{"text": "a land whose rich cultural heritage is discovered not only from within the walls of numerous museums, galleries and churches, many of which today, as zero category monuments are included in a part of the unesco world heritage list, but also in that magical place on the mediterranean, where even the shortest stroll becomes a journey down a staircase thousands of years old, which takes one through a history that is at the same time turbulent, exciting and glorious. with as many as seven cultural phenomena - the festivity of saint blaise, lace - making in lepoglava, hvar and pag, the bell ringers from the kastav region, the hvar procession za krizem, ( \u2018 following the cross \u2019 ), two - part singing in the istrian scale, in istria and hrvatsko primorje, the spring procession of \u2018 ljelje \u2019 and traditional manufacture of wooden toys in the hrvatsko zagorje region, croatia is among the countries with the most protected intangible cultural heritage elements, recorded on the unesco list. the famous scientist nikola tesla ( 1856 - 1943 ), inventor of alternating current. was born in smiljan, croatia, died in new york, usa. dog breed dalmatian originates from these areas? in a small franciscan monastery in zaostrog, there is a painting from 1724 which for the first time depicts a dalmatian dog \u2026 slavoljub eduard penkala in 1906, a croat slavoljub eduard penkala for the first time applied for a patent for a ballpoint ( penkala ) and a holder for a fountain pen. from time immemorial, the tie has been a part of the croatian national costume, which was preserved by the croats to the more recent times, who moved to central europe in the 16th century. it was later taken over by the croatian soldiers who were fighting in europe, and a part of their uniform was assumed by the french in the 17th century. under the leadership of the french \u201e god of sun \" louis xiv there was a horsemen unit, the so - called royal cravate, who wore mostly red collar ribbons. the custom of wearing ribbons from the croats dates back to this time, which was later expanded around europe and the world, and today is inevitably the most important detail in men ' s fashion, and also an original croatian souvenir. the word \u00ab kravata \u00bb ( tie ) originates from the word \u00ab kroate \u00bb... the world", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5211394044048225, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:31.773863"} {"text": ", high energy physics, astrophysics, fusion, nanosciences \u2026 information and health technologies : it tackles micro and nano - technologies for telecommunication and nuclear medicine for radiotherapy and medical imaging, it researches programs on biotechnology, molecular labelling, biomolecular engineering and structural biology, it shares its knowledge and know - how through education and training through the national institute for nuclear sciences and technologies ( instn ), it manages over 300 priority patents and is active in the creation of clusters. defense and national security : it conceives, builds, maintains then dismantles the nuclear warhead of the french deterrence force, it helps to fight against nuclear, biological and chemical weapons ( nrbc program ). the missions of the cea are similar to the department of energy in the united states. the cea has a network of counselor or representatives in french embassies around the world ( see joint map ). the french nuclear safety authority ( asn ) created in 2006, from the former dsin ( directorate for the safety of nuclear facilities ), the french nuclear safety authority is an independent administrative authority which is tasked with regulating nuclear safety and radiation protection in order to protect workers, patients, the public and the environment from the risks involved in nuclear activities. it also contributes to informing the public. like the nuclear regulatory commission in the united states, it carries out inspections and may pronounce sanctions, up to and including suspension of operation of an installation. french institute for radioprotection and nuclear safety ( irsn ) created in 2001 by merging the protection and nuclear safety institute ( ipsn ) and the ionizing radiations protection office ( opri ), the institute for radioprotection and nuclear safety is a public establishment of an industrial and commercial nature placed under the joint authority of the ministries of the environment, health, industry, research and defense. it is the expert in safety research and specialized assessments into nuclear and radiological risk serving public authorities whose work is complementary to the asn. its scope of activities includes : environment and response, human radiological protection, research on the prevention of major accidents, power reactor safety, fuel cycle facility safety, research installation safety, waste management safety ; nuclear defense expertise. national radioactive waste management agency ( andra ) created in 1991, the french national agency for radioactive waste management is a public industrial and commercial organization that operates independently of waste producers. it is responsible for the long - term management of radioactive waste produced in france under the supervision of the french ministries for energy,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5179968152181899, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:31.789593"} {"text": "- action research ( 6 posts ) - artist cpd ( 11 posts ) - barriers to participation ( 2 posts ) - change management ( 8 posts ) - co - construction ( 3 posts ) - community cohesion ( 12 posts ) - creative curriculum development ( 13 posts ) - creative teaching and learning ( 28 posts ) - cross - curricular working ( 21 posts ) - developing school ethos ( 6 posts ) - disability awareness ( 4 posts ) - diversity ( 3 posts ) - exchanges and trips ( 4 posts ) - experiential learning ( 6 posts ) - extracurricular work ( 3 posts ) - learning outcomes for artists ( 23 posts ) - learning outcomes for teachers ( 27 posts ) - learning outcomes for young people ( 37 posts ) - learning styles ( 13 posts ) - mentoring ( 2 posts ) - outdoor learning environment ( 1 post ) - parent engagement ( 4 posts ) - participation and engagement ( 29 posts ) - partnerships ( 37 posts ) - role of the practitioner ( 32 posts ) - school networks ( 2 posts ) - teacher cpd ( 17 posts ) - whole school working ( 13 posts ) - young people in decision making role ( 9 posts ) - youth leadership ( 5 posts ) - youth voice ( 16 posts ) select from the categories above, and scroll over the thumbnails to view information about each resource. you can download many of the resources as pdfs, view film or listen to audio. a new direction schools forum : effective partnership workingthis resource summarises key ideas from schools and arts & cultural organisations from a series of discussions around six different \u2026 a personal journey through preferred learning stylesan essay written by a creative practitioner who undertook action research into students ' preferred learning styles and creativity. artists and teachers partnershipsan essay exploring partnerships between creative practitioners and teachers from an early years setting and a secondary school. arts beyond the classrooma film documenting the experiences of the pupils and parents in the arts beyond the classroom project. beneath the hooda pack including a poignant film portrait of students at a pru, poetry cards and a resource guide for similar \u2026 building partnershipsan essay describing three effective partnership projects delivered in two primary schools and one fe college. co - construction of learninga case study exploring examples of creative projects which supported young people to guide school change through ' co - construction '. connecting countries : london to vancouvera film of a group of secondary school students who journey to vancouver for the 2010 winter paralympic games. creative interventions in the english facultyan essay providing an arts organisation ' s perspective of creative teaching strategies within", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.513190242252151, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:31.803492"} {"text": "- construction '. connecting countries : london to vancouvera film of a group of secondary school students who journey to vancouver for the 2010 winter paralympic games. creative interventions in the english facultyan essay providing an arts organisation ' s perspective of creative teaching strategies within an east london school ' s english curriculum. creative teaching and learninga case study discussing the ways creative programmes have supported the development of creative teaching and learning. creativity and changean essay exploring structural and institutional change through creative programmes in three primaries and one special school. cross - curricular creative projectsan essay describing cross - curricular approaches in 3 primary schools and 1 secondary school in east london. developing a learning strategy for artsadmina paper detailing the development of an arts organisation ' s education programme in partnership with artists and local schools. engaging parents creatively in the foundation stagea paper presenting two examples that aimed to increase parental engagement and community involvement in the pupils ' work. forensic science murder mysterya film documenting a cross - curricular drama project with secondary school students inspired by a tv crime series. grove park special school takes over the borough of brenta film made by students with a range of physical and learning disabilities who investigate their local area. imaginationa film charting an 18 month whole school cross - curricular project culminating in a community carnival. imagine nationa short film of a poem and set of accompanying activities for literacy lessons exploring creativity and imagination. institutional changea paper exploring two different approaches to whole school change in a special school and a secondary school. ipc media schools design programmean essay describing the ipc media schools design programme, a graphic design work - related learning programme initiated in 2005. learning about learning : preferred learning styles and creativitya publication exploring education approaches to preferred learning styles. essays and a toolkit of lesson activities are included. london to beijing - a dance traveloguea film about dance students from a further education college who visit a dance school in beijing, china. making things happen - herea project case study and two films. a group of primary schools imagine something extraordinary for their community. olympics literacy resourcea set of classroom resources for all year groups for creating poetry around the theme of the olympics.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5155283113770179, "token_count": 435, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:31.804357"} {"text": "south america. uses sound to communicate living in landscapes dominated by human agriculture. having body symmetry such that the animal can be divided in one plane into two mirror - image halves. animals with bilateral symmetry have dorsal and ventral sides, as well as anterior and posterior ends. synapomorphy of the bilateria. found in coastal areas between 30 and 40 degrees latitude, in areas with a mediterranean climate. vegetation is dominated by stands of dense, spiny shrubs with tough ( hard or waxy ) evergreen leaves. may be maintained by periodic fire. in south america it includes the scrub ecotone between forest and paramo. uses smells or other chemicals to communicate helpers provide assistance in raising young that are not their own an animal that mainly eats the dung of other animals active at dawn and dusk having markings, coloration, shapes, or other features that cause an animal to be camouflaged in its natural environment ; being difficult to see or otherwise detect. animals that use metabolically generated heat to regulate body temperature independently of ambient temperature. endothermy is a synapomorphy of the mammalia, although it may have arisen in a ( now extinct ) synapsid ancestor ; the fossil record does not distinguish these possibilities. convergent in birds. an animal that mainly eats leaves. referring to a burrowing life - style or behavior, specialized for digging or burrowing. an animal that mainly eats seeds an animal that eats mainly plants or parts of plants. offspring are produced in more than one group ( litters, clutches, etc. ) and across multiple seasons ( or other periods hospitable to reproduction ). iteroparous animals must, by definition, survive over multiple seasons ( or periodic condition changes ). having the capacity to move from one place to another. the area in which the animal is naturally found, the region in which it is endemic. the business of buying and selling animals for people to keep in their homes as pets. having more than one female as a mate at one time specialized for leaping or bounding locomotion ; jumps or hops. communicates by producing scents from special gland ( s ) and placing them on a surface whether others can smell or taste them breeding is confined to a particular season remains in the same area reproduction that includes combining the genetic contribution of two individuals, a male and a female associates with others of its species ; forms social groups. places a food item in a special place to be eaten later. also called \" hoarding \" uses touch to communicate that region of", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5282501084016242, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:31.824427"} {"text": "combining the genetic contribution of two individuals, a male and a female associates with others of its species ; forms social groups. places a food item in a special place to be eaten later. also called \" hoarding \" uses touch to communicate that region of the earth between 23. 5 degrees north and 60 degrees north ( between the tropic of cancer and the arctic circle ) and between 23. 5 degrees south and 60 degrees south ( between the tropic of capricorn and the antarctic circle ). living on the ground. defends an area within the home range, occupied by a single animals or group of animals of the same species and held through overt defense, display, or advertisement uses sight to communicate reproduction in which fertilization and development take place within the female body and the developing embryo derives nourishment from the female. young are relatively well - developed when born chavez, a., f. bozinovic, l. peichl, a. palacios. 2003. retinal spectral sensitivity, fur coloration, and urine reflectance in the genus octodon ( rodentia ) : implications for visual ecology. investigative opthalmology & visual science, 44 / 5 : 2290 - 2296. contreras, l., j. torres - mura, j. yanez. 1987. biogeography of octodontid rodents : an eco - evolutionary hypothesis. fieldiana : zoology, new series, 39 : 401 - 411. ebensperger, l., f. bozinovic. 2000. energetics and burrowing behaviour in the semifossorial degu octadon degus ( rodentia : octodontidae ). journal of zoology, 252 : 179 - 186. ebensperger, l., a. caiozzi. 2002. male degus, octodon degus, modify their dustbathing behavior in response to social familiarity of previous dustbathing marks. revista chilena de historia natural, 75 : 157 - 163. ebensperger, l., m. hurtado. 2005. on the relationship between herbaceous cover and vigilance activity of degus ( octodon degus ). ethology, 111 / 6 : 593 - 608. ebensperger, l., m. hurtado. 2005. seasonal changes in the time budget of degus, octadon degus.. behaviour, 142 : 91 - 112. ebensperger, l.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5231677607714039, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:31.825214"} {"text": "than other citizens ' and their rights can be limited due to security or other penological concerns. because of the particular challenges administrators face running prisons, the supreme court has acknowledged there is a compelling government interest which warrants limiting prisoners ' rights. courts have been deferential to prison officials ' assessments of security threats, and sensitive to their related regulatory decisions, even if such decisions impact inmates ' first amendment rights. a prison regulation that impinges on an inmate ' s constitutional rights will be upheld in court if that regulation is reasonably related to legitimate penological objectives. this means that, generally, prison officials can ban extremist materials from prisons because of concerns that the distribution of such material will undermine prison security. extremist books, leaflets, and magazines have been forbidden to prisoners on this basis. such material has not been allowed through the mail and has not been kept in the prison library. however, prisons have less discretion to limit inmates ' religious practices than other first amendment rights due to a new federal law. because of the religious land use and institutionalized persons act ( rluipa ), prison officials ' discretion in limiting access to extremist material may depend in part on whether such material is related to an inmate ' s religious exercise. therefore, prison regulations that affect religious exercise, including access to religious literature, will be reviewed carefully if challenged in court. 3. what legal standard is used to determine the constitutionality of prison regulations? the supreme court announced the standard under which it would review the constitutionality of prison regulations in turner v. safley, a case involving a challenge to a complete prohibition on inmate marriage. as noted earlier, a prison regulation is constitutional if it is reasonably related to legitimate penological objectives. under this standard, courts have upheld regulations based on the consideration of certain factors : - is there a valid, rational connection between the prison regulation and the legitimate governmental interest put forward to justify it? - are there alternative means of exercising the assert - ed right that remain open to inmates? - how great a negative impact will accommodating the inmates ' rights have on guards, other inmates, a nd on the allocation of prison resources? courts will consider the existence of obvious and easy alternatives to a challenged regulation as evidence of a regulation ' s arbitrariness. 4. is the same legal standard used to determine the constitutionality of prison regulations that implicate an inmate ' s right to free exercise of religion? no, the same standard is not applicable to determining the constitutionality of prison regulations", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5137350844083612, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:31.838785"} {"text": "of review of such decisions. courts have tended to find prison regulations that ban all literature from particular groups unconstitutional. however, the determination of the constitutionality of a given regulation or the implementation of the regulation has tended to be very fact - specific. courts look not only at the regulation at issue but also consider the nature of the prison ( high, medium, or low security ) and the particular administrative challenges faced by the prison ( such as crowding and quantity of incoming mail ) in determining reasonableness, or the practical existence of less restrictive alternative measures. 6. can prison officials apply the same restrictions to outgoing prison material? the supreme court does not allow content regulation with respect to outgoing mail from inmates. while outgoing mail can be searched for contraband, 2 content regulation of outgoing mail is also more restricted because it implicates the first amendment rights of non - prisoner addressees. 3 in addition, outgoing material does not pose a threat to internal prison security ; therefore content limitations have been considered less urgent. however, regulations can limit the content of outgoing mail categorically. for example, escape plans, threats, running a business, and blackmail are categories that have been disallowed. therefore, correspondence from prisoners to extremist groups cannot be banned outright because of its content. however, inmates can be prevented from distributing a newsletter from prison when doing so constitutes running a business. 2 special rules exist with respect to attorney - client correspondence or mail that implicates an inmate ' s right to access the courts that are beyond the scope of this discussion. 3 however, prison officials can forbid all correspondence between incarcerated individuals. 7. can extremist \" missionaries \" be prevented from visiting prisons? prison officials can ban categories of prison visitors, such as former inmates or visitors who have previously broken visiting rules. an extremist \" missionary \" can be barred from a prison because of generally applicable rules. in addition, prisons can create procedures for requesting visiting ministers, and impose conditions on the selection of the ministers, such as sponsorship by an outside religious organization. prison officials can also exclude prison \" missionaries \" if they are advocating violence or otherwise fomenting prison unrest by encouraging racial tension. however, under rluipa, the prison would have to show that any restrictions on visiting clergy are the least restrictive means of achieving its end. prison officials do not have a responsibility to hire a minister for each religious denomination represented in the prison population. however, if visiting ministers of one denomination are compensated, visiting ministers of other denominations must be equally compensated. security", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5259657665523496, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:31.840818"} {"text": "restrictive means of achieving its end. prison officials do not have a responsibility to hire a minister for each religious denomination represented in the prison population. however, if visiting ministers of one denomination are compensated, visiting ministers of other denominations must be equally compensated. security limitations can be placed on inmate - led prayer or services, but again, under rluipa, the prison would have to show that any restrictions on such gatherings is the least restrictive means of achieving its end. for example, it is more likely that the prison could limit the frequency of such meetings, the number of attendees and require supervision than that such gatherings could be banned outright. 8. under what circumstances must prisons accommodate prisoners ' religious dietary requirements? accommodating religiously based dietary rules has become an issue when dealing with extremists because incidents have raised concern that extremists \" adopt \" religious practices that are not based on sincere beliefs in order to obtain special privileges, such as specialized diets. generally, if an inmate ' s request for a special diet is because of a sincerely held belief and religious in nature, the inmate has a constitutionally protected interest. under rluipa, a request for a special religious diet can only be refused based on a compelling prison interest and if it is the least restrictive means possible for the prison protecting that interest. prisons may offer more limited food selection to prisoners with religious dietary limitations, such as providing only cold kosher meals rather than hot food. in the past, when determining whether a prison was required to provided a special diet for a prisoner, courts have considered whether the dietary restrictions were central to the prisoner ' s religious observance. under rluipa, such a determination would probably not be relevant. the threshold question in evaluating the prison ' s obligation to accommodate a request would still be whether the inmate ' s dietary request arose out of sincerely held beliefs that were religious in nature.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5395902156246359, "token_count": 385, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:31.841534"} {"text": "wikipedia sobre fisica de particulas rapidinho. me falaram que a definicao de fisica de particulas da wikipedia era muito ruim. e de fato, era assim : particle physics is a branch of physics that studies the elementary particle | elementary subatomic constituents of matter and radiation, and their interactions. the field is also called high energy physics, because many elementary particles do not occur under ambient conditions on earth. they can only be created artificially during high energy collisions with other particles in particle accelerators. particle physics has evolved out of its parent field of nuclear physics and is typically still taught in close association with it. scientific research in this area has produced a long list of particles. mas hein? particulas que so podem ser criadas em aceleradores? fisica de particulas e ensinada junto com fisica nuclear? a pesquisa produz particulas ( essa e otima! )? em que mundo essa pessoa vive? reescrevi : particle physics is a branch of physics that studies the existence and interactions of particles, which are the constituents of what is usually referred as matter or radiation. in our current understanding, particles are excitations of quantum fields and interact following their dynamics. most of the interest in this area is in fundamental fields, those that cannot be described as a bound state of other fields. the set of fundamental fields and their dynamics are summarized in a model called the standard model and, therefore, particle physics is largely the study of the standard model particle content and its possible extensions. eu acho que ficou bem melhor. vamos ver em quanto tempo algum editor esquentado da wikipedia vai demorar para reverter. atualmente esta um saco participar da wikipedia por causa dessas pessoas.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6868882540843042, "token_count": 400, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:31.843221"} {"text": "- published : 19 mar 2013 - views : 42 - author : t. a. b possibly testing on weans, that worries me http : / / www. bbc. co. uk / news / world - us - canada - 21849808. a vaccine is a biological preparation that improves immunity to a particular disease. a vaccine typically contains an agent that resembles a disease - causing microorganism, and is often made from weakened or killed forms of the microbe, its toxins or one of its surface proteins. the agent stimulates the body ' s immune system to recognize the agent as foreign, destroy it, and \" remember \" it, so that the immune system can more easily recognize and destroy any of these microorganisms that it later encounters. vaccines can be prophylactic ( example : to prevent or ameliorate the effects of a future infection by any natural or \" wild \" pathogen ), or therapeutic ( e. g. vaccines against cancer are also being investigated ; see cancer vaccine ). the term vaccine derives from edward jenner ' s 1796 use of cow pox ( latin variola vaccinia, adapted from the latin vaccin - us, from vacca, cow ), to inoculate humans, providing them protection against smallpox. vaccines do not guarantee complete protection from a disease. sometimes, this is because the host ' s immune system simply does not respond adequately or at all. this may be due to a lowered immunity in general ( diabetes, steroid use, hiv infection, age ) or because the host ' s immune system does not have a b cell capable of generating antibodies to that antigen. even if the host develops antibodies, the human immune system is not perfect and in any case the immune system might still not be able to defeat the infection immediately. in this case, the infection will be less severe and heal faster. adjuvants are typically used to boost immune response. most often aluminium adjuvants are used, but adjuvants like squalene are also used in some vaccines and more vaccines with squalene and phosphate adjuvants are being tested. larger doses are used in some cases for older people ( 50 \u2013 75 years and up ), whose immune response to a given vaccine is not as strong. the efficacy or performance of the vaccine is dependent on a number of factors : when a vaccinated individual does develop the disease vaccinated against, the disease is likely to be milder than without vaccination. the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5599542358286245, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:31.859634"} {"text": "immunization. attenuated vaccines have some advantages and disadvantages. they have the capacity of transient growth so they give prolonged protection, and no booster dose is required. but they may get reverted to the virulent form and cause the disease. toxoid vaccines are made from inactivated toxic compounds that cause illness rather than the micro - organism. examples of toxoid - based vaccines include tetanus and diphtheria. toxoid vaccines are known for their efficacy. not all toxoids are for micro - organisms ; for example, crotalus atrox toxoid is used to vaccinate dogs against rattlesnake bites. protein subunit \u2013 rather than introducing an inactivated or attenuated micro - organism to an immune system ( which would constitute a \" whole - agent \" vaccine ), a fragment of it can create an immune response. examples include the subunit vaccine against hepatitis b virus that is composed of only the surface proteins of the virus ( previously extracted from the blood serum of chronically infected patients, but now produced by recombination of the viral genes into yeast ), the virus - like particle ( vlp ) vaccine against human papillomavirus ( hpv ) that is composed of the viral major capsid protein, and the hemagglutinin and neuraminidase subunits of the influenza virus. subunit vaccine is being used for plague immunization. conjugate \u2013 certain bacteria have polysaccharide outer coats that are poorly immunogenic. by linking these outer coats to proteins ( e. g. toxins ), the immune system can be led to recognize the polysaccharide as if it were a protein antigen. this approach is used in the haemophilus influenzae type b vaccine. a number of innovative vaccines are also in development and in use : while most vaccines are created using inactivated or attenuated compounds from micro - organisms, synthetic vaccines are composed mainly or wholly of synthetic peptides, carbohydrates or antigens. vaccines may be monovalent ( also called univalent ) or multivalent ( also called polyvalent ). a monovalent vaccine is designed to immunize against a single antigen or single microorganism. a multivalent or polyvalent vaccine is designed to immunize against two or more strains of the same microorganism, or against two or more microorganisms. in certain cases a monovalent vaccine may be preferable for rapidly developing a strong", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5604506843463821, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:31.862665"} {"text": "that the boy did not catch smallpox. further experimentation demonstrated the efficacy of the procedure on an infant. since vaccination with cowpox was much safer than smallpox inoculation, the latter, though still widely practiced in england, was banned in 1840. louis pasteur generalized jenner ' s idea by developing what he called a rabies vaccine, and in the nineteenth century vaccines were considered a matter of national prestige, and compulsory vaccination laws were passed. the twentieth century saw the introduction of several successful vaccines, including those against diphtheria, measles, mumps, and rubella. major achievements included the development of the polio vaccine in the 1950s and the eradication of smallpox during the 1960s and 1970s. maurice hilleman was the most prolific of the developers of the vaccines in the twentieth century. as vaccines became more common, many people began taking them for granted. however, vaccines remain elusive for many important diseases, including malaria and hiv. | | the neutrality of this section is disputed. please see the discussion on the talk page. please do not remove this message until the dispute is resolved. ( october 2011 ) | | | this article is missing information about scientific rebuttal to the attacks. this concern has been noted on the talk page where whether or not to include such information may be discussed. ( october 2011 ) | opposition to vaccination, from a wide array of vaccine critics, has existed since the earliest vaccination campaigns. although the benefits of preventing suffering and death from serious infectious diseases greatly outweigh the risks of rare adverse effects following immunization, disputes have arisen over the morality, ethics, effectiveness, and safety of vaccination. some vaccination critics say that vaccines are ineffective against disease or that vaccine safety studies are inadequate. some religious groups do not allow vaccination, and some political groups oppose mandatory vaccination on the grounds of individual liberty. in response, concern has been raised that spreading unfounded information about the medical risks of vaccines increases rates of life - threatening infections, not only in the children whose parents refused vaccinations, but also in other children, perhaps too young for vaccines, who could contract infections from unvaccinated carriers ( see herd immunity ). one challenge in vaccine development is economic : many of the diseases most demanding a vaccine, including hiv, malaria and tuberculosis, exist principally in poor countries. pharmaceutical firms and biotechnology companies have little incentive to develop vaccines for these diseases, because there is little revenue potential. even in more", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5066640519337344, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:31.866060"} {"text": "is economic : many of the diseases most demanding a vaccine, including hiv, malaria and tuberculosis, exist principally in poor countries. pharmaceutical firms and biotechnology companies have little incentive to develop vaccines for these diseases, because there is little revenue potential. even in more affluent countries, financial returns are usually minimal and the financial and other risks are great. most vaccine development to date has relied on \" push \" funding by government, universities and non - profit organizations. many vaccines have been highly cost effective and beneficial for public health. the number of vaccines actually administered has risen dramatically in recent decades. [ when? ] this increase, particularly in the number of different vaccines administered to children before entry into schools may be due to government mandates and support, rather than economic incentive. the filing of patents on vaccine development processes can also be viewed as an obstacle to the development of new vaccines. because of the weak protection offered through a patent on the final product, the protection of the innovation regarding vaccines is often made through the patent of processes used on the development of new vaccines as well as the protection of secrecy. vaccine production has several stages. first, the antigen itself is generated. viruses are grown either on primary cells such as chicken eggs ( e. g., for influenza ), or on continuous cell lines such as cultured human cells ( e. g., for hepatitis a ). bacteria are grown in bioreactors ( e. g., haemophilus influenzae type b ). alternatively, a recombinant protein derived from the viruses or bacteria can be generated in yeast, bacteria, or cell cultures. after the antigen is generated, it is isolated from the cells used to generate it. a virus may need to be inactivated, possibly with no further purification required. recombinant proteins need many operations involving ultrafiltration and column chromatography. finally, the vaccine is formulated by adding adjuvant, stabilizers, and preservatives as needed. the adjuvant enhances the immune response of the antigen, stabilizers increase the storage life, and preservatives allow the use of multidose vials. combination vaccines are harder to develop and produce, because of potential incompatibilities and interactions among the antigens and other ingredients involved. vaccine production techniques are evolving. cultured mammalian cells are expected to become increasingly important, compared to conventional options such as chicken eggs, due to greater productivity and low incidence of problems with contamination. recombination technology that produces genetically detoxified vaccine is expected to