, + "content": "( \\mathtt { I A } ) ^ { 3 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 218, + 261, + 250, + 276 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "take up", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 250, + 262, + 282, + 272 + ], + "score": 0.36, + "content": "4 . 2 \\mathrm { M B }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 282, + 261, + 505, + 276 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of space on disk. In contrast, ICL methods only require", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 273, + 505, + 285 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 273, + 505, + 285 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "storing the tokenized in-context examples (typically stored as 32-bit integers), resulting in a smaller", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 283, + 505, + 296 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 284, + 162, + 294 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "4 1 \\times 9 8 \\times 3 2", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 162, + 283, + 179, + 296 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "bits", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 179, + 284, + 216, + 294 + ], + "score": 0.45, + "content": "= 1 6 \\mathrm { k B }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 216, + 283, + 402, + 296 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "disk space requirement. However, we note that", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 403, + 284, + 434, + 294 + ], + "score": 0.47, + "content": "4 . 2 \\mathrm { M B }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 434, + 283, + 505, + 296 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is dwarfed by the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 294, + 505, + 307 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 294, + 360, + 307 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "on-disk size of the model checkpoints themselves – storing the", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 360, + 294, + 385, + 305 + ], + "score": 0.62, + "content": "( \\mathtt { I A } ) ^ { 3 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 385, + 294, + 505, + 307 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "adaptation vectors for 10,000", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 306, + 390, + 317 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 306, + 390, + 317 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "tasks would take about as much space as the T0 checkpoint (41.5 GB).", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + } + ], + "index": 16.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 329, + 505, + 384 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 330, + 506, + 342 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 330, + 506, + 342 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Memory usage. During inference, the primary memory cost is incurred by the model’s parameters.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 339, + 506, + 353 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 339, + 506, + 353 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "The only model smaller than T0 (used by T-Few) is GPT-3 6.7B; otherwise, T-Few will incur a lower", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 351, + 505, + 364 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 351, + 505, + 364 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "memory cost during inference. Additional memory costs are incurred when training T-Few due to the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 362, + 505, + 374 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 362, + 505, + 374 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "need to cache intermediate activations for backpropagation and for the gradient accumulator variables", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 372, + 479, + 386 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 372, + 479, + 386 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "in Adafactor. However, as mentioned above, a single 80GB A100 GPU is enough for T-Few.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 397, + 352, + 409 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 397, + 353, + 411 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 397, + 353, + 411 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "4.3 Performance on Real-world Few-shot Tasks (RAFT)", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 418, + 506, + 538 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 417, + 505, + 431 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 417, + 505, + 431 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "So far, we have run evaluatation on a collection of datasets not explicitly designed for benchmarking", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 429, + 506, + 442 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 429, + 506, + 442 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "few-shot learning. To better evaluate T-Few in the real world, we took our approach to the RAFT", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 439, + 506, + 453 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 439, + 506, + 453 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "benchmark [2]. RAFT comprise 11 “economically valuable” tasks that mirror real-world applications.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 450, + 506, + 464 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 450, + 506, + 464 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Importantly, each RAFT datasets has only 50 training examples with no validation set and a (larger)", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 460, + 506, + 476 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 460, + 506, + 476 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "test set with no public labels, so it is impossible to “cheat” by tuning on an unrealistically-large", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 473, + 506, + 486 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 473, + 506, + 486 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "validation set or by peeking at the test set [32, 31]. We apply T-Few to RAFT by using the standard", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 483, + 506, + 496 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 483, + 506, + 496 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "prompts released alongside the dataset. The accuracy of the current top-5 methods is shown in table 2,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 495, + 505, + 507 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 495, + 411, + 507 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "with further details in appendix G. T-Few attains a state-of-the-art accuracy of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 411, + 495, + 438, + 505 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "7 5 . 8 \\%", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 438, + 495, + 505, + 507 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and outperforms", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 505, + 505, + 518 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 505, + 186, + 518 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the human baseline", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 187, + 506, + 213, + 516 + ], + "score": 0.81, + "content": "7 3 . 