arousal levels are directly associated with the personality trait of extraversion ( eysenck, 1977 ) and testosterone levels are linked to levels of psychotocism ( eysenck, 1997 ). the biologically deterministic premise postulated within segments of personality theory sparked an intense debate in criminology ( andrews & wormith, 1989 ; gibbons, 1989 ), which provides just a glimpse into a chasm in the field of criminology that has been rupturing for decades. criticisms against deterministic thought can best be understood within the historical context ( hirschi & hindelang, 1977 ; laub & sampson, 1991 ; rafter, 2006 ). criminology is a field full of deep schisms and sharp debates, a sort of “ hybrid ” discipline ( gibbons, 1989 ), with even the historical accounts of criminology being disputed ( brown, 2006 ; forsythe, 1995 ; garland, 1997 ; jones, 2008 ; rafter, 2004 ). yet, it is generally agreed that the foundations for understanding criminal behavior, even the justification for the existence of the discipline of criminology, is rooted in psychobiological perspectives ( brown, 2006 ; garland, 1997 ; glicksohn, 2002 ; jones, 2008 ). many of those considered to be the founders of criminology collaborated with psychiatrists focusing on the rehabilitation and medical or psychological treatment of criminal deviance, viewing such behavior as a disease of the mind or intellect rather than holding to the more primitive explanations that attributed crime to manifestations of evil spirits or sinfulness ( herve, 2007 ; jones, 2008 ; rafter, 2004 ). with the dawning of the ideals of the enlightenment, interest grew in the notion that just as there are natural laws that act upon the physical world, there may be underlying forces that propel individuals or groups to react in certain ways ( jones, 2008 ). two distinct schools of positivism arose during this period, those who assumed that these underlying forces were societal and those who assumed that the forces propelling criminal behavior were individualistic or psychological. one faction of nineteenth century positivists, with researchers such as guerry and quetelet, focused primarily on societal forces and emphasized geographical differences in crime rates, especially the effects of urbanization ( jones, 2008 ; quetelet, 2003 ). at the core of this work was the idea that individuals do not have free will to act upon their societal environment, but rather are being acted upon by social forces ; “ society


of urbanization ( jones, 2008 ; quetelet, 2003 ). at the core of this work was the idea that individuals do not have free will to act upon their societal environment, but rather are being acted upon by social forces ; “ society prepares crime and the criminal is only the instrument that executes them ” ( quetelet, physique sociale, quoted in jones, 2008, p. 8 ). however, the name most associated with nineteenth century positivism is cesare lombroso. lombroso considered criminal behavior as indicative of degeneration to a lower level of functioning caused by brain damage or from certain genetic impacts ( such as birth defects passed to children born of diseased or alcoholic parents ), which impeded natural development ( glicksohn, 2002 ; jones, 2008 ). jones ( 2008 ) notes that lombroso ’ antagonists recount his professed allegiance to the use of the scientific method, yet they also detail how he would elaborate wildly, speculating far beyond the bounds of his empirical observations. occasionally, lombroso ’ s work is completely omitted from texts advocating individualistic or psychological approaches to criminal behavior, as lombroso ’ s work is seen as an embarrassment and deemed a precursor to the nazi ideology of the ayran race ( jones, 2008 ; rafter, 2006 ). against this blemished backdrop of nazi ideologies of racial hygiene, labeled biological determinism, sociologically inclined theories flourished within criminology and individualistic explanations for criminality were deserted as taboo and unmentionable ( andrews & wormith, 1989 ; glicksohn, 2002 ; hirschi & hindelang, 1977 ; laub & sampson, 1991 ). concerns about policy implications within such a historical context, ethical and moral concerns were raised regarding personality theory leading to inequitable or brutish policies ( rafter, 2006 ). fears of policy recommendations forcing medical procedures, drug treatment, or excessively restrictive practices were common concerns levied against highly deterministic psychological theories ( bartol & bartol, 2004 ; gibbons, 1986 ; jones, 2008 ). labeling or stigmatizing persons as psychopaths, sociopaths, or antisocial, raised concerns that such labels might lead to unmerited, harsh sentences, as such individuals would be deemed as incorrigible ( andrews & wormith, 1989 ). conversely, there were concerns that labeling offenders with personality disorders could result in doubts about their culp


posted by admin on august 21st, 2008 maximum transmission unit ( mtu ) the size ( in bytes ) of the largest packet or frame that a given layer of a communications protocol can pass onwards. the mtu may be fixed by standards ( as is the case with ethernet ) or decided at connect time. a higher mtu brings higher bandwidth efficiency. however, large packets can block up a slow interface for some time, increasing the lag for further packets. the mtu for ethernet is 1500 bytes, 1492 for pppoe and 576 for dialup. in very rare occasions, you may need to change the mtu size due to connectivity issues with your isps or in a vpn environment on your opensuse. the following procedure should help to change the maximum transmission unit ( mtu ) in opensuse. in network manager if you are using network - manager to control the network settings in your opensuse then 1. from the menu, click computer – yast. 2. click network devices in the leftpane and click network settings 3. select the network adapter and click edit. 4. under general tab, select from the default “ mtu ” values or enter your own required value. please be aware of what you are doing as an incorrect mtu size setting can cause connectivity and performance issues. click next and finish to complete the settings wizard. this will set the mtu value and restart the network service. in traditional network configuration if you are not using the network manager and use the traditional method of controlling network settings using ifcfg scripts then 1. using a terminal window, change directory to / etc / sysconfig / network / opensuse : ~ # cd / etc / sysconfig / network 2. in / etc / sysconfig / network directory, you have a config file for each of your network interface card. for instance, on my laptop, i have ifcfg - eth0 ( ethernet ) and ifcfg - wlan0 ( wireless ). these hold configurations for the respective network cards. edit the interface file and enter the line as following opensuse : / etc / sysconfig / network # vi ifcfg - eth0 and add a line like so it looks something like this opensuse11 : / etc / sysconfig / network # cat ifcfg - eth0 3. restart the network service or reboot your computer for the changes to take


this series enables children to use the computer for independent research into a range of curriculum related topics. they read the information from talking books and then link to writing grids so they can write about what they have read. high quality real speech gives added support on both the reading and writing activities. perfect for the reading strand throughout the literacy curriculum! this resource lets you find out about the different parts of a plant. learn about plant habitats and some of the ways that plants are used by people. use the information about growth and reproduction to write about pollination, fertilization, and seed dispersal. " find out " information is presented in three levels of difficulty, designed to meet the needs of children with a wide range of abilities. - book one / level one - the information is presented in short sentences. the associated writing grids enable children to work with sentence beginnings and endings to recreate the sentences from each information page. - book two / level two - the information pages contain flowing text, and the writing grids offer a wider choice of words. this enables students to construct their own sentences. - book three / level three - this level includes more in - depth information. the writing grids offer sentence starters and word banks than enable students to write an extended piece of text. students use the keyboard as well as the grid as they interpret and respond to the text. find out and write about series packed with rich multimedia content that is perfect for both literacy and subject teaching the unique find out and write about series for clicker provides a range of multimedia cds ideal for literacy teaching. early readers of all ages can research the non - fiction material and then use the associated writing grids to write about what they have learnt. a find out and write about cd - rom contains an interactive talking book of non - fiction text. children can read the text or click the ` listen ` button to hear it spoken. children can also click on a word with the right - hand mouse button to hear it. each page of the book contains a link to a clicker writing grid that relates directly to that page, so children can write about the information they have just learned. children write by clicking on a word with the left - hand mouse button. words are colour - coded to help writers compose sentences successfully. emergent, struggling and fluent readers can all use the resources, as the information is provided at three differentiated levels. at level 1 for example, students are given short sentences, which they can choose to have read to them. the writing grids, relating directly


waking the giant bill mcguire while we transmit more than two million tweets a day and nearly one hundred trillion emails each year, we ' re also emitting record amounts of carbon dioxide ( co2 ). bill mcguire, professor of geophysical and climate hazards at university college london, expects our continued rise in greenhouse gas emissions to awaken a slumbering giant : the earth ' s crust. in waking the giant : how a changing climate triggers earthquakes, tsunamis and volcanoes ( oxford university press ), he explains that when the earth ' s crust ( or geosphere ) becomes disrupted from rising temperatures and a c [ o. sub. 2 ] - rich atmosphere, natural disasters strike more frequently and with catastrophic force. applying a " straightforward presentation of what we know about how climate and the geosphere interact, " the book links previous warming periods 20, 000 to 5, 000 years ago with a greater abundance of tsunamis, landslides, seismic activity and volcanic eruptions. mcguire urgently warns of the " tempestuous future of our own making " as we progressively inch toward a similar climate. despite his scientific testimony to congress stating " what is going on in the arctic now is the biggest and fastest thing that nature has ever done " and the " incontrovertible " data that the earth ' s climate draws lively response from the geosphere, brutal weather events are still not widely seen as being connected to human influence. is our global population sleepwalking toward imminent destruction, he asks, until " it is obvious, even to the most entrenched denier, that our climate is being transformed? "