grow", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5110293415530353, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:31.867039"} {"text": "evolving. cultured mammalian cells are expected to become increasingly important, compared to conventional options such as chicken eggs, due to greater productivity and low incidence of problems with contamination. recombination technology that produces genetically detoxified vaccine is expected to grow in popularity for the production of bacterial vaccines that use toxoids. combination vaccines are expected to reduce the quantities of antigens they contain, and thereby decrease undesirable interactions, by using pathogen - associated molecular patterns. in 2010, india produced 60 percent of world ' s vaccine worth about $ 900 million. many vaccines need preservatives to prevent serious adverse effects such as staphylococcus infection that, in one 1928 incident, killed 12 of 21 children inoculated with a diphtheria vaccine that lacked a preservative. several preservatives are available, including thiomersal, phenoxyethanol, and formaldehyde. thiomersal is more effective against bacteria, has better shelf life, and improves vaccine stability, potency, and safety, but in the u. s., the european union, and a few other affluent countries, it is no longer used as a preservative in childhood vaccines, as a precautionary measure due to its mercury content. although controversial claims have been made that thiomersal contributes to autism, no convincing scientific evidence supports these claims. there are several new delivery systems in development [ when? ] that will hopefully make vaccines more efficient to deliver. possible methods include liposomes and iscom ( immune stimulating complex ). the latest developments [ when? ] in vaccine delivery technologies have resulted in oral vaccines. a polio vaccine was developed and tested by volunteer vaccinations with no formal training ; the results were positive in that the ease of the vaccines increased. with an oral vaccine, there is no risk of blood contamination. oral vaccines are likely to be solid which have proven to be more stable and less likely to freeze ; this stability reduces the need for a \" cold chain \" : the resources required to keep vaccines within a restricted temperature range from the manufacturing stage to the point of administration, which, in turn, may decrease costs of vaccines. a microneedle approach, which is still in stages of development, uses \" pointed projections fabricated into arrays that can create vaccine delivery pathways through the skin \". a nanopatch is a needle free vaccine delivery system which is under development. a stamp - sized patch similar to an adhesive bandage contains about 20, 000", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5461668511406754, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 7, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:31.867945"} {"text": "uses \" pointed projections fabricated into arrays that can create vaccine delivery pathways through the skin \". a nanopatch is a needle free vaccine delivery system which is under development. a stamp - sized patch similar to an adhesive bandage contains about 20, 000 microscopic projections per square inch. when worn on the skin, it will deliver vaccine directly to the skin, which has a higher concentration of immune cells than that in the muscles, where needles and syringes deliver. it thus increases the effectiveness of the vaccination using a lower amount of vaccine used in traditional syringe delivery system. the use of plasmids has been validated in preclinical studies as a protective vaccine strategy for cancer and infectious diseases. however, in human studies this approach has failed to provide clinically relevant benefit. the overall efficacy of plasmid dna immunization depends on increasing the plasmid ' s immunogenicity while also correcting for factors involved in the specific activation of immune effector cells. vaccinations of animals are used both to prevent their contracting diseases and to prevent transmission of disease to humans. both animals kept as pets and animals raised as livestock are routinely vaccinated. in some instances, wild populations may be vaccinated. this is sometimes accomplished with vaccine - laced food spread in a disease - prone area and has been used to attempt to control rabies in raccoons. where rabies occurs, rabies vaccination of dogs may be required by law. other canine vaccines include canine distemper, canine parvovirus, infectious canine hepatitis, adenovirus - 2, leptospirosis, bordatella, canine parainfluenza virus, and lyme disease among others. vaccine development has several trends : principles that govern the immune response can now be used in tailor - made vaccines against many noninfectious human diseases, such as cancers and autoimmune disorders. for example, the experimental vaccine cyt006 - angqb has been investigated as a possible treatment for high blood pressure. factors that have impact on the trends of vaccine development include progress in translatory medicine, demographics, regulatory science, political, cultural, and social responses. | modern vaccine and adjuvant production and characterization, genetic engineering & biotechnology news | the world news ( wn ) network, has created this privacy statement in order to demonstrate our firm commitment to user privacy. the following discloses our information gathering and dissemination practices for wn. com, as well", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5299677334015532, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 8, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:31.868846"} {"text": ", genetic engineering & biotechnology news | the world news ( wn ) network, has created this privacy statement in order to demonstrate our firm commitment to user privacy. the following discloses our information gathering and dissemination practices for wn. com, as well as e - mail newsletters. we do not collect personally identifiable information about you, except when you provide it to us. for example, if you submit an inquiry to us or sign up for our newsletter, you may be asked to provide certain information such as your contact details ( name, e - mail address, mailing address, etc. ). we may retain other companies and individuals to perform functions on our behalf. such third parties may be provided with access to personally identifiable information needed to perform their functions, but may not use such information for any other purpose. in addition, we may disclose any information, including personally identifiable information, we deem necessary, in our sole discretion, to comply with any applicable law, regulation, legal proceeding or governmental request. we do not want you to receive unwanted e - mail from us. we try to make it easy to opt - out of any service you have asked to receive. if you sign - up to our e - mail newsletters we do not sell, exchange or give your e - mail address to a third party. e - mail addresses are collected via the wn. com web site. users have to physically opt - in to receive the wn. com newsletter and a verification e - mail is sent. wn. com is clearly and conspicuously named at the point ofcollection. if you no longer wish to receive our newsletter and promotional communications, you may opt - out of receiving them by following the instructions included in each newsletter or communication or by e - mailing us at michaelw ( at ) wn. com the security of your personal information is important to us. we follow generally accepted industry standards to protect the personal information submitted to us, both during registration and once we receive it. no method of transmission over the internet, or method of electronic storage, is 100 percent secure, however. therefore, though we strive to use commercially acceptable means to protect your personal information, we cannot guarantee its absolute security. if we decide to change our e - mail practices, we will post those changes to this privacy statement, the homepage, and other places we think appropriate so that you are aware of what information we collect, how we use it, and under what circumstances, if any, we disclose it. if we make material", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5282350051400828, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 9, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:31.869914"} {"text": "the sludge into ethanol. a pelletizer compresses undigested waste into pellets that are fed into a gasification unit, which produces composite gas. the ethanol, composite gas and a 10 - percent diesel drip are injected into a diesel generator to produce electricity, according to scientists. it takes about six hours for the tiger to power up. when it works, the device can power a 60 - kilowatt generator. the prototypes are being tested at camp victory in baghdad initial runs proved successful. the prototypes have been used to power an office trailer. at their peak, they could power two to three trailers. in recent weeks, the scientists suffered a setback : the above - 100 degree temperatures caused a chiller device to overheat and shut off occasionally. a new chiller from edgewood just arrived at the site, kennedy said. after the 90 - day testing phase that ends aug. 10, the army will decide whether to fund the project further. its developers envision the device being used to respond to crises such as hurricane katrina, when there is no lack of garbage but a great need for electricity. spiller, of the army ' s rapid equipping force, said he is optimistic. \" the mere fact we wrote a check means we think it ' s got a high chance of success, \" spiller said.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.504096632014182, "token_count": 274, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:31.884062"} {"text": "belgian physicist francois englert, left, speaks with british physicist \u2026 ( fabrice coffrini / afp / getty \u2026 ) for physicists, it was a moment like landing on the moon or the discovery of dna. the focus was the higgs boson, a subatomic particle that exists for a mere fraction of a second. long theorized but never glimpsed, the so - called god particle is thought to be key to understanding the existence of all mass in the universe. the revelation wednesday that it - - or some version of it - - had almost certainly been detected amid more than hundreds of trillions of high - speed collisions in a 17 - mile track near geneva prompted a group of normally reserved scientists to erupt with joy. for the record los angeles times friday, july 06, 2012 home edition main news part a page 4 news desk 1 inches ; 48 words type of material : correction large hadron collider : in some copies of the july 5 edition, an article in section a about the machine used by physicists at the european organization for nuclear research to search for the higgs boson referred to the $ 5 - billion large hadron collider. the correct amount is $ 10 billion. peter higgs, one of the scientists who first hypothesized the existence of the particle, reportedly shed tears as the data were presented in a jampacked and applause - heavy seminar at cern, the european organization for nuclear research. \" it ' s a gigantic triumph for physics, \" said frank wilczek, an mit physicist and nobel laureate. \" it ' s a tremendous demonstration of a community dedicated to understanding nature. \" the achievement, nearly 50 years in the making, confirms physicists ' understanding of how mass - - the stuff that makes stars, planets and even people - - arose in the universe, they said. it also points the way toward a new path of scientific inquiry into the mass - generating mechanism that was never before possible, said ucla physicist robert cousins, a member of one of the two research teams that has been chasing the higgs boson at cern. \" i compare it to turning the corner and walking around a building - - there ' s a whole new set of things you can look at, \" he said. \" it is a beginning, not an end. \" leaders of the two teams reported independent results that suggested the existence of a previously unseen subatomic particle with a mass of about 125 to 126 billion electron volts. both groups got", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6252719490679229, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:31.914997"} {"text": "he said. \" it is a beginning, not an end. \" leaders of the two teams reported independent results that suggested the existence of a previously unseen subatomic particle with a mass of about 125 to 126 billion electron volts. both groups got results at a \" five sigma \" level of confidence - - the statistical requirement for declaring a scientific \" discovery. \" \" the chance that either of the two experiments had seen a fluke is less than three parts in 10 million, \" said uc san diego physicist vivek sharma, a former leader of one of the higgs research groups. \" there is no doubt that we have found something. \" but he and others stopped just shy of saying that this new particle was indeed the long - sought higgs boson. \" all we can tell right now is that it quacks like a duck and it walks like a duck, \" sharma said. in this case, quacking was enough for most. \" if it looks like a duck and quacks like a duck, it ' s probably at least a bird, \" said wilczek, who stayed up past 3 a. m. to watch the seminar live over the web while vacationing in new hampshire. certainly cern leaders in geneva, even as they referred to their discovery simply as \" a new particle, \" didn ' t bother hiding their excitement. the original plan had been to present the latest results on the higgs search at the international conference on high energy physics, a big scientific meeting that began wednesday in melbourne. but as it dawned on cern scientists that they were on the verge of \" a big announcement, \" cousins said, officials decided to honor tradition and instead present the results on cern ' s turf. the small number of scientists who theorized the existence of the higgs boson in the 1960s - - including higgs of the university of edinburgh - - were invited to fly to geneva. for the non - vip set, lines to get into the auditorium began forming late tuesday. many spent the night in sleeping bags. all the hubbub was due to the fact that the discovery of the higgs boson is the last piece of the puzzle needed to complete the so - called standard model of particle physics - - the big picture that describes the subatomic particles that make up everything in the universe, and the forces that work between them. over the course of the 20th century, as physicists learned more about the standard model, they struggled to answer one very basic question : why does", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5738616108302553, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:31.918032"} {"text": "\" helplessness \" and \" confusion \" are words that easily come to mind when the issue of sick building syndrome is mentioned. it is a problem that does not have a regulatory solution, and is bound with engineering, medicine and emotions that will challenge the best of school administrators. a careful management style and knowledgeable use of technologies in medicine, toxicology and property maintenance are a school administrator ' s best allies in preparing to deal with or prevent this new generation of health and safety challenges. defining sick building syndrome there is no regulatory definition for sick building syndrome. although it often relates to indoor - air - quality problems, it simply means that the environment of a building is inspiring complaints of discomfort and / or disease. fundamentally, the causes of sick buildings relate to architecture and engineering patterns institutionalized in school construction following world war ii. schools of glass, rock and wood, with high ceilings, cross - ventilation via a transom over the door, and windows and radiators that could be adjusted by teachers no longer were built. these schools were being replaced with new, factory - like buildings featuring a temperamental, eccentric system of master controls for indoor environment. buildings were constructed with no regard to the environment around them or to people within the property. today, allowing for the ambiguity in defining sick buildings, somewhere between 1 - in - 5 and 1 - in - 15 school facilities are in a situation where discomfort and disease can be attributed to operations of the building. health symptoms in a sick building are highly variable, but generally split into three categories : - radical reaction - - a number of people clearly and suddenly ill. this usually involves limited air exchange combined with a \" smoking gun, \" which can include a new chemical cleaner, misbatched chlorine in a pool area, a weather inversion preventing a kiln from venting properly or a failure of a mechanical air - exchange system. - unhealthy atmosphere - - many people experiencing ongoing subtle illness or discomfort. the most common symptoms involve the dehydration of sensitive tissue, including sore eyes, throat or nasal membranes ; a feeling of lethargy ; a higher incidence of upper - respiratory infection ; asthmatic reactions ; low - grade headaches ; and a continuum of muscle pain and general discomfort among building occupants. much of this relates to oxygen deprivation typically caused by oxygen being displaced by other compounds, and occasionally by infestation of microbes as a result of excessive moisture remaining within the property. - hypersensitive reaction or multiple chemical sensitivity reaction - - one or two individuals extremely", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5611331524065333, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:31.933234"} {"text": "oxygen deprivation typically caused by oxygen being displaced by other compounds, and occasionally by infestation of microbes as a result of excessive moisture remaining within the property. - hypersensitive reaction or multiple chemical sensitivity reaction - - one or two individuals extremely ill. this can result if even tiny exposures occur to anyone that has a highly sensitive reaction to certain chemicals. typically, these complaints should be viewed as warnings that some low - level toxin is in the area. although sick building syndrome usually relates to the general nature of the building itself, there are some specifics that account for most indoor - air problems : * combustibles ; any possible introduction of carbon monoxide. * moisture as it may relate to mold ( look for growths on drywall ). * moisture as it may relate to airborne infectious agents ( standing water and consequent growths ). * volatile organic compounds ( vocs ), usually cleaning agents or building materials, which may give off unpleasant, sometimes toxic gases. * formaldehydes in new carpet, pressed wood or other building products. * any new or newly exposed particleboard. * applied poisons ( pesticides, insecticides, rodenticides, herbicides ). a proactive approach administrators are dealing with a generation of post - world war ii properties prone to indoor - air - quality problems, particularly buildings constructed or remodeled during the 1970s energy crisis. a school district should take several steps before a problem strikes. first, initiate patterns for preventing air - quality problems. second, establish baseline information that will profile the building to facilitate an efficient, inexpensive and confidence - inspiring response. building occupants and the community need to see a clear and confident administrative approach should a problem arise in the future. the proactive investigation of the building should involve a limited amount of basic testing, particularly a professional review of the microbial matrix within the building - - the number of colony - forming units or what kinds of microbes presently are nesting in the building. understanding what is living in the ambient air can help administrators understand if there is a problem or, more importantly, can help to quickly isolate the exact nature of a problem. similarly, administrators should consider hiring an outside contractor to review how air - handling and mechanical - engineering systems are managed. a knowledgeable person should walk the area and observe the mechanical systems to see how the filtering system, the air - dispersion system and the air - dilution patterns of the building are operating. finally, a reliable epidemiological profile of comparative absenteeism should", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5151996664455407, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:31.934267"} {"text": "varying densities. these particles within the matter are kinetic and in constant motion. the slower the motion of the particles, the more dense the matter becomes. also, as the particles are pushed closer together, the matter also becomes more dense. the best way to slow down kinetic molecules is to cool the matter. the best way to get them to move closer together is to add pressure to the matter. inversely, when you remove the pressure or heat any material, the molecules within the material moves faster and further apart, thus making the material less dense. the least dense form of matter is, of course, gas. if a gas is cooled and compressed, at some point it will become a liquid. if that liquid is then cooled further, then at some point it will become a solid. also, when you take the pressure off any gas or liquid, that material will grow less dense and expand. this is essentially what happens to the gaseous molecules of our atmosphere. our atmosphere contains approximately 79 % nitrogen and 21 % oxygen, a constant ratio until you reach an altitude of about 270, 000 feet. so the question that always comes up is ; \" if i have 21 % oxygen at sea level and 21 % at 40, 000 feet, why do i succumb to the effects of hypoxia within 20 seconds at that altitude? \" the answer is, atmospheric pressure! if you could picture all the gaseous nitrogen and oxygen molecules in the atmosphere, they would stack up from the surface of the earth to the fringe of space. all these molecules stacking on top each other create a great deal of weight, or pressure. at sea level, one square - inch of any surface has about 15 pounds of air sitting on top of it. at 18, 000 feet, that same square inch has only 7. 5 pounds per square - inch ( psi ) exerted on it. what has caused this atmospheric pressure drop? the answer is simple : there is more air stacked up at sea level than above 18, 000 feet, and therefore, more weight. as you recall, when molecules are subjected to this pressure, they are going to move closer together. this will make the air more dense with oxygen and nitrogen molecules. for example, if at sea level you take in a breath of air that has an atmospheric pressure of 15 psi, then that air may contain 500 billion molecules of oxygen ( this a fictitious number to be used only as an example ) ; if you go to 18, 000 feet and take the same breath where atmospheric pressure", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5543223302441906, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:31.951227"} {"text": ", alterations may be made in the constitution \u201d through the amendment process. delegates agreed to add the language \u201c not exceeding \u201d to the one representative for 40, 000 citizen ratio, making that a ceiling and not a floor. controversy over this provision would re - emerge before the end of the convention, however. the specter of slavery likewise, controversy would emerge about slavery. consideration of the apportionment of representatives raised the question of whether slaves would be included within that ratio. morris rose on august 8 and gave a withering criticism of the institution. moving to specify that this ratio would include only \u201c free \u201d inhabitants, morris called slavery \u201c a nefarious institution, \u201d and \u201c the curse of heaven \u201d. comparing free with slave states, morris noted, on the one hand, \u201c a rich and noble cultivation [ which ] marks the prosperity and happiness of the people, \u201d and on the other \u201c the misery and poverty which overspread the barren wastes of virginia, maryland, and the other states having slaves. \u201d morris \u2019 s motion was defeated 10 - 1, but the issue of how slavery would be addressed by the new union was by no means resolved. for more detailed information on the constitutional convention, please visit prof. gordon lloyd \u2019 s web companion to the philadelphia convention. posted in countdown to the constitution", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5022864906664805, "token_count": 266, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:31.995559"} {"text": "in 2006, two scientists announced that they had cooked an egg by placing it in between two cell phones. it has been thrououghly disproven and analyzed since the surface of the claim, but it is still an excellent opportunity to use the scientific thinking principles on! # 1 : ruling out rival hypotheses this principle isn ' t the most relevant because the experiment doesn ' t exactly prove any hypotheses. but it can still apply to the attempt to cook an egg between two cell phones because there could be other effects causing that outcome. # 2 : correlation vs. causation there are so many other reasons that the egg could ' ve cooked! maybe it was really hot out? or the cell phone egg set up was within a microwave? not the most probable of all possible causations, but it proves the point. there could be many other ways this egg could ' ve cooked ( or in actuality, the fact that it didn ' t cook at all ) that we need to examine or at least acknowledge that they could be there. this claim is very out there so it has a really good chance of being able to be falsified. as we will see in # 4, after replicating the incident one can find almost instantly that it is in fact a hoax. as many people did, reproducing the egg cooking experiement will prove that it is in fact a hoax. every reproduction that was prodcued failed to yield the same results as the first, which made everything make sense when the site ' s webmaster that published the article stepped forward to say it was in fact completely fake. # 5 : extraordinary claims the claim that you can cook an egg with two cell phones is pretty extraordinary yet there is no extraordinary evidence to back it up! in fact, it is just too extraordinary to be real. # 6 : occam ' s razor in my mind, the simpliest explaination would be that it simply is not true. the end. i ' m not going to lie, if this claim was true i would be thrilled. in addition to being in awe of the power of technology, it would make cooking meals for myself in my dorm room a whole lot easier! unfortunately though, this is a hoax. with the help of the six principles of scientific thinking, i will never fall for this or any other raw food cooking claim ever again!", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_entanglement", "similarity_score": 0.5784124835423601, "token_count": 491, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:32.002382"} {"text": "how to win at science fairs ( dec, 1960 ) how to win at science fairs by ronald benrey you can win at a science fair as long as one thing interests you more than winning does. this is your project itself. it is going to be judged on scientific thought, creative ability, and presentation. you will really have to know the field your project is concerned with. this takes effort. since you lack the means of a professional laboratory, you will have to do much with little. this takes trial and error and just plain work. your presentation must be attractive and clear. this means good workmanship, which takes time and care. you are going to have to show some originality. after all, there is no use doing what everybody else is doing : be different. for this, you have to have the other three under control. by the way, the \u201c laymen \u201d who see your exhibit will ask all kinds of questions. have good answers at your fingertips. the judges won \u2019 t be laymen, and any double - talk will scream to them that you don \u2019 t know your subject. it may also make them suspect that the best parts of your project are not your work. this would be unjust, perhaps, but deadly. now, whether your entry covers a large table top or can just be tucked under your arm, it is going to be a big job. it can \u2019 t be left for a \u201c crash program \u201d in the last few weeks before the fair. it is going to eat up big portions of your time, energy, and spending money for the next several months. all this demands your interest. but it isn \u2019 t simply a matter of \u201c fun. \u201d licking this challenge may be a turning point in your life. with or without a scholarship prize, your career may begin with it. as a reader of electronics illustrated your project will probably deal with electronics or applied physics rather than with biological or earth sciences. select your topic carefully from a broad subject that really interests you. a massive effort in the direction of a passing fancy will result in a mediocre project at best. take a limited subtopic that you think worth investigating and that you feel able to handle. to ease financial strain, plan now to build your project over a long period of time, say six months, on a pay - as - you - build basis. once you have a rough idea of your project \u2019 s general form, don \u2019 t dash into construction. visit technical libraries and learn all you can about current professional", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_entanglement", "similarity_score": 0.5023817342576999, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:32.009530"} {"text": "this is an important judging criterion. remember, how you solved your problem is what counts at a science fair, and not merely that you solved it. also, neatness counts! aside from being impossible to troubleshoot, a rat \u2019 s nest of wiring is typical of losing projects. time spent color - coding leads, installing wire harness and cable clamps will result in a much more attractive and more reliable project. but know what you are doing! don \u2019 t harness leads in a circuit that demands point - to - point wiring, or cable grid and plate leads together in an amplifier circuit. read up on layout and construction techniques, and allow yourself time to make and correct mistakes. prior planning will also pay off in dollars and cents, since you can save by purchasing some components ( like resistors ) in quantity, and if you live near a big city you can shop around for some items in the military surplus stores, modifying your design if necessary to take odd - value components. now, sit back and start your thinking. the time to start is right now. is your winning project here? radio telescope : home - built sensitive low - noise receiver, simple antenna system. try to make simple \u201c radio map. \u201d guidance system : for model ear. can be programmed to run around science fair grounds without hitting anything, or to reach pre - chosen destination. solar cells : home - built unit as part of demonstration of basic physics of solar cells : display on recent professional research results : off - beat practical applications ( eyeglass type hearing aid? ). moon mouse : \u201c to be landed on the moon. \u201d self - propelled, radio controlled from earth, instrumented and transmitter equipped. some functions solar powered? these are only suggestions. you may come up with ideas regarding fuel cells, space communications, navigation, etc.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_entanglement", "similarity_score": 0.5540809661277003, "token_count": 366, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:32.014334"} {"text": "with the development of science and technology, computer has become more and more popular in our daily life, which is intended to be a part of our life. but at the same time it also brings the safety problem, because increasing number of bad people would like to break into computer systems to steal the secret information. it seems that computer safety has been a serious problem by now. maybe you could learn something about the safety terms in microsoft so that you could adopt the different methods according to different cases. what is malware? in fact malware, short for \u201c malicious software \u201d, is any kind of software which is installed without your complete permission and is not in need at all. the famous malware areviruses, worms, and trojan horses, which are almost known to us all. even though you are not familiar with them, you must have heard of it at ordinary times. if you want to protect your computer from the malware, you could make sure that the automatic updating is turned on all the time to get the latest updates. 2 antispyware software antispyware software helps protect your computer, and prevent the pop - ups, slow performance, and security threats caused by spyware and other adverse software. every computer user must keep antispyware software up to date in order to keep in touch with the latest spyware. aimed at protecting our computer, we could use microsoft security essentials, free download software, to be against spyware and other malicious software. a firewall is used to help screen out hackers, viruses, and worms that try to attack your computer through the internet. in fact, if you are the one who use the computer at home, the most efficient and important step is to enable firewall when you start your computer. a virus will slip through and infect you ; the only effective way by protecting yourself is using a firewall. a firewall monitors your internet connections and allows you to specify which programs are allowed to connect and which are not. 4 antivirus software antivirus software is a kind of computer program which can be used to test, defend, and take actions to remove or delete malicious software program. as we all know, computer virus is some programs, which can specially disturb computer operation. so we should update antivirus software in regular time to prevent against the latest virus. 5 windows password besides the above mentioned software, you could have an alternative at the same time, namely windows password. with a password like this, you can prevent your privacy from being let out", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5108322835580825, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:32.017306"} {"text": "just as there are many variants and forms of electronic malware and internet - based threats around the globe, so there are many forms of protection against these threats. signature - based detection is one of the multifarious forms of defense that have been developed in order to keep us safe from malicious content. although signature - based detection can be argued to have been overshadowed by more sophisticated methods of protection in some environments, it remains as a core \u2018 technique \u2019 featuring in the anti - virus controls of packages and suites that work to protect a user \u2019 s system today. how does signature - based detection work? signature - based detection works by scanning the contents of computer files and cross - referencing their contents with the \u201c code signatures \u201d belonging to known viruses. a library of known code signatures is updated and refreshed constantly by the anti - virus software vendor. if a viral signature is detected, the software acts to protect the user \u2019 s system from damage. suspected files are typically quarantined and / or encrypted in order to render them inoperable and useless. clearly there will always be new and emerging viruses with their own unique code signatures. so once again, the anti - virus software vendor works constantly to assess and assimilate new signature - based detection data as it becomes available, often in real time so that updates can be pushed out to users immediately and zero - day vulnerabilities can be avoided. next - generation signature - based detection new variants of computer virus are of course developed every day and security companies now work to also protect users from malware that attempts to disguise itself from traditional signature - based detection. virus authors have tried to avoid their malicious code being detected by writing \u201c oligomorphic \u201c, \u201c polymorphic \u201d and more recently \u201c metamorphic \u201d viruses with signatures that are either disguised or changed from those that might be held in a signature directory. despite these developments, the internet at large does of course still function on a daily basis. populated as it is by users who not only have up to date security software installed, but also by those who have educated themselves as to the type of risks discussed here.