5 \\%", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 213, + 505, + 505, + 518 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "accuracy) for the first time. The next-best model (from Schick and Schütze", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 516, + 505, + 528 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 516, + 165, + 528 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "[50]) achieves", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 165, + 516, + 181, + 527 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "6 \\%", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 181, + 516, + 365, + 528 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "lower accuracy and GPT-3 175B attains only", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 366, + 516, + 393, + 527 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "6 2 . 7 \\%", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 393, + 516, + 505, + 528 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". These results validate that", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 35 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 527, + 444, + 541 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 527, + 444, + 541 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "T-Few can be readily applied as-is to novel real-world tasks for strong performance.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 36 + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 552, + 222, + 564 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 551, + 223, + 566 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 551, + 223, + 566 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "4.4 Ablation experiments", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 37 + } + ], + "index": 37 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 572, + 505, + 639 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 573, + 505, + 585 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 573, + 505, + 585 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Given that our T-Few design experiments were on T0-3B, we perform an ablation of some of the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 38 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 583, + 505, + 596 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 583, + 505, + 596 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "ingredients of T-Few on T0. Results are shown in appendix F. While the gains from adding each", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 39 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 594, + 506, + 607 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 594, + 506, + 607 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "ingredient does not always significant increase the accuracy on each individual dataset, each ingredient", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 40 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 605, + 505, + 618 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 605, + 505, + 618 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "consistently improves the average performance across datasets: Removing pre-training decreases", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 41 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 615, + 505, + 630 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 615, + 157, + 630 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "accuracy by", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 158, + 617, + 179, + 627 + ], + "score": 0.85, + "content": "1 . 6 \\%", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 180, + 615, + 505, + 630 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", removing unlikelihood training and length normalization decreases accuracy by", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 42 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 627, + 486, + 639 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 627, + 128, + 638 + ], + "score": 0.85, + "content": "4 . 1 \\%", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 128, + 627, + 459, + 639 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", and removing both pre-training and our additional loss terms reduces accuracy by", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 460, + 627, + 482, + 638 + ], + "score": 0.85, + "content": "2 . 5 \\%", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 482, + 627, + 486, + 639 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ".", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 43 + } + ], + "index": 40.5 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 654, + 197, + 668 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 653, + 198, + 669 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 653, + 198, + 669 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "5 Related Work", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 44 + } + ], + "index": 44 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 680, + 504, + 702 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 680, + 504, + 691 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 680, + 504, + 691 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Currently, prompt tuning is one of the most parameter-efficient methods for large language models", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 45 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 690, + 506, + 703 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 690, + 506, + 703 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "[29, 14, 53]. Liu et al. [54] introduce several tricks to improve prompt tuning, An et al. [55] tune", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 46 + } + ], + "index": 45.5 + } + ], + "page_idx": 8, + "page_size": [ + 612, + 792 + ], + "discarded_blocks": [ + { + "type": "discarded", + "bbox": [ + 115, + 712, + 475, + 722 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 119, + 709, + 476, + 723 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 119, + 709, + 476, + 723 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "2https://docs.microsoft.com/en-us/azure/virtual-machines/ndm-a100-v4-series", + "type": "text" + } + ] + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "discarded", + "bbox": [ + 302, + 742, + 308, + 750 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 302, + 741, + 309, + 752 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 302, + 741, + 309, + 752 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "9", + "type": "text" + } + ] + } + ] + } + ], + "para_blocks": [ + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 72, + 505, + 138 + ], + "lines": [], + "index": 2.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 73, + 506, + 139 + ], + "lines_deleted": true + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 151, + 505, + 238 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 150, + 505, + 163 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 150, + 505, + 163 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Training cost. Since T-Few is the only method that involves updating parameters, it is the only", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 162, + 506, + 174 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 162, + 506, + 174 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "method that incurs a training cost. Training an eleven billion parameter encoder-decoder model for", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 172, + 506, + 186 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 172, + 419, + 186 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "1,000 steps with a batch size of 8 length-103 sequences requires approximately", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 420, + 173, + 506, + 184 + ], + "score": 0.63, + "content": "3 \\times 1 1 { \\mathrm { e 9 } } \\times 1 , 0 0 0 \\times", + "type": "inline_equation" + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 184, + 505, + 196 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 184, + 181, + 194 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "8 \\times 1 0 3 = 2 . 