from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia preventive medicine or preventive care refers to measures taken to prevent diseases, ( or injuries ) rather than curing them or treating their symptoms. the term contrasts in method with curative and palliative medicine, and in scope with public health methods ( which work at the level of population health rather than individual health ). this takes place at primary, secondary and tertiary prevention levels. - primary prevention avoids the development of a disease. most population - based health promotion activities are primary preventive measures. - secondary prevention activities are aimed at early disease detection, thereby increasing opportunities for interventions to prevent progression of the disease and emergence of symptoms. - tertiary prevention reduces the negative impact of an already established disease by restoring function and reducing disease - related complications. - quaternary prevention is the set of health activities that mitigate or avoid the consequences of unnecessary or excessive interventions in the health system. simple examples of preventive medicine include hand washing and immunizations. preventive care may include examinations and screening tests tailored to an individual ' s age, health, and family history. for example, a person with a family history of certain cancers or other diseases would begin screening at an earlier age and / or more frequently than those with no family history. on the other side of preventive medicine, some non - profit organizations, such as the northern california cancer center, apply epidemiological research towards finding ways to prevent diseases. universal, selective, and indicated gordon ( 1987 ) in the area of disease prevention, and later kumpfer and baxley in the area of substance use proposed a three - tiered preventive intervention classification system : universal, selective, and indicated prevention. amongst others, this typology has gained favour and is used by the u. s. institute of medicine, the nida and the european monitoring centre for drugs and drug addiction. - universal prevention addresses the entire population ( national, local community, school, district ) and aim to prevent or delay the abuse of alcohol, tobacco, and other drugs. all individuals, without screening, are provided with information and skills necessary to prevent the problem. - selective prevention focuses on groups whose risk of developing problems of alcohol abuse or dependence is above average. the subgroups may be distinguished by characteristics such as age, gender, family history, or economic status. for example, drug campaigns in recreational settings. - indicated prevention involves a screening process, and aims to identify individuals who exhibit early signs of substance abuse and other problem behaviours. identifiers may include falling


gender, family history, or economic status. for example, drug campaigns in recreational settings. - indicated prevention involves a screening process, and aims to identify individuals who exhibit early signs of substance abuse and other problem behaviours. identifiers may include falling grades among students, known problem consumption or conduct disorders, alienation from parents, school, and positive peer groups etc. outside the scope of this three - tier model is environmental prevention. environmental prevention approaches are typically managed at the regulatory or community level, and focus on interventions to deter drug consumption. prohibition and bans ( e. g. smoking workplace bans, alcohol advertising bans ) may be viewed as the ultimate environmental restriction. however, in practice environmental preventions programmes embrace various initiatives at the macro and micro level, from government monopolies for alcohol sales, through roadside sobriety or drug tests, worker / pupil / student drug testing, increased policing in sensitive settings ( near schools, at rock festivals ), and legislative guidelines aimed at precipitating punishments ( warnings, penalties, fines ). professionals involved in the public health aspect of this practice may be involved in entomology, pest control, and public health inspections. public health inspections can include recreational waters, pools, beaches, food preparation and serving, and industrial hygiene inspections and surveys. in the united states, preventive medicine is a medical specialty, one of the 24 recognized by the american board of medical specialties ( abms ). it encompasses three areas of specialization : - general preventive medicine and public health - aerospace medicine - occupational medicine in order to become board - certified in one of the preventive medicine areas of specialization, a licensed u. s. physician ( m. d. or d. o. ) must successfully complete a preventive medicine medical residency program following a one - year internship. following that, the physician must complete a year of practice in that special area and pass the preventive medicine board examination. the residency program is at least two years in length and includes completion of a master ' s degree in public health ( mph ) or equivalent. the board exam takes an entire day : the morning session concentrates on general preventive medicine questions, while the afternoon session concentrates on the one of the three areas of specialization that the applicant has studied. in addition, there are two subspecialty areas of certification : these certifications require sitting for an examination following successful completion of an mt or uhb fellowship and prior board certification in one of the 24 abms - recognized specialties. prophylaxis


, there are two subspecialty areas of certification : these certifications require sitting for an examination following successful completion of an mt or uhb fellowship and prior board certification in one of the 24 abms - recognized specialties. prophylaxis ( greek " προφυλασσω " to guard or prevent beforehand ) is any medical or public health procedure whose purpose is to prevent, rather than treat or cure a disease. in general terms, prophylactic measures are divided between primary prophylaxis ( to prevent the development of a disease ) and secondary prophylaxis ( whereby the disease has already developed and the patient is protected against worsening of this process ). some specific examples of prophylaxis include : - influenza vaccines are prophylactic. - antibiotics are sometimes used prophylactically : for example, during the 2001 anthrax attacks scare in the united states, patients believed to be exposed were given ciprofloxacin. in similar manner, the use of antibiotic ointments on burns and other wounds is prophylactic. antibiotics are also given prophylactically just before some medical procedures such as pacemaker insertion. - tricyclic antidepressants ( tcas ) may, with caution, be an example of a chronic migraine preventative ( see amitriptyline and migraines ' prevention by medicine ). - antimalarials such as chloroquine are used both in treatment and as prophylaxis by visitors to countries where malaria is endemic to prevent the development of the parasitic plasmodium, which cause malaria. - condoms are sometimes referred to as " prophylactics " because of their use to prevent the transmission of sexually transmitted infections. - low - molecular - weight heparin is used as a prophylaxis in hospital patients, as they are at risk for several forms of thrombosis due to their immobilisation. - professional cleaning of the teeth is dental prophylaxis. - risk reducing or prophylactic mastectomies may be carried out for carriers of the brca mutation gene to minimise the risk of developing breast cancer - daily and moderate physical exercise in various forms can be called prophylactic because it can maintain or improve one ' s health. cycling for transport appears to very significantly improve health by reducing risk of heart diseases, various cancers, muscular - and skeletal diseases, and overall mortality. - prophylaxis may be administered as vaccine. prop


can maintain or improve one ' s health. cycling for transport appears to very significantly improve health by reducing risk of heart diseases, various cancers, muscular - and skeletal diseases, and overall mortality. - prophylaxis may be administered as vaccine. prophylactic vaccines include : pep, npep, prep, or nprep. pep stands for post - exposure prophylaxis used in an occupational setting. npep is non - occupational post - exposure prophylaxis. npep may be used in a recreational setting ; for example, during intercourse, if the condom breaks and one partner is hiv - positive, npep will help to decrease the probability of spread of infection of hiv. prep is often used in occupational settings, e. g., in hospital staff to prevent the spread of hiv or hepatitis c from patient to staff. nprep is a measure taken before exposure but in a non - occupational setting ( non - occupational pre - exposure prophylaxis ) ; for example, injection drug users may seek nprep vaccinations. leading cause of preventable death leading causes of preventable death worldwide as of the year 2001. leading causes of preventable deaths in the united states in the year 2000. - ^ mesh preventive + medicine - ^ mesh primary + prevention - ^ mesh secondary + prevention - ^ mesh tertiary + prevention - ^ gordon, r. ( 1987 ), ‘ an operational classification of disease prevention ’, in steinberg, j. a. and silverman, m. m. ( eds. ), preventing mental disorders, rockville, md : u. s. department of health and human services, 1987. - ^ kumpfer, k. l., and baxley, g. b. ( 1997 ), ' drug abuse prevention : what works? ', national institute on drug abuse, rockville. - ^ how should influenza prophylaxis be implemented? - ^ de oliveira jc, martinelli m, d ' orio nishioka sa, et al. ( 2009 ). " efficacy of antibiotic prophylaxis prior to the implantation of pacemakers and cardioverter - defibrillators : results of a large, prospective, randomized, double - blinded, placebo - controlled trial ". circ arrhythmia electrophysiol 2 : 29 – 34. doi : 10. 1161 / circep. 108. 795906. - ^ lars bo andersen et al. ( june 2000 ). " all


circ arrhythmia electrophysiol 2 : 29 – 34. doi : 10. 1161 / circep. 108. 795906. - ^ lars bo andersen et al. ( june 2000 ). " all - cause mortality associated with physical activity during leisure time, work, sports, and cycling to work. ". arch intern med. 160 ( 11 ) : 1621 – 8. doi : 10. 1001 / archinte. 160. 11. 1621. pmid 10847255. - ^ lopez ad, mathers cd, ezzati m, jamison dt, murray cj ( may 2006 ). " global and regional burden of disease and risk factors, 2001 : systematic analysis of population health data ". lancet 367 ( 9524 ) : 1747 – 57. doi : 10. 1016 / s0140 - 6736 ( 06 ) 68770 - 9. pmid 16731270. - ^ mokdad ah, marks js, stroup df, gerberding jl ( march 2004 ). " actual causes of death in the united states, 2000 ". jama 291 ( 10 ) : 1238 – 45. doi : 10. 1001 / jama. 291. 10. 1238. pmid 15010446. http : / / www. csdp. org / research / 1238. pdf. - sackett dl. the arrogance of preventive medicine. cmaj. 2004 ; 167 : 363 - 4. - gervas j, perez fernandez m. los limites de la prevencion clinica. amf. 2007 ; 3 ( 6 ) : 352 - 60. - gervas j, perez fernandez m, gonzalez de dios j. problemas practicos y eticos de la prevencion secundaria. a proposito de dos ejemplos de pediatria. rev esp salud publica. 2007 ; 81 : 345 - 52. - starfield b, hyde j, gervas j, heath i. the concept of prevention : a good idea gone astray? j epidemiol community health. 2008 ; 62 ( 7 ) : 580 - 3. - gervas j, starfield b, heath i. is clinical prevention better than cure? lancet. 2008 ; 372 : 1997 - 9. - gervas j, perez fernandez m. los danos provocados por la preven