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5873531449473786, "token_count": 431, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:32.029833"} {"text": "by jason kohn, contributing columnist like many of us, scientific researchers tend to be creatures of habit. this includes research teams working for the national oceanic and atmospheric administration ( noaa ), the u. s. government agency charged with measuring the behavior of oceans, atmosphere, and weather. many of these climate scientists work with massive amounts of data \u2013 for example, the national weather service collecting up - to - the - minute temperature, humidity, and barometric readings from thousands of sites across the united states to help forecast weather. research teams then rely on some the largest, most powerful high - performance computing ( hpc ) systems in the world to run models, forecasts, and other research computations. given the reliance on hpc resources, noaa climate researchers have traditionally worked onsite at major supercomputing facilities, such as oak ridge national laboratory in tennessee, where access to supercomputers are just steps away. as researchers crate ever more sophisticated models of ocean and atmospheric behavior, however, the hpc requirements have become truly staggering. now, noaa is using a super - high - speed network called \u201c n - wave \u201d to connect research sites across the united states with the computing resources they need. the network has been operating for several years, and today transports enough data to fill a 10 - gbps network to full capacity, all day, every day. noaa is now upgrading this network to allow even more data traffic, with the goal of ultimately supporting 100 - gbps data rates. \u201c our scientists were really used to having a computer in their basement, \u201d says jerry janssen, manager, n - wave network, noaa, in a video about the project. \u201c when that computer moved a couple thousand miles away, we had to give them a lot of assurances that, one, the data would actually move at the speed they needed it to move, but also that they could rely on it to be there. the amount of data that will be generated under this model will exceed 80 - 100 terabits per day. \u201d the n - wave project means much more than just a massive new data pipe. it represents a fundamental shift in the way that scientists can conduct their research, allowing them to perform hugely demanding supercomputer runs of their data from dozens of remote locations. as a result, it gives noaa climate scientists much more flexibility in where and how they work. \u201c for the first time, noaa scientists and engineers in completely separate parts of the country, all the way to places", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5358813667952087, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:32.033371"} {"text": "from dozens of remote locations. as a result, it gives noaa climate scientists much more flexibility in where and how they work. \u201c for the first time, noaa scientists and engineers in completely separate parts of the country, all the way to places like alaska and hawaii and puerto rico, will have the bandwidth they need, without restriction, \u201d says janssen. \u201c noaa will now be able to do things it never thought it could do before. \u201d in addition to providing fast, stable access to hpc resources, n - wave is also allowing noaa climate scientists to share resources much more easily with scientists in the u. s. department of energy and other government agencies. ideally, this level of collaboration and access to supercomputing resources will help climate scientists continue to develop more effective climate models, improve weather forecasts, and allow us to better understand our climate. powering vital climate research the high - speed nationwide hpc connectivity capability provided by n - wave is now enabling a broad range of noaa basic science and research activities. examples include : - basic data dissemination, allowing research teams to collect up - to - the - minute data on ocean, atmosphere, and weather from across the country, and make that data available to other research teams and agencies nationwide. - ensemble forecasting, where researchers run multiple hpc simulations using different initial conditions and modeling techniques, in order to refine their atmospheric forecasts and minimize errors. - severe weather modeling, where scientists draw on hpc simulations, real - time atmospheric data, and archived storm data to better understand and predict the behavior of storms. - advancing understanding of the environment to be able to better predict short - term and long - term environmental changes, mitigate threats, and provide the most accurate data to inform policy decisions. all of this work is important, and will help advance our understanding of earth \u2019 s climate. and it is all a testament to the amazing networking technologies and infrastructure that scientists now have at their disposal, which puts the most powerful supercomputing resources in the world at their fingertips \u2013 even when they are thousands of miles away.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5268938468871491, "token_count": 426, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:32.034151"} {"text": "- november 15th, 2008 - derek robertson - comments : 7 comments \u00bb tags : consolarium, endless ocean, games based learning, wii endless ocean for the nintendo wii was one of those games that immediately caught my eye. a wonderful world in which the player can become immersed in a rich, vibrant and somewhat hypnotically therapeutic underwater world. i \u2019 ve written about how i thought it might be used to drive learning before but my initial ideas have been put into place and extended beyond recognition by some really creative teachers. last week i went with margaret cassidy from stirling council to cowie ps to see a teacher that was using endless ocean with her class : mrs bullivant and her class of p. 6 children treated me to an afternoon of sheer joy. i walked in to a class that had been turned into an underwater world that was awash with a tide of enthusiastic and industrious learnning. - streamers of various shades of blue were hung from two lines that criss - crossed the class. from these lines also hung starfish, sharks and other underwater creatures that the children had made. - the wii was hooked up to the whiteboard and the gameplay was integral to the learning. - the children were divided into \u2018 dive teams \u2019 and their \u2018 dive leader \u2019 had to manage certain aspects of how the children worked together. - children were engaged with a teacher led leson that investigated buoyancy. - children were searching the web to find out more about some of the creatures that they discovered in the game. - a spreadsheet activity detailing the range of creatures that they had discovered was in place. - a shipwreck ( created by the janitor ) was sitting in the class. this helped drive much of the creative writing work. - the children created treasure maps and were using these to look at grid references. - mermaids were created in art and design and very lifelike they were too! - reference books were in great demand when i was in the class and the initial stimulus of the game appeared to drive a real interest for what could be found in the complementary resource that was the book. - children actively encouraged to measure exactly how long 7 metres is as a result of finding out that that was how long a great white shark was. this was just a wonderful visit and an example of what learning in class can be. yes we need creative teachers to lead this but isn \u2019 t that what we are meant to be. the work that was in evidence in this class was delightful to witness and further cemented my ideas of", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5086461606773233, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:32.040917"} {"text": "public papers - 1991 white house fact sheet on the strategic arms reduction treaty ( start ) today, the united states and the soviet union signed the strategic arms reduction treaty. this treaty marks the first agreement between the two countries in which the number of deployed strategic nuclear weapons will actually be reduced. reductions will take place over a period of 7 years, and will result in parity between the strategic nuclear forces of the two sides at levels approximately 30 percent below currently deployed forces. deeper cuts are required in the most dangerous and destabilizing systems. start provisions are designed to strengthen strategic stability at lower levels and to encourage the restructuring of strategic forces in ways that make them more stable and less threatening. the treaty includes a wide variety of very demanding verification measures designed to ensure compliance and build confidence. the treaty sets equal ceilings on the number of strategic nuclear forces that can be deployed by either side. in addition, the treaty establishes an equal ceiling on ballistic missile throw - weight ( a measure of overall capability for ballistic missiles ). each side is limited to no more than : - - 1600 strategic nuclear delivery vehicles ( deployed intercontinental ballistic missiles [ icbm ' s ], submarine launched ballistic missiles [ slbm ' s ], and heavy bombers ), a limit that is 36 percent below the soviet level declared in september 1990 and 29 percent below the u. s. level. - - 6000 total accountable warheads, about 41 percent below the current soviet level and 43 percent below the current u. s. level. - - 4900 accountable warheads deployed on icbm ' s or slbm ' s, about 48 percent below the current soviet level and 40 percent below the current u. s. level. - - 1540 accountable warheads deployed on 154 heavy icbm ' s, a 50 - percent reduction in current soviet forces. the u. s. has no heavy icbm ' s. - - 1100 accountable warheads deployed on mobile icbm ' s. - - aggregate throw - weight of deployed icbm ' s and slbm ' s equal to about 54 percent of the current soviet aggregate throw - weight. ballistic missile warhead accountability the treaty uses detailed counting rules to ensure the accurate accounting of the number of warheads attributed to each type of ballistic missile. - - each deployed ballistic missile warhead counts as 1 under the 4900 ceiling and 1 under the 6000 overall warhead ceiling. - - each side is allowed 10 on - site inspections each year to verify that deployed ballistic missiles contain no more warheads than the number that is attributed to them under the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5164082798117914, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:32.065071"} {"text": "1 under the 4900 ceiling and 1 under the 6000 overall warhead ceiling. - - each side is allowed 10 on - site inspections each year to verify that deployed ballistic missiles contain no more warheads than the number that is attributed to them under the treaty. downloading ballistic missile warheads the treaty also allows for a reduction in the number of warheads on certain ballistic missiles, which will help the sides transition their existing forces to the new regime. such downloading is permitted in a carefully structured and limited fashion. - - the u. s. may download its three - warhead minuteman iii icbm by either one or two warheads. the soviet union has already downloaded it ' s seven warhead ss - n - 18 slbm by four warheads. - - in addition, each side may download up to 500 warheads on two other existing types of ballistic missiles, as long as the total number of warheads removed from downloaded missiles does not exceed 1250 at any one time. the treaty places constraints on the characteristics of new types of ballistic missiles to ensure the accuracy of counting rules and prevent undercounting of missile warheads. - - the number of warheads attributed to a new type of ballistic missile must be no less than the number determined by dividing 40 percent of the missile ' s total throw - weight by the weight of the lightest rv tested on that missile. - - the throw - weight attributed to a new type must be no less than the missile ' s throw - weight capability at specified reference ranges ( 11, 000 km for icbm ' s and 9, 500 km for slbm ' s ). start places significant restrictions on the soviet ss - 18 heavy icbm. - - a 50 - percent reduction in the number of soviet ss - 18 icbm ' s ; a total reduction of 154 of these soviet missiles. - - new types of heavy icbm ' s are banned. - - downloading of heavy icbm ' s is banned. - - heavy slbm ' s and heavy mobile icbm ' s are banned. - - heavy icbm ' s will be reduced on a more stringent schedule than other strategic arms. because mobile missiles are more difficult to verify than other types of ballistic missiles, start incorporates a number of special restrictions and notifications with regard to these missiles. these measures will significantly improve our confidence that start will be effectively verifiable. - - nondeployed mobile missiles and non - deployed mobile launchers are numerically and geographically limited so as to limit", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5434902183103686, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:32.065939"} {"text": "offensive arms. start will have a duration of 15 years, unless it is superseded by a subsequent agreement. if the sides agree, the treaty may be extended for successive 5 - year periods beyond the 15 years. noncircumvention and third countries start prohibits the transfer of strategic offensive arms to third countries, except that the treaty will not interfere with existing patterns of cooperation. in addition, the treaty prohibits the permanent basing of strategic offensive arms outside the national territory of each side. air - launched cruise missiles ( alcm ' s ) start does not directly count or limit alcm ' s. alcm ' s are limited indirectly through their association with heavy bombers. - - only nuclear - armed alcm ' s with a range in excess of 600 km are covered by start. - - long - range, conventionally armed alcm ' s that are distinguishable from nuclear - armed alcm ' s are not affected. - - long - range nuclear - armed alcm ' s may not be located at air bases for heavy bombers not accountable as being equipped for such alcm ' s. - - multiple warhead long - range nuclear alcm ' s are banned. sea launched cruise missiles ( slcm ' s ) slcms are not constrained by the treaty. however, each side has made a politically binding declaration as to its plans for the deployment of nuclear - armed slcm ' s. conventionally - armed slcm ' s are not subject to such a declaration. - - each side will make an annual declaration of the maximum number of nuclear - armed slcm ' s with a range greater than 600 km that it plans to deploy for each of the following 5 years. - - this number will not be greater than 880 long - range nuclear - armed slcm ' s. - - in addition, as a confidence building measure, nuclear - armed slcm ' s with a range of 300 - 600 km will be the subject of a confidential annual data exchange. the soviet backfire bomber is not constrained by the treaty. however, the soviet side has made a politically binding declaration that it will not deploy more than 800 air force and 200 naval backfire bombers, and that these bombers will not be given intercontinental capability. the start agreement consists of the treaty document itself and a number of associated documents. together they total more than 700 pages. the treaty was signed in a public ceremony by presidents bush and gorbachev in st. vladimir ' s hall in the kremlin. the associated documents were signed in a private ceremony at novo", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5041727995361842, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:32.067797"} {"text": "first - you might want to redefine you search. are you looking for happiness or rather positive affect? happiness is fairly ambigious term, and it ' s much more associated with positive psychology studies on well - being. if you are interested in more global definition of happiness, check the work of mihaly csikszentmihalyi. on the other hand, there is a large number of studies on physiological measurements of positive affect. one such physiological measurement is electromyography ( emg ) - recording the electrical activity produced by skeletal muscles. emg will detect very brief smiles or higher activity in cheek muscles ( zygomaticus major ) which are correlated with positive affect. there is quite classic ( but very quoted ) paper on that : cacioppo jt, petty re, losch me, kim hs. ( 1986 ) electromyographic activity over facial muscle regions can differentiate the valence and intensity of affective reactions. j pers soc psychol., 50 ( 2 ) : 260 - 8. download another simple physiological assesment is heart rate measured by the interbeat interval ( ibi ). for example, study by brosschot & thayer ( 2003 ) shows that heart rate response is longer after negative emotions than after positive emotions. brosschot jf, thayer jf. ( 2003 ) heart rate response is longer after negative emotions than after positive emotions. int j psychophysiol., in fact, the full spectrum of somatic measurements have been used along heart rate including pulse transmission time to the finger, skin conductance level or pupil dilation ( partala, 2003 ). all those are a bit less reliable methods and usually they detect arousal rather then indicate physiological differences between positive and negative affect. partala t. ; surakka v. ( 2003 ) pupil size variation as an indication of affective processing. international journal of human - computer studies, finally, i would advise browsing literature on measurements of negative affect. you are likely to find some interesting methods there, like in this paper on the psychophysiology of crying ( gross et al., 1994 ). gross jj, frederickson bl, levenson rw. ( 1994 ) the psychophysiology of crying. psychophysiology, 31 ( 5 ) : 460 - 8. download", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5573344224727705, "token_count": 475, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:32.103654"} {"text": "bone thickness and signs of wear along the borders of the holes, products of extended burial in the soil, indicate that openings made by cheek teeth were at first less rounded and slightly smaller, the researchers hold. moreover, the simultaneous pressure of an upper and lower tooth produced a set of opposing holes, one partial and one complete, they maintain. prehistoric, carnivore - chewed bear bones in two spanish caves display circular punctures aligned in much the same way as those on the slovenian find. in the march antiquity, francesco d ' errico of the institute of quaternary prehistory and geology in talence, france, and his colleagues describe the spanish bones. in a different twist, bob fink, an independent musicologist in canada, has reported on the internet ( http : / / www. webster. sk. ca / greenwich / fl - compl. htm ) that the spacing of the two complete and two partial holes on the back of the slovenian bone conforms to musical notes on the diatonic ( do, re, mi... ) scale. the bone is too short to incorporate the diatonic scale ' s seven notes, counter nowell and chase. working with pennsylvania musicologist robert judd, they estimate that the find ' s 5. 7 - inch length is less than half that needed to cover the diatonic spectrum. the recent meeting presentation is \" a most convincing analysis, \" comments j. desmond clark of the university of california, berkeley, although it ' s possible that neandertals blew single notes through carnivore - chewed holes in the bone. \" we can ' t exclude that possibility, \" nowell responds. \" but it ' s a big leap of faith to conclude that this was an intentionally constructed flute. \" to the editor, science news ( reply by bob fink, may 1998 ) ( see an update of this discussion on bob fink ' s web site, november 2000 ) the doubts raised by nowell and chase ( april 4th, doubts aired over neanderthal bone ' flute ' ) saying the neanderthal bone is not a flute have these weaknesses : the alignment of the holes - - all in a row, and all of equivalent diameter, appear to be contrary to most teeth marks, unless some holes were made independently by several animals. the latter case boggles the odds for the holes ending up being in line. it also would be strange that animals homed in on this one bone in a cave full of bones, where no reports of", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5132765558520562, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:32.112876"} {"text": "for manipulation of food, explaining why animals might chew on its ends later. it is also well - known that dogs chase and maul even sticks, despite their non - nutritional nature. what appears \" weak \" is not the case for a flute, but the case against it by nowell and chase. letter to the editor : antiquity journal : \" a bone to pick \" by bob fink i have a bone to pick with francesco d ' errico ' s viewpoint in the march issue of antiquity ( article too long to reproduce here ) regarding the neanderthal flute found in slovenia by ivan turk. d ' errico argues the bone artifact is not a flute. d ' errico omits dealing with the best evidence that this bone find is a flute. regarding the most important evidence, that of the holes being lined up, neither d ' errico nor turk make mention of this. this line - up is remarkable especially if they were made by more than one carnivore, which apparently they ' d have to be, based on turk ' s analysis of the center - spans of the holes precluding their being made by a single carnivore or bite ( turk, * pp. 171 - 175 ). to account for this possible difficulty, some doubters do mention \" one or more \" carnivores ( chase & nowell, science news 4 / 4 / 98 ). my arguments over the past year pointed out the mathematical odds of the lining up of the holes occurring by chance - chewing are too difficult to believe. the appendix in my essay ( \" neanderthal flute - - a musicological analysis \" ) proves that the number of ways a set of 4 random holes could be differently spaced ( to produce an audibly different set of tones ) are 680 ways. the chances a random set would match the existing fragment ' s spacing [ which also could produce a match to four diatonic notes of the scale ] are therefore only one in hundreds. if, in calculating the odds, you also allowed the holes to be out of line, or to be less than 4 holes as well, then the chance of a line - up match is only one from many tens of thousands. and yet randomness and animal bites still are acceptable to account for holes being in line that could also play some notes of the scale? this is too much coincidence for me to believe occurred by chance. d ' errico mentions my essay in his article and what he thought it was about, but he overs", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5299086327542513, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:32.114773"} {"text": "ento, fishes, herps, iz, mammals, ms, or paleo and querystring is ( use a plus - sign to separate words ) : - one or more catalog numbers, e. g. - one or more barcodes, e. g. - the name of a type specimen, e. g. : - the name of a specimen or object, e. g. : - the name ( qn ) and / or type status ( qt ) of a specimen, and / or its collector ( co ), and / or the collection ( cn ) it is part of, e. g. : ( holotypes whose name includes torre and bartsch collected by webb and part of the henderson collection ) - to open the collections search to a specific search tab, e. g. tabs are numbered left to right, beginning with zero. - iz /? ti = 1 ( invertebrate zoology keywords search ) - mammals /? ti = 3 ( mammals whale collection search ) there are ways to speed up your queries ( or slow them down! ) and to find specific information. - the more specific you make your queries the faster they will execute. using more, rather than fewer, terms will very likely speed up your search. - these following special characters modify the interpretation of search terms ( use with as many other terms as possible to avoid slowing your search ) : - * matches any number of characters, e. g. * pseudo * -? matches a single character, e. g. young? lus frank? -! negates the presence of a term, e. g.! new - ~ matches all terms with the given stem, e. g. ~ spear for spear, spears, spearing, etc. - = match is case - sensitive, e. g. = paris - query results are typically limited to 5000 records. avoid general queries, when you can, that are likely to bring back very large numbers of records, e. g. searching for poaceae. - long running queries are automatically terminated, with no results returned. please use the feedback page to report back any problems you find with the data, or with using these search pages.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5257317340254125, "token_count": 457, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:32.123400"} {"text": ", who also played the role of literary man ( typically badly ). the talent therefore went into a repertory of new and dazzling mannerisms, which teuffel calls \" utter unreality. \" crutwell picks up this theme : the foremost of these [ characteristics ] is unreality, arising from the extinction of freedom \u2026 hence arose a declamatory tone, which strove by frigid and almost hyterical exaggeration to make up for the healthy stimulus afforded by daily contact with affairs. the vein of artificial rhetoric, antithesis and epigram \u2026 owes its origin to this forced contentment with an uncongenial sphere. with the decay of freedom, taste sank \u2026 in crutwell ' s view ( which had not been expressed by teuffel ), silver latin was a \" rank, weed - grown garden \", a \" decline. \" cruttwell had already decried what he saw as a loss of spontaneity in golden latin. that teuffel should regard the silver age as a loss of natural language and therefore of spontaneity, implying that the golden age had it, is passed without comment. instead, tiberius brought about a \" sudden collapse of letters. \" the idea of a decline had been dominant in english society since edward gibbon ' s decline and fall of the roman empire. once again, cruttwell evidences some unease with his stock pronouncements : \" the natural history of pliny shows how much remained to be done in fields of great interest. \" the idea of pliny as a model is not consistent with any sort of decline ; moreover, pliny did his best work under emperors at least as tolerant as augustus had been. to include some of the best writings of the silver age, cruttwell found he had to extend the period through the death of marcus aurelius, 180 ad. the philosophic prose of that good emperor was in no way compatible with either teuffel ' s view of unnatural language or cruttwell ' s depiction of a decline. having created these constructs, the two philologists found they could not entirely justify them ; apparently, in the worst implications of their views, there was no classical latin by the ancient definition at all and some of the very best writing of any period in world history was a stilted and degenerate unnatural language. writers of the silver age include the following. of the additional century granted by cruttwell and", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5003134579899724, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 9, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:32.167631"} {"text": "by the ancient definition at all and some of the very best writing of any period in world history was a stilted and degenerate unnatural language. writers of the silver age include the following. of the additional century granted by cruttwell and others of his point of view to silver latin but not by teuffel the latter says \" the second century was a happy period for the roman state, the happiest indeed during the whole empire \u2026 but in the world of letters the lassitude and enervation, which told of rome ' s decline, became unmistakeable \u2026 its forte is in imitation. \" teuffel, however, excepts the jurists ; others find other \" exceptions, \" recasting teuffels ' s view. the style of language refers to repeatable features of speech that are somewhat less general than the fundamental characteristics of the language. the latter give it a unity allowing it to be referenced under a single name. thus old latin, classical latin, vulgar latin, etc., are not considered different languages, but are all referenced under the name of latin. this is an ancient practice continued by moderns rather than a philological innovation of recent times. that latin had case endings is a fundamental feature of the language. whether a given form of speech prefers to use prepositions such as ad, ex, de for \" to \", \" from \" and \" of \" rather than simple case endings is a matter of style. latin has a large number of styles. each and every author has a style, which typically allows his prose or poetry to be identified by experienced latinists. the problem of comparative literature has been to group styles finding similarities by period, in which case one may speak of old latin, silver latin, late latin as styles or a phase of styles. the ancient authors themselves first defined style by recognizing different kinds of sermo, or \" speech. \" in making the value judgement that classical latin was \" first class \" and that it was better to write with latinitas they were themselves selecting the literary and upper - class language of the city as a standard style and all sermo that differed from it was a different style ; thus in rhetoric cicero was able to define sublime, intermediate and low styles ( within classical latin ) and st. augustine to recommend the low style for sermons ( from sermo ). style therefore is to be defined by differences in speech from a standard. teuffel defined that standard as golden latin.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.52031678400132, "token_count": 505, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 10, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:32.168493"} {"text": "i will only point out two caveats : - we cannot assume that click speakers of the african southwest are necessarily indigenous to that region, and - it is possible that, the greater phonemic diversity is due to ancient admixture between quite divergent peoples who possessed two different types of phonemic inventories, while most africans inherited only the phonemic inventory of one of these peoples, which then decayed as per the author ' s theory away from africa. science 15 april 2011 : vol. 332 no. 6027 pp. 346 - 349 phonemic diversity supports a serial founder effect model of language expansion from africa quentin d. atkinson human genetic and phenotypic diversity declines with distance from africa, as predicted by a serial founder effect in which successive population bottlenecks during range expansion progressively reduce diversity, underpinning support for an african origin of modern humans. recent work suggests that a similar founder effect may operate on human culture and language. here i show that the number of phonemes used in a global sample of 504 languages is also clinal and fits a serial founder \u2013 effect model of expansion from an inferred origin in africa. this result, which is not explained by more recent demographic history, local language diversity, or statistical non - independence within language families, points to parallel mechanisms shaping genetic and linguistic diversity and supports an african origin of modern human languages.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5321220572501714, "token_count": 278, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:32.169831"} {"text": "date : august 2010 creator : allen, evette l. description : family communication has the potential to affect a variety of youth behavioral outcomes including adolescent sexual risk behavior. within chapter 1, i present past literature on adolescent sexual risk behaviors, family communication patterns, and the gaps associated with those areas. in chapter 2, i review previous literature on adolescent sexual risk behavior, parent - child communication and family communication patterns. in chapter 3, i present the method which includes a description of the participants, procedures, measures, and data analysis used. in chapter 4, i present the results of the study. according to the results of the study, father - child communication is not a better predictor of adolescent sexual risk behavior. a higher quantity of parent - child communication does not lead to less adolescent sexual risk behavior. participants with a pluralistic family type do significantly differ from laissez - faire and protective family types in regards to levels of parent - child communication. participants with a consensual family type do have significantly higher levels of parent - child communication in comparison to laissez - faire family types, but not protective family types. finally, in chapter 5, i present the discussion with a review of previous research ( consistent or inconsistent with the current findings ), limitations and conclusions for the current study. contributing partner : unt libraries", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5506462559686803, "token_count": 269, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:32.183437"} {"text": "in some people, macular degeneration advances so slowly that it has little effect on their vision. but in others, the disease progresses faster and may lead to vision loss. sometimes only one eye is affected, while the other eye remains free of problems for many years. people with dry macular degeneration in one eye often do not notice any changes in their vision. with one eye seeing clearly, they can still drive, read, and see fine details. some people may notice changes in their vision only if macular degeneration affects both of their eyes. both dry and wet macular degeneration cause no pain. symptoms of macular degeneration include : blurred vision \u2014 this is an early sign. an example of early findings is that you may need more light for reading and other tasks. difficulty seeing details in front of you \u2014 you may have a difficult time seeing words in a book or faces. blind spot \u2014 a small, growing blind spot will appear in the middle of your field of vision. this spot occurs because a group of cells in the macula have stopped working properly. over time, the blurred spot may get bigger and darker, taking more of your central vision. crooked lines \u2014 an early symptom of wet macular degeneration is straight lines that will appear crooked or wavy. this happens because the newly formed blood vessels leak fluid under the macula. the fluid raises the macula from its normal place at the back of the eye and distorts your vision. lighting \u2014 images appear more gray in color and colors are not as bright contact your ophthalmologist immediately for an eye exam if you notice : - visual distortions - sudden decrease in central vision - a central blind spot - any other visual problems - reviewer : christopher cheyer, md - update date : 09 / 01 / 2011 -", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.502684256397653, "token_count": 373, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:32.197119"} {"text": "survey data is a snapshot of a population, a moment captured in numbers, like vital signs : height, weight, temperature, blood pressure, etc. people build trend lines and watch for changes, shifting strategies as they make educated guesses about what \u2019 s going on. what \u2019 s holding steady? what \u2019 s spiking? what \u2019 s on the decline? just as a thermometer makes no judgment, the pew research center provides data about the changing world around us. we don \u2019 t advocate for outcomes or recommend policies. rather, we provide an updated record so that others can make those pronouncements and recommendations based on facts. the latest in our health research series is being released today. health online 2013 finds that internet access and interest in online health resources are holding steady in the u. s. for a quick overview, read on \u2026 what is new? 1 in 3 u. s. adults use the internet to diagnose themselves or someone else \u2013 and a clinician is more likely than not to confirm their suspicions. this is the first time we \u2013 or anyone else \u2013 has measured this in a straightforward, national survey question. 