7 { \\mathrm { e 1 6 } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 181, + 184, + 505, + 196 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "FLOPs. While not insignificant, this is only about 20 times larger than the FLOPs", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 193, + 506, + 208 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 193, + 506, + 208 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "required to process a single example with few-shot ICL using GPT-3 175B. In other words, training", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 205, + 505, + 218 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 205, + 505, + 218 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "T-Few costs as much as using GPT-3 175B to process 20 examples with few-shot ICL. We also", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 216, + 505, + 229 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 216, + 505, + 229 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "found that fine-tuning T0 with T-Few on a single dataset only takes about a half an hour on a single", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 227, + 473, + 239 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 227, + 339, + 239 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "NVIDIA A100 GPU. As of writing, this would cost about", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 339, + 227, + 351, + 238 + ], + "score": 0.85, + "content": "\\$ 2", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 351, + 227, + 473, + 239 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "USD using Microsoft Azure.2", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + } + ], + "index": 9.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 104, + 150, + 506, + 239 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 251, + 505, + 317 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 250, + 505, + 263 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 250, + 505, + 263 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Storage cost. T-Few also incurs the largest storage cost. When stored as single-precision floats, the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 261, + 505, + 276 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 261, + 192, + 276 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "parameters added by", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 192, + 261, + 218, + 273 + ], + "score": 0.7, + "content": "( \\mathtt { I A } ) ^ { 3 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 218, + 261, + 250, + 276 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "take up", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 250, + 262, + 282, + 272 + ], + "score": 0.36, + "content": "4 . 2 \\mathrm { M B }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 282, + 261, + 505, + 276 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of space on disk. In contrast, ICL methods only require", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 273, + 505, + 285 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 273, + 505, + 285 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "storing the tokenized in-context examples (typically stored as 32-bit integers), resulting in a smaller", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 283, + 505, + 296 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 284, + 162, + 294 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "4 1 \\times 9 8 \\times 3 2", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 162, + 283, + 179, + 296 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "bits", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 179, + 284, + 216, + 294 + ], + "score": 0.45, + "content": "= 1 6 \\mathrm { k B }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 216, + 283, + 402, + 296 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "disk space requirement. However, we note that", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 403, + 284, + 434, + 294 + ], + "score": 0.47, + "content": "4 . 2 \\mathrm { M B }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 434, + 283, + 505, + 296 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is dwarfed by the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 294, + 505, + 307 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 294, + 360, + 307 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "on-disk size of the model checkpoints themselves – storing the", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 360, + 294, + 385, + 305 + ], + "score": 0.62, + "content": "( \\mathtt { I A } ) ^ { 3 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 385, + 294, + 505, + 307 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "adaptation vectors for 10,000", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 306, + 390, + 317 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 306, + 390, + 317 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "tasks would take about as much space as the T0 checkpoint (41.5 GB).", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + } + ], + "index": 16.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 104, + 250, + 505, + 317 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 329, + 505, + 384 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 330, + 506, + 342 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 330, + 506, + 342 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Memory usage. During inference, the primary memory cost is incurred by the model’s parameters.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 339, + 506, + 353 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 339, + 506, + 353 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "The only model smaller than T0 (used by T-Few) is GPT-3 6.7B; otherwise, T-Few will incur a lower", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 351, + 505, + 364 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 351, + 505, + 364 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "memory cost during inference. Additional memory costs are incurred when training T-Few due to the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 362, + 505, + 374 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 362, + 505, + 374 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "need to cache intermediate activations for backpropagation and for the gradient accumulator variables", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 372, + 479, + 386 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 372, + 479, + 386 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "in Adafactor. However, as mentioned above, a single 80GB A100 GPU is enough for T-Few.