hvac career information t he world outdoors is often an uncomfortable place. weather changes can bring precipitation, blustery winds, and extreme temperatures. that ' s why we turn to the shelter of indoor spaces. we rely on climate - controlled environments to carry out our lives comfortably and effectively. but it takes much more than just a few walls, a roof, and insulation to make it all happen. so, what is hvac? what is hvac and hvac / r? hvac stands for heating, ventilation, and air conditioning. the hvac systems in our homes, offices, shopping malls, and other buildings allow us to live inside without too much concern for what ' s happening outside. but hvac goes beyond the regulation of indoor temperatures. when such systems are properly installed and maintained, they contribute to better airflow and healthier indoor air quality, which is especially important for people with allergies, asthma, or other medical issues. in addition to heating, ventilation, and air conditioning, there is another type of climate - control technology that is crucial to modern life. the " r " in hvac / r stands for refrigeration. the storage and transport of perishable foods, medicines, and other items we may take for granted is made possible by today ' s commercial refrigeration systems. ( side note : don ' t be confused by the different ways in which the " r " is added to hvac. the subtle variations you might encounter — hvac & r, hvac / r, hvacr, hvac - r, or hvac r — all mean the same thing. ) advances in hvac technology are making the heating and cooling of new and retrofitted buildings more and more energy efficient. refrigerants are being developed and used that are more environmentally friendly. and technologies such as hydronics ( water - based heating ), geothermal, and solar - powered heating and cooling are turning the hvac profession into one with a growing number of " green " jobs. hvac systems are installed and serviced by hvac technicians ( who are sometimes known as hvac mechanics or hvac installers ). what does an hvac technician do? the work of an hvac technician can be rather varied. from installation to routine maintenance to repair, the many duties of a professional in the heating, ventilation, and air conditioning industry often add up to working days full of diverse activities. however, a lot depends on whether or not an hvac technician chooses to specialize


can mean you ' re not able to spend as much quality time with those you care about. on the other hand, slow weeks are also inevitable, so you have to know how to account for the ups and downs in your personal finances. - irritable customers — since many service calls happen when customers are in distress over failing heating or cooling equipment during extreme weather, hvac technicians sometimes must deal directly with people who are cranky and impatient. tempers are heightened when a problem can ' t be fixed right away because a part needs to be ordered. - delayed gratification — it takes time — usually at least five years — to develop the skills that enable you to begin making what are considered good wages in the hvac industry. as a new technician, you should expect the starting pay to be lower than what you might be hoping for. you have to be willing to stick it out and learn everything you can in the meantime. what are the good things about working in hvac? the downsides of being an hvac technician are balanced — and some might even say overcome — by the many positive attributes of the hvac trade. here are a few of them : - a sense of accomplishment — it can be intensely rewarding to fix problematic equipment or install new systems since it means that your hard work directly impacts the ability of people to feel comfortable in their environments. you have the chance to make someone ' s day if they were freezing ( or sweating ) prior to your arrival. plus, looking back on a job well done often leads to a great feeling of personal satisfaction, regardless of how difficult it might have been. - built - in exercise for mind and body — despite the occupational hazards, being an hvac technician can help you stay in shape — physically and mentally. - variety — every day is bound to be somewhat different. you won ' t be stuck in an office. instead, you ' ll get to solve a variety of problems and meet new people. and the fast pace of busy times helps the work days pass quickly. - pride — because hvac technicians can impact the well - being of people and the environment, they often feel a great sense of personal responsibility and pride of purpose. - stimulation — opportunities for learning something new happen on a frequent basis, which means boredom is rare. as the hvac industry moves closer and closer toward full computer automation for heating, ventilation, and air conditioning systems, the chance to develop advanced skills and knowledge also increases. - long - term stability — once you ' ve established yourself in


now a team of university of washington and battelle scientists have identified metabolites in urine that could potentially predict young children at risk of developing autism. the varying degrees and manifestations of this developmental brain condition are collectively called autistic spectrum disorder. asd is characterized by impaired social interactions, difficulty in communicating, and repetitive behaviors. many other symptoms also can be present, including anxiety, depression, learning disabilities, sleep disorders, and gastrointestinal problems. currently, diagnosing a child with asd requires a thorough evaluation by a team of health professionals from a wide range of specialties. early intervention often can reduce or prevent the more severe symptoms and disabilities associated with asd. autism specialists and many other people look forward to a day when a test for a biological marker might detect autism risk in young children. to this end, seattle researchers evaluated porphyrins in the urine of children to determine if the levels of these metabolites could predict asd. the research team included james woods, professor of environmental and occupational health sciences at the uw school of public health, and nicholas heyer and diana echeverria, senior scientists at battelle centers for public health research and evaluation while porphyrins are found in everyone ’ s urine, the research team observed that certain kinds of these metabolic byproducts are much higher in the urine of some children with autism, compared with typically developing, non - autisitic children of the same age. additionally, when children with autism were randomly compared with typically developing children or children with other developmental disorders, the porphyrin biomarkers correctly identified more than thirty percent of autistic children without incorrectly identifying a single non - autistic child. the ability to detect porphyrins in a urine sample opens new clinical possibilities. simple urine tests, if they prove effective, could become a rapid, low - cost, widely available way to screen young children for this type of autism risk. “ the significance of this biomarker is not only that it may facilitate earlier detection of autism risk, ” said woods, “ but also that it might help identify those asd children whose symptoms are specifically associated with altered porphyrin metabolism. ” he added, “ when validated in a larger study, this biomarker could help to identify a specific subset of asd kids and improve the search for more focused treatment options for these children. ” the findings were published in this month ’ s edition of autism research to coincide with autism awareness month. the paper can


1 october 2009 a picnic basket linked to agatha christie, soil samples collected before the channel tunnel was built and a radioactive rock used in a nobel prize - winning experiment feature in a provocative new exhibition at ucl. disposal?, which opens on monday 19 october 2009, invites you to comment on the most challenging question faced by museums today : what should we collect and hold on to and what should we get rid of? the exhibition includes objects which would not normally be on display, such as a crusher which can apply the weight of 150 hippos, a collection of plastic dinosaurs and slides containing microscopic fossils. among these are five objects earmarked for disposal that the public can vote on. this is one of several ways in which people can contribute their views on the collections : on what they think is important, what should be collected and what they feel would be better off elsewhere. featured pieces will include : - a picnic basket belonging to agatha christie ’ s husband ’ s second wife barbara parker. the husband, max mallowan, was a famous archaeologist. parker donated the hamper and its contents to ucl. the contents included minoan pottery, a key, a doorknob, beads and a copy of the times. - soil samples collected before the building of the channel tunnel. archaeologists take such samples to see if a site contains archaeological material. these samples were stored at ucl soon after they were taken, but have never been analysed. - a radioactive mineral sample which emits alpha particles, but which is historically important. william ramsay ( 1852 – 1916 ), a former head of ucl chemistry, used it to discover helium in one of a series of nobel prize - winning experiments. the exhibition will also host two events : - ‘ fight at the museum : rescue my object! ’ on tuesday 20 october, 6. 30pm – 9pm, will see experts battle to convince an audience to save their favourite object housed in different collections at ucl. - ‘ treasured? hunt ’ on wednesday 28 october, 6pm – 9pm, will invite people to seek out intriguing objects and specimens in store and decide for themselves just how treasured objects should be. disposing of objects by museums is controversial, conjuring up emotive images of collections thrown into skips or valuable artworks lost to the nation through private sales. with ever - decreasing resources and ever - expanding collections, museums are under serious pressure. collections are fast becoming unsustainable – ethical but tough decision - making is essential to museums


want to stay on top of all the space news? follow @ universetoday on twitter sidereal time is the time is takes for celestial bodies to ascend and descend in the night sky. we know that celestial bodies are in reality, fixed in their positions. the reason for their dramatic movement in the night is because of the rotation of the earth. this is the same reason why the sun and the moon seem to rise and set. for the longest time, this motion caused many philosophers and astronomers to assume that the earth was the center of the universe. fortunately later astronomers like copernicus were able to discern the true movements of the earth, moon, and sun helping to explain their movements. the time that it takes for a star, planet or other fixed celestial body to ascend and descend in the night sky is also called sidereal period. coincidentally this time corresponds to the time it takes for the earth to rotate one revolution which is just under 24 hours. sidereal time is not like solar time which is measured by the movement of the sun. or the lunar cycles which take about 28 days. it is the relative angle of a celestial object to the prime meridian of the vernal equinox of the earth. if these terms are confusing, here is what they mean. in cartography, the earth is bisected by two major lines of longitude and latitude. these lines are the 0 degree points on the globe. the 0 degree point for the latitude is the equator the point where the earth is perfectly bisected. it cut through south america and africa. the 0 degree point for the longitude is the prime meridian. it exact location is greenwich, uk. the equinoxes are essentially the times of the year when the sun rise and sets at the exact same point of the horizon at the equator. this means that these are the only times the solar day is equally divided into 12 hours of day and 12 hours of night. the hour angle for a celestial object relative to this meridian is what we call sidereal time. this angle changes with the rotation of the earth creating a pattern of ascension and descent for celestial bodies in the earth ’ s sky. with the knowledge of sidereal time astronomers can predict the positions of stars. the values for the sidereal time of celestial objects is compile in a table or start chart called an ephemeris. with this guide to sidereal time astronomers can find a celestial object regardless of the change in their position over the year. there are also some great resources on the