1 in 4 people looking online for health info have hit a pay wall. this is the first data i know of that begins to answer the important question : what is the public impact of closed - access journals? we added three new health topics : - 11 % of internet users have looked online for information about how to control their health care costs. - 14 % of internet users have looked online for information about caring for an aging relative or friend. - 16 % of internet users have looked online for information about a drug they saw advertised. ( a full list of all the health topics we \u2019 ve included, 2002 - 10, is available here. ) what has changed? the percentage of people who have consulted online reviews of drugs and medical treatments dropped ( and i don \u2019 t know why \u2014 do you have a theory? please post a comment. ) related : why aren \u2019 t health care review sites catching on? pew internet has tracked a boom in consumer reviews of other services and products \u2014 why not health care? what to keep an eye on? one of my favorite survey questions is asked of all adults and attempts to capture a broad portrait of health care resources that someone might tap into when they \u2019 re sick. it \u2019 s a useful question for keeping online resources in perspective. i think it \u2019 s also going to prove useful in the coming years as the landscape shifts and people have more", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5103691353522524, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:32.217297"} {"text": "volume 4 number 2 \u00a9the author ( s ) 2002 the continuity framework : a tool for building home, school, and community partnerships abstractwe will need to become savvy about how to build relationships, how to nurture growing, evolving things. all of us will need better skills in listening, communicating, and facilitating groups, because these are the talents that build strong relationships. ( wheatley, 1992, p. 38 ) in the face of today ' s challenging social and family issues, many new efforts are underway to help children and families. one solution that many communities have adopted is the establishment of a collaborative partnership that involves all the relevant partners \u2014 home, school, and community \u2014 in the planning and monitoring of services for children. unfortunately, achieving a strong partnership with meaningful participation can often be difficult and time - consuming. this article focuses on a set of training materials that has been developed to assist community partnerships in their efforts. these materials highlight eight elements of continuity and successful partnerships : ( 1 ) families as partners, ( 2 ) shared leadership, ( 3 ) comprehensive / responsive services, ( 4 ) culture and home language, ( 5 ) communication, ( 6 ) knowledge and skill development, ( 7 ) appropriate care and education, and ( 8 ) evaluation of partnership success. results from a field study that included more than 200 reviewers and 8 pilot sites are summarized. results indicate that a majority of reviewers found the training materials easy to understand, relevant to their work, and up - to - date. in addition, data gathered from the pilot sites indicate that the partnerships found the materials practical and useful for addressing a variety of issues, including time constraints, communication gaps, differences in professional training, and funding limitations. communities face a host of problems that threaten the health and well - being of their children and families. poverty, unemployment, inadequate care / education, and poor health care are just a few of the difficult issues that communities must confront. what makes these issues particularly challenging is that children and families who experience one problem are often likely to experience other problems as well. compounding the problem is that delivery of services to help children and families is typically fragmented and scattered. even efforts designed to increase the quality and supply of services to children and families have, at times, created greater fragmentation and discontinuity. in previous years, those who sought to improve outcomes for children concentrated only on the child. today, however, many service providers have come to understand that the best way to serve and preserve children is to serve and preserve the supportive networks that benefit", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5401396802986698, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:32.249455"} {"text": ", and no two collaboratives operate in exactly the same way. however, certain guidelines seem to help smooth the way for a more successful partnership, including ( north central regional educational laboratory, 1993 ) : - involve all key stakeholders ; - establish a shared vision of how the partnership will operate and expected outcomes for the children and families served ; - build in ownership at all levels ; - establish communication and decision - making processes that are open and allow conflict to be addressed constructively ; - institutionalize changes through established policies, procedures, and program mandates ; - provide adequate time for partners to meet, plan, and carry out activities. the process of establishing and maintaining a collaborative partnership is not easy, and in the end, each partnership must find a way to proceed that is consistent with its community and unique set of circumstances. however, a number of resources and tools are available to help communities get started creating an effective system for delivering services. in this article, we describe one such tool that assembles elements essential to building a successful collaborative partnership. development of continuity framework materials for the past eight years, the 10 regional educational laboratories ( rels ) serving each region of the country have studied effective strategies for strengthening collaboration and increasing continuity among programs for young children and their families. the rels are overseen by the u. s. department of education ' s office of educational research and improvement [ now the institute of education sciences ], and their primary purpose is ensuring that those involved in educational improvement have access to the best information from research and practice. during the contract period of 1995 - 2000, the rels established a program called the laboratory network program ( lnp ), which convened representatives from each laboratory as a national network working on common issues. in 1995, the early childhood lnp developed continuity in early childhood : a framework for home, school, and community linkages ( u. s. department of education, 1995 ), a document designed with two key purposes in mind : first, an emphasis on the need for children and families to receive comprehensive and responsive services, reflected in the eight elements of continuity outlined in the framework ( see figure 1 ). taken together, the elements are intended to promote a comprehensive understanding of continuity and transition during early childhood. second, the framework offered a set of guidelines that partnerships could use to compare and assess their current policies and practices, as well as identify areas in need of improvement. figure 1. elements of continuity ( u. s. department of education, 1995 ) an extensive field review of the framework indicated that although the document was helpful", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5239114849176454, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:32.251646"} {"text": "compare and assess their current policies and practices, as well as identify areas in need of improvement. figure 1. elements of continuity ( u. s. department of education, 1995 ) an extensive field review of the framework indicated that although the document was helpful and informative, many community partnerships continued to have difficulty \" getting started. \" as a result, a trainer ' s guide was developed to support the use of the framework and assist community partnerships in the first stages. these materials were developed by the early childhood lnp in collaboration with the national center for early development & learning. the trainer ' s guide provides an overview of the content and potential uses of the framework and includes all activities and materials necessary to conduct training sessions. the guide itself consists of four training sessions that are organized around the eight elements of continuity. the materials are designed so that a local partnership has everything needed to conduct the training : background information, scripts, handouts, transparencies, sample agendas, and checklists for additional equipment and supplies : - the first session, understanding continuity, is designed to introduce participants to the framework document and help participants develop a greater understanding and appreciation for continuity. - the second session, developing a continuity team, highlights the importance of broad representation and shared leadership among partnership members. - the third session, planning for continuity, emphasizes the need for a comprehensive approach to service delivery and encourages participants to examine their current partnership practices and policies. - the final session, formalizing continuity, focuses on the importance of effective communication among group members and provides participants with an opportunity to formulate action plans. the guide is designed to be a flexible training tool, adaptable to meet the needs of a particular audience. the intended audience includes local partnerships for children and families ( including smart start partnerships in north carolina ), head start program representatives, public schools, and communities. the overall objectives of the training are ( 1 ) to enhance the collaborative ' s knowledge and understanding of continuity, ( 2 ) to strengthen and support collaborative groups in their efforts to work as partners, and ( 3 ) to maximize the benefit they might receive from using the framework. what follows is a description of the field test that was designed to assess the use and effectiveness of the trainer ' s guide. the field test focused exclusively on the framework materials - - no other instructional sources were employed. we will present the major findings of the field test and summarize recommendations based on those findings. in addition, we will highlight the work of several collaborative partnerships that took part in the field study, and we will", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5175675874590483, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:32.252738"} {"text": "no other instructional sources were employed. we will present the major findings of the field test and summarize recommendations based on those findings. in addition, we will highlight the work of several collaborative partnerships that took part in the field study, and we will describe some of the problems they encountered, how they used the framework materials to address those problems, and where they are today. specifically, the evaluation will explore : - to what extent is the information contained in the framework and trainer ' s guide relevant and useful to community partnerships? - what is the perceived impact of the training and framework on partnership activities? - how do partnerships incorporate elements of the framework into their ongoing activities? - of the review sites that indicated interest in the training materials, what proportion actually conducted the training? the overall usefulness and effectiveness of the trainer ' s guide was studied in two phases. phase one consisted of document review and feedback from individuals working in the early childhood field. in phase two of field testing, the training was actually piloted in eight partnership sites. phase one : document review reviewers for the trainer ' s guide were solicited through the laboratory network program ( lnp ) and at conferences related to early childhood issues. three hundred thirteen individuals / organizations requested a set of the framework materials ( participant manual, trainer ' s guide, and a sample color transparency ) and feedback form. feedback questions centered on four areas : ( 1 ) information ' s relevancy and accuracy, ( 2 ) format and organization of the trainer ' s guide, ( 3 ) specific training needs, and ( 4 ) possible barriers to conducting training. of the 313 requesting materials, 215 ( 68. 7 % ) reviewers returned feedback forms. twenty - one percent ( n = 45 ) of the respondents were members of a smart start partnership ( north carolina initiative ), 19 % ( n = 40 ) worked in head start agencies, and 11 % ( n = 24 ) worked in family resource centers. others included representatives from state agencies, school personnel, and university faculty. a majority ( 89 % ) of the respondents indicated that they are actively involved in a community partnership. final follow - up with select reviewer sites. of the original 215 organizations / individuals who reviewed the framework materials, 80 indicated an interest in conducting the training in its entirety and requested a complete set of transparencies. ( the original materials included one sample color transparency, and the rel offered a complete set of framework transparencies to all organizations making the request. ) approximately one year after receiving the materials, interviews were conducted with representatives", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5041589962604713, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:32.253857"} {"text": "set of transparencies. ( the original materials included one sample color transparency, and the rel offered a complete set of framework transparencies to all organizations making the request. ) approximately one year after receiving the materials, interviews were conducted with representatives who received transparencies. the purpose of these follow - up telephone calls was to determine if the materials had been used and the degree to which outside support or assistance might be needed to conduct the training. phase two : pilot training during the second phase of the field testing, the training was piloted in eight collaborative partnerships from across the nation ( see table 1 ). these sites were recruited through the lnp and selected based on their interest in the project. to assist with logistical details, a liaison, identified at each site, coordinated training dates and assisted with data collection. sites varied according to demographics, partnership maturity, and sponsoring or lead agency. | site location | | community type | | sponsor / lead agency | | beaufort, sc | | rural | | success by 6 | | dothan, al | | urban | | family resource center | | walnut cove, nc | | rural | | smart start | | valdosta, ga | | rural | | family connections / county commission | | wheeling, wv | | rural | | head start | | troy, nc | | rural | | smart start | | concord, wv | | rural | | family resource center | five of the partnerships described themselves as existing collaboratives ( two years or more ), while the remaining three indicated that they were in the planning stages of building a collaborative partnership. sponsors of the partnerships included smart start ( 2 ) ; head start, family resource centers ( 2 ) ; success by 6 ; a public school system ; and a county task force. across the eight sites, a total of 160 individuals participated in the training. approximately 64 % of the attendees were white, 27 % were african american, and the remainder were either hispanic, american indian / alaskan native, or multiracial. several of the partnerships invited persons who were not part of the collaborative partnership to attend the training. as a result, slightly more than half ( 54 % ) of the participants reported that they were current members of the partnership. the majority of these had been members less than one year ( 53 % ). early childhood specialists represented the largest group attending the training ( 29 % ), followed by program administrators ( 18 % ), teachers / caregivers ( 14 % ), and parents ( 10 % ). other groups", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_entanglement", "similarity_score": 0.5181096669029506, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:32.254835"} {"text": "\" or \" excellent. \" participants tended to rate the second day of training as higher in quality and more effective than the first day of training ( m = 4. 392 and m = 4. 17, respectively, based on a 5 - point scale ). participants also evaluated the effects of the training and estimated its impact on future partnership practices. using a four - point likert - type scale, participants rated the extent to which they agreed with each statement. table 3 summarizes participants ' appraisal of the training and reinforces the focus of the original training objectives. objective 1 : to enhance the collaborative ' s knowledge and understanding of continuity | as a result of the training, i believe that i am motivated to build and strengthen continuity efforts in my community. | | 3. 44 | |. 65 | | as a result of the training, i believe that i have a better understanding of continuity and why it is important. | | 3. 41 | |. 65 | | i believe that this training will have an impact on increasing awareness of new skills and knowledge for our team. | | 3. 31 | | 63 | objective 2 : to strengthen and support collaborative groups in their efforts to works as partners | as a result of the training, i believe that i am better able to participate as a member of a home, school, and community partnership. | | 3. 40 | |. 65 | | i believe that this training will have an impact on how decisions are made and the planning we do for services. | | 3. 25 | |. 59 | | i believe that this training will have an impact on changing / enhancing the quality of community practices. | | 3. 23 | |. 58 | objective 3 : to maximize the benefit the collaborative might receive from using the framework | as a result of the training, i believe that i am better able to use the framework as a tool for exploring continuity and transition | | 3. 26 | |. 63 | | i believe that this training will have an impact on positively affecting outcomes for children and families. | | 3. 31 | |. 63 | | * note : according to the scale, 1 = strongly disagree and 4 = strongly agree. | in addition to participant ratings immediately following the training, data were collected on regular partnership activities after the training. analysis of materials such as meeting minutes revealed that during the six months following completion of the training, five of the eight sites reported that they continued to use the framework materials. exactly how the materials were used varied", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5036791729738739, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 9, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:32.259624"} {"text": "children is to create a system that encourages service providers to work together and promotes continuity for children and their families. members of the partnership began by using the framework to build their own knowledge and skills about continuity ; however, they soon recognized the need to inform others of the importance of continuity in children ' s lives. as a result, the partnership conducted a series of focus groups and meetings among parents and family members within the community. they used information from elements 3 ( comprehensive / responsive services ) and 7 ( developmentally appropriate care / education ) to explain what was needed to support continuity and its potential benefits for children. these meetings were also an opportunity to inform families of the various resources and supports available within the community. later, the focus groups were expanded to include all stakeholders ( e. g., child care, kindergarten, head start, school administrators, special needs coordinators, etc ). the information gathered from these meetings has been used to guide the development and implementation of policies and practices that promote continuity. final interview with liaisons. in the final interview conducted with site liaisons, five of the seven liaisons reported that the overall goal of their partnership is to improve services for children and their families by connecting agencies and strengthening the collaborative bonds between those agencies. three of the liaisons specifically mentioned the need to improve transitions and create a system of responsive and comprehensive services. in addition, liaisons were asked to talk about their reasons for participating in the field - test process. at least three of the liaisons cited low levels of collaboration across agencies and indicated that partnership meetings were used primarily as a time for sharing information. others saw the training as an opportunity to invite additional partners to the table and begin a discussion of how they could better work together. finally, liaisons were asked to rate the extent to which the framework materials had been helpful in accomplishing their overall partnership goal. using a five - point scale, five of the liaisons rated the framework materials as either \" helpful \" ( 4 ) or \" very helpful \" ( 5 ). the remaining two liaisons rated the framework materials as at least \" somewhat helpful \" ( 3 ). developing and maintaining a community collaborative is hard work, and it is a challenge that requires a great deal of commitment and cooperation from those involved. training and resource materials available to help community partnerships build a more responsive system must address such issues as time constraints, communication gaps, differences in professional training, and funding limitations. given these challenges, the continuity framework and its trainer ' s guide seem to be important and useful tools for", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5154764347001897, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 11, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:32.263209"} {"text": "the framework materials. framework training was provided over two consecutive days and built into the inservice training schedule of the elementary school. in addition to staff and faculty from the elementary school, representatives from other agencies and organizations participated, including the health department, the idaho department of disabilities, news media, schools, early childhood education, even start, parents, university students, attorneys, community leaders, and businesses. according the site liaison, the framework materials were used : - to improve awareness of key issues in providing high - quality services. the framework provides direction to help develop a program that really works. - to provide a common language and for internal communication enhancement. now everyone \" speaks the same language. \" - as an external communication tool. according to the liaison, \" it is so much easier to talk with funding sources when you use the structure of the elements as a base. \" - to validate their progress toward providing the best practices in early childhood education. - as a piece of the bovill elementary school improvement plan. positive impact on individual partnership members was cited as another basis for success of the training. many indicated they had a better understanding of continuity and were more motivated to continue to work on the difficult issues that often arise as part of the collaborative process. an added value of the training was the opportunity to spend time together and develop relationships with persons from other agencies. often, these individual relationships help form the basis for collaborative work within the partnership. based on the sites that continued to use the materials, the continuity framework and its trainer ' s guide seem to be equally useful to both existing and newly established partnerships. a common experience in the maturation of partnerships is that they are prone to lose initial momentum, often stagnating into \" easy \" roles such as simple information sharing. a serendipitous discovery of this study is that such partnerships evidenced rejuvenation of their efforts after participating in the training ( see the valdosta, georgia, example ). valdosta, georgia, collaborative the lowndes county / valdosta commission for children and youth has been in existence for more than a decade, and during this time, the partnership has experienced various \" ups and downs. \" according to site liaison vickie elliott, cycles are a normal part of the collaborative process, \" they may be the result of staff turnover or changes in the board chair and / or board members. \" she reports that participation in the training provided members with practical, research - based information. this information served as a reminder to members that", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5033059467764194, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 13, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:32.265263"} {"text": "process, \" they may be the result of staff turnover or changes in the board chair and / or board members. \" she reports that participation in the training provided members with practical, research - based information. this information served as a reminder to members that they were doing good work and that their work was important. since the training, the partnership has continued to use framework materials as a reference and resource. for example, during a recent meeting, members began a discussion regarding the evaluation of partnership activities. they used element 8 : evaluation of partnership success to help shape and guide this discussion. in addition, the partnership has applied for and received a 21st century learning community grant. because of the knowledge and understanding they gained during the training, members requested funds for a case manager position to be based at each school and conducting home visits. it is hoped that this strategy will facilitate communication and create greater continuity of services for students and families. finally, the data indicate that change takes place slowly. participants reported that the training had had some impact on their community but felt that the greatest impact was yet to come. bringing everyone to the table is not enough. true collaboration that produces continuity in services for children takes place over a long period of time, as agencies that have not previously worked together begin to get to know each other and slowly modify procedures and practices. marshall county tadpole team, wheeling, wv efforts to collaborate are often driven by the realization that single agencies cannot solve problems alone. partners must be willing to jointly plan and implement new ventures, as well as pool resources such as money and personnel. nowhere is this need to collaborate and pool resources more crucial than in marshall county, wv. located in the northern part of west virginia, marshall county remains a predominantly rural county. with a population of approximately 36, 000, marshall county has seen a decline in the number of residents over the past two to three years, largely attributed to the economic hardships of the area. this part of west virginia relies heavily on the coal and steel industries, and as these industries have fallen on hard times, so too have many families. as a result, many families have moved away to find other employment ; however, many others have sought support from social services agencies within the community. in order to make the most of the limited resources and support available within the county, many of the local agencies ( e. g., northern panhandle head start, starting points center, tadpoles team ) came together to form a community collaborative. although their collaborative meetings began more as a time", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5248084834974092, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 14, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:32.266229"} {"text": "support available within the county, many of the local agencies ( e. g., northern panhandle head start, starting points center, tadpoles team ) came together to form a community collaborative. although their collaborative meetings began more as a time for sharing information, members soon realized that to be a true \" working group, \" they would need to broaden the meeting agendas and formalize the collaborative relationships. using the framework materials as an assessment tool, members worked through each element identifying the gaps in services and generating ideas for possible programs and procedures to address those gaps. this shift encouraged members to devote meeting times to discussing specific issues facing the community. moreover, it encouraged members to formalize the partnership with written agreements. these agreements have allowed members to make a solid commitment to the collaborative, as well as clarify specific roles and responsibilities for services. beyond the content of the training and issues related to the collaborative process, the field study underscored the importance of training structure and design. many study participants praised the framework materials for flexibility and relevance to a variety of contexts. the training materials were designed so that particular attention was devoted to issues such as target audience attributes ( e. g., varied educational and professional development backgrounds ), which dictate the appropriate level of sophistication as well as the need for course module structure ( i. e., overall organization and scripting ) to be highly adaptable to local training needs. the field studies indicate that community partnerships benefit from training and technical assistance that help with the process of getting started, as well as recapturing momentum and focus. additional research is needed to document the ongoing efforts of these communities and explore whether the framework materials continue to have an impact on community practices and outcomes, as many of the participants predicted. further study also is needed to determine what other kinds of training or technical assistance might be useful to these partnerships as they work to build capacity and expand or grow new programs. bronfenbrenner, urie. ( 1979 ). the ecology of human development. cambridge, ma : harvard university press. bruner, charles ; kunesh, linda ; & knuth, randy. ( 1992 ). what does research say about interagency collaboration? [ online ]. oak brook, il : north central regional educational laboratory. available : http : / / www. ncrel. org / sdrs / areas / stw _ esys / 8agcycol. htm [ 2002, october 22 ]. editor ' s note : this ur", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5360202063696273, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 15, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:32.267177"} {"text": "central regional educational laboratory. available : http : / / www. ncrel. org / sdrs / areas / stw _ esys / 8agcycol. htm [ 2002, october 22 ]. editor ' s note : this url is no longer active. family support america. ( 1996 ). making the case for family support [ online ]. chicago : author. available : http : / / www. familysupportamerica. org / content / pub _ proddef. htm [ 2002, october 22 ]. editor ' s note : this url is no longer active. hoffman, stevie ( ed. ). ( 1991 ). educational partnerships : home - school - community [ special issue ]. elementary school journal, 91 ( 3 ). kagan, sharon lynn. ( 1992 ). the strategic importance of linkages and the transition between early childhood programs and early elementary school. in sticking together : strengthening linkages and the transition between early childhood education and early elementary school ( summary of a national policy forum ). washington, dc : u. s. department of education. ed 351 152. kunesh, linda. ( 1994 ). integrating community services for children, youth, and families. oak brook, il : north central regional educational laboratory. melaville, atelia ; blank, martin ; & asayesh, gelareh. ( 1996 ). together we can : a guide for crafting a profamily system of education and human services ( rev. ed. ). washington, dc : u. s. department of education. available : http : / / eric - web. tc. columbia. edu / families / twc / editor ' s note : this url is no longer active. [ 2002, october 22 ]. ed 443 164. north central regional educational laboratory. ( 1993 ). ncrel ' s policy briefs : integrating community services for young children and their families. oak brook, il : author. available : http : / / www. ncrel. org / sdrs / areas / issues / envrnmnt / go / 93 - 3toc. htm [ 2002, october 22 ]. u. s. department of education and u. s. department of health and human services. ( 1995 ). continuity in early childhood : a framework for home, school, and community linkages [ online ]. washington, dc : author. available : http : / / www. sedl. org / prep / hs", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5242380698398467, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 16, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:32.267957"} {"text": "and human services. ( 1995 ). continuity in early childhood : a framework for home, school, and community linkages [ online ]. washington, dc : author. available : http : / / www. sedl. org / prep / hsclinkages. pdf [ 2002, october 22 ]. ed 395 664. wheatley, margaret j. ( 1992 ). leadership and the new science. san francisco : berrett - koehler. dr. glyn brown is a senior program specialist with serve regional educational laboratory. she studied at the university of alabama ( b. s. ), the university of southern mississippi ( m. s. ), and completed her ph. d. in family and child development at auburn university. prior to coming to serve, dr. brown worked as a children ' s therapist in a community mental health program. as a program specialist with serve, dr. brown provides training and direct consultation to school personnel, child care providers, and community partnerships. serve regional educational laboratory 1203 governor ' s square blvd., suite 400 tallahassee, fl 32301 carolynn amwake, a program specialist at the serve regional educational laboratory, has extensive experience working with families, child care providers, teachers, administrators, and community partners. she received her b. s. from radford university in early childhood education and special education and has taught children with special needs in elementary schools, children ' s homes, and child care centers. her experiences as an educator and parent led to an interest in improving the quality and continuity of early childhood transitions for both children and families. serve regional educational laboratory 1203 governor ' s square blvd., suite 400 tallahassee, fl 32301 timothy speth is a research associate at northwest regional educational laboratory ( nwrel ). he received his b. s. in psychology from south dakota state university and his m. a. from san diego state university. he has extensive training and experience in research design, statistics, and program evaluation. mr. speth is currently involved with several research and evaluation projects throughout the northwest, as a research associate of nwrel ' s child and family program. he is the primary external evaluator for six alaska schools participating in the comprehensive school reform demonstration project ( csrd ) and assists in csrd - related activities throughout the northwest. northwest regional educational laboratory 101 s. w. main street, suite 500 portland, or 97204 - 3297 catherine scott - little, ph. d., is", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5044226136069401, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 17, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:32.268838"} {"text": "using the moon as a high - fidelity analogue environment to study biological and behavioural effects of long - duration space exploration goswami, nandu and roma, peter g. and de boever, patrick and clement, gilles and hargens, alan r. and loeppky, jack a. and evans, joyce m. and stein, t. peter and blaber, andrew p. and van loon, jack j. w. a. and mano, tadaaki and iwase, satoshi and reitz, guenther and hinghofer - szalkay, helmut g. ( 2012 ) using the moon as a high - fidelity analogue environment to study biological and behavioural effects of long - duration space exploration. planetary and space science, epub ahead of print ( in press ). elsevier. doi : 10. 1016 / j. pss. 2012. 07. 