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + } + ], + "index": 22, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 330, + 506, + 386 + ] + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 397, + 352, + 409 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 397, + 353, + 411 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 397, + 353, + 411 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "4.3 Performance on Real-world Few-shot Tasks (RAFT)", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 418, + 506, + 538 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 417, + 505, + 431 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 417, + 505, + 431 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "So far, we have run evaluatation on a collection of datasets not explicitly designed for benchmarking", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 429, + 506, + 442 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 429, + 506, + 442 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "few-shot learning. To better evaluate T-Few in the real world, we took our approach to the RAFT", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 439, + 506, + 453 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 439, + 506, + 453 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "benchmark [2]. RAFT comprise 11 “economically valuable” tasks that mirror real-world applications.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 450, + 506, + 464 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 450, + 506, + 464 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Importantly, each RAFT datasets has only 50 training examples with no validation set and a (larger)", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 460, + 506, + 476 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 460, + 506, + 476 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "test set with no public labels, so it is impossible to “cheat” by tuning on an unrealistically-large", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 473, + 506, + 486 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 473, + 506, + 486 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "validation set or by peeking at the test set [32, 31]. We apply T-Few to RAFT by using the standard", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 483, + 506, + 496 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 483, + 506, + 496 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "prompts released alongside the dataset. The accuracy of the current top-5 methods is shown in table 2,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 495, + 505, + 507 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 495, + 411, + 507 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "with further details in appendix G. T-Few attains a state-of-the-art accuracy of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 411, + 495, + 438, + 505 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "7 5 . 8 \\%", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 438, + 495, + 505, + 507 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and outperforms", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 505, + 505, + 518 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 505, + 186, + 518 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the human baseline", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 187, + 506, + 213, + 516 + ], + "score": 0.81, + "content": "7 3 . 5 \\%", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 213, + 505, + 505, + 518 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "accuracy) for the first time. The next-best model (from Schick and Schütze", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 516, + 505, + 528 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 516, + 165, + 528 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "[50]) achieves", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 165, + 516, + 181, + 527 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "6 \\%", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 181, + 516, + 365, + 528 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "lower accuracy and GPT-3 175B attains only", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 366, + 516, + 393, + 527 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "6 2 . 7 \\%", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 393, + 516, + 505, + 528 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". These results validate that", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 35 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 527, + 444, + 541 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 527, + 444, + 541 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "T-Few can be readily applied as-is to novel real-world tasks for strong performance.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 36 + } + ], + "index": 31, + "bbox_fs": [ + 104, + 417, + 506, + 541 + ] + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 552, + 222, + 564 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 551, + 223, + 566 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 551, + 223, + 566 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "4.4 Ablation experiments", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 37 + } + ], + "index": 37 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 572, + 505, + 639 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 573, + 505, + 585 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 573, + 505, + 585 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Given that our T-Few design experiments were on T0-3B, we perform an ablation of some of the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 38 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 583, + 505, + 596 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 583, + 505, + 596 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "ingredients of T-Few on T0. Results are shown in appendix F. While the gains from adding each", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 39 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 594, + 506, + 607 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 594, + 506, + 607 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "ingredient does not always significant increase the accuracy on each individual dataset, each ingredient", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 40 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 605, + 505, + 618 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 605, + 505, + 618 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "consistently improves the average performance across datasets: Removing pre-training decreases", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 41 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 615, + 505, + 630 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 615, + 157, + 630 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "accuracy by", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 158, + 617, + 179, + 627 + ], + "score": 0.85, + "content": "1 . 6 \\%", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 180, + 615, + 505, + 630 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", removing unlikelihood training and length normalization decreases accuracy by", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 42 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 627, + 486, + 639 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 627, + 128, + 638 + ], + "score": 0.85, + "content": "4 . 1 \\%", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 128, + 627, + 459, + 639 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", and removing both pre-training and our additional loss terms reduces accuracy by", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 460, + 627, + 482, + 638 + ], + "score": 0.85, + "content": "2 . 