tell me about the international dark - sky association — how did it start, what ' s the mission? ida ’ s mission is to preserve and protect the nighttime environment and our heritage of dark skies through environmentally responsible outdoor lighting. ida was founded in 1988 by a professional astronomer working at the kitt peak observatory in tucson, arizona and an amateur astronomer who noticed that the increasing sky glow over tucson was interfering with nighttime observations. their message is simple, clear, and effective, and their efforts were fundamental in getting light pollution recognized around the world as an unwelcome and detrimental environmental condition. what are some of the effects of light pollution on animals? on humans? tell me about some of the science that supports this. there are four main types of light pollution : sky glow ( that strange orange dome over urban areas ), glare ( overly bright, unshielded points of light ), light trespass ( unwanted light intruding onto private property ), and clutter ( groupings of light sources ). animals and even plants are affected by sky glow and light trespass due to their extreme photosensitivity. because seasonal temperatures can vary from year to year, many species rely on light cues to tell them when to shed leaves, mate, and reproduce. when outdoor lighting artificially prolongs the day, the instinctive rhythms of many species are affected. many species behave unnaturally in the presence of artificial light — for example, light at night decreases a firefly ’ s ability to be seen, thereby hindering its ability to attract a mate. sea turtles and migratory birds use starlight to orient themselves, so light pollution has devastated their internal navigation systems. some birds will crash into tall buildings, or fixate on a light source, circling around it until they are exhausted and unable to fly. glare from unshielded light sources presents the largest problem to humans. effects of glare from poor outdoor lighting are a primary reason that the american medical association unanimously adopted resolution 516 to support light pollution and glare reduction efforts last june. depending on the severity, glare can cause discomfort or temporary night blindness. on the roadway, glares can interfere with visibility, presenting a hazard to both drivers and pedestrians. the problem gets worse as people age and gradually lose their ability to adjust to changing light levels. exposure to excessive light at night has been found to alter the circadian rhythm, interfere with sleep patterns, and suppress the sleep hormone melatonin. the amount of light needed to affect sleep patterns is not known, but sleeping in total


light levels. exposure to excessive light at night has been found to alter the circadian rhythm, interfere with sleep patterns, and suppress the sleep hormone melatonin. the amount of light needed to affect sleep patterns is not known, but sleeping in total darkness is recommended by both the cdc and the nih as a way to promote a regular circadian rhythm. what is international dark - sky association doing to combat light pollution? how are you measuring the effectiveness of these campaigns? as an environmental educational 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit, ida has enacted dynamic programs in the areas of technology, conservation, and public awareness. ida ’ s fixture seal of approval program directly attacks sky glow by establishing “ dark sky - friendly ” criteria for outdoor light fixtures. currently in the spotlight is our international dark sky places ( idsplaces ) program, a conservation curriculum established to protect urban and rural starscapes. the ids communities and dark sky developments of distinction designations recognize outstanding dark sky preservation efforts in municipalities and planned communities. all designated idsplaces have met stringent lighting requirements through retrofits and legislation and have undertaken outreach efforts to educate the public about the importance of natural night. many designees are successfully incorporating astronomy and stargazing into their local attractions, hosting festivals or sky watching events known as “ star parties. ” in house, ida collects, creates, and distributes information relating to light pollution, much of which is available for free on the ida website. we also participate in industry meetings and technology expos, and actively collaborate with non - profit interest groups. do you see differences regionally? how bad is the east coast in terms of light pollution? several new england states have taken great strides to protect their skies. the east coast has more light on the whole simply because it is more densely populated, not because the lighting is necessarily worse. we don ’ t see a huge difference regionally so much as from city to city. rural and urban areas across the world have enacted dark sky ordinances or are undertaking retrofits in public lighting ( usually as part of an energy saving endeavor ) and their lighting is much more thoughtful, more aesthetically pleasing, and more efficient than cities or townships that have not. what can you tell me about any legislation concerning light pollution, particularly on the east coast? in new york? ida ’ s newly opened public policy office in washington, dc is creating a lot of opportunities for collaboration with other non - governmental organizations ( ngos ) and some significant inroads with energy agencies and


a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z a modem self - test in which data from the keyboard or an internal test pattern is sent to the modem ' s transmitter, turned into analog form, looped back to the receiver, and converted back into digital form. a variety of signals and wavelengths that can be transmitted over communications lines such as the sound of a voice over the phone line. the mode used by your modem when answering an incoming call from an originating modem. the transmit / receive frequencies are the reverse of the originating modem, which is in originate mode. a computer program designed to perform a specific task or set of tasks. examples include word processing and spreadsheet applications. automatic repeat request. a function that allows your modem to detect flawed data and request that it be retransmitted. see mnp and v. 42. american standard code for information interchange. a code used to represent letters, numbers, and special characters such as $,!, and /. data transmission in which the length of time between transmitted characters may vary. because characters may not be transmitted at set intervals, start / stop bits are used to mark the beginning and end of each character. sets the modem to pick up the phone line when it detects a certain number of rings. see s - register s0 in the technical reference section of this guide. a process where your modem dials a call for you. the dialing process is initiated by sending an atdt ( dial tone ) or atdp ( dial pulse ) command followed by the telephone number. auto - dial is used to dial voice numbers. see basic data command dn in the technical reference section of this guide. a term used to measure the speed of an analog transmission from one point to another. although not technically accurate, baud rate is commonly used to mean bit rate. a 0 or 1, reflecting the use of the binary numbering system. used because the computer recognizes either of two states, off or on. shortened form of binary digit is bit. also referred to as transmission rate. the number of binary digits, or bits, transmitted per second ( bps ). communications channels using analog modems are established at set bit rates, commonly 2400, 4800, 9600, 14, 400, 28, 800, 33, 600, and higher. bits per second ( bps ) the bits ( binary digits ) per second rate. thousands


are established at set bit rates, commonly 2400, 4800, 9600, 14, 400, 28, 800, 33, 600, and higher. bits per second ( bps ) the bits ( binary digits ) per second rate. thousands of bits per second are expressed as kilobits per second ( kbps ). a temporary memory area used as storage during input and output operations. an example is the modem ' s command buffer. a group of binary digits stored and operated upon as a unit. most often the term refers to 8 - bit units or characters. one kilobyte ( kb ) is equal to 1, 024 bytes or characters ; 640 kb is equal to 655, 360 bytes or characters. the basic signal altered or modulated by the modem in order to carry information. a representation, coded in binary digits, of a letter, number, or other symbol. characters per second ( cps ) a data transfer rate generally estimated from the bit rate and the character length. for example, at 2400 bps, 8 - bit characters with start / stop bits ( for a total of ten bits per character ) will be transmitted at a rate of approximately 240 characters per second ( cps ). some protocols, such as error - control protocols, employ advanced techniques such as longer transmission frames and data compression to increase cps. class 1 and 2. 0 international standards used by fax application programs and faxmodems for sending and receiving faxes. cyclic redundancy checking ( crc ) an error - detection technique consisting of a test performed on each block or frame of data by both sending and receiving modems. the sending modem inserts the results of its tests in each data block in the form of a crc code. the receiving modem compares its results with the received crc code and responds with either a positive or negative acknowledgment. the transmission or sharing of data between computers via an electronic medium. data compression table a table containing values assigned for each character during a call under mnp5 data compression. default values in the table are continually altered and built during each call : the longer the table, the more efficient throughput gained. mode used by a modem when sending and receiving data files. data communications ( or circuit - terminating ) equipment, such as dial - up modems that establish and control the data link via the telephone network. any setting assumed, at startup or reset, by the computer ' s software and attached devices.


files. data communications ( or circuit - terminating ) equipment, such as dial - up modems that establish and control the data link via the telephone network. any setting assumed, at startup or reset, by the computer ' s software and attached devices. the computer or software will use these settings until changed by the user or other software. a test that checks the modem ' s rs - 232 interface and the cable that connects the terminal or computer and the modem. the modem receives data ( in the form of digital signals ) from the computer or terminal and immediately returns the data to the screen for verification. discrete, uniform signals. in this guide, the term refers to the binary digits 0 and 1. data terminal ( or terminating ) equipment. a computer that generates or is the final destination of data. indicates a communications channel capable of carrying signals in both directions. see half - duplex, full - duplex. electronic industries association ( eia ) group which defines electronic standards in the u. s. various techniques that check the reliability of characters ( parity ) or blocks of data. v. 42 and mnp error - control protocols use error detection ( crc ) and retransmission of flawed frames ( arq ). a method for transmitting the image on a page from one point to another. commonly referred to as fax. the mode used by a modem to send and receive data in facsimile format. see definitions for v. 17, v. 27 ter, v. 29. a mechanism that compensates for differences in the flow of data into and out of a modem or other device. see extended data commands & hn, & in, & rn in the technical reference section of this guide. a data communications term for a block of data with header and trailer information attached. the added information usually includes a frame number, block size data, error - check codes, and start / end indicators. signals can flow in both directions at the same time over one line. in microcomputer communications, this may refer to the suppression of the online local echo. signals can flow in both directions, but only one way at a time. in microcomputer communications, may refer to activation of the online local echo, which causes the modem to send a copy of the transmitted data to the screen of the sending computer. hertz, a frequency measurement unit used internationally to indicate cycles per second. an electronic communications network that connects computer networks and organizational computer facilities around the world. internet service


next higher speed. the mode used by your modem when initiating an outgoing call to a destination modem. the transmit / receive frequencies are the reverse of the called modem, which is in answer mode. a simple error - detection method that checks the validity of a transmitted character. character checking has been surpassed by more reliable and efficient forms of error checking, including v. 42 and mnp 2 - 4 protocols. either the same type of parity must be used by two communicating computers, or both may omit parity. a system of rules and procedures governing communications between two or more devices. protocols vary, but communicating devices must follow the same protocol in order to exchange data. the format of the data, readiness to receive or send, error detection and error correction are some of the operations that may be defined in protocols. random access memory. memory that is available for use when the modem is turned on, but that clears of all information when the power is turned off. the modem ' s ram holds the current operational settings, a flow control buffer, and a command buffer. remote digital loopback a test that checks the phone link and a remote modem ' s transmitter and receiver. a copy of the data received by the remote system, returned to the sending system, and displayed on the screen. remote echoing is a function of the remote system. read only memory. permanent memory, not user - programmable. the consecutive flow of data in a single channel. compare to parallel transmissions where data flows simultaneously in multiple channels. the signaling bits attached to a character before and after the character is transmitted during asynchronous transmission. a device whose keyboard and display are used for sending and receiving data over a communications link. differs from a microcomputer or a mainframe in that it has little or no internal processing capabilities. software mode that allows direct communication with the modem. also known as command mode. the amount of actual user data transmitted per second without the overhead of protocol information such as start / stop bits or frame headers and trailers. compare with characters per second. the itu - t standard specification that covers the initial handshaking process. an itu - t standard for making facsimile connections at 14, 400 bps, 12, 000 bps, 9, 600 bps, and 7, 200 bps. an itu - t standard for modems operating in asynchronous mode at speeds up to 300 bps, full - duplex, on public switched telephone