030. full text not available from this repository. due to its proximity to earth, the moon is a promising candidate for the location of an extra - terrestrial human colony. in addition to being a high - fidelity platform for research on reduced gravity, radiation risk, and circadian disruption, the moon qualifies as an isolated, confined, and extreme ( ice ) environment suitable as an analogue for studying the psychosocial effects of long - duration human space exploration missions and understanding these processes. in contrast, the various antarctic research outposts such as concordia and mcmurdo serve as valuable platforms for studying biobehavioral adaptations to ice environments, but are still earth - bound, and thus lack the low - gravity and radiation risks of space. the international space station ( iss ), itself now considered an analogue environment for long - duration missions, better approximates the habitable infrastructure limitations of a lunar colony than most antarctic settlements in an altered gravity setting. however, the iss is still protected against cosmic radiation by the earth magnetic field, which prevents high exposures due to solar particle events and reduces exposures to galactic cosmic radiation. on moon the ice environments are strengthened, radiations of all energies are present capable of inducing performance degradation, as well as reduced gravity and lunar dust. the interaction of reduced gravity, radiation exposure, and ice conditions may affect biology and behavior - - and ultimately mission success - - in ways the scientific and operational communities have yet to appreciate, therefore a long - term or permanent human presence on the moon would ultimately provide invaluable high - fidelity opportunities for integrated multidisci", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5478496733779605, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:32.275438"} {"text": "and behavior - - and ultimately mission success - - in ways the scientific and operational communities have yet to appreciate, therefore a long - term or permanent human presence on the moon would ultimately provide invaluable high - fidelity opportunities for integrated multidisciplinary research and for preparations of a manned mission to mars. | title : | | using the moon as a high - fidelity analogue environment to study biological and behavioural effects of long - duration space exploration | | journal or publication title : | | planetary and space science | | in open access : | | no | | in isi web of science : | | yes | | volume : | | epub ahead of print ( in press ) | | keywords : | | physiology, orthostatic tolerance, muscle deconditioning, behavioural health, psychosocial adaptation, radiation, lunar dust, genes, proteomics | | hgf - research field : | | aeronautics, space and transport, aeronautics, space and transport | | hgf - program : | | space, raumfahrt | | hgf - program themes : | | w ew - erforschung des weltraums, r ew - erforschung des weltraums | | dlr - research area : | | space, raumfahrt | | dlr - program : | | w ew - erforschung des weltraums, r ew - erforschung des weltraums | | dlr - research theme ( project ) : | | w - vorhaben msl - radiation ( old ), r - vorhaben msl - radiation | | institutes and institutions : | | institute of aerospace medicine > radiation biology | | deposited by : | | kerstin kopp | | deposited on : | | 27 aug 2012 08 : 05 | | last modified : | | 07 feb 2013 20 : 40 | repository staff only : item control page", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5583538209860901, "token_count": 405, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:32.276066"} {"text": "in this section we will describe some basis of hardware involved in nano. block diagram power supply jz4720 support 3 different boot sources. the boot sequence is controlled by boot _ sel pin values [ 1 : 0 ]. the configuration of boot _ sel1 and boot _ sel1 [ 1 : 0 ] is showed as below : | 0 | | 0 | | boot from external rom at cs4 | | 0 | | 1 | | boot from usb device | | 1 | | 0 | | boot from 512 page size nand flash at cs1 | | 1 | | 1 | | boot from 2048 page size nand flash at cs1 | arquitectura general it is necessary, for the operation of the nanonote board to store many sections of executable programs in volatile and non - volatile memories. the volatile memories are used like random access memories ( ram ) due to its low access time and unlimited number of read / write cycles. on the other hand, the non - volatile memories ( nand, sd ) stores for long periods of time the required information to operate the embedded system. universal serial bus ( usb ) is a way of setting up communication between a computer and peripheral devices. usb is intended to replace many varieties of serial and parallel ports. usb can connect computer peripherals such as mice, keyboards, pdas, gamepads and joysticks, scanners, digital cameras, printers, personal media players, flash drives, and external hard drives. for many of those devices, usb has become the standard connection method. a usb system has an asymmetric design, consisting of a host, a multitude of downstream usb ports, and multiple peripheral devices connected in a tiered - star topology. additional usb hubs may be included in the tiers, allowing branching into a tree structure with up to five tier levels. a usb host may have multiple host controllers and each host controller may provide one or more usb ports. up to 127 devices, including the hub devices, may be connected to a single host controller. serial and jtag the nand in the ben nanonote : - has pages that are 4096 bytes in length - has blocks that are 128 pages in length - has 4096 blocks of storage in total - 4096 \u00d7 128 \u00d7 4096 = 2147483648 bytes ( 2 gb ) root @ ben : / # cat / proc / mtd dev : size erasesize name mtd0 : 00400000 0008000", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_computing", "similarity_score": 0.5495702579329219, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:32.284047"} {"text": "unicef decided to discontinue their halloween collection boxes, citing safety and administrative concerns ; after consultation with schools, they instead redesigned the program. games and other activities there are several games traditionally associated with halloween parties. one common game is dunking or apple bobbing, which may be called \" dooking \" in scotland in which apples float in a tub or a large basin of water and the participants must use their teeth to remove an apple from the basin. the practice is thought by some to have derived from the roman practices in celebration of pomona. a variant of dunking involves kneeling on a chair, holding a fork between the teeth and trying to drop the fork into an apple. another common game involves hanging up treacle or syrup - coated scones by strings ; these must be eaten without using hands while they remain attached to the string, an activity that inevitably leads to a very sticky face. some games traditionally played at halloween are forms of divination. a traditional scottish form of divining one ' s future spouse is to carve an apple in one long strip, then toss the peel over one ' s shoulder. the peel is believed to land in the shape of the first letter of the future spouse ' s name. unmarried women were told that if they sat in a darkened room and gazed into a mirror on halloween night, the face of their future husband would appear in the mirror. however, if they were destined to die before marriage, a skull would appear. the custom was widespread enough to be commemorated on greeting cards from the late 19th century and early 20th century. another game / superstition that was enjoyed in the early 1900s involved walnut shells. people would write fortunes in milk on white paper. after drying, the paper was folded and placed in walnut shells. when the shell was warmed, milk would turn brown therefore the writing would appear on what looked like blank paper. folks would also play fortune teller. in order to play this game, symbols were cut out of paper and placed on a platter. someone would enter a dark room and was ordered to put her hand on a piece of ice then lay it on a platter. her \" fortune \" would stick to the hand. paper symbols included : dollar sign - wealth, button - bachelorhood, thimble - spinsterhood, clothespin - poverty, rice - wedding, umbrella - journey, caldron - trouble, 4 - leaf clover - good luck, penny - fortune, ring - early marriage, and key - fame. the telling of ghost stories and", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5130839998821597, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 7, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:32.381262"} {"text": "sabermetrics is the specialized analysis of baseball through objective evidence, especially baseball statistics that measure in - game activity. the term is derived from the acronym sabr, which stands for the society for american baseball research. it was coined by bill james, who is one of its pioneers and is often considered its most prominent advocate and public face. general principles the sabermetric manifesto by david grabiner ( 1994 ) begins : bill james defined sabermetrics as \" the search for objective knowledge about baseball. \" thus, sabermetrics attempts to answer objective questions about baseball, such as \" which player on the red sox contributed the most to the team ' s offense? \" or \" how many home runs will ken griffey hit next year? \" it cannot deal with the subjective judgments which are also important to the game, such as \" who is your favorite player? \" or \" that was a great game. \" it may, however, attempt to settle questions such as \" was willie mays faster than mickey mantle? \" by establishing several possible parameters for examining speed in objective studies ( how many triples each man hit, how many bases each man stole, how many times he was caught stealing ) and then reaching a tentative conclusion on the basis of these individual studies. sabermetricians frequently question traditional measures of baseball skill. for instance, they doubt that batting average is as useful as conventional wisdom says it is because team batting average provides a relatively poor fit for team runs scored. sabermetric reasoning would say that runs win ballgames, and that a good measure of a player ' s worth is his ability to help his team score more runs than the opposing team. this may imply that the traditional rbi ( runs batted in ) is an effective metric ; however, sabermetricians also reject rbi, for a number of reasons. rather, sabermetric measures are usually phrased in terms of either runs or team wins. for example, a player might be described as being worth 54 offensive runs more than a replacement - level player at the same position over the course of a full season, as the sabermetric statistic vorp can indicate. sabermetrics is concerned both with determining the value of a player or team in current or past seasons and with attempting to predict the value of a player or team in the future. many areas of study are still in development, specifically in the area of performance measurement. early history sabermetrics research began in the middle of the 20th century. earnshaw cook was one of the earliest researchers of sabermetrics. cook gathered the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5307454415464765, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:32.481839"} {"text": ". many areas of study are still in development, specifically in the area of performance measurement. early history sabermetrics research began in the middle of the 20th century. earnshaw cook was one of the earliest researchers of sabermetrics. cook gathered the majority of his research in his 1964 book, percentage baseball. the book was the first of its kind to gain national media attention, although it was widely criticized and not accepted by most baseball organizations. - base runs ( bsr ) - batting average on balls in play ( babip ) - defense independent pitching statistics ( dips ) - defensive runs saved ( drs ) - equivalent average ( eqa ) - fantasy batter value ( fbv ) - late - inning pressure situations ( lips ) - on - base plus slugging ( ops ) - pecota ( player empirical comparison and optimization test algorithm ) - peripheral era ( pera ) - pythagorean expectation - range factor - runs created - secondary average - similarity score - speed score - super linear weights - total player rating, or batter - fielder wins ( tpr, bfw ) ; total pitcher index, or pitcher wins ( tpi, pw ) - ultimate zone rating ( uzr ) - value over replacement player ( vorp ) - win shares - wins above replacement ( war ) notable proponents - russ brandon : team president and ceo of the buffalo bills is going to incorporate sabermetrics to contracts, and use in conjunction with scouting and player analysis beginning in 2013. - sandy alderson : former general manager of the oakland athletics, alderson began focusing on sabermetric principles toward obtaining relatively undervalued players in 1995. he became gm of the new york mets in late 2010. - billy beane : athletics ' general manager since 1997. although not a public proponent of sabermetrics, it has been widely noted that beane has steered the team during his tenure according to sabermetric principles. in 2003, michael lewis published moneyball about billy beane ' s use of a more quantitative approach. in 2011, a film based on lewis ' book which dramatised beane ' s use of sabermetrics was released, starring brad pitt in the role of beane. - carson cistulli : senior editor of fangraphs, member of the bbwaa - earnshaw cook : early researcher and proponent of statistical baseball research. his 1964 book percentage baseball was the first book of baseball statistics studies to gain national media attention. - paul depodesta : a key figure in", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5036106829989682, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:32.482714"} {"text": "( arabic : \u0643\u062a\u0627\u0628\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0643\u062a\u0627\u0628, which means \" writing the book \" ), a period that ranges from a few months to a year or more to get used to living with one another. after this time period, a wedding takes place and fulfills the marriage. muslims tend to marry other muslims only. unable to find other suitable muslim syrian americans, many muslim syrian american have married other muslim americans. syrian american marriages are usually very strong ; this is reflected by the low divorce rates among syrian americans, which are below the average rates in the united states. generally, syrian american partners tend to have more children than average american partners ; syrian american partners also tend to have children at early stages of their marriages. according to the united states 2000 census, almost 62 % of syrian american households were married - couple households. syrian americans, including the earliest immigrants, have always placed a high premium on education. like many other americans, syrian americans view education as a necessity. generally, syrian and other arab americans are more highly educated than the average american. in the 2000 census it was reported that the proportion of syrian americans to achieve a bachelor ' s degree or higher is one and a half times that of the total american population. many syrian americans now work as engineers, scientists, pharmacists, and physicians. syrians are mainly arabic speakers. while some may speak the formal literary arabic, many syrians speak syrian arabic, a dialect which belongs to the levantine arabic family of dialects. there are also sub - dialects in syrian arabic ; for example, people from aleppo have a distinct and distinguishable accent, one that differs considerably from that of people from homs or al - hasakah. syrians can usually comprehend and understand the dialects of most arabs, especially those who speak any form of levantine arabic. many old syrian american families have lost their linguistic traditions because many parents do not teach their children arabic. newer immigrants, however, maintain their language traditions. the 2000 census shows that 79. 9 % of syrian americans speak english \" very well \". throughout the united states, there are schools which offer arabic language classes ; there are also some eastern orthodox churches which hold arabic services. notable people and contributions sometimes some confusion occurs between greater syria and the modern syria when determining the place of origin of the earliest syrian americans. however, the following list comprises notable americans who are originally people of modern syrian heritage. - paula abdul ( born june 19, 1962 ), is a television personality, jewelry designer, multi - platinum", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5112460369585445, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 7, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:32.514888"} {"text": "menezes, pradeep l and kishore, * and kailas, satish v ( 2006 ) studies on friction and transfer layer using inclined scratch. in : tribology international, 39 ( 2 ). pp. 175 - 183. restricted to registered users only download ( 562kb ) | request a copy friction influences the nature of transfer layer formed at the interface between die and sheet during forming. in the present investigation, basic studies were conducted using ' inclined scratch test ' to understand the mechanism of transfer layer formation during sliding of pins made of an al - mg alloy on en8 steel flats of different surface roughness under dry and lubricated conditions. the surfaces produced can be categorized into three different types : ( a ) uni - directional ( b ) 8 - ground and ( c ) random. rubbing the en8 flat in a uni - directional manner and a criss - cross manner on emery sheets produced the uni - directional and 8 ground surfaces. the random surfaces were produced by polishing the en8 flats using various abrasive powders. the influence of the ' nature of surface roughness ' on material transfer and coefficient of friction were investigated. scanning electron microscopy studies were performed on the contact surfaces of the al - mg alloy pins and en8 steel flats to reveal the morphology of the transfer layer obtained. it was seen that the transfer layer is dependant on the coefficient of friction. the coefficient of friction, which has two components - the adhesion component and the plowing component, is controlled by the ' nature of surface '. a surface that promotes plane strain conditions near the surfaces increases the plowing component of friction. | item type : | | journal article | | additional information : | | copyright for this article belongs to elsevier. | | keywords : | | friction ; nature of surface ; inclined scratch | | department / centre : | | division of mechanical sciences > materials engineering ( formerly metallurgy ) division of mechanical sciences > mechanical engineering | date deposited : | | 19 jan 2006 | | last modified : | | 19 sep 2010 04 : 23 | actions ( login required )", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.560653369050779, "token_count": 433, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:32.552585"} {"text": "fauziah, catur khurotul ( 2007 ) hubungan antara religiusitas dengan kepuasan hidup pada lanjut usia. other thesis, university of muhammadiyah malang. download ( 58kb ) | preview religiosity is an appreciation, confidence, experience or individual conscience against religious teachings are realized in practice worship and religious rituals. terbinanya religiosity properly, can raises life satisfaction for the elderly. where life satisfaction is a state which includes feelings of passion in it, have assertiveness and tough or resilient, the match between the desire to achievement of goals, have positive self concept, and mood calm. the purpose of this study was to determine the relationship between religiosity to life satisfaction in elderly. this study uses a quantitative approach. the subject of this research is the elderly who followed the routine recitation in boarding school nurul ulum. the sampling technique used is total sampling. with number of study subjects 50 people. data collection methods used there are 2 kinds of scales are scales of religiosity and life satisfaction scale. data collected and then analyzed by using correlation product moment using the computer program spss for windows version 10. results obtained from this study indicate that there is a relationship positive and highly significant correlation between religiosity to life satisfaction in advanced age ( r = 0. 419 p = 0. 002 ). this means that the higher the religiosity which is owned the higher the person ' s life satisfaction, and vice versa the lower the religiosity of a person will get low life satisfaction. the effective contribution of religiosity to the satisfaction living elderly by 17. 6 %, while 82, 4 % influenced by other variables had not been examined. | item type : | | thesis ( other ) | | subjects : | | b philosophy. psychology. religion > bf psychology | | divisions : | | faculty of psychology > department of psychology | | depositing user : | | zainul afandi | | date deposited : | | 29 may 2012 09 : 29 | | last modified : | | 29 may 2012 09 : 29 | actions ( login required )", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5403327901283459, "token_count": 455, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:32.554910"} {"text": "rodrigues, a. s. l., andelman, s. j., bakarr, m. i., boitani, l., brooks, t. m., cowling, r. m., fishpool, l. d. c., da fonseca, g. a. b., gaston, k. j., hoffmann, m., long, j. s., marquet, p. a., pilgrim, j. d., pressey, r. l., schipper, j., sechrest, w., stuart, s. n., underhill, l. g., waller, r. w., watts, m. e. j. and yan, x. ( 2004 ) effectiveness of the global protected area network in representing species diversity. nature, 428 ( 6983 ). pp. 640 - 643. issn 0028 - 0836full text available as : the fifth world parks congress in durban, south africa, announced in september 2003 that the global network of protected areas now covers 11. 5 % of the planet ' s land surface. this surpasses the 10 % target proposed a decade earlier, at the caracas congress, for 9 out of 14 major terrestrial biomes. such uniform targets based on percentage of area have become deeply embedded into national and international conservation planning. although politically expedient, the scientific basis and conservation value of these targets have been questioned. in practice, however, little is known of how to set appropriate targets, or of the extent to which the current global protected area network fulfils its goal of protecting biodiversity. here, we combine five global data sets on the distribution of species and protected areas to provide the first global gap analysis assessing the effectiveness of protected areas in representing species diversity. we show that the global network is far from complete, and demonstrate the inadequacy of uniform \u2014 that is, ' one size fits all ' \u2014 conservation targets. | copyright, publisher and additional information : | | \u00a9 2004 nature publishing group | | academic units : | | the university of sheffield > faculty of science ( sheffield ) > school of biological sciences ( sheffield ) > department of animal and plant sciences ( sheffield ) | | depositing user : | | repository officer | | date deposited : | | 12 jan 2005 | | last modified : | | 08 feb 2013 16 : 47 | actions ( login required )", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5153542421973992, "token_count": 503, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:32.558111"} {"text": "the socialist doctrine. you know their doctrine ; crime is a protest against the abnormality of the social organisation and nothing more, and nothing more ; no other causes admitted!... \u201d \u201c you are wrong there, \u201d cried porfiry petrovitch ; he was noticeably animated and kept laughing as he looked at razumihin, which made him more excited than ever. \u201c nothing is admitted, \u201d razumihin interrupted with heat. \u201c i am not wrong. i \u2019 ll show you their pamphlets. everything with them is \u2018 the influence of environment, \u2019 and nothing else. their favourite phrase! from which it follows that, if society is normally organised, all crime will cease at once, since there will be nothing to protest against and all men will become righteous in one instant. human nature is not taken into account, it is excluded, it \u2019 s not supposed to exist! they don \u2019 t recognise that humanity, developing by a historical living process, will become at last a normal society, but they believe that a social system that has come out of some mathematical brain is going to organise all humanity at once and make it just and sinless in an instant, quicker than any living process! that \u2019 s why they instinctively dislike history, \u2018 nothing but ugliness and stupidity in it, \u2019 and they explain it all as stupidity! that \u2019 s why they so dislike the living process of life ; they don \u2019 t want a living soul! the living soul demands life, the soul won \u2019 t obey the rules of mechanics, the soul is an object of suspicion, the soul is retrograde! but what they want though it smells of death and can be made of india - rubber, at least is not alive, has no will, is servile and won \u2019 t revolt! and it comes in the end to their reducing everything to the building of walls and the planning of rooms and passages in a phalanstery! the phalanstery is ready, indeed, but your human nature is not ready for the phalanstery \u2014 it wants life, it hasn \u2019 t completed its vital process, it \u2019 s too soon for the graveyard! you can \u2019 t skip over nature by logic. logic presupposes three possibilities, but there are millions! cut away a million, and reduce it all to the question of comfort! that \u2019 s the easiest solution of the problem! it \u2019 s seductively clear and you musn \u2019 t think about it. that \u2019 s the great thing, you mustn", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5602251716707203, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 9, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:32.602514"} {"text": "interested. \u201d \u201c i analysed, if i remember, the psychology of a criminal before and after the crime. \u201d \u201c yes, and you maintained that the perpetration of a crime is always accompanied by illness. very, very original, but \u2026 it was not that part of your article that interested me so much, but an idea at the end of the article which i regret to say you merely suggested without working it out clearly. there is, if you recollect, a suggestion that there are certain persons who can \u2026 that is, not precisely are able to, but have a perfect right to commit breaches of morality and crimes, and that the law is not for them. \u201d raskolnikov smiled at the exaggerated and intentional distortion of his idea. \u201c what? what do you mean? a right to crime? but not because of the influence of environment? \u201d razumihin inquired with some alarm even. \u201c no, not exactly because of it, \u201d answered porfiry. \u201c in his article all men are divided into \u2018 ordinary \u2019 and \u2018 extraordinary. \u2019 ordinary men have to live in submission, have no right to transgress the law, because, don \u2019 t you see, they are ordinary. but extraordinary men have a right to commit any crime and to transgress the law in any way, just because they are extraordinary. that was your idea, if i am not mistaken? \u201d \u201c what do you mean? that can \u2019 t be right? \u201d razumihin muttered in bewilderment. raskolnikov smiled again. he saw the point at once, and knew where they wanted to drive him. he decided to take up the challenge. \u201c that wasn \u2019 t quite my contention, \u201d he began simply and modestly. \u201c yet i admit that you have stated it almost correctly ; perhaps, if you like, perfectly so. \u201d ( it almost gave him pleasure to admit this. ) \u201c the only difference is that i don \u2019 t contend that extraordinary people are always bound to commit breaches of morals, as you call it. in fact, i doubt whether such an argument could be published. i simply hinted that an \u2018 extraordinary \u2019 man has the right \u2026 that is not an official right, but an inner right to decide in his own conscience to overstep \u2026 certain obstacles, and only in case it is essential for the practical fulfilment of his idea ( sometimes, perhaps, of benefit to the whole of humanity ). you say that my article", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5384696046108339, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 12, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:32.608269"} {"text": "that it \u2019 s somewhat arbitrary, but i don \u2019 t insist upon exact numbers. i only believe in my leading idea that men are in general divided by a law of nature into two categories, inferior ( ordinary ), that is, so to say, material that serves only to reproduce its kind, and men who have the gift or the talent to utter a new word. there are, of course, innumerable sub - divisions, but the distinguishing features of both categories are fairly well marked. the first category, generally speaking, are men conservative in temperament and law - abiding ; they live under control and love to be controlled. to my thinking it is their duty to be controlled, because that \u2019 s their vocation, and there is nothing humiliating in it for them. the second category all transgress the law ; they are destroyers or disposed to destruction according to their capacities. the crimes of these men are of course relative and varied ; for the most part they seek in very varied ways the destruction of the present for the sake of the better. but if such a one is forced for the sake of his idea to step over a corpse or wade through blood, he can, i maintain, find within himself, in his conscience, a sanction for wading through blood \u2014 that depends on the idea and its dimensions, note that. it \u2019 s only in that sense i speak of their right to crime in my article ( you remember it began with the legal question ). there \u2019 s no need for such anxiety, however ; the masses will scarcely ever admit this right, they punish them or hang them ( more or less ), and in doing so fulfil quite justly their conservative vocation. but the same masses set these criminals on a pedestal in the next generation and worship them ( more or less ). the first category is always the man of the present, the second the man of the future. the first preserve the world and people it, the second move the world and lead it to its goal. each class has an equal right to exist. in fact, all have equal rights with me \u2014 and _ vive la guerre eternelle _ \u2014 till the new jerusalem, of course! \u201d \u201c then you believe in the new jerusalem, do you? \u201d \u201c i do, \u201d raskolnikov answered firmly ; as he said these words and during the whole preceding tirade he kept his eyes on one spot on the carpet. \u201c and \u2026 and do you believe in god? excuse my curiosity.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.542728642103528, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 14, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:32.610115"} {"text": "considerable danger here, and you really need not be uneasy for they never go very far. of course, they might have a thrashing sometimes for letting their fancy run away with them and to teach them their place, but no more ; in fact, even this isn \u2019 t necessary as they castigate themselves, for they are very conscientious : some perform this service for one another and others chastise themselves with their own hands \u2026. they will impose various public acts of penitence upon themselves with a beautiful and edifying effect ; in fact you \u2019 ve nothing to be uneasy about \u2026. it \u2019 s a law of nature. \u201d \u201c well, you have certainly set my mind more at rest on that score ; but there \u2019 s another thing worries me. tell me, please, are there many people who have the right to kill others, these extraordinary people? i am ready to bow down to them, of course, but you must admit it \u2019 s alarming if there are a great many of them, eh? \u201d \u201c oh, you needn \u2019 t worry about that either, \u201d raskolnikov went on in the same tone. \u201c people with new ideas, people with the faintest capacity for saying something new, are extremely few in number, extraordinarily so in fact. one thing only is clear, that the appearance of all these grades and sub - divisions of men must follow with unfailing regularity some law of nature. that law, of course, is unknown at present, but i am convinced that it exists, and one day may become known. the vast mass of mankind is mere material, and only exists in order by some great effort, by some mysterious process, by means of some crossing of races and stocks, to bring into the world at last perhaps one man out of a thousand with a spark of independence. one in ten thousand perhaps \u2014 i speak roughly, approximately \u2014 is born with some independence, and with still greater independence one in a hundred thousand. the man of genius is one of millions, and the great geniuses, the crown of humanity, appear on earth perhaps one in many thousand millions. in fact i have not peeped into the retort in which all this takes place. but there certainly is and must be a definite law, it cannot be a matter of chance. \u201d \u201c why, are you both joking? \u201d razumihin cried at last. \u201c there you sit, making fun of one another. are you serious, rodya? \u201d ras", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5496884339270697, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 16, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:32.616006"} {"text": "be a definite law, it cannot be a matter of chance. \u201d \u201c why, are you both joking? \u201d razumihin cried at last. \u201c there you sit, making fun of one another. are you serious, rodya? \u201d raskolnikov raised his pale and almost mournful face and made no reply. and the unconcealed, persistent, nervous, and discourteous sarcasm of porfiry seemed strange to razumihin beside that quiet and mournful face. \u201c well, brother, if you are really serious \u2026 you are right, of course, in saying that it \u2019 s not new, that it \u2019 s like what we \u2019 ve read and heard a thousand times already ; but what is really original in all this, and is exclusively your own, to my horror, is that you sanction bloodshed in the name of conscience, and, excuse my saying so, with such fanaticism \u2026. that, i take it, is the point of your article. but that sanction of bloodshed by conscience is to my mind \u2026 more terrible than the official, legal sanction of bloodshed \u2026. \u201d \u201c you are quite right, it is more terrible, \u201d porfiry agreed. \u201c yes, you must have exaggerated! there is some mistake, i shall read it. you can \u2019 t think that! i shall read it. \u201d \u201c all that is not in the article, there \u2019 s only a hint of it, \u201d said raskolnikov. \u201c yes, yes. \u201d porfiry couldn \u2019 t sit still. \u201c your attitude to crime is pretty clear to me now, but \u2026 excuse me for my impertinence ( i am really ashamed to be worrying you like this ), you see, you \u2019 ve removed my anxiety as to the two grades getting mixed, but \u2026 there are various practical possibilities that make me uneasy! what if some man or youth imagines that he is a lycurgus or mahomet \u2014 a future one of course \u2014 and suppose he begins to remove all obstacles \u2026. he has some great enterprise before him and needs money for it \u2026 and tries to get it \u2026 do you see? \u201d zametov gave a sudden guffaw in his corner. raskolnikov did not even raise his eyes to him. \u201c i must admit, \u201d he went on calmly, \u201c that such cases certainly must arise. the vain and foolish are particularly apt to fall into that snare ; young people", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5147113171695944, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 17, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:32.616932"} {"text": ". raskolnikov did not even raise his eyes to him. \u201c i must admit, \u201d he went on calmly, \u201c that such cases certainly must arise. the vain and foolish are particularly apt to fall into that snare ; young people especially. \u201d \u201c yes, you see. well then? \u201d \u201c what then? \u201d raskolnikov smiled in reply ; \u201c that \u2019 s not my fault. so it is and so it always will be. he said just now ( he nodded at razumihin ) that i sanction bloodshed. society is too well protected by prisons, banishment, criminal investigators, penal servitude. there \u2019 s no need to be uneasy. you have but to catch the thief. \u201d \u201c and what if we do catch him? \u201d \u201c then he gets what he deserves. \u201d \u201c you are certainly logical. but what of his conscience? \u201d \u201c why do you care about that? \u201d \u201c simply from humanity. \u201d \u201c if he has a conscience he will suffer for his mistake. that will be his punishment \u2014 as well as the prison. \u201d \u201c but the real geniuses, \u201d asked razumihin frowning, \u201c those who have the right to murder? oughtn \u2019 t they to suffer at all even for the blood they \u2019 ve shed? \u201d \u201c why the word ought? it \u2019 s not a matter of permission or prohibition. he will suffer if he is sorry for his victim. pain and suffering are always inevitable for a large intelligence and a deep heart. the really great men must, i think, have great sadness on earth, \u201d he added dreamily, not in the tone of the conversation. he raised his eyes, looked earnestly at them all, smiled, and took his cap. he was too quiet by comparison with his manner at his entrance, and he felt this. everyone got up. \u201c well, you may abuse me, be angry with me if you like, \u201d porfiry petrovitch began again, \u201c but i can \u2019 t resist. allow me one little question ( i know i am troubling you ). there is just one little notion i want to express, simply that i may not forget it. \u201d \u201c very good, tell me your little notion, \u201d raskolnikov stood waiting, pale and grave before him. \u201c well, you see \u2026 i really don \u2019 t know how to express it properly \u2026. it \u2019 s a playful, psychological idea \u2026. when you were writing your article, surely", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5121911617543539, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 18, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:32.617856"} {"text": "uveitis is inflammation of the uvea, which is made up of the iris, ciliary body and choroid. together, these form the middle layer of the eye between the retina and the sclera ( white of the eye ). the eye is shaped like a tennis ball, with three different layers of tissue surrounding the central gel - filled cavity, which is called the vitreous. the innermost layer is the retina, which senses light and helps to send images to your brain. the outermost layer is the sclera, the strong white wall of the eye. the middle layer between the sclera and retina is called the uvea. the uvea contains many blood vessels \u2014 the veins, arteries and capillaries \u2014 that carry blood to and from the eye. because the uvea nourishes many important parts of the eye ( such as the retina ), inflammation of the uvea can damage your sight. there are several types of uveitis, defined by the part of the eye where it occurs. - iritis affects the front of your eye. also called anterior uveitis, this is the most common type of uveitis. iritis usually develops suddenly and may last six to eight weeks. some types of anterior uveitis can be chronic or recurrent. - if the uvea is inflamed in the middle or intermediate region of the eye, it is called pars planitis ( or intermediate uveitis ). episodes of pars planitis can last between a few weeks to years. the disease goes through cycles of getting better, then worse. - posterior uveitis affects the back parts of your eye. posterior uveitis can develop slowly and often lasts for many years. - panuveitis occurs when all layers of the uvea are inflamed. next page : uveitis causes", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5089933809715791, "token_count": 386, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:32.626726"} {"text": "basic use to make a new number, a simple initialization suffices : var foo = 0 ; / / or whatever number you want foo = 1 ; / / foo = 1 foo + = 2 ; / / foo = 3 ( the two gets added on ) foo - = 2 ; / / foo = 1 ( the two gets removed ) number literals define the number value. in particular : they appear as a set of digits of varying length. negative literal numbers have a minus sign before the set of digits. floating point literal numbers contain one decimal point, and may optionally use the e notation with the character e. an integer literal may be prepended with \" 0 \", to indicate that a number is in base - 8. ( 8 and 9 are not octal digits, and if found, cause the integer to be read in the normal base - 10 ). an integer literal may also be found with \" 0x \", to indicate a hexadecimal number. the math object unlike strings, arrays, and dates, the numbers aren ' t objects. the math object provides numeric functions and constants as methods and properties. the methods and properties of the math object are referenced using the dot operator in the usual way, for example : var varone = math. ceil ( 8. 