5 \\%", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 482, + 627, + 486, + 639 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ".", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 43 + } + ], + "index": 40.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 104, + 573, + 506, + 639 + ] + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 654, + 197, + 668 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 653, + 198, + 669 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 653, + 198, + 669 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "5 Related Work", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 44 + } + ], + "index": 44 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 680, + 504, + 702 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 680, + 504, + 691 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 680, + 504, + 691 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Currently, prompt tuning is one of the most parameter-efficient methods for large language models", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 45 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 690, + 506, + 703 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 690, + 506, + 703 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "[29, 14, 53]. Liu et al. [54] introduce several tricks to improve prompt tuning, An et al. [55] tune", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 46 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 72, + 505, + 86 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 72, + 505, + 86 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "prompts along with input embeddings for boost in performance, and Chen et al. [56] improve prompt", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + } + ], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 83, + 506, + 97 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 83, + 506, + 97 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "embeddings through continued pre-training. Given optimization difficulties when training prompt", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + } + ], + "index": 1 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 94, + 505, + 107 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 94, + 505, + 107 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "embeddings, Diao et al. [57] recently used black-box optimization to train prompt embeddings", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + } + ], + "index": 2 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 105, + 506, + 118 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 105, + 506, + 118 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "without requiring gradients. Several works have analyzed prompt tuning from the perspective of", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + } + ], + "index": 3 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 116, + 505, + 128 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 116, + 505, + 128 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "interpretability Khashabi et al. [58] and its similarity to other PEFT methods He et al. [30]. Prompt", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + } + ], + "index": 4 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 127, + 505, + 139 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 127, + 505, + 139 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "tuning has been applied to various applications for NLP including continual learning [59], model", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + } + ], + "index": 5 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 137, + 505, + 152 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 137, + 505, + 152 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "robustness [60, 61], summarization [62], machine translation [63], co-training [64], probing language", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 148, + 505, + 162 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 148, + 505, + 162 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "models [65, 65], inverse prompting [66] and transfer learning [67]. He et al. [68] recently proposed", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + } + ], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 160, + 505, + 172 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 160, + 505, + 172 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the use of a hypernetwork to predict prompts for new tasks (rather than training the prompt parameters", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 171, + 506, + 183 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 171, + 506, + 183 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "with gradient descent). Prompt tuning and other PEFT methods have also been explored outside of", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + } + ], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 182, + 471, + 194 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 182, + 471, + 194 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the context of language models (e.g. vision [22, 69] and vision-and-language models [26]).", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + } + ], + "index": 10 + } + ], + "index": 45.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 106, + 680, + 506, + 703 + ] + } + ] + }, + { + "preproc_blocks": [ + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 72, + 505, + 193 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 72, + 505, + 86 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 72, + 505, + 86 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "prompts along with input embeddings for boost in performance, and Chen et al. [56] improve prompt", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 83, + 506, + 97 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 83, + 506, + 97 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "embeddings through continued pre-training. Given optimization difficulties when training prompt", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 1 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 94, + 505, + 107 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 94, + 505, + 107 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "embeddings, Diao et al. [57] recently used black-box optimization to train prompt embeddings", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 2 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 105, + 506, + 118 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 105, + 506, + 118 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "without requiring gradients. Several works have analyzed prompt tuning from the perspective of", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 3 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 116, + 505, + 128 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 116, + 505, + 128 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "interpretability Khashabi et al. [58] and its similarity to other PEFT methods He et al. [30]. Prompt", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 127, + 505, + 139 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 127, + 505, + 139 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "tuning has been applied to various applications for NLP including continual learning [59], model", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 5 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 137, + 505, + 152 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 137, + 505, + 152 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "robustness [60, 61], summarization [62], machine translation [63], co-training [64], probing language", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 148, + 505, + 162 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 148, + 505, + 162 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "models [65, 65], inverse prompting [66] and transfer learning [67]. He et al. [68] recently proposed", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 160, + 505, + 172 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 160, + 505, + 172 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the use of a hypernetwork to predict prompts for new tasks (rather than training the prompt parameters", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 171, + 506, + 183 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 171, + 506, + 183 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "with gradient descent). Prompt tuning and other PEFT methods have also been explored outside of", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 182, + 471, + 194 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 182, + 471, + 194 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the context of language models (e.g. vision [22, 69] and vision-and-language models [26]).", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + } + ], + "index": 5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 198, + 504, + 264 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 197, + 505, + 210 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 197, + 505, + 210 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Separately, various studies have considered few-shot full-model fine-tuning with discrete prompts", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 208, + 506, + 222 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 208, + 506, + 222 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "[70]. Recent work has analyzed training with discrete prompts, demonstrating a boost in performance", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 220, + 506, + 232 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 220, + 506, + 232 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "with prompting when training on various numbers of examples [71], finding that models perform", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 231, + 506, + 244 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 231, + 506, + 244 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "similarly when trained on good and bad prompts [11], and exploring which prompts work well for", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 241, + 506, + 254 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 241, + 506, + 254 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "few-shot and full-shot setting [72]. There have also been efforts to develop methods that find discrete", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 252, + 443, + 266 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 252, + 443, + 266 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "prompts [73, 74] and training prompts using methods similar to prompt tuning [75].", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + } + ], + "index": 13.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 269, + 504, + 324 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 269, + 505, + 281 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 269, + 505, + 281 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "There has also been a great deal of work on improving ICL. Chen et al. [5], Min et al. [6] use ICL for", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 280, + 506, + 293 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 280, + 506, + 293 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "meta-learning to perform few-shot learning on new tasks. Lampinen et al. [7] show ICL can improve", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 291, + 505, + 303 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 291, + 505, + 303 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "when explanations are provided and [8] use ICL with text retrieved from the web for open-domain", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 301, + 505, + 314 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 301, + 505, + 314 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "question-answering. Meanwhile, Min et al. [9] analyze how ICL works and show that ICL can still", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 313, + 414, + 325 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 313, + 414, + 325 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "perform well when incorrect labels are provided for the in-context examples.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 329, + 505, + 449 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 328, + 506, + 342 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 328, + 506, + 342 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "With the advent of billion-parameter language models, there has been a great deal of recent interest", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 340, + 506, + 352 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 340, + 506, + 352 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "in PEFT methods and their compatibility in the few-shot setting. Mahabadi et al. [28] found that", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 351, + 506, + 364 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 351, + 506, + 364 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "PEFT outperforms standard fine-tuning in the low-resource setting. In concurrent work, Mahabadi", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 361, + 506, + 376 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 361, + 506, + 376 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "et al. [76] find that PEFT compares favorably in few-shot fine-tuning against discrete prompts (e.g.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 371, + 506, + 386 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 371, + 506, + 386 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "PET [70]). Also concurrently, Moosavi et al. [77] propose a framework for introducing adapters", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 384, + 506, + 396 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 384, + 506, + 396 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "whose architecture and design vary from task to task and demonstrate improved results in few-shot", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 394, + 505, + 407 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 394, + 505, + 407 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "settings. Gu et al. [18] and Vu et al. [19] both explored how pre-training prompt tuning parameters", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 406, + 505, + 418 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 406, + 505, + 418 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "can improve when limited labeled data is available. For few-shot learning, Triantafillou et al. [78]", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 416, + 505, + 429 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 416, + 505, + 429 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "explore learning universal and dataset dependent parameters that can be blended for generalization.