bps, 9, 600 bps, and 7, 200 bps. an itu - t standard for modems operating in asynchronous mode at speeds up to 300 bps, full - duplex, on public switched telephone networks. an itu - t standard for modem communications at 1, 200 bps, compatible with the bell 212a standard observed in the u. s. and canada. an itu - t standard for modem communications at 2, 400 bps. the standard includes an automatic link negotiation fallback to 1, 200 bps and compatibility with bell 212a / v. 22 modems. an itu - t standard for facsimile operations that specifies modulation at 4, 800 bps, with fallback to 2, 400 bps. an itu - t standard for facsimile operations that specifies modulation at 9, 600 bps, with fallback to 7, 200 bps. an itu - t standard for modem communications at 9, 600 bps and 4, 800 bps. v. 32 modems fall back to 4, 800 bps when line quality is impaired. an itu - t standard that extends the v. 32 connection range : 4, 800, 7, 200, 9, 600, 12, 000, and 14, 400 bps. v. 32 bis modems fall back to the next lower speed when line quality is impaired, fall back further as necessary, and also fall forward ( switch backup ) when line conditions improve ( see online fall back / fall forward ). an itu - t standard that currently allows data rates as high as 28, 800 bps. an enhancement to v. 34 that enables data transfer rates as high as 33, 600 bps. an itu - t standard for modem communications that defines a two - stage process of detection and negotiation for lapm error control. an extension of itu - t v. 42 that defines a specific data compression scheme for use during v. 42 connections. an itu - t standard for modem data compression. it provides for a 6 : 1 compression ratio. the itu - t standard for 56 kbps modem communications. this technology uses the digital telephone network to increase the bit rate of the receive channel by eliminating the analog to digital conversion commonly found in modem connections. v. 90 connections require a modem with v. 90 or x2 technology calling a digitally connected internet service provider or corporate host site compatible with v. 90


of the receive channel by eliminating the analog to digital conversion commonly found in modem connections. v. 90 connections require a modem with v. 90 or x2 technology calling a digitally connected internet service provider or corporate host site compatible with v. 90 or x2 technology. the itu - t standard for advanced 56 kbps modem communications. this technology offers three new features to enhance the v. 90 standard. the first feature is v. pcm - upstream, which allows a modem ' s upstream communication to reach speeds of 48, 000 bps. the second feature provides quicker connection times by allowing the modem to remember the line conditions of a v. 92 supported service provider. the third feature is the modem on hold technology, which allows your internet connection to be suspended when there is an inbound telephone call, then return to the connection when the call is completed without losing the connection. the v. 92 technology can only be utilized if a v. 92 modem is dialing into an internet service provider that supports and provides a digital v. 92 signal. world wide web ( www ) a part of the internet designed to allow easier navigation of the network through the use of graphical user interfaces and hypertext links between different addresses. usrobotics ' s trademark for its proprietary technology that uses the digital telephone network to increase the bit rate of the receive channel by eliminating the analog - to - digital conversion commonly found in modem connections. x2 connections require a modem with x2 technology calling a digitally connected internet service provider or corporate host site compatible with x2 technology. standard ascii control characters used to tell an intelligent device to stop / resume transmitting data.


outcome thinking with socrates purpose : to provide an easy - to - remember summary of the key criteria and questions to help you develop a really “ well - formed outcome ”. using this model will significantly increase personal achievement over time and can also increase the immediate effectiveness of all your activities, for example, in meetings, negotiations and personal coaching sessions. | s | | specify your goal | | what is the specific goal you really want to achieve? is it stated in positive language? if “ moving away from ” the present state, what do you want instead of the problem? | o | | own it | | is it within your control to make happen? if not, what can you bring within control? | c | | check your evidence for having achieved it | | step into it – ‘ as if ’ it is already achieved. allow it to become fully associated in your mind : what are you seeing? what are you hearing? what are you feeling? what are you thinking? | r | | remember how you ’ ve achieved this particular goal | | looking back, how have you done this? what skills and resources have you used? | a | | add in your higher level ‘ interests ’ | | what does achieving this do for you? | what does it mean to you? what else is important to you about this? | t | | test against the needs of others most closely affected | | how does your achievement ‘ dovetail ’ with the needs of others affected by it? | is this acceptable to you? what do they need at the same time? | e | | ecology and other effects | | looking at the bigger systems that may be affected : | what is the impact of this achievement? what are the further consequences? what other ripples can you identify? | s | | step out and start | | looking back, what were your first steps? dissociate – is the image truly compelling? test commitment ( a score out of 10 ) 10 = committed 8 - 9 ask what has to be true to make it 10? 7 or less? – check for any hidden positive by - products of the present state and incorporate them. or, change the goal!


this story is from the category embodiment date posted : 17 / 11 / 2011 if you tell yourself that someone who ' s being mean is just having a bad day - - it ' s not about you - - you may actually be able to stave off bad feelings, according to a new study which will be published in an upcoming issue of psychological science, a journal of the association for psychological science. having someone angry at you isn ' t pleasant. a strategy commonly suggested in cognitive - behavioral psychotherapy is to find another way to look at the angry person. for example, you might tell yourself that they ' ve probably just lost their dog or gotten a cancer diagnosis and are taking it out on you. stanford researchers jens blechert, gal sheppes, carolina di tella, hants williams, and james j. gross wanted to study the efficiency and the speed of the process of reappraising emotions. " you can see this as a kind of race between the emotional information and the reappraisal information in the brain : emotional processing proceeds from the back to the front of the brain, and the reappraisal is generated in the front of the brain and proceeds toward the back of the brain where it modifies emotional processing, " blechert says. blechert and his colleagues came up with two experiments to study this process. participants were shown several series of faces and tested on their reactions. for example, in one set, they were told to consider that the people they ' d seen had had a bad day, but it ' s nothing to do you with you. " so we trained the participants a little bit, not to take this emotion personally, but directed at someone else, " blechert says. they found that, once people had adjusted their attitude toward someone, they weren ' t disturbed by that person ' s angry face the next time it appeared. on the other hand, when participants were told to just feel the emotions brought on by an angry face, they continued to be upset by that face. in a second study, the researchers recorded electrical brain activity from the scalp and found that reappraising wiped out the signals of the negative emotions people felt when they just looked at the faces. psychologists used to think that people had to feel the negative emotion, and then get rid of it ; this research suggests that, if people are prepared, it ' s actually a much faster and deeper process. " if you ' re trained with reappraisal, and


there was a rapid rise of sea level ( about 120m between 20, 000 and 6000 years ago ). vast quantities of sediment were carried by rivers to the sea during this period, eventually forming the pre - cursor to our present coastlines as the rate of sea level rise rapidly reduced about 6000 years ago. much of our beaches today are composed of the remnants of these sediments, composed predominantly of sand and gravel. these sources of beach material have subsequently been supplemented by coastal erosion of soft cliffs and the reduced but continuing supply of sediments from rivers. material has also been derived from offshore banks left behind by relatively rapid rises of sea level after cold episodes in the earth ’ s climate. sediment classification and properties | all pictures : © a. j. chadwick | traditionally sand and gravel sizes have been classified according to the wentworth scale. this defines sand as being of diameter between 0. 0625mm to 2mm. material sizes larger than this are classified as gravel, subdivided into granular ( 2mm to 4 mm ), pebble ( 4mm to 64 mm ), cobble ( 64mm to 256 mm ) and boulder ( > 256 mm ). rounded gravel, typical of a significant number of uk beaches, is referred to as shingle. there are several physical properties of sand and gravel beaches which are important in the study of coastal sediment transport. the first is the sediment density ( ρs ), typically 2650 kg / m³ for quartz. the rest are required in recognition of the fact that a beach comprises a mixture of the beach material, interspersed with voids which may be filled with air or water. thus the bulk density ( ρb ) is defined as the in situ mass of the mixture / volume of the mixture, the porosity ( ps ) as the volume of air or water / volume of the mixture, typically between 0. 25 to 0. 4 for a gravel beach, the voids ratio ( e ) as the volume of air or water / volume of the grains, typically between 0. 33 to 0. 66 for a gravel beach, and finally the angle of repose ( φ ), which is the limiting slope angle at which the grains begin to roll, typically about 35° in air. in water this reduces to about 30°. the material sizes on any particular beach will normally comprise a range of grain sizes, thus it is standard practice to measure the grain size distribution by a sieve analysis from which the percentage by weight of material passing through a range of sieve sizes is plotted against particle size