5 ) ; var varpi = math. pi ; var sqrt3 = math. sqrt ( 3 ) ; methods random ( ) generates a pseudo - random number. var myint = math. random ( ) ; max ( int1, int2 ) returns the highest number from the two numbers passed as arguments. var myint = math. max ( 8, 9 ) ; document. write ( myint ) ; / / 9 min ( int1, int2 ) returns the lowest number from the two numbers passed as arguments. var myint = math. min ( 8, 9 ) ; document. write ( myint ) ; / / 8 floor ( float ) returns the greatest integer less than the number passed as an argument. var myint = math. floor ( 90. 8 ) ; document. write ( myint ) ; / / 90 ; ceil ( float ) returns the least integer greater than the number passed as an argument. var myint = math. ceil ( 90. 8 ) ; document. write ( myint ) ; / / 91 ; round ( float ) returns the closest integer to the number passed as an argument. var myint = math. round ( 90.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5138516756615367, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:32.635235"} {"text": "large, flat network, the point can be reached when it is continually in topology change status. the resulting high level of flooding can lead to an unstable stp environment. to deal with this problem, vendors have come up with ways to avoid tcn generation for certain events. for example, the network manager can configure the bridge so that it issues a tcn when a server is power cycled, but not when client devices are power cycled. if a bridge port going up or down is not deemed an important event, this event too can be programmed not to issue a tcn. source - route bridging ( srb ) is used in the token - ring environment as the method by which a station establishes a route through a multiple - ring network to its destination. the first step for a station to reach another is to create a packet called an explorer. this packet is copied by all bridges in the network, with each of them adding information about itself before passing it on. the explorer packet \u2019 s routing information field ( rif ) contains the information of where it has traversed through the network and within the rif ; a route descriptor stores the path it has taken through the network. as the explorer packet is constructed on its way through the network, the destination station will start receiving data packets from the originating station. based on the contents of the explorer packet, the destination station will then decide which route to use to send data packets back to the originating station. or it will send its own explorer packet so that the originating station can determine its own route. the explorer packet is limited in terms of how many rings it can hold in the routing information field. although the rif can hold a total of 14 rings, ibm long ago limited this to seven. other vendors also adopted this limitation. consequently, an explorer packet that has traversed seven rings will be dropped in the network. to control traffic in the network with more precision, parameters can be set in the bridge to decrease this number even further, so that packets that reach x number of rings ( any number below seven ) will be dropped. while explorers are limited to traversing only seven rings, in a meshed ring environment, one explorer can finish being copied by many bridges, which can cause too many explorers. explorer storms can be prevented in redundant network topologies by setting the bridge to filter out explorers that have already been forwarded once. since explorer traffic can be distinguished from regular source route traffic, the network manager can issue commands that check the bridge for various parameters", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.552384260077563, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:32.660593"} {"text": "storms can be prevented in redundant network topologies by setting the bridge to filter out explorers that have already been forwarded once. since explorer traffic can be distinguished from regular source route traffic, the network manager can issue commands that check the bridge for various parameters, such as the number of explorers that were dropped outbound on that interface. while ethernet has become the network of choice for new installations, there is still a good amount of token ring in use, making it necessary to mix the two environments for data exchange. doing so is complicated because some very fundamental differences between ethernet and token ring must be reconciled. token ring has functional addresses, while ethernet primarily relies on broadcasts. furthermore, mac addresses on the ethernet are different from mac addresses on the token ring. ethernet does not have a source - route bridging capability and token ring has a routing information field. finally, token ring and ethernet use different methods to read the bits into their adapters. to unify the two environments, vendors have come up with various methods such as translation bridging. this is a type of bridging that is implemented on networks that use different mac sublayer protocols, providing a method of resolving differences in header formats and protocol specifications. since there are no real standards in how communication between two media types should occur, however, no single translation implementation can be called correct. the only consideration for network managers is to select a method of translation and implement it uniformly throughout the network. essentially, the bridges reorder source and destination address bits when translating between ethernet and token - ring frame formats. the problem of embedded mac - addresses can be resolved by programming the bridge to look for various types of mac addresses. some translation - bridges simply check for the most popular embedded addresses. if others are used, the bridge must be programmed to look for them as well. but if translation - bridging software runs in a multi - protocol router, which is very common today, these protocols can be routed and the problem avoided entirely. token ring \u2019 s rif field has a component that indicates the largest frame size that can be accepted by a particular source - route bridging implementation. translation bridges that send frames from the transparent - bridging domain to the srb domain usually set the maximum transfer unit ( mtu ) field to 1, 500 bytes to limit the size of token - ring frames entering the transparent - bridging domain, because this is the maximum size of ethernet frames. some hosts cannot process this field correctly, in which case translation bridges are forced to drop", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5460480526565714, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:32.665392"} {"text": "to 1, 500 bytes to limit the size of token - ring frames entering the transparent - bridging domain, because this is the maximum size of ethernet frames. some hosts cannot process this field correctly, in which case translation bridges are forced to drop the frames that exceed ethernet \u2019 s mtu size. bits representing token - ring functions that are absent in ethernet are discarded by translation bridges. for example, token ring \u2019 s priority, reservation, and monitor bits are discarded during translation. and token ring \u2019 s frame status bits are treated differently, depending on the bridge manufacturer ; the products of some manufacturers may even ignore these bits. sometimes, the bridge will have the c bit set, indicating that the frame has been copied, but not the a bit set, indicating that the destination station recognizes the address. in the former case, a token - ring source node determines if the frame it sent has become lost. advocates of this approach claim that reliability mechanisms, such as the tracking of lost frames, are better left for implementation in layer 4 of the osi model. advocates of setting the c bit argue that this bit must be set to track lost frames, but that the a bit cannot be set because the bridge is not the final destination. translation bridges also can be used to create a software gateway between the token ring and ethernet domains. to the srb end stations, the translation bridge has a ring number and a bridge number associated with it, so it looks like a standard source - route bridge. in this case, the ring number reflects the entire transparent - bridging domain. to the transparent - bridging domain, the translation bridge is just another transparent bridge. when bridging from the srb domain to the transparent - bridging domain, srb information is removed. token ring \u2019 s routing information fields usually are cached for use by any subsequent return traffic. when bridging from the transparent bridging to the srb domain, the translation bridge checks the frame to see if it has a multicast or unicast destination. if the frame has a multicast or broadcast destination, it is sent into the srb domain as a spanning - tree explorer. if the frame has a unicast address, the translation bridge looks up the destination in the rif cache. if a path is found, it is used and the rif information is added to the frame ; otherwise, the frame is sent as a spanning - tree explorer. another solution to unify the ethernet and token - ring environments is source - route", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5570063943174268, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:32.666830"} {"text": ". if a path is found, it is used and the rif information is added to the frame ; otherwise, the frame is sent as a spanning - tree explorer. another solution to unify the ethernet and token - ring environments is source - route translation bridging ( srtlb ). this entails the addition of bridge groups to the interfaces of both the token ring and ethernet bridges to create a transparent bridge domain between the two environments. the bridges at each end are responsible for establishing the path through the network. when a bridge on a token ring receives a packet from an ethernet, for example, path establishment is handled as follows ( see figure 5. 2 ) : figure 5. 2 : source - route translation bridging, from token ring to ethernet. bridge - 1 receives a packet from the ethernet. this is from pc - 1 to the host. bridge - 1 needs a rif to reach the host, so it creates an explorer to learn the path to reach the host. after bridge - 1 receives the response, it sends the response ( without a rif ) to the ethernet station. pc - 1 sends an exchange identifier ( xid ) to the host mac address. bridge - 1 gets the ethernet packet, attaches the rif to the host, and sends the packet on its way. as far as the host is concerned, the ethernet is sitting on a pseudo ring. this is configured with the source - bridge transparent command on the bridge. the pseudo ring makes the host treat the ethernet as if it were a token ring. | < day day up > | lans to wans ( c ) the complete management guide authors : muller n. j. published year : 2003", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5439445326810202, "token_count": 346, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:32.667485"} {"text": "releases its heat by radiation. as environmental temperatures approach your body temperature, you lose less heat through radiation. in fact, people working on hot summer days actually gain heat through radiation from the sun. this leaves evaporation as the only way to effectively control body temperature. water loss your body is about half water. you lose about 2 quarts every day ( breathing, urinating, bowel movements and sweat ). a working adult can produce 2 quarts of sweat per hour for short periods and up to 15 quarts per day. because the body ' s water absorption rate of 1. 5 quarts per hour is less than the body ' s 2 quarts per hour sweat rate, dehydration results. this happens because you cannot drink enough water to keep up with your sweat losses. if you drink only when you are thirsty, you are dehydrated already. thirst is not a good guide for when to drink water. in fact, in hot and humid conditions, you may be so dehydrated by the time you become thirsty that you will have trouble catching up with your fluid losses. one guideline regarding your water intake is to monitor your urine. you are getting enough water if you produce clear urine at least five times a day. cloudy or dark urine, or urinating less than five times a day, means you should drink more. in the gulf war, american armed forces followed the practice of the israeli army : drinking a minimum of 1 quart of fluid per hour. this tactic resulted in zero deaths from heat illness. in contrast, during the six day war of 1967, more than 20, 000 egyptian soldiers died3 / 4with no visible wounds3 / 4most likely from dehydration and heat illness because they were restricted to 3 quarts daily. while working in hot weather, drink 8 ounces of water every 20 minutes. generally, 16 ounces is the most a person can comfortably drink at once. you cannot \" catch up \" by drinking extra water later because only about 1 quart of water per hour can pass out of the stomach. therefore, if possible, workers should begin drinking water before they start work. cool water ( 50of ) is easier for the stomach to absorb than warm water, and a little flavoring may make the water more tasty. the best fluids are those that leave the stomach fast and contain little sodium and some sugar ( less than 8 percent ). you should avoid coffee and tea because they contain caffeine, which is a diuretic that", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5579293256706123, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:32.706085"} {"text": "data structures for manipulating ( biological ) sequences. generally supports both nucleotide and protein sequences, some functions, like revcompl, only makes sense for nucleotides. | a sequence is a header, sequence data itself, and optional quality data. sequences are type - tagged to identify them as nucleotide, amino acids, or unknown type. all items are lazy bytestrings. the offset type can be used for indexing. | a sequence consists of a header, the sequence data itself, and optional quality data. the type parameter is a phantom type to separate nucleotide and amino acid sequences | an offset, index, or length of a seqdata | the basic data type used in sequences | quality data is normally associated with nucleotide sequences | basic type for quality data. range 0.. 255. typical phred output is in the range 6.. 50, with 20 as the line in the sand separating good from bad. | quality data is a qual vector, currently implemented as a bytestring. | read the character at the specified position in the sequence. | return sequence length. | return sequence label ( first word of header ) | return full header. | return the sequence data. | check whether the sequence has associated quality data. | return the quality data, or error if none exist. use hasqual if in doubt. | adding information to header | modify the header by appending text, or by replacing all but the sequence label ( i. e. first word ). | converting to and from [ char ] | convert a string to seqdata | convert a seqdata to a string returns a sequence with all internal storage freshly copied and with sequence and quality data present as a single chunk. by freshly copying internal storage, defragseq allows garbage collection of the original data source whence the sequence was read ; otherwise, use of just a short sequence name can cause an entire sequence file buffer to be retained. by compacting sequence data into a single chunk, defragseq avoids linear - time traversal of sequence chunks during random access into | map over sequences, treating them as a sequence of ( char, word8 ) pairs. this will work on sequences without quality, as long as the function doesn ' t try to examine it. the current implementation is not very efficient. | phantom type functionality, unchecked conversion between sequence types | nucleotide sequences contain the alphabet [ a, c, g, t ]. iup", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5455342057912717, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:32.714995"} {"text": "the function doesn ' t try to examine it. the current implementation is not very efficient. | phantom type functionality, unchecked conversion between sequence types | nucleotide sequences contain the alphabet [ a, c, g, t ]. iupac specifies an extended nucleotide alphabet with wildcards, but it is not supported at this point. | complement a single character. i. e. identify the nucleotide it can hybridize with. note that for multiple nucleotides, you usually want the reverse complement ( see revcompl for that ). | calculate the reverse complement. this is only relevant for the nucleotide alphabet, and it leaves other characters unmodified. | calculate the reverse complent for seqdata only. | for type tagging sequences ( protein sequences use amino below ) | proteins are chains of amino acids, represented by the iupac alphabet. | translate a nucleotide sequence into the corresponding protein sequence. this works rather blindly, with no attempt to identify orfs or otherwise qa the result. | convert a sequence in iupac format to a list of amino acids. | convert a list of amino acids to a sequence in iupac format. | display a nicely formated sequence. | a simple function to display a sequence : we generate the sequence string and | call putstrln | returns a properly formatted and probably highlighted string | representation of a sequence. highlighting is done using ansi - escape | default type for sequences | produced by haddock version 2. 6. 1 |", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5262885468906433, "token_count": 319, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:32.715587"} {"text": "contemporary world politics make it necessary for nations to integrate into international unions in the interest of their own national security and economy. in these international unions, which are usually based upon geographic location, such factors as natural resources, trading blocs, and even cultural values play an important role. many neighboring countries combine their resources under the auspices of such organizations, create defensive alliances, and cooperate on a wide array of issues. the goal of such unions is to preserve peace, control the arms race, resolve disputes through diplomacy, promote socioeconomic development, and protect fundamental human rights and democracy. at the present time, nato, the osce, the eu, nafta, opec, asean, the g - 8, the d - 8, and apec are the foremost international political, military, and economic unions. these institutions are subject to organizational reforms because of new members or a widening of scope. all of these organizations, formed in the aftermath of the second world war, have contributed to creating stability and order in the world and have played a major role in global socioeconomic development. member nations protect their economic and military interests, and also acquire a stronger regional and international position. even the developed world perceives the necessity of such partnerships. the creation of free trade zones, regional trade agreements, abolished customs controls, and even a common currency ( as in the eu ) safeguard the future of member states. defensive pacts enable member states to reduce military expenditures and to divert those resources to cultural and educational fields. a similar organization will provide considerable benefits to muslim nations. for those that are desperate for technological as well as economic development, the foremost step toward stability is the creation of a central organization or, in other words, a unified islamic world under the auspices of the islamic union. economic development and increasing prosperity economic cooperation is necessary on two counts : stability and development. muslim nations must bring stability and solidity to their economies. developing industries and making the required investments is vital, as is the need for a comprehensive development plan and the simultaneous development of education, economy, culture, science, and technology. while various sectors are developed technologically, the labor force ' s educational levels and standards must be raised accordingly. society must be motivated to become more productive, and the resulting economic cooperation will play a major role in eradicating poverty, illiteracy, the unjust distribution of wealth, and other socioeconomic problems rampant in muslim countries. this partnership can be formed only by the creation of free trade zones, customs unions, and common economic areas. most muslim", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5050978953883959, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:32.723953"} {"text": "eradicating poverty, illiteracy, the unjust distribution of wealth, and other socioeconomic problems rampant in muslim countries. this partnership can be formed only by the creation of free trade zones, customs unions, and common economic areas. most muslim countries have geostrategic importance as well as rich natural resources ( e. g., natural gas and crude oil ). these resources and strategic opportunities, however, are not being used effectively. in the islamic world, 86 % of the population ' s living standards fall below $ 2, 000, 76 % under $ 1, 000, and 67 % under $ 500 per year. when the islamic world ' s total resources are considered, ( 1 ) this is quite a paradox : roughly half of the petrol consumed in the west is exported from the islamic world, as is 40 % of the world ' s agricultural production. ( 2 ) many economists and strategists freely admit that the world economy depends upon the islamic world ' s oil and gas exports, in particular those of the persian gulf. ( 3 ) the persian gulf holds two - thirds of the planet ' s discovered crude oil reserves. data obtained from research concludes that saudi arabia alone holds 25. 4 % of the world ' s oil reserves, or 262 billion barrels. a further 11 % is found in iraq, 9. 6 % in the uae, 9. 2 % in kuwait, 8. 6 % in iran, 13 % in other opec member states. the rest is distributed across the remainder of the world. ( 4 ) research commissioned by the u. s. department of energy shows that between 2000 and 2020, oil exports from the area will increase by 125 %. ( 5 ) this means that the world will continue to meet most of its energy needs by imports from the gulf region. moreover, the middle east has 40 % of the global natural gas reserves ; 35 % of these reserves are in the gulf region. ( 6 ) algeria, libya, and other north african countries have 3. 7 % of the world ' s reserves. the caucasus and central asia are also rich in oil, natural gas, and other natural resources. for instance, kazakhstan has between 10 - 17. 6 billion barrels of proven oil reserves, and its natural gas reserves are estimated at between 53 and 83 trillion cubic feet. turkmenistan hasbetween 98 and 155 trillion cubic feet of natural gas reserves, making it the fourth largest producer. ( 7 ) some other muslim countries have valuable mineral resources. for instance, uzbekistan and kyrgyzstan are two", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.502444750588398, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:32.724860"} {"text": "53 and 83 trillion cubic feet. turkmenistan hasbetween 98 and 155 trillion cubic feet of natural gas reserves, making it the fourth largest producer. ( 7 ) some other muslim countries have valuable mineral resources. for instance, uzbekistan and kyrgyzstan are two of the world ' s leading gold producers. turkey has one of the world ' s richest boron reserves, only recently discovered to be very important, and tajikistan has the world ' s largest aluminum producing facilities. these advantages will become more important in the twenty - first century, which some have already christened the \" energy century. \" energy is an essential element of modern society in terms of the military, industry, urbanization, and transport. given that economic activity and manufacturing depend primarily upon energy, nations will do their best to achieve control over these energy resources. the islamic world is not using its resources effectively, for many of its members lack the infrastructure and technology to increase the production and use their natural resources to develop their industries. therefore, the resources ' contributions to the country ' s economy are limited to export earnings. these countries do not have the means to process their own crude oil, use it in their industrial complexes, or to develop their industries. worse still, some muslim nations do not even have the necessary means to explore and research their natural resources or to discover and extract them. explorations undertaken by foreign companies reveal that other muslim nations have oil and gas reserves, but they cannot benefit from their resources. naturally, the ineffective use of natural resources is not the islamic world ' s only economic problem. however, solving this problem can begin the process of solving many other problems. the economies of muslim nations contain differences in structure and functioning. some nations ' economies depend upon mineral resources, such as the members of opec, while other nations ' depend upon agriculture. these differences are also reflected, to some extent, in their social structures, such as the widely varying degrees of rural and urban populations. developing complementary relationships and helping each other in their respective areas of expertise can turn these differences into a source of riches. all of this will be possible with the islamic union. joint ventures and project partnerships will be an important step in the right direction, for they will enable countries to benefit from one another ' s experiences and the income earned from investment projects will benefit all of the participating countries. such mutual financial support is compatible with islamic morality, for helping the needy and having a sense of social responsibility are important characteristics that muslims strive to acquire. many verses in the qur \u2019 an remind muslims to watch over the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5350781744305323, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:32.725895"} {"text": "benefit all of the participating countries. such mutual financial support is compatible with islamic morality, for helping the needy and having a sense of social responsibility are important characteristics that muslims strive to acquire. many verses in the qur \u2019 an remind muslims to watch over the needy. society ' s internal cohesion must be extended to international relations. as international cooperation within a partnership cannot be one - sided, employment and income levels will rise in both countries. for example, one country will produce oil and another one will process it, and agriculturally dependent countries will be able to import the food they need from agriculturally developed countries. a manpower - poor country \u2019 s need will be met by another islamic country, while rich countries will be able to invest in and help out a manpower - rich country that does not have enough jobs for its people. this will be to the benefit of both. sharing know - how and experience will increase prosperity, and all muslims will benefit from technological developments. joint ventures that realize the islamic world ' s unification of opportunities and means will enable muslims to produce hi - tech products. the islamic common market will enable muslim - made products to be marketed in other muslim countries without the hindrance of customs, quotas, and other cross - border obstacles. the marketplace will grow, the market share and exports of all muslim nations will rise, industrialization will speed up, and economic development will bring progress in technology. the living standards and wealth of muslim nations will increase, and their existing inequalities will disappear. some free trade agreements are already in place between countries in the gulf, the pacific rim, and north africa. trade agreements signed by turkey are already operational in the islamic world. bilateral cooperation exists in some regions ; however, their scope must be widened. such cooperation will safeguard the rights and interests of all muslim nations and lead to all of them becoming developed \u2014 a result from which all of them will derive a far greater benefit than if they do not cooperate with each other. all of these can be realized only under a central authority ' s leadership and coordination. achieving this will be possible if muslim nations adopt the qur ' an ' s values and the prophet ' s ( may god bless him and grant him peace ) sunnah, or, in other words, if they adopt islamic culture. the islamic union must lead the way to this cultural awakening, as well as the resulting political and economic cooperation. mutual cooperation among muslims, part of the islamic code, must be adhered to by all muslims, for god commands people to refrain from avarice", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5291918402122154, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:32.726854"} {"text": "contemporary full brown calf. small paper spine label. boards triple ruled in blind. edges speckled red. boards and joints rubbed and bumped. head and tale of the spine chipped. some toning and browning throughout, but mainly to preliminary and final leaves. leaves a2 and a3 with some chipping along fore - edge, not affecting text. a bit of marginal worming, not affecting text. previous owner ' s old ink signature on title - page and some instances of marginalia and text corrections in the same hand. overall a very good copy. \u201c bacon \u2019 s major contribution to the development of science lies in his natural philosophy, his philosophy of scientific method, and in his projects for the practical organization of science. during the last years of his life, he expounded these ideas in a series of works, of which the twoo bookes was the first. the only work bacon ever published in english, it was later expanded and latinized into de augmentis scientiarum ( 1623 ). in the twoo bookes, bacon concerned himself primarily with the classification of philosophy and the sciences and with developing his influential view of the relation between science and theology. while preserving the traditional distinction between knowledge obtained by divine revelation and knowledge acquired through the senses, bacon saw both theoretical and applied science as religious duties, the first for a greater knowledge of god through his creation, and the second for the practice of charity to one \u2019 s fellows by improving their condition. this view of science as a religious function maintained its authority throughout the seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries, and was an important factor in the public success of the scientific movement \u201d ( norman library ). gibson 82. stc 1165. hbs # 65822 $ 850", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5049084021692913, "token_count": 352, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:32.775176"} {"text": "in the early 1900s, a dispute arose over who controlled greenland \u2014 norway or denmark. the case was submitted to the permanent court of international justice in 1933. the court ruled in denmark \u2019 s favor. after wwii, the united states developed a geopolitical interest in greenland. in 1946, they offered to buy the country from denmark for $ 100 million dollars. denmark refused to sell though. they did, however, allow the us to reopen thule air base in 1950. from 1951 and 1953, the base was greatly expanded as a part of a nato cold war defense strategy. it is still the us air forces \u2019 northernmost base, located inside the arctic circle. though xerxes did not found the achaemenid persian empire, he ruled it at its greatest size, and made it the global force that it was at the time. his failed invasion of greece has secured him a legendary place in not just asian, but also western culture. if once a man indulges himself in murder, very soon he comes to think