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 428, + 505, + 440 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 428, + 505, + 440 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Requeima et al. [79] use conditional neural adaptive processes and Li et al. [80] leverage distillation", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 437, + 449, + 451 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 437, + 449, + 451 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "from multiple feature extractors to learn new classes or domains in few-shot learning.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 466, + 182, + 480 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 465, + 185, + 483 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 465, + 185, + 483 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "6 Conclusion", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + } + ], + "index": 33 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 492, + 505, + 635 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 492, + 505, + 505 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 492, + 505, + 505 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "We introduced T-Few, a parameter-efficient few-shot learning recipe that attains higher accuracy than", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 503, + 505, + 516 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 503, + 505, + 516 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "few-shot ICL at a lower computational cost. T-Few uses (IA)3, a new PEFT method that rescales", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 35 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 513, + 505, + 527 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 513, + 285, + 527 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "inner activations with learned vectors. Using", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 285, + 514, + 310, + 525 + ], + "score": 0.34, + "content": "( \\mathtt { I A } ) ^ { 3 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 311, + 513, + 505, + 527 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "produces better performance than fine-tuning the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 36 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 525, + 505, + 538 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 525, + 505, + 538 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "full model while introducing minimal additional parameters. T-Few also uses two additional loss", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 37 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 537, + 505, + 548 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 537, + 505, + 548 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "terms that encourage the model to output lower probabilities for incorrect choices and account for the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 38 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 547, + 505, + 560 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 547, + 505, + 560 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "length of different answer choices. 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We hope our results", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 45 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 624, + 495, + 637 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 624, + 495, + 637 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "provide a new perspective on how best to perform few-shot learning with large language models.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 46 + } + ], + "index": 40 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 651, + 339, + 666 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 650, + 341, + 669 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 650, + 341, + 669 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Acknowledgments and Disclosure of Funding", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 47 + } + ], + "index": 47 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 678, + 505, + 722 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 677, + 505, + 691 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 677, + 505, + 691 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "We thank Brian Lester and Noah Constant for helpful discussion on debugging prompt tuning and", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 48 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 689, + 505, + 700 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 689, + 505, + 700 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Rabeeh Karimi Mahabadi for help with Compacter and Intrinsic SAID. We also thank Stella Biderman", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 49 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 700, + 506, + 713 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 700, + 506, + 713 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and the Google TPU Research Cloud who provided valuable computational resources to support this", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 50 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 711, + 412, + 723 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 711, + 412, + 723 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "work. 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There have also been efforts to develop methods that find discrete", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 252, + 443, + 266 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 252, + 443, + 266 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "prompts [73, 74] and training prompts using methods similar to prompt tuning [75].", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + } + ], + "index": 13.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 197, + 506, + 266 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 269, + 504, + 324 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 269, + 505, + 281 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 269, + 505, + 281 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "There has also been a great deal of work on improving ICL. Chen et al. [5], Min et al. [6] use ICL for", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 280, + 506, + 293 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 280, + 506, + 293 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "meta-learning to perform few-shot learning on new tasks. Lampinen et al. [7] show ICL can improve", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 291, + 505, + 303 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 291, + 505, + 303 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "when explanations are provided and [8] use ICL with text retrieved from the web for open-domain", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 301, + 505, + 314 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 301, + 505, + 314 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "question-answering. Meanwhile, Min et al. [9] analyze how ICL works and show that ICL can still", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 313, + 414, + 325 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 313, + 414, + 325 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "perform well when incorrect labels are provided for the in-context examples.