common geomorphological feature across the world, many of which are composed of gravel. their essential features comprise a narrow, elongated ridge of sand or gravel existing slightly above the high tide level. the ridge generally extends parallel to the shore, but is separated from it by a wetland, lagoon or a tidal flat. barrier beaches act as natural means of coast protection. in addition, wetlands and lagoons formed behind barrier beaches provide shelter for many coastal habitats and are therefore of considerable environmental significance. one explanation of their formation is that they have been formed by landward migration of submerged sand / shingle banks with rising sea levels since the last ice age. barrier beaches are constantly evolving in response to short and long term processes. short term changes in barrier beaches are related to local wave and current climate, tidal variations, frequency and magnitude of storm events, barrier geometry and type of beach sediment and permeability. over longer terms, the primary factors for change and modification of barrier beaches are sea level rise, longshore sediment transport and changes in sediment sources and / or sinks according to orford et al. ( 1995 ). a barrier beach can respond to these factors by landward or seaward migration, reshaping and re - alignment and crest breakdown or build - up. the episodic processes of over - washing, over - topping and associated breaching are the primary phenomena behind long term evolution. understanding the processes of sediment transport on gravel beaches is important for beach management which requires some quantification of shoreline evolution. the vast majority of coastal engineering projects still rely on one - line models since, as yet, 3d morphodynamic models are restricted to short - and medium - term predictions and none have been validated against coarse - grained field data. most one - line models make use of empirical total longshore transport equations. hence, the formulation of a reliable estimate of longshore sediment transport rate remains of considerable practical importance in coastal engineering applications such as feasibility studies of port extensions, derivation of sediment budgets for coastal areas and the appraisal of long term beach stability. to some extent, the mechanisms associated with the longshore transport of gravel may be differentiated from that of sand. generally, for a sand seabed the oscillatory force due to the passage of a ( breaking ) wave will tend to stir the sediment into motion. the bed shear due to the longshore current can then transport the sand. on gravel beaches the sediment normally moves as bedload and is largely confined to the swash zone. as the flow


equation, other than via the coefficient, k. it should be noted that for random waves, the choice of wave height used in the cerc equation ( significant wave height, hs or root mean square wave height, hrms ) must be correlated with the k value. much confusion can arise, as some authors have used hs and others hrms without explicitly stating which one. for rayleigh distributed waves, the k value using hrms is twice that using hs. a suggested value for k using hrms is 0. 77 for sand sized sediments. for gravel beaches, chadwick ’ s ( 1989 ) data suggested a k value of 7 % of that for sand ( k = 0. 053 ). this was later found to work well at another beach site, slapton sands, devon, uk ( see alegria - arzaburu & masselink ( 2010 ) ). chadwick ( 1991 ) also developed a numerical model to predict longshore transport on gravel beaches. the hydrodynamic module uses the non - linear shallow water wave equations, which predict the instantaneous water levels and velocities throughout the surf and swash zones. these are combined with a sediment transport module based on bagnold ' s stream power concept. instantaneous transport rates across the surf and swash zones are subsequently summed in space and time to determine the total longshore transport rate. thus, this model specifically includes a sediment threshold term and transport in the swash zone, both of which are of importance on shingle beaches. the model required calibration of only the friction coefficient, which was determined from field data. subsequently, an algebraic formula ( the chadwick - van wellen formula ) was derived from the numerical model results given by : this equation was specifically designed for application to gravel beaches but has only been calibrated to the data from one field site. for further details of this and other longshore transport equations, applicable to gravel beaches, see van wellen et al ( 2000 ). large scale experimental studies | © a. j. chadwick | more recent work on coarse grained beaches was undertaken by the eu project “ large scale modelling of coarse grained beaches ” which was undertaken between march - may 2002. the experiment was conducted at full scale, thus avoiding the sediment scaling issues inherent in small scale models. the measurements included not only the wave field and resultant equilibrium profile development, but also detailed measurements of pore water pressures under the swash face. the experimental results of this work may be found in


avoiding the sediment scaling issues inherent in small scale models. the measurements included not only the wave field and resultant equilibrium profile development, but also detailed measurements of pore water pressures under the swash face. the experimental results of this work may be found in lopez de san roman - blanco et al ( 2006 ). this experiment was used to develop the cross shore profile model of pedrozo et al ( 2006 ), described in more detail in this article. subsequently another large scale experimental study of gravel barrier beaches was undertaken in bardex ( barrier dynamics experiment ) in the delta wave flume, the netherlands, during june and july 2008. one unique aspect of this work was the inclusion of the effects of a back barrier lagoon in conjunction with a varying tidal level. a special edition of coastal engineering has been devoted to papers resulting from this work ( see turner and masselink ( 2012 ) ). these include details of the observations, the effect of the lagoon water level on the beach profile, new measurements of and prediction techniques for wave friction factors, new predictive techniques for assessing barrier overwashing and overtopping and an assessment of the xbeach model used to predict beach profile evolution and the morphological effect of washover. parametric models for equilibrium profiles the prediction of the expected profile for a gravel beach is very different from the concepts used for equilibrium profiles on a sand beach. the problem was first comprehensively addressed by van der meer ( 1988 ) and powell ( 1990 ), based on extensive scaled laboratory flume tests ( small scale with anthracite in powell ’ s case and large and small scale with gravel in van der meer ’ s case ). powell ’ s work resulted in the development of a parametric profile model, which described the profile as a set of three curves : from the crest to the still water level, from the still water level to a transition point and from the transition point to the base of the profile. this was found to work well using the data from the gwk experiment ). parametric models for barrier stability bradbury ( 2000 ) carried out a series of 3 - d mobile bed laboratory tests on barrier crest response to hydrodynamic conditions and initial barrier geometry. based on the model investigations, several categories of barrier response to hydrodynamic conditions were identified and underlying characteristics were qualitatively defined. these included crest raised by overtopping, crest lowered due to undermining of crest but with no overtopping, crest raised by over - washing with roll - back, crest lowered by


identified and underlying characteristics were qualitatively defined. these included crest raised by overtopping, crest lowered due to undermining of crest but with no overtopping, crest raised by over - washing with roll - back, crest lowered by over - washing with roll - back and finally, no change to the crest elevation with profile contained to seaward of the barrier crest. he developed an expression for an over - washing threshold of barrier crests, based on regression analysis. it is a function of wave steepness ( hs / lm ), barrier free board ( rc ) and barrier cross - sectional area ba ( above the still water line ), given by : the expression was validated against field data gathered at hurst spit, uk and found to be consistent with the field data. in addition, a conceptual model for barrier over - washing was formulated. according to his model, the beach will initially attempt to reach a dynamic equilibrium ; if the critical barrier inertia is exceeded then the crest will be lowered by over - washing. modelling cross shore profile development | picture courtesy of a. pedrozo - acuna | the first of several recent deterministic process based models for predicting the profile response of coarse grained beaches was developed by lawrence, chadwick and fleming ( 2001 ). it was shown that boussinesq equations coupled with a bed load sediment transport formulation were a useful approach for process - based modelling of gravel beach profile evolution. this model was subsequently extended to model the sediment transport of grain size fractions and thus to predict sediment sorting across the beach face. however, it was found that this numerical model scheme was not stable on steep beaches. subsequently, using a newer boussinesq model, pedrozo et al ( 2006 ) demonstrated that the two principle sediment parameters of friction ( f ) and sediment transport efficiency ( c ) were controlling the shape of the gravel beach profile. with f and c as constant values, accurate prediction of the profile evolution was not possible. the use of bigger friction factors in the uprush slightly improved the prediction. when larger values of the sediment transport efficiency ( c - value ) were used in the uprush compared to the backwash, better predictions of the beach profile resulted. the physical processes which dictate the differences between the predicted and measured profiles were hypothesised as being related to infiltration effects on the flow above the beach face and more accelerated flow in the uprush. further developments coupling the effects of infiltration / exfiltration with sediment movement were still required at that


predicted and measured profiles were hypothesised as being related to infiltration effects on the flow above the beach face and more accelerated flow in the uprush. further developments coupling the effects of infiltration / exfiltration with sediment movement were still required at that time. the more recent results reported by jamal et al ( 2010 ) and williams et al ( 2012 ) indicate that including this process leads to significant improvements in prediction. pedrozo et al ( 2010 ) have also highlighted the importance of the impulsive pressures induced by plunging breakers on gravel beach sediment transport. suggestions for further research for all budding researchers in coastal research, the further study of gravel and mixed beaches offers much opportunity to enhance our knowledge. longshore transport prediction is still imprecise and cross shore processes very complex and not completely understood. current parametric design methods leave much to be desired. further field and large scale experimental studies remain a primary tool for advancing our understanding of long and cross shore processes. these will need to stand on the heads of the previously mentioned studies. numerical modelling tools can still benefit greatly from improved process representation, including infiltration / exfiltration, interactions with groundwater flows, impulsive pressure forces, the incorporation of grain size fractions and the prediction of sediment sorting across the beach face. example barrier beaches chesil beach, dorset uk, is a world famous gravel barrier beach. it is approximately 28 kilometres long and, on average, 160 metres wide. the height of the beach is typically 11 metres above mean sea level. the beach stabilised close to its present position around 5000 years ago. a rent research paper concerning the internal structure of chesil beach ( bennett et al ( 2009 ) ) also contains a good summary of the extensive historical literature on this beach. there is an informative web site at www. chesilbeach. org. a comprehensive assessment of the historical development and contemporary processes affecting a significant gravel barrier beach system in the uk ( slapton sands, south devon uk ) may be found in chadwick et al ( 2005 ) and a short summary of these studies is presented elsewhere in the coastal wiki ( slapton barrier beach case study, uk ). the paper includes assessment of the effects of sea level rise on barrier migration and its susceptibility to over - washing and overtopping, inter alia. it was found that the processes at work on the slapton shoreline included : | © a. j. chadwick | - short - term changes in beach profile due to storms, acting over a period of several days. these storms cause cut