little of robbing ; and from robbing he next comes to drinking and sabbath - breaking, and from that to incivility and procrastination. \u2014 thomas de quincey ( 1785 - 1859 ) tritones is a musical interval that spans three whole tones. this interval, the gap between two notes played in succession or simultaneously, was branded diabolus in musica or the devil \u2019 s interval by medieval musicians. one historian said, on the tritone : \u201c it apparently was the sound used to call up the beast. there is something very sexual about the tritone. in the middle ages when people were ignorant and scared, when they heard something like that and felt that reaction in their body they thought \u2018 uh oh, here come the devil \u2019. \u201d the devil \u2019 s interval came back into vogue under wagner, of all people, who used it in his operas. since then, the tritone has been used for everything from acdc to the simpson \u2019 s theme song. the first light portrait and first human portrait every taken. from october or november, 1839. it is a self - portrait by robert cornelius. a caricature of europe right before wwi. for a full explanation of the imagery for each country, click on the image. around 300 bce, the maya began adopting a hierarchical system of government with rule by nobles and kings. this civilization developed into highly structured kingdoms during the classic period, around 200 - 900 ce. their society consisted of many independent states, each with a", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5111714401981513, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:32.784430"} {"text": "business language learning from apec hrdwg wiki as part of international education week 2010, apec has expanded on several themes of the seminar on \" language education : an essential for a global economy, \" to provide a guide for students and instructors interested in the critical importance of business language for strengthening business relations in a global context. these themes include business in the 21st century ; cross cultural awareness for 21st century business ; language for 21st century business ; business language learning ; and business language policy. in business language instruction, we learn that different economies use different methodologies by which to teach and learn the subject of business. we find that conflict may arise when these differing methodologies come together in a single classroom. another application of advanced communications technologies may be found in the classroom, where traditional textbooks may be supplemented with electronic media such as video clips, as well as live information from internet newsfeeds, essentially making textbook materials come alive. students today may not learn history, geography, and science as it was taught a few years ago. they may actually view and experience events via the internet as if they were present during the moment in which they took place. video conferencing in the classroom may have other applications, such as providing students access to language teachers in foreign countries and to subject matter experts thousands of miles away, who can appear in the classroom and guest lecture as if they were actually there. these powerful new communications technologies have enhanced business language instruction in schools and universities, as evidenced from the scenario presented below. - technology provides web - based content to expand, complement, and supplement textbooks and teacher instruction. - online educational materials blend face - to - face learning with digital teaching and curricula. - technology such as virtual classroom fosters peer - to - peer and instructor - peer relationship building, collaboration, and social networking. - when designing lesson plans for international students, educators must consider how cultural values affect the way students respond to specific assignments. - technology contributes to a green environment by saving paper and reducing travel. in the fictional scenario below, teaching and learning methodologies from different economies clash as they are brought together into a single classroom, made possible only by advancements in telecommunications technologies. a prestigious university located in collectivist economy a invited a marketing professor from a renowned university in individualistic economy b teach a year - long course on the fundamentals of marketing to first - year business students. the professor had recently published a book on mcburger, the hamburger chain, and its success in economy a. the students in economy a viewed", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5277136822600191, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:32.793591"} {"text": "economy b teach a year - long course on the fundamentals of marketing to first - year business students. the professor had recently published a book on mcburger, the hamburger chain, and its success in economy a. the students in economy a viewed his book as a premier marketing book in the field of international business. conducted virtually over internet video stream, the course was the first [ ed note : for which economy? using a mix of traditional and technology - mediated instruction is not that new. it may be a stretch to say it was the first time for such a mix. ] to integrate traditional methods of teaching with new technologies. the professor would present a traditional lecture from the university ' s video conferencing room in economy b and the students in economy a would view the lecture and participate in discussion as if the professor were in their classroom. students would submit all assignments and exams to the professor through a \" digital drop box, \" and the professor would return graded materials back to students via this medium. using advanced technology in the classroom allowed students to learn from a renowned professor while enrolling in a \" green course, \" one in which the professor did not need to travel to the economy and no paper would be used for assignments. to prepare for the course, the professor chose various marketing, advertising, and strategy cases from around the world. on the first day of class, he presented a case study on boca rola, and its advent into economy c. he gave the students 30 minutes to read the case study, and then encouraged the students to share their views about : ( 1 ) boca rola \u2019 s strategy to enter the market in economy c, ( 2 ) the barriers boca rola faced in entering the market, ( 3 ) perceptions of foreign products previously unavailable in a particular economy, and ( 4 ) consumers ' reaction to the new product. he found the students reluctant to share their individual views in the class. thus, he presented his own views from the perspective of an outsider to economy c, and shared his views about how boca rola \u2019 s business culture may be different than the culture of economy c in which it was operating. at the end of class, the professor gave the students a list of questions about the case study. he asked the students to form small groups of 3 - 4 students and discuss the answers to the questions. after they discussed the questions, he asked each team to submit a 5 - 6 page summary of the responses in three days. additionally, he assigned another case study for the students to read", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5048703518515273, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:32.794689"} {"text": "of 3 - 4 students and discuss the answers to the questions. after they discussed the questions, he asked each team to submit a 5 - 6 page summary of the responses in three days. additionally, he assigned another case study for the students to read \u2013 one that focused on a large multinational company \u2019 s entry into the beauty care segment in economy d for future discussion. when the professor reviewed the students \u2019 responses to the boca rola case study, he discovered that the 20 students had submitted 5 separate sets of case study responses, as required. however, each group provided the same responses to the same questions, with no variation. he knew that this could not be a blatant incidence of cheating. when the next class reconvened, he asked the students why they turned in identical sets of answers. the students looked surprised, believing that they had followed his instructions, but had perhaps misinterpreted them. finally, one student raised his hand and stated that the class had formed groups of 3 - 4 students, but that each group tackled one question, and then shared the answers with the other groups. the students believed that it was not time efficient to discuss each question. rather, they decided that each group would respond to just one question, and then share the response with the other groups, who would do the same. the professor smiled in exasperation, and, frustrated by his inability to engage the students in an open discussion, began discussing the beauty company \u2019 s entry into economy d. points to consider - how has technology enhanced international educational opportunities for both students and instructors? other than the examples cited, what other ways can technology facilitate international educational opportunities? - to what extent did the professor understand the students \u2019 motivation to learn, the context in which they learn, and their willingness to experiment and use different approaches to demonstrate what they can do and what they know? - why was the strategy of open classroom discussion widely popular in economy b and a widely used strategy to introduce opposing views, and to encourage critical thinking? - to what extent can strategies such as lesson study encourage students in economy a to demonstrate problem solving skills, critical thinking, and creativity? - what could the professor do to model how each group could engage in separate discussions to understand the various perceptions about boca rola \u2019 s strategy to enter the market in economy c? - individualistic cultures are those cultures in which the opinion of the individual is greatly sought after and deeply valued, even though it may differ from the views of the group. these cultures believe that it is", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5437205729307504, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:32.796809"} {"text": "s strategy to enter the market in economy c? - individualistic cultures are those cultures in which the opinion of the individual is greatly sought after and deeply valued, even though it may differ from the views of the group. these cultures believe that it is a variety of individual opinions that produce the best solutions to problems and that promote success, whether in social relationships or in the workplace. - collectivist cultures, on the other hand, value group consensus and harmony. these cultures believe that an environment conducive for business and personal success can only be created when members of the group align in sync with one another. members of groups will first debate the merits of a question among themselves, and then choose the opinion that they deem most valuable before presenting it to a higher authority. - the professor from economy b was used to receiving individual responses to his case discussion questions, responses that varied greatly from one another. although not all responses he received were correct, he enjoyed reading the individual opinions present in them before discussing the correct answers with the class during the following lecture. economy a students were, however, from a collectivist culture and valued sharing their responses with their group first before reaching a consensus on a particular answer choice. - the professor noticed that, although he had received only one response per question, it was more or less correct, although there was not a way for him to ascertain which of his students had provided the response, how the learning had occurred, and what the viewpoints of those who disagreed might be. - teaching tips for iew 2010 provided by tesol - teaching tips for iew 2009 submitted by teachers throughout the asia - pacific region - videos from the apec - relc international language seminar presentation \" creating prosperity : using the internet to revolutionize language learning \" - new paths of communication through : - technology providing access to content beyond books - video from the apec - relc international language seminar presentation \" changes in our field : where are we going? \" - e - language learning for students - a collection of online language learning resources from various apec members - related tips for teaching 21st century workplace skills more content from international education week 2010", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5395513560180476, "token_count": 435, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:32.797690"} {"text": "education and health outcomes for social minorities in india : an analysis using sur model abstractthe current study analyzes the health and education outcomes of fifteen year old children in india and investigates the question of inequality of such outcomes for socio - religious categories. to study the effect of health on education, sur estimation has been undertaken. the comparison of sur and ols results shows that sur estimates have smaller standard errors than the ols estimates. of the three categories analyzed in the data, sts have worst outcomes for both education and health and scs lag behind in the health field. the results have important implications for policy regarding education and health of the socio - religious minorities. download infoif you experience problems downloading a file, check if you have the proper application to view it first. in case of further problems read the ideas help page. note that these files are not on the ideas site. please be patient as the files may be large. bibliographic infopaper provided by agricultural and applied economics association in its series 2012 annual meeting, august 12 - 14, 2012, seattle, washington with number 124840. date of creation : 2012 date of revision : contact details of provider : postal : 555 east wells street, suite 1100, milwaukee, wisconsin 53202 phone : ( 414 ) 918 - 3190 fax : ( 414 ) 276 - 3349 web page : http : / / www. aaea. org more information through edirc health economics and policy ; this paper has been announced in the following nep reports : please report citation or reference errors to, or, if you are the registered author of the cited work, log in to your repec author service profile, click on \" citations \" and make appropriate adjustments. : - sonalde desai & veena kulkarni, 2008. \" changing educational inequalities in india in the context of affirmative action, \" demography, springer, vol. 45 ( 2 ), pages 245 - 270, may. - vani borooah & sriya iyer, 2005. \" vidya, veda, and varna : the influence of religion and caste on education in rural india, \" the journal of development studies, taylor and francis journals, vol. 41 ( 8 ), pages 1369 - 1404. - vani k. borooah & sriya iyer, 2002. \" vidya, veda, and varna : the influence of religion and caste on education in rural india, \" icer", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5406369233632998, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:32.804139"} {"text": "pages 1369 - 1404. - vani k. borooah & sriya iyer, 2002. \" vidya, veda, and varna : the influence of religion and caste on education in rural india, \" icer working papers 32 - 2002, icer - international centre for economic research. - behrman, jere r, 1996. \" the impact of health and nutrition on education, \" world bank research observer, world bank group, vol. 11 ( 1 ), pages 23 - 37, february. - dreze, jean & kingdon, geeta gandhi, 2001. \" school participation in rural india, \" review of development economics, wiley blackwell, vol. 5 ( 1 ), pages 1 - 24, february. - jean dreze & geeta gandhi kingdon, 1999. \" school participation in rural india, \" sticerd - development economics papers - from 2008 this series has been superseded by economic organisation and public policy discussion papers 18, suntory and toyota international centres for economics and related disciplines, lse. - jean dreze & geeta gandhi kingdon, 1999. \" school participation in rural india, \" working papers 69, centre for development economics, delhi school of economics. - ashwini deshpande, 2000. \" recasting economic inequality, \" review of social economy, taylor and francis journals, vol. 58 ( 3 ), pages 381 - 399. - case, anne & fertig, angela & paxson, christina, 2005. \" the lasting impact of childhood health and circumstance, \" journal of health economics, elsevier, vol. 24 ( 2 ), pages 365 - 389, march. for technical questions regarding this item, or to correct its authors, title, abstract, bibliographic or download information, contact : ( agecon search ). if you have authored this item and are not yet registered with repec, we encourage you to do it here. this allows to link your profile to this item. it also allows you to accept potential citations to this item that we are uncertain about. if references are entirely missing, you can add them using this form. if the full references list an item that is present in repec, but the system did not link to it, you can help with this form. if you know of missing items citing this one, you can help us creating those links by adding the relevant references in the same way as above, for each refering item. if", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5242249384344329, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:32.805377"} {"text": "this is an old lecture by linguist and political activist noam chomsky ( professor at mit ) given at uc berkeley in 2003. for that evening in the charles m. and martha hitchcock lecture series, chomsky examined biolinguistics - the study of relations between physiology and speech. a second video of chomsky is featured below, which is the second half of this talk. fair warning - this is not easy material - chomsky is speaking to people who are well - versed in this field. chomsky has been one the most influential scholars over the last three or four decades - between 1980 and 1992, he was cited as a source more than any other living scholar, and ranked eighth overall. as background for this lecture, wikipedia offers a good summary of his influence in linguistics ( below the video ). chomskyan linguisticschomskyan linguistics, beginning with his syntactic structures, a distillation of his logical structure of linguistic theory ( 1955, 75 ), challenges structural linguistics and introduces transformational grammar. this approach takes utterances ( sequences of words ) to have a syntax characterized by a formal grammar ; in particular, a context - free grammar extended with transformational rules. perhaps his most influential and time - tested contribution to the field, is the claim that modeling knowledge of language using a formal grammar accounts for the \" productivity \" or \" creativity \" of language. in other words, a formal grammar of a language can explain the ability of a hearer - speaker to produce and interpret an infinite number of utterances, including novel ones, with a limited set of grammatical rules and a finite set of terms. he has always acknowledged his debt to panini for his modern notion of an explicit generative grammar although it is also related to rationalist ideas of a priori knowledge. it is a popular misconception that chomsky proved that language is entirely innate and discovered a \" universal grammar \" ( ug ). in fact, chomsky simply observed that while a human baby and a kitten are both capable of inductive reasoning, if they are exposed to exactly the same linguistic data, the human child will always acquire the ability to understand and produce language, while the kitten will never acquire either ability. chomsky labeled whatever the relevant capacity the human has which the cat lacks the \" language acquisition device \" ( lad ) and suggested that one of the tasks for linguistics should be to figure out what the lad is and what constraints it puts on the range of possible human languages. the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5587867686905974, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:32.844828"} {"text": "relevant capacity the human has which the cat lacks the \" language acquisition device \" ( lad ) and suggested that one of the tasks for linguistics should be to figure out what the lad is and what constraints it puts on the range of possible human languages. the universal features that would result from these constraints are often termed \" universal grammar \" or ug. the principles and parameters approach ( p & p ) \u2014 developed in his pisa 1979 lectures, later published as lectures on government and binding ( lgb ) \u2014 makes strong claims regarding universal grammar : that the grammatical principles underlying languages are innate and fixed, and the differences among the world ' s languages can be characterized in terms of parameter settings in the brain ( such as the pro - drop parameter, which indicates whether an explicit subject is always required, as in english, or can be optionally dropped, as in spanish ), which are often likened to switches. ( hence the term principles and parameters, often given to this approach. ) in this view, a child learning a language need only acquire the necessary lexical items ( words, grammatical morphemes, and idioms ), and determine the appropriate parameter settings, which can be done based on a few key examples. proponents of this view argue that the pace at which children learn languages is inexplicably rapid, unless children have an innate ability to learn languages. the similar steps followed by children all across the world when learning languages, and the fact that children make certain characteristic errors as they learn their first language, whereas other seemingly logical kinds of errors never occur ( and, according to chomsky, should be attested if a purely general, rather than language - specific, learning mechanism were being employed ), are also pointed to as motivation for innateness. more recently, in his minimalist program ( 1995 ), while retaining the core concept of \" principles and parameters, \" chomsky attempts a major overhaul of the linguistic machinery involved in the lgb model, stripping from it all but the barest necessary elements, while advocating a general approach to the architecture of the human language faculty that emphasizes principles of economy and optimal design, reverting to a derivational approach to generation, in contrast with the largely representational approach of classic p & p. chomsky ' s ideas have had a strong influence on researchers of the language acquisition in children, though many researchers in this area such as elizabeth bates and michael tomasello argue very strongly against chomsky ' s theories, and instead advocate emergentist or connectionist theories, explaining language", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5866941113501596, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:32.847603"} {"text": "chinese researchers have turned to the light absorbing properties of butterfly wings to significantly increase the efficiency of solar hydrogen cells, using biomimetics to copy the nanostructure that allows for incredible light and heat absorption. butterflies are known to use heat from the sun to warm themselves beyond what their bodies can provide, and this new research takes a page from their evolution to improve hydrogen fuel generation. analyzing the wings of papilio helenus, the researchers found scales that are described as having : [... ] ridges running the length of the scale with very small holes on either side that opened up onto an underlying layer. the steep walls of the ridges help funnel light into the holes. the walls absorb longer wavelengths of light while allowing shorter wavelengths to reach a membrane below the scales. using the images of the scales, the researchers created computer models to confirm this filtering effect. the nano - hole arrays change from wave guides for short wavelengths to barriers and absorbers for longer wavelengths, which act just like a high - pass filtering layer. so, what does this have to do with fuel cells? splitting water into hydrogen and oxygen takes energy, and is a drain on the amount you can get out of a cell. to split the water, the process uses a catalyst, and certain catalysts \u2014 say, titanium dioxide \u2014 function by exposure to light. the researchers synthesized a titanium dioxide catalyst using the pattern from the butterfly ' s wings, and paired it with platinum nanoparticles to make it more efficient at splitting water. the result? a 230 % uptick in the amount of hydrogen produced. the structure of the butterfly ' s wing means that it ' s better at absorbing light \u2014 so who knows, you might also see the same technique on solar panels, too.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5536464535081221, "token_count": 355, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:32.849873"} {"text": "of withholding end - of - life medical interventions. once a person is terminal, as determined by a physician who understands the disease process, a caregiver may decide to engage hospice services. the physician must be willing to certify that a person will die within six months. if the person does not die within six months, they are not disqualified from the program. hospice services are usually provided by a local home health agency. hospice services can be provided in the home, assisted living facility as well as a skilled nursing facility. when a family signs up for hospice benefits they agree to forgo extreme invasive procedures and agree to support procedures that alleviate pain for the person with dementia. this is known as \" palliative care \" or comfort measures. at the final stage of death, water and food are withheld as the individual no longer desires this. this is a part of the natural process of dying. families can anticipate the final stages of death by the various physical stages a person may be going through. barbara karne, a hospice r. n. developed a very comprehensive booklet entitled \" gone from my sight : the dying experience \" which delineates the various physical stages of death and dying. to obtain a booklet, contact her at the following address : barbara karnes, r. n., p. o. box 335, stillwell, kansas, 60085, 1995. in karnes ' booklet she describes what occurs, one - three months prior to death, one to two weeks before death, days or hours before death, and then the final minutes. this information has been extremely helpful to families and can be summarized as follows : one to three months prior to death \u00b7 withdrawal from world and people \u00b7 decreased food intake \u00b7 increased sleep \u00b7 going inside self \u00b7 less communication one to two weeks prior to death \u00b7 talking with unseen \u00b7 picking at clothes \u00b7 physical changes o decreased blood pressure o pulse increase or decrease o color changes ; pale, bluish o increased perspiration o respiration irregularities o sleeping but responding o complaints of body tired and heavy o not eating, taking little fluids o body temperature hot / cold days or hours \u00b7 intensification of 1 - 2 week signs \u00b7 surge of energy \u00b7 decrease in blood pressure \u00b7 eyes glassy, tearing, half open \u00b7 irregular breathing, stop / start \u00b7 restlessness or no activity \u00b7 purplish knees, feet, hands, blotchy \u00b7 pulse weak and hard to fine \u00b7 decreased urine output \u00b7 may wet or stool the bed \u00b7 fish out of water", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5223352184957513, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:32.868724"} {"text": "open \u00b7 irregular breathing, stop / start \u00b7 restlessness or no activity \u00b7 purplish knees, feet, hands, blotchy \u00b7 pulse weak and hard to fine \u00b7 decreased urine output \u00b7 may wet or stool the bed \u00b7 fish out of water breathing \u00b7 cannot be awakened it is important that individuals be aware of their wishes and that the wishes be formally documented in a legal document that is known as an \" advance directive \". each state has different instruments for these directives and the caregiver should contact the local medical facility to determine the appropriate document to be used. the advance directive delineates one ' s wishes regarding medical treatment and appoints a surrogate decision - maker on a person ' s behalf. of course, the important aspect of the advance directive is to discuss end - of - life care before one becomes diagnosed with dementia or has an another debilitating illness. pp. 309 - 311. beckerman, anita g. and tappen, ruth. m. 2000. it takes more than love. health professions press : baltimore, md. 1. review the video clip on death and dying narrated by dixie merrill. dixie merrill is a caregiver who is also taking care of three sets of parents - - in laws, step parents, as well as parents. dixie has been part of a support group and has indicated how information learned in the group has helped her cope with the death and dying. note how she describes the process of death and dying as peaceful and calming. she indicates talking about death and dying has made it less fearful and she also emphasizes the importance of advance directives. 2. consider the following questions for reflection when watching the video : \u00b7 what strategies helped the merrill family cope with their mother ' s death and dying process? \u00b7 how can \" advance directives \" help individuals cope with the dying process? link back to index. html", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5086337148557627, "token_count": 377, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:32.869580"} {"text": "friday, 11 december 2009 mental ray _ adding glow to the window glass the above image was produced whilst at gmj design ltd in our latest book, we have covered a number of ways of emulating light without the need of creating a physical light. production companies often adopt similar methods to reduce the rendering times and retain the overall quality. it is worth pointing out that the usage of ambient occlusion ( i. e. ao ) as a separate pass or / and directly from max is utterly imperative for the final shot. the following exercise will take you through another unique methodology of achieving similar results with reduced rendering times : another quick way of emulating \u201c glow \u201d / \" light \" on windows, is to in fact enable the glow function on the glass panes themselves. to do this, simply go to the main material parameters, under the \" refraction \" group. 1 - reduce the transparency to about 0. 9 to prevent the surface from being fully transparent. 2 - to add a bit of blur to the transparency, decrease the glossiness to about 0. 78. note that, these values may vary depending on one \u2019 s camera angle... and the level of transparency / blurriness intended. 3 - next, change the colour swatch from white to a warm yellow. also, the \" fast ( interpolate ) \" function, can be enabled for quick and fast results, as the glossiness and its samples can often slow down the renders. however, it may create artifacts. 4 - pan down to the \" self illumination ( glow ) \" parameters and enable the \" self illumination ( glow ) \" function. 5 - under the \" luminance \" group, change it from \" unitless \" to \" physical units : cd / m2 ) \". also, pick and choose any relevant bitmap ( i. e. photo ) that has a prominent light source. note : the \" unitless \" function often creates artifacts on glossy reflections, therefore, to be avoided at all costs. depending on time in hand, one can set the glow to generate light, or not, through the fg, by checking the \" illuminates the scene ( when using fg ) \" function.... and... \u201c... let there be light... \u201d!!! the final rendered image below was achieved using this technique. i hope you like it. i hope you have found this post interesting. also check this new article in this blog : 3d realism : practical & easy", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5559209166889943, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:32.872016"} {"text": "it ' s normal for parents to disagree and argue from time to time. parents might disagree about money, home chores, or how to spend time. they might disagree about big things \u2014 like important decisions they need to make for the family. they might even disagree about little things that don ' t seem important at all \u2014 like what ' s for dinner or what time someone gets home. sometimes parents can disagree with each other and still manage to talk about it in a calm way, where both people get a chance to listen and to talk. but many times when parents disagree, they argue. an argument is a fight using words. most kids worry when their parents argue. loud voices and angry words parents might use can make kids feel scared, sad, or upset. even arguments that use silence \u2014 like when parents act angry and don ' t talk to each other at all \u2014 can be upsetting for kids. if the argument has anything to do with the kids, kids might think they have caused their parents to argue and fight. if kids think it ' s their fault, they might feel guilty or even more upset. but parents ' behavior is never the fault of kids. what does it mean when parents fight? kids often worry about what it means when parents fight. they might jump to conclusions and think arguments mean their parents don ' t love each other anymore. they might think it means their parents will get a divorce. but parents ' arguments usually don ' t mean that they don ' t love each other or that they ' re getting a divorce. most of the time the arguments are just a way to let off steam when parents have a bad day or feel stressed out over other things. most people lose their cool now and then. just like kids, when parents get upset they might cry, yell, or say things they don ' t really mean. sometimes an argument might not mean anything except that one parent or both just lost their temper. just like kids, parents might argue more if they ' re not feeling their best or are under a lot of stress from a job or other worries. kids usually feel upset when they see or hear parents arguing. it ' s hard to hear the yelling and the unkind words. seeing parents upset and out of control can make kids feel unprotected and scared. kids might worry about one parent or the other during an argument. they might worry that one parent may feel especially sad or hurt because of being yelled at by the other parent. they might worry that one parent seems angry enough to lose control.