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + } + ], + "index": 19, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 269, + 506, + 325 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 329, + 505, + 449 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 328, + 506, + 342 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 328, + 506, + 342 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "With the advent of billion-parameter language models, there has been a great deal of recent interest", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 340, + 506, + 352 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 340, + 506, + 352 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "in PEFT methods and their compatibility in the few-shot setting. Mahabadi et al. [28] found that", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 351, + 506, + 364 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 351, + 506, + 364 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "PEFT outperforms standard fine-tuning in the low-resource setting. In concurrent work, Mahabadi", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 361, + 506, + 376 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 361, + 506, + 376 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "et al. [76] find that PEFT compares favorably in few-shot fine-tuning against discrete prompts (e.g.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 371, + 506, + 386 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 371, + 506, + 386 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "PET [70]). Also concurrently, Moosavi et al. [77] propose a framework for introducing adapters", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 384, + 506, + 396 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 384, + 506, + 396 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "whose architecture and design vary from task to task and demonstrate improved results in few-shot", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 394, + 505, + 407 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 394, + 505, + 407 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "settings. Gu et al. [18] and Vu et al. [19] both explored how pre-training prompt tuning parameters", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 406, + 505, + 418 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 406, + 505, + 418 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "can improve when limited labeled data is available. For few-shot learning, Triantafillou et al. [78]", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 416, + 505, + 429 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 416, + 505, + 429 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "explore learning universal and dataset dependent parameters that can be blended for generalization.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 428, + 505, + 440 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 428, + 505, + 440 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Requeima et al. [79] use conditional neural adaptive processes and Li et al. [80] leverage distillation", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 437, + 449, + 451 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 437, + 449, + 451 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "from multiple feature extractors to learn new classes or domains in few-shot learning.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + } + ], + "index": 27, + "bbox_fs": [ + 104, + 328, + 506, + 451 + ] + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 466, + 182, + 480 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 465, + 185, + 483 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 465, + 185, + 483 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "6 Conclusion", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + } + ], + "index": 33 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 492, + 505, + 635 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 492, + 505, + 505 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 492, + 505, + 505 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "We introduced T-Few, a parameter-efficient few-shot learning recipe that attains higher accuracy than", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 503, + 505, + 516 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 503, + 505, + 516 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "few-shot ICL at a lower computational cost. 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We hope our results", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 45 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 624, + 495, + 637 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 624, + 495, + 637 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "provide a new perspective on how best to perform few-shot learning with large language models.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 46 + } + ], + "index": 40, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 492, + 506, + 637 + ] + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 651, + 339, + 666 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 650, + 341, + 669 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 650, + 341, + 669 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Acknowledgments and Disclosure of Funding", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 47 + } + ], + "index": 47 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 678, + 505, + 722 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 677, + 505, + 691 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 677, + 505, + 691 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "We thank Brian Lester and Noah Constant for helpful discussion on debugging prompt tuning and", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 48 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 689, + 505, + 700 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 689, + 505, + 700 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Rabeeh Karimi Mahabadi for help with Compacter and Intrinsic SAID. We also thank Stella Biderman", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 49 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 700, + 506, + 713 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 700, + 506, + 713 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and the Google TPU Research Cloud who provided valuable computational resources to support this", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 50 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 711, + 412, + 723 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 711, + 412, + 723 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "work. This work was supported by NSF-AI Engage Institute DRL-2112635.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 51 + } + ], + "index": 49.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 677, + 506, + 723 + ] + } + ] + }, + { + "preproc_blocks": [ + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 105, + 60, + 507, + 726 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 70, + 165, + 86 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 70, + 165, + 86 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "References", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 109, + 90, + 506, + 103 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 109, + 90, + 506, + 103 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "[1] Victor Sanh, Albert Webson, Colin Raffel, Stephen H. Bach, Lintang Sutawika, Zaid Alyafeai,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 1 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 125, + 99, + 506, + 116 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 125, + 99, + 506, + 116 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Antoine Chaffin, Arnaud Stiegler, Teven Le Scao, Arun Raja, et al. 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