347. - ↑ ian l. turner, gerd masselink ( 2012 ). coastal gravel barrier hydrology — observations from a prototype - scale laboratory experiment ( bardex ). coastal engineering, 63, 13 - 22 - ↑ van der meer j. ( 1988 ) rock slopes and gravel beaches under wave attack. delft hydraulics publications n 396. - ↑ bradbury, a. p. ( 2000 ), predicting breaching of shingle barrier beaches - recent advances to aid beach management, 35th maff ( defra ) conf of river and coastal engineers. - ↑ lawrence, j, chadwick, a j and fleming, c a. ( 2001 ). a phase resolving model of sediment transport on coarse grained beaches. in : billy l edge ( ed ) coastal engineering 2000, 624 - 636. american society of civil engineers : reston, virginia. - ↑ lawrence, j, karunarathna, h, chadwick, a j and fleming, c a. ( 2003 ). cross - shore sediment transport on mixed coarse grain sized beaches : modelling and measurements. proceedings of the international conference on coastal engineering 2002 - ↑ jamal, m. h., simmonds, d. j., magar, v., pan, s., ( 2010 ). modelling infiltration on gravel beaches with an xbeach variant. proc. 32nd conf. on coastal eng., shanghai, china, 2010, sediment, p. 41 http : / / journals. tdl. org / icce / issue / view / 154 / showtoc. - ↑ jon j. williams, amaia ruiz de alegria - arzaburu, robert t. mccall, ap van dongeren ( 2012 ). modelling gravel barrier profile response to combined waves and tides using xbeach : laboratory and field results. coastal engineering, 63, 62 - 80 - ↑ pedrozo - acuna, a., torres - freyermuth, a., zou, q., hsu, t. - j., reeve, d. e. ( 2010 ). diagnostic modelling of impulsive pressures induced by plunging breakers. coastal engineering 57 ( 3 ), 252 – 266. - ↑ bennett m. r., cassidy n. j., pile j. ( 2009 ). internal structure of a barrier beach as revealed by ground penetrating radar ( grp ) chesil beach, uk. geomorphology 104, 218 - 229.


rhythm, originating from above the ventricles. psvt begins and ends suddenly. there are two main types : accessory path tachycardias and av nodal reentrant tachycardias ( see below ). accessory pathway tachycardias. a rapid heart rate due to an extra abnormal pathway or connection between the atria and the ventricles. the impulses travel through the extra pathways as well as through the usual route. this allows the impulses to travel around the heart very quickly, causing the heart to beat unusually fast. av nodal reentrant tachycardia. a rapid heart rate due to more than one pathway through the av node. it can cause heart palpitations, fainting, or heart failure. in some cases, it can be terminated using simple maneuvers, such as breathing in and bearing down. some drugs can also stop this heart rhythm. ventricular tachycardia ( v - tach ). a rapid heart rhythm originating from the lower chambers ( or ventricles ) of the heart. the rapid rate prevents the heart from filling adequately with blood. this can be a serious arrhythmia, especially in people with heart disease, and may be associated with more symptoms. ventricular fibrillation. an erratic, disorganized firing of impulses from the ventricles. the ventricles quiver and are unable to contract or pump blood to the body. this is a medical emergency that must be treated with cardiopulmonary resuscitation ( cpr ) and defibrillation as soon as possible. long qt syndrome. the qt interval is the area on the electrocardiogram that represents the time it takes for the heart muscle to contract and then recover, or for the electrical impulse to fire impulses and then recharge. when the qt interval is longer than normal, it increases the risk of a life - threatening form of ventricular tachycardia. long qt syndrome is an inherited condition that can cause sudden death in young people. it can be treated with antiarrhythmic drugs, pacemaker, electrical cardioversion, defibrillation, implanted cardioverter / defibrillator, or ablation therapy. bradyarrhythmias. these are slow heart rhythms, which may arise from disease in the heart ' s electrical conduction system. examples include sinus node dysfunction and heart block. sinus node dysfunction. a slow heart


electrical needs of the facility, " said puri. " along with that, we ' ve spent a lot of effort here to design our facilities to be as energy efficient as possible. we ' ve installed increased insulation in many areas ; the glazing material that we selected helps insulate the greenhouse ; and we ' ve deployed heat curtains and heat blankets in the winter to reduce space in the greenhouse that needs to be conditioned. " additionally, a sophisticated computer control system ensures that climate - control equipment operates efficiently to reduce resource consumption. perhaps the most significant saving in terms of resources is that of fossil fuels, as the distance from farm to consumer is considerably shorter. " of course, we sharply reduce the transportation of our product and the associated carbon emissions that are caused because of that, " puri added. all nutrition and pest control is done naturally and sustainably, which was also one of the goals for gotham greens. " we utilize mineral salts that we dissolve in the water, " puri said. " these contain minerals such as nitrogen, magnesium and potassium, along with micronutrients like selenium. in controlling pests, we mostly rely on beneficial insects ; there ' s a whole program in integrated pest management for which a fair bit of monitoring goes on. if we do find a pest in here, we will introduce its natural predator - for instance, we have ladybugs and lacewings to control aphids. " it ' s in the taste like many others concentrating on great flavor, puri and his team have found that truly caring for the plants will result in the superiority they seek. " the biggest thing in obtaining that flavor is really taking care of our crops - making sure they have ideal growing conditions in climate, humidity, temperature, and so forth. we ' re also making sure they ' re getting all the nutrients that they need, along with the right amount of irrigation, the right amount of dissolved oxygen. the foremost belief is that healthy plants are going to make for tastier plants. " and then because we are so close to our customers, we never have to harvest anything before it ' s completely ready. many conventionally grown crops have to be refrigerated and transported long distances, so they are picked early and then artificially ripened. we don ' t have to do anything like that ; we can harvest crops when they are at their optimal freshness, size, flavor, profile and color. we can harvest any item in the morning and have it to a supermarket or a


( 1 ) the section of a pedestal between base and surbase. ( 2 ) the lower portion of the wall of a room, decorated diffrently from the upper section. the dance of death, a favorite late medieval picture subject. it generally shows skeletons forcing the living to dance with them, usually in matching pairs, e. g. a live priest dancing with a skeleton priest. holbein ' s woodcut series the dance of death is one of the most famous. refers to a style of painting that developed in regensburg, germany, and elsewhere along the danube river during the renaissance and reformation. it is characterized by a renewed interest in medieval piety, an expressive use of nature, the relationship of the human figure and events to nature, and the introduction of landscape as a primary theme in art. the term was coined by theodor von frimmel ( 1853 - 1928 ), who believed that painting in the danube river region around regensburg, passau, and linz possessed common characteristics ; the style seems to exist even though leading artists did not form a school in the usual sense of the term, since they did not work in a single workshop or in a particular centre. major artists whose work represents the style include lucas cranach the elder, albrecht altdorfer and wolf huber. a minister who was below the rank of priest in the catholic, anglican and orthodox churches. deacons originally cared for both the sick and the poor in early christian communities. the representation of christ enthroned in glory as judge or ruler of the world, flanked by the virgin mary and john the baptist acting as intercessors. in medieval art a picture, often an altarpiece, consisting of two folding wings without a fixed central area. in renaissance art theory, the design of a painting seen in terms of drawing, which was help to be the basis of all art. the term stresses not the literal drawing, but the concept behind an art work. with the mannerists the term came to mean an ideal image that a work attempts to embody but can in fact never fully realize. as disegno appeals to the intellect, it was considered far more important that coloure ( colour ), which was seen as appealing to the senses and emotions. a technique of painting in which pigments are diluted with water and bound with a glue. it was usually used for painting wall decorations and frescoes, though a few artists, notably andrea mantegna ( 1430 / 31 - 1506 ), also used it on


in which pigments are diluted with water and bound with a glue. it was usually used for painting wall decorations and frescoes, though a few artists, notably andrea mantegna ( 1430 / 31 - 1506 ), also used it on canvas. in architecture, hemispherical structure evolved from the arch, usually forming a ceiling or roof. a roman catholic order of mendicant friars founded by st. dominic in 1216 to spread the faith through preaching and teaching. the dominicans were one of the most influential religious orders in the later middle ages, their intellectual authority being established by such figures as albertus magnus and st. thomas aquinas. the dominicans played the leading role in the inquisition. a patron who commissioned a work of art for a church. donors sometimes had their portraits included in the work they were donating as a sign of piety. a male garment, formerly worn under armour, that from the 15th century referred to a close - fitting jacket. a ceramic product invented in england around 1720, which belongs to the category of fine stoneware. the porous white bodies are made of fired raw materials containing clay and kaolin as well as quartz, feldspar, and talc. a transparent glaze is applied upon the first or second firing. earthenware, which is suitable for everyday use, is distinguished by its light, creamy surface. the most famous example of this category is made by the english firm of wedgwood ( since 1780 ). stand on which a painting is supported while the artist works on it. the oldest representation of an easel is on an egyptian relief of the old kingdom ( c. 2600 - 2150 bc ). renaissance illustrations of the artist at work show all kinds of contrivances, the commonest being the three - legged easel with pegs, such as we still use today. light folding easels were not made until the 18th and 19th centuries, when painters took to working out of doors. the studio easel, a 19th - century invention, is a heavy piece of furniture, which runs on castors or wheels, and served to impress the c1ients of portrait painters. oil painters need an easel which will support the canvas almost vertically or tip it slightly forward to prevent reflection from the wet paint, whereas the watercolourist must be able to lay his paper nearly flat so that the wet paint will not run down. the term ' easel - painting ' is applied to any picture small enough to have been painted on


from the wet paint, whereas the watercolourist must be able to lay his paper nearly flat so that the wet paint will not run down. the term ' easel - painting ' is applied to any picture small enough to have been painted on a standard easel. the words of pontius pilate in the gospel of st. john ( 19, 5 ) when he presents jesus to the crowds. hence, in art, a depiction of jesus, bound and flogged, wearing a crown of thorns and a scarlet robe. in portraiture, a pose in which the sitter faces the viewer directly ; full face. coloured glass in powder form and sometimes bound with oil, which is bonded to a metal surface or plaque by firing. a print made from a metal plate that has had a design cut into it with a sharp point. ink is smeared over the plate and then wiped off, the ink remaining in the etched lines being transferred when the plate is pressed very firmly onto a sheet of paper. a combining of several media grouped together to form a composite art work. chapels were among the most notable renaissance ensembles, sometimes combining panel painting, fresco, sculpture, and architecture. in classical architecture, the part of a building between the capitals of the columns and the roof. it consists of the architrave, the frieze, and the cornice. pictures or tables with reliefs and inscriptions erected in honour of the deceased in churches or sepulchral chapels. the science of the end of the world and beginning of a new world, and of the last things, death and resurrection. the sacrament of holy communion, celebrated with bread and wine, the most sacred moment of the christian liturgy. the term is used in an italian context to designate spiritual currents manifest around 1540 which might be said to have occupied the confessional middle ground between catholicism and protestantism ; hence it does not relate at all to the term ' evangelical ' as used in german or english contexts. it has been applied particularly to the so - called spirituali of the viterbo circle, notably cardinal pole, vittoria colonna, marcantonio flaminio, carnesecchi and ochino, and also to giulia gonzaga, contarini, giovanni morone ; gregorio cortese and vermigli. such persons combined a zeal for personal religious renewal with spiritual anxieties akin to those of luther, to which they sought an answer in the study of st paul and st augustine ; convinced of the inefficacy of human works,


to the lofty and rhetorical manner of history painting that in academic theory was considered appropriate to the most serious and elevated subjects. the classic exposition of its doctrines is found in reynolds ' s third and fourth discourses ( 1770 and 1771 ), where he asserts that ' the gusto grande of the italians, the beau ideal of the french, and the great style, genius, and taste among the english, are but different appellations of the same thing '. the idea of the grand manner took shape in 17th - century italy, notably in the writings of bellori. his friend poussin and the great bolognese painters of the 17th century were regarded as outstanding exponents of the grand manner, but the greatest of all was held to be raphael. an extensive journey to the continent, chiefly to france, the netherlands, and above all italy, sometimes in the company of a tutor, that became a conventional feature in the education of the english gentleman in the 18th century. such tours often took a year or more. it had a noticeable effect in bringing a more cosmopolitan spirit to the taste of connoisseurs and laid the basis for many collections among the landed gentry. it also helped the spread of the fashion for neoclassicism and an enthusiasm for italian painting. among the native artists who catered for this demand were batoni, canaletto, pannini, and piranesi, and british artists ( such as nollekens ) were sometimes able to support themselves while in italy by working for the dealers and restorers who supplied the tourist clientele. there was also a flourishing market in guide books. a cross with four arms of equal length. term current with several different meanings in the literature of the visual arts. in the context of the fine arts, it most usually refers to those arts that rely essentially on line or tone rather than colour — i. e. drawing and the various forms of engraving. some writers, however, exclude drawing from this definition, so that the term ' graphic art ' is used to cover the various processes by which prints are created. in another sense, the term — sometimes shortened to ' graphics ' — is used to cover the entire field of commercial printing, including text as well as illustrations. a painting done entirely in one colour, usually gray. grisaille paintings were often intended to imitate sculpture. italian political terms derived from the german welf, a personal and thence family name of the dukes of bavaria, and waiblingen, the name of a castle of the


wired. co. uk : " there is lots of talking in fragmented silos, but we want to capture all of that in one place and expedite the process through which science turns into the first stage of cancer commons is to create a database where each different type of cancer has a " molecular disease model " ( mdm ) - - an expert - curated reference node that catalogues the known molecular subtypes of a particular cancer, linked to relevant pathways, diagnostic tests, approved and experimental therapies and current clinical trials. each is akin to a dynamic research paper that reflects the latest scientific, clinical and technological advancements. a rapid submission and dissemination process allows each mdm to be maintained online and continuously updated by cancer specialists and moderated by editors. the project is governed by an editorial board with an impressive set of credentials. the 18 specialists - - chaired by george lundberg, former editor - in - chief of journal of the american medical association and of webmd ' s online properties and e - medicine - - include a former fda commissioner, a former editor of science and a former president of the american society of so far, only one model has been created, for melanoma. it incorporates 78, 185 abstracts from research papers and information relating to some 1016 clinical trials that are ongoing in the field. some 11 expert editors have been assigned to that particular mdm, including dr david fisher, the head of the dermatology at harvard medical school and dr keith flaherty, from the department of medicine at harvard medical school. over the coming year the plan is to create mdms for other cancers including lung, breast, sarcoma, and lymphoma - - each with their own experts overseeing in order to harness the power of the mdm, collabrx is developing apps that tap into the data to aid decision - making. for example, the " targeted therapy finder " can be used by doctors to help identify genetic tests that map an individual tumour ' s unique characteristics, and then select potential treatments based on the findings. by entering information about the particular tumour, they ' ll be given options of tests that ' ll help narrow down the particular subtype of cancer being dealt with ( as categorised by the mdm ), and therefore find out which treatments are the most promising. they can then find information about trials that are looking for patients with that particular subtype. the view is to develop further apps that allow doctors and researchers to submit clinical observations and outcomes and then collaborative


robb godshaw, from syynlabs, has created a haptic cube that gives you an impression of what the temperature will be like tomorrow. the cube, which godshaw has named the cryoscope, consists of an aluminium shell surrounding a peltier element, heatsink, cooling fan and an led, all controlled by an arduino. the cube is heated to a " neutral " state of 30c, and then adjusted by the number of degrees that the next day ' s forecast differs from room temperature ( 23c ). it takes into account wind chill and humidity to give an idea what the following day will " feel " like, rather than merely reflecting air temperature. so, for example, if the forecast for the next day is for 18c, once those factors are all taken into account, the cube ' s temperature will decrease five degrees from 30c to 25c, resulting in it being slightly cool to the touch. godshaw describes it in the video above as a " haptic weathervane ", adding : " users enter their location into a web app. the cube then automatically adjusts to the forecasted temperature. by touching the cryoscope, the user is able to feel tomorrow ' s air you can see the cryoscope in action over on godshaw ' s website. updated 08 : 29 09 / 05 / 2012 : godshaw has redesigned the cryoscope and is raising money for full production over on kickstarter.


french and american scientists won the nobel prize in physics tuesday for their work with light and matter, which may lead the way to superfast computers and " the most precise clocks ever seen, " the prize committee said. serge haroche of france and david wineland of the united states will share the $ 1. 2 million prize, the second of six nobel prizes announced this month. the award surprised those who expected the physics nobel this year to be related to the discovery of the higgs boson, considered one of the top scientific achievements of the past 50 years. wineland and haroche work in the field of quantum optics, approaching the same principles from opposite directions. the american uses light particles to measure the properties of matter, whereas his french colleague focuses on tracking light particles by using atoms. both nobel laureates have found ways to isolate the subatomic particles and keep their properties intact at the same time, scientists at the royal swedish academy of sciences said in stockholm, sweden. usually when these particles interact with the outside world, the properties that scientists would like to directly observe disappear, leaving researchers postulating over what is going on with them. the two have found a way around this, making direct observation possible. " the new methods allow them to examine, control and count the particles, " the academy said. haroche is a professor at the college de france and ecole normale superieure in paris, and wineland is group leader and nist fellow at the national institute of standards and technology and the university of colorado boulder. their work has some potential side benefits to future technology. " their ground - breaking methods have enabled this field of research to take the very first steps towards building a new type of super fast computer based on quantum physics, " the academy said.


here ' s the way the nws defines it : forecasts issued by the national weather service routinely include a " pop " ( probability of precipitation ) statement, which is often expressed as the " chance of rain " or " chance of precipitation ". http : / / www. srh. noaa. gov / ffc /? n = pop zone forecasts for north and central georgia national weather service peachtree city ga 119 pm edt thu may 8 2008 including the cities of... atlanta... conyers... decatur... 119 pm edt thu may x 2008. this afternoon... mostly cloudy with a 40 percent chance of showers and thunderstorms. windy. highs in the lower 80s. near steady temperature in the lower 80s. south winds 15 to 25 mph.. tonight... mostly cloudy with a chance of showers and thunderstorms in the evening... then a slight chance of showers and thunderstorms after midnight. lows in the mid 60s. southwest winds 5 to 15 mph. chance of rain 40 percent. what does this " 40 percent " mean?... will it rain 40 percent of of the time?... will it rain over 40 percent of the area? the " probability of precipitation " ( pop ) describes the chance of precipitation occurring at any point you select in the area. how do forecasters arrive at this value? mathematically, pop is defined as follows : pop = c x a where " c " = the confidence that precipitation will occur somewhere in the forecast area, and where " a " = the percent of the area that will receive measureable precipitation, if it occurs at all. so... in the case of the forecast above, if the forecaster knows precipitation is sure to occur ( confidence is 100 % ), he / she is expressing how much of the area will receive measurable rain. ( pop = " c " x " a " or " 1 " times ". 4 " which equals. 4 or 40 %. ) but, most of the time, the forecaster is expressing a combination of degree of confidence and areal coverage. if the forecaster is only 50 % sure that precipitation will occur, and expects that, if it does occur, it will produce measurable rain over about 80 percent of the area, the pop ( chance of rain ) is 40 %. ( pop =. 5 x. 8 which equals. 4 or 40 %. ) in either event, the