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5140088149385097, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:32.906232"} {"text": "s planetary protection protocols that were established to minimize the chance of contaminating any indigenous life - potential material with hitchhiking microbes from earth. scientists don ' t believe mercury is or was suitable for ancient life, but the discovery of organics on an inner planet of the solar system may shed light on how life got started on earth and how life may evolve on planets beyond the solar system. \" finding a place in the inner solar system where some of these same ingredients that may have led to life on earth are preserved for us is really exciting, \" paige said. messenger, which stands for mercury surface, space environment, geochemistry and ranging, is due to complete its two - year mission at mercury in march. scientists are seeking nasa funding to continue operations for at least part of a third year. the probe will remain in mercury ' s orbit until the planet ' s gravity eventually causes it to crash onto the surface. whether the discovery of organics now prompts nasa to select a crash zone rather than leave it up to chance remains to be seen. microbes that may have hitched a ride on messenger likely have been killed off by the harsh radiation environment at mercury. the research is published in this week ' s edition of the journal science. ( editing by kevin gray and vicki allen )", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_entanglement", "similarity_score": 0.5133455314488697, "token_count": 262, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:32.919979"} {"text": "very good series of infographics explaining the economy. it \u2019 s called all about the benjamins. videos & slideshows : boomtown to bust is a new york times slideshow on the recession \u2019 s effect in florida. the sacramento bee has a series of photos chronicling the economic downturn. long lines of job seekers continue is a slideshow from the washington post. downturn leaves more families homeless is another slideshow from the washington post. the wall street journal has excerpts from recent songs that have been written about the recession. following a closing, the struggle to find work is another slideshow from the new york times. a community facing hunger is a video from the new york times. out of work in china is a video showing the effects of the recession in that country. a painful return is a slideshow discussing the recession \u2019 s effects in china. tough times for summitville tiles is a wall street journal slideshow about the closing of a factory. black thursday in france is a wall street journal slideshow about protests in that country demanding that the government do more to stop the recession. ohio town faces economic collapse is a slideshow from pixcetra. the american economy : down and out is a slideshow from time magazine. tough times in cleveland is another time slideshow. an audio slideshow from the new york times called in economic vise, pontiac struggles. there goes retirement is an online video from the wall street journal. the progressive magazine the nation has a useful slideshow called the great recession. it \u2019 s a bit ideological, but provides a different kind of analysis and response to the recession. it also includes links to articles that would not be accessible to ell \u2019 s. however, the images, teacher modifications of the articles, and lesson ideas provided by them could offer some good opportunities for student discussion and higher order thinking. the faces of the unemployed is a slideshow from the new york times. searching for a job is a series of photos from the sacramento bee. looking for work is an audio slideshow from reuters. desperately seeking a salary is another audio slideshow from reuters. job seekers flood local job fair is a slideshow from the sacramento bee. recession hits the saddle is a slideshow from the new york times. auto town struggles with unemployment is a slideshow from the new york times. dark stores from time magazine. the new york times has an audio slideshow about people looking for work in the state of tennessee. inside california \u2019 s tent cities is the newest addition to this list. it", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5055941400746427, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:32.934432"} {"text": "a nuzzle of the neck, a stroke of the wrist, a brush of the knee \u2014 these caresses often signal a loving touch, but can also feel highly aversive, depending on who is delivering the touch, and to whom. interested in how the brain makes connections between touch and emotion, neuroscientists at the california institute of technology ( caltech ) have discovered that the association begins in the brain \u2019 s primary somatosensory cortex, a region that, until now, was thought only to respond to basic touch, not to its emotional quality. \u201c we demonstrated for the first time that the primary somatosensory cortex \u2014 the brain region encoding basic touch properties such as how rough or smooth an object is \u2014 also is sensitive to the social meaning of a touch, \u201d explains michael spezio, a visiting associate at caltech who is also an assistant professor of psychology at scripps college in claremont, california. \u201c it was generally thought that there are separate brain pathways for how we process the physical aspects of touch on the skin and for how we interpret that touch emotionally \u2014 that is, whether we feel it as pleasant, unpleasant, desired, or repulsive. our study shows that, to the contrary, emotion is involved at the primary stages of social touch. \u201d", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5142977486046412, "token_count": 264, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:32.939789"} {"text": "we have in this chapter to consider why the females of many birds have not acquired the same ornaments as the male ; and why, on the other hand, both sexes of many other birds are equally, or almost equally, ornamented? in the following chapter we shall consider the few cases in which the female is more conspicuously coloured than the male. in my origin of species * i briefly suggested that the long tail of the peacock would be inconvenient and the conspicuous black colour of the male capercailzie dangerous, to the female during the period of incubation : and consequently that the transmission of these characters from the male to the female offspring had been checked through natural selection. i still think that this may have occurred in some few instances : but after mature reflection on all the facts which i have been able to collect, i am now inclined to believe that when the sexes differ, the successive variations have generally been from the first limited in their transmission to the same sex in which they first arose. since my remarks appeared, the subject of sexual colouration has been discussed in some very interesting papers by mr. wallace, * ( 2 ) who believes that in almost all cases the successive variations tended at first to be transmitted equally to both sexes ; but that the female was saved, through natural selection, from acquiring the conspicuous colours of the male, owing to the danger which she would thus have incurred during incubation. * fourth edition, 1866, p. 241. * ( 2 ) westminster review, july, 1867. journal of travel, vol. i., 1868, p. 73. this view necessitates a tedious discussion on a difficult point, namely, whether the transmission of a character, which is at first inherited by both sexes can be subsequently limited in its transmission to one sex alone by means of natural selection. we must bear in mind, as shewn in the preliminary chapter on sexual selection, that characters which are limited in their development to one sex are always latent in the other. an imaginary illustration will best aid us in seeing the difficulty of the case ; we may suppose that a fancier wished to make a breed of pigeons, in which the males alone should be coloured of a pale blue, whilst the females retained their former slaty tint. as with pigeons characters of all kinds are usually transmitted to both sexes equally, the fancier would have to try to convert this latter form of inheritance into sexually - limited transmission. all that he could do would be to persevere in selecting", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5157067320861513, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:32.999658"} {"text": "coloured birds, which are almost always hens ; and he himself has bred ten such females. it is on the other hand a very unusual event when a silver male is produced ; so that nothing would be easier, if desired, than to make a breed of dragons with blue males and silver females. this tendency is indeed so strong that when mr. tegetmeier at last got a silver male and matched him with one of the silver females, he expected to get a breed with both sexes thus coloured ; he was however disappointed, for the young male reverted to the blue colour of his grandfather, the young female alone being silver. no doubt with patience this tendency to reversion in the males, reared from an occasional silver male matched with a silver hen, might be eliminated, and then both sexes would be coloured alike ; and this very process has been followed with success by mr. esquilant in the case of silver turbits. * dr. chapius, le pigeon voyageur belge, 1865, p. 87. * ( 2 ) the field, sept., 1872. with fowls, variations of colour, limited in their transmission to the male sex, habitually occur. when this form of inheritance prevails, it might well happen that some of the successive variations would be transferred to the female, who would then slightly resemble the male, as actually occurs in some breeds. or again, the greater number, but not all, of the successive steps might be transferred to both sexes, and the female would then closely resemble the male. there can hardly be a doubt that this is the cause of the male pouter pigeon having a somewhat larger crop, and of the male carrier pigeon having somewhat larger wattles, than their respective females ; for fanciers have not selected one sex more than the other, and have had no wish that these characters should be more strongly displayed in the male than in the female, yet this is the case with both breeds. the same process would have to be followed, and the same difficulties encountered, if it were desired to make a breed with the females alone of some new colour. lastly, our fancier might wish to make a breed with the two sexes differing from each other, and both from the parent species. here the difficulty would be extreme, unless the successive variations were from the first sexually limited on both sides, and then there would be no difficulty. we see this with the fowl ; thus the two sexes of the pencilled hamburghs differ greatly from each", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_entanglement", "similarity_score": 0.5314949265711038, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.004489"} {"text": "difficulty would be extreme, unless the successive variations were from the first sexually limited on both sides, and then there would be no difficulty. we see this with the fowl ; thus the two sexes of the pencilled hamburghs differ greatly from each other, and from the two sexes of the aboriginal gallus bankiva ; and both are now kept constant to their standard of excellence by continued selection, which would be impossible unless the distinctive characters of both were limited in their transmission. the spanish fowl offers a more curious case ; the male has an immense comb, but some of the successive variations, by the accumulation of which it was acquired, appear to have been transferred to the female ; for she has a comb many times larger than that of the females of the parent species. but the comb of the female differs in one respect from that of the male, for it is apt to lop over ; and within a recent period it has been ordered by the fancy that this should always be the case, and success has quickly followed the order. now the lopping of the comb must be sexually limited in its transmission, otherwise it would prevent the comb of the male from being perfectly upright, which would be abhorrent to every fancier. on the other hand, the uprightness of the comb in the male must likewise be a sexually - limited character, otherwise it would prevent the comb of the female from lopping over. from the foregoing illustrations, we see that even with almost unlimited time at command, it would be an extremely difficult and complex, perhaps an impossible process, to change one form of transmission into the other through selection. therefore, without distinct evidence in each case, i am unwilling to admit that this has been effected in natural species. on the other hand, by means of successive variations, which were from the first sexually limited in their transmission, there would not be the least difficulty in rendering a male bird widely different in colour or in any other character from the female ; the latter being left unaltered, or slightly altered, or specially modified for the sake of protection. as bright colours are of service to the males in their rivalry with other males, such colours would be selected whether or not they were transmitted exclusively to the same sex. consequently the females might be expected often to partake of the brightness of the males to a greater or less degree ; and this occurs with a host of species. if all the successive variations were transmitted equally to both sexes, the females would be indistinguishable from the males", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.572572055258292, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.005525"} {"text": "to partake of the brightness of the males to a greater or less degree ; and this occurs with a host of species. if all the successive variations were transmitted equally to both sexes, the females would be indistinguishable from the males ; and this likewise occurs with many birds. if, however, dull colours were of high importance for the safety of the female during incubation, as with many ground birds, the females which varied in brightness, or which received through inheritance from the males any marked accession of brightness, would sooner or later be destroyed. but the tendency in the males to continue for an indefinite period transmitting to their female offspring their own brightness, would have to be eliminated by a change in the form of inheritance ; and this, as shewn by our previous illustration, would be extremely difficult. the more probable result of the long - continued destruction of the more brightly - coloured females, supposing the equal form of transmission to prevail would be the lessening or annihilation of the bright colours of the males, owing to their continual crossing with the duller females. it would be tedious to follow out all the other possible results ; but i may remind the reader that if sexually limited variations in brightness occurred in the females, even if they were not in the least injurious to them and consequently were not eliminated, yet they would not be favoured or selected, for the male usually accepts any female, and does not select the more attractive individuals ; consequently these variations would be liable to be lost, and would have little influence on the character of the race ; and this will aid in accounting for the females being commonly duller - coloured than the males. in the eighth chapter instances were given, to which many might here be added, of variations occurring at various ages, and inherited at the corresponding age. it was also shewn that variations which occur late in life are commonly transmitted to the same sex in which they first appear ; whilst variations occurring early in life are apt to be transmitted to both sexes ; not that all the cases of sexually - limited transmission can thus be accounted for. it was further shewn that if a male bird varied by becoming brighter whilst young, such variations would be of no service until the age for reproduction had arrived, and there was competition between rival males. but in the case of birds living on the ground and commonly in need of the protection of dull colours, bright tints would be far more dangerous to the young and inexperienced than to the adult males. consequently the males which", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5574229664757693, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.007140"} {"text": "was competition between rival males. but in the case of birds living on the ground and commonly in need of the protection of dull colours, bright tints would be far more dangerous to the young and inexperienced than to the adult males. consequently the males which varied in brightness whilst young would suffer much destruction and be eliminated through natural selection ; on the other hand, the males which varied in this manner when nearly mature, notwithstanding that they were exposed to some additional danger, might survive, and from being favoured through sexual selection, would procreate their kind. as a relation often exists between the period of variation and the form of transmission, if the bright - coloured young males were destroyed and the mature ones were successful in their courtship, the males alone would acquire brilliant colours and would transmit them exclusively to their male offspring. but i by no means wish to maintain that the influence of age on the form of transmission, is the sole cause of the great difference in brilliancy between the sexes of many birds. when the sexes of birds differ in colour, it is interesting to determine whether the males alone have been modified by sexual selection, the females having been left unchanged, or only partially and indirectly thus changed ; or whether the females have been specially modified through natural selection for the sake of protection. i will therefore discuss this question at some length, even more fully than its intrinsic importance deserves ; for various curious collateral points may thus be conveniently considered. before we enter on the subject of colour, more especially in reference to mr. wallace ' s conclusions, it may be useful to discuss some other sexual differences under a similar point of view. a breed of fowls formerly existed in germany * in which the hens were furnished with spurs ; they were good layers, but they so greatly disturbed their nests with their spurs that they could not be allowed to sit on their own eggs. hence at one time it appeared to me probable that with the females of the wild gallinaceae the development of spurs had been checked through natural selection, from the injury thus caused to their nests. this seemed all the more probable, as wing - spurs, which would not be injurious during incubation, are often as well developed in the female as in the male ; though in not a few cases they are rather larger in the male. when the male is furnished with leg - spurs the female almost always exhibits rudiments of them, - the rudiment sometimes consisting of a mere scale, as in gallus. hence it might be argued that the females had", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5199013453177876, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.008246"} {"text": "' s pheasant it is sometimes actually seventy - two inches long in the male and sixteen in the female. thus in the several species, the tail of the female differs much in length, irrespectively of that of the male ; and this can be accounted for, as it seems to me, with much more probability, by the laws of inheritance, - that is by the successive variations having been from the first more or less closely limited in their transmission to the male sex than by the agency of natural selection, resulting from the length of tail being more or less injurious to the females of these several allied species. we may now consider mr. wallace ' s arguments in regard to the sexual colouration of birds. he believes that the bright tints originally acquired through sexual selection by the males would in all, or almost all cases, have been transmitted to the females, unless the transference had been checked through natural selection. i may here remind the reader that various facts opposed to this view have already been given under reptiles, amphibians, fishes and lepidoptera. mr. wallace rests his belief chiefly, but not exclusively, as we shall see in the next chapter, on the following statement, * that when both sexes are coloured in a very conspicuous manner, the nest is of such a nature as to conceal the sitting bird ; but when there is a marked contrast of colour between the sexes, the male being gay and the female dull - coloured, the nest is open and exposes the sitting bird to view. this coincidence, as far as it goes, certainly seems to favour the belief that the females which sit on open nests have been specially modified for the sake of protection ; but we shall presently see that there is another and more probable explanation, namely, that conspicuous females have acquired the instinct of building domed nests oftener than dull - coloured birds. mr. wallace admits that there are, as might have been expected, some exceptions to his two rules, but it is a question whether the exceptions are not so numerous as seriously to invalidate them. * journal of travel, edited by a. murray, vol. i., 1868, p. 78. there is in the first place much truth in the duke of argyll ' s remark * that a large domed nest is more conspicuous to an enemy, especially to all tree - haunting carnivorous animals, than a smaller open nest. nor must we forget that with many birds which build open nests, the male sits on the eggs and aids the female in feeding the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5231335804119688, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 10, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.016209"} {"text": "relate to species which build domed or concealed nests. but similar gradations may likewise be observed in groups in which the sexes as a general rule resemble each other, but which build open nests. as i have before instanced the australian parrots, so i may here instance, without giving any details, the australian pigeons. * it deserves especial notice that in all these cases the slight differences in plumage between the sexes are of the same general nature as the occasionally greater differences. a good illustration of this fact has already been afforded by those kingfishers in which either the tail alone or the whole upper surface of the plumage differs in the same manner in the two sexes. similar cases may be observed with parrots and pigeons. the differences in colour between the sexes of the same species are, also, of the same general nature as the differences in colour between the distinct species of the same group. for when in a group in which the sexes are usually alike, the male differs considerably from the female, he is not coloured in a quite new style. hence we may infer that within the same group the special colours of both sexes when they are alike, and the colours of the male, when he differs slightly or even considerably from the female, have been in most cases determined by the same general cause ; this being sexual selection. * gould ' s handbook of the birds of australia, vol. ii., pp. 109 - 149. it is not probable, as has already been remarked, that differences in colour between the sexes, when very slight, can be of service to the female as a protection. assuming, however, that they are of service, they might be thought to be cases of transition ; but we have no reason to believe that many species at any one time are undergoing change. therefore we can hardly admit that the numerous females which differ very slightly in colour from their males are now all commencing to become obscure for the sake of protection. even if we consider somewhat more marked sexual differences, is it probable, for instance, that the head of the female chaffinch, - the crimson on the breast of the female bullfinch, - the green of the female greenfinch, - the crest of the female golden - crested wren, have all been rendered less bright by the slow process of selection for the sake of protection? i cannot think so ; and still less with the slight differences between the sexes of those birds which build concealed nests. on the other hand, the differences in colour between the sexes, whether great or small", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5078274067658104, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 19, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.032598"} {"text": "slow process of selection for the sake of protection? i cannot think so ; and still less with the slight differences between the sexes of those birds which build concealed nests. on the other hand, the differences in colour between the sexes, whether great or small, may to a large extent be explained on the principle of the successive variations, acquired by the males through sexual selection, having been from the first more or less limited in their transmission to the females. that the degree of limitation should differ in different species of the same group will not surprise any one who has studied the laws of inheritance, for they are so complex that they appear to us in our ignorance to be capricious in their action. * * see remarks to this effect in variation of animals and plants under domestication, vol. ii., chap. xii. as far as i can discover there are few large groups of birds in which all the species have both sexes alike and brilliantly coloured, but i hear from mr. sclater, that this appears to be the case with the musophagae or plantain - eaters. nor do i believe that any large group exists in which the sexes of all the species are widely dissimilar in colour : mr. wallace informs me that the chatterers of s. america ( cotingidae ) offer one of the best instances ; but with some of the species, in which the male has a splendid red breast, the female exhibits some red on her breast ; and the females of other species shew traces of the green and other colours of the males. nevertheless we have a near approach to close sexual similarity or dissimilarity throughout several groups : and this, from what has just been said of the fluctuating nature of inheritance, is a somewhat surprising circumstance. but that the same laws should largely prevail with allied animals is not surprising. the domestic fowl has produced a great number of breeds and sub - breeds, and in these the sexes generally differ in plumage ; so that it has been noticed as an unusual circumstance when in certain sub - breeds they resemble each other. on the other hand, the domestic pigeon has likewise produced a vast number of distinct breeds and sub - breeds, and in these, with rare exceptions, the two sexes are identically alike. therefore if other species of gallus and columba were domesticated and varied, it would not be rash to predict that similar rules of sexual similarity and dissimilarity, depending on the form of transmission, would", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5312361026033989, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 20, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.033898"} {"text": "are identically alike. therefore if other species of gallus and columba were domesticated and varied, it would not be rash to predict that similar rules of sexual similarity and dissimilarity, depending on the form of transmission, would hold good in both cases. in like manner the same form of transmission has generally prevailed under nature throughout the same groups, although marked exceptions to this rule occur. thus within the same family or even genus, the sexes may be identically alike, or very different in colour. instances have already been given in the same genus, as with sparrows, flycatchers, thrushes and grouse. in the family of pheasants the sexes of almost all the species are wonderfully dissimilar, but are quite alike in the eared pheasant or crossoptilon auritum. in two species of chloephaga, a genus of geese, the male cannot be distinguished from the females, except by size ; whilst in two others, the sexes are so unlike that they might easily be mistaken for distinct species. * * the ibis, vol. vi., 1864, p. 122. the laws of inheritance can alone account for the following cases, in which the female acquires, late in life, certain characters proper to the male, and ultimately comes to resemble him more or less completely. here protection can hardly have come into play. mr. blyth informs me that the females of oriolus melanocephalus and of some allied species, when sufficiently mature to breed, differ considerably in plumage from the adult males ; but after the second or third moults they differ only in their beaks having a slight greenish tinge. in the dwarf bitterns ( ardetta ), according to the same authority, \" the male acquires his final livery at the first moult, the female not before the third or fourth moult ; in the meanwhile she presents an intermediate garb, which is ultimately exchanged for the same livery as that of the male. \" so again the female falco peregrinus acquires her blue plumage more slowly than the male. mr. swinhoe states that with one of the drongo shrikes ( dicrurus macrocercus ) the male, whilst almost a nestling, moults his soft brown plumage and becomes of a uniform glossy greenish - black ; but the female retains for a long time the white striae and spots on the axillary feathers ; and does not", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5117292551593196, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 21, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.035057"} {"text": "use of biomedical engineering and music for k - 12 math / science education the study proposes the use of biomedical engineering ( bme ) ph. d. track graduate students to assist middle and high school teachers to teach math / science skills, by providing additional tools and training to optimize their use. the emphasis is on the use of disciplinary knowledge to enhance how people learn with the aid of computer technology ; showing the students the importance of this knowledge to solve real world problems. three school districts have committed to participate in a cross - disciplinary education program ( shelby county, shades mountain independent, and the alabama school of fine arts ). students from uab \u2019 s biomedical engineering ( bme ) and the alabama school of fine arts ( asfa ) departments will develop, implement, and evaluate the four interventions used to enhance math / science skills. - music education - math / science kits and six - week projects - science fair project development - a technology of fine arts class when the cost - effectiveness of each intervention has been determined, decisions whether to expand the intervention, within each school system will be made. information about successful programs would be made available, on the internet or other media, to interested groups. trained personnel from this project would serve as facilitators for these groups. - investigators : a. eberhardt, r. thompson, m. froning, d. kilpadi", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.524634104185571, "token_count": 279, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.042230"} {"text": "the list is the origin of culture. it ' s part of the history of art and literature. what does culture want? to make infinity comprehensible. it also wants to create order \u2014 not always, but often. and how, as a human being, does one face infinity? how does one attempt to grasp the incomprehensible? through lists, through catalogs, through collections in museums and through encyclopedias and dictionaries. there is an allure to enumerating how many women don giovanni slept with : it was 2, 063, at least according to mozart ' s librettist, lorenzo da ponte. we also have completely practical lists \u2014 the shopping list, the will, the menu \u2014 that are also cultural achievements in their own right. \u2026 at first, we think that a list is primitive and typical of very early cultures, which had no exact concept of the universe and were therefore limited to listing the characteristics they could name. but, in cultural history, the list has prevailed over and over again. it is by no means merely an expression of primitive cultures. a very clear image of the universe existed in the middle ages, and there were lists. a new worldview based on astronomy predominated in the renaissance and the baroque era. and there were lists. and the list is certainly prevalent in the postmodern age. it has an irresistible magic. \u2026 we like lists because we don ' t want to die. here is much more. make sure you read the quotation under the photo ; i don ' t want to reproduce it on a family blog. i wonder if this interview was translated from some other language, given the difference between \" lists \" and \" enumeration. \" here is an important mr post : jeffrey lonsdale writes. i thank cardiff garcia for the pointer.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5262639655250071, "token_count": 373, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.043990"} {"text": "- partial fractions [ 01 / 29 / 1998 ] how do i express 3 / 1 - ( x ^ 3 ) in partial fractions? - pascal ' s triangle pattern [ 04 / 22 / 1999 ] what pattern does multiplying each entry by 1, 2, 3, 4, 5... in order, and adding the products yield? - perfect square : solving two equations [ 6 / 14 / 1996 ] x ^ 2 + 5 is a perfect square, and x ^ 2 - 5 is a perfect square. - perimeter equals area in a triangle [ 4 / 2 / 1996 ] when will the area and perimeter of a right triangle be numerically - picture frame, triangle measurements [ 5 / 20 / 1996 ] my teacher gave us ten questions to answer and i could do all except two : 1 ) a framed rectangular picture is 35cm long and 25cm wide... 2 ) the base of a triangle is 9cm more than the perpendicular height... - plus or minus sign [ 03 / 08 / 2002 ] what does this equation mean : y = + - k? the - sign is directly under the - point equidistant from 3 other points [ 04 / 11 / 1999 ] how do you find a point that is equidistant from three other points? - point on a line [ 03 / 23 / 2001 ] can you please tell me a formula to find if a point exists on a line? both are in x, y form. - polynomial brain - twisters [ 12 / 4 / 1995 ] i ' m stumped on some similar polynomial problems... - polynomial degrees and definition of a field [ 03 / 02 / 1998 ] the degree of polynomials added together, and definition of a field. - polynomial factoring rules [ 04 / 02 / 1997 ] how do i apply the polynomial factoring rules to t ^ 21 + 1 and 25y ^ 2 - 144 = - polynomial problem [ 3 / 11 / 1995 ] a remainder of 9 results when the polynomial p ( x ) is divided by x - 2, a remainder of - 3 when p ( x ) is divided by x + 2, and a remainder of 3 when divided by x - 1. find the remainder when p ( x ) is divided by ( x - 2 ) ( x + 2 ) ( x - - population and percentage [ 03 / 07 / 1999 ] given population data, find the number of women in two different years. - positive unit fractions [ 10 / 02 / 2002 ] find five", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5171379711721358, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.054480"} {"text": "- 2 ) ( x + 2 ) ( x - - population and percentage [ 03 / 07 / 1999 ] given population data, find the number of women in two different years. - positive unit fractions [ 10 / 02 / 2002 ] find five different positive unit fractions whose sum is 1. ( a unit fraction is a fraction whose numerator is 1. all denominators must also be natural numbers. ) - precedence of unary operators [ 09 / 01 / 99 ] the pemdas rule for order of operations ignores unary operators. can you explain the proper precedence for them, and give an example showing how not knowing the rule can cause an incorrect result? - preparing for an algebra test [ 11 / 1 / 1995 ] a 9th grade math student asks for help preparing for final exams. what is the difference between the terms : solve and simplify? how do you find the gradient in a graph? - prize money [ 09 / 04 / 1997 ] if first prize wins $ 1, 000 out of $ 6, 000 and twentieth prize wins $ 100, how much money do second through nineteenth place win? is this a - probability of a function having complex roots [ 05 / 11 / 2000 ] what is the probability that the function f ( x ) = x ^ 2 + px + q = 0 will have complex roots when p and q lie between 0 and 1?... when p and q lie between 0 and 5?... when p and q are greater than 0?", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_computing", "similarity_score": 0.5583723929480163, "token_count": 307, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.055031"} {"text": "welcome to medlibrary. org. for best results, we recommend beginning with the navigation links at the top of the page, which can guide you through our collection of over 14, 000 medication labels and package inserts. for additional information on other topics which are not covered by our database of medications, just enter your topic in the search box below : chromatography [ | kr\u0259\u028am\u0259 | t\u0252gr\u0259fi ] ( from greek \u03c7\u03c1\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1 chroma \" color \" and \u03b3\u03c1\u03b1\u03c6\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd graphein \" to write \" ) is the collective term for a set of laboratory techniques for the separation of mixtures. the mixture is dissolved in a fluid called the mobile phase, which carries it through a structure holding another material called the stationary phase. the various constituents of the mixture travel at different speeds, causing them to separate. the separation is based on differential partitioning between the mobile and stationary phases. subtle differences in a compound ' s partition coefficient result in differential retention on the stationary phase and thus changing the separation. chromatography may be preparative or analytical. the purpose of preparative chromatography is to separate the components of a mixture for more advanced use ( and is thus a form of purification ). analytical chromatography is done normally with smaller amounts of material and is for measuring the relative proportions of analytes in a mixture. the two are not mutually exclusive. chromatography, literally \" color writing \", was first employed by russian - italian scientist mikhail tsvet in 1900. he continued to work with chromatography in the first decade of the 20th century, primarily for the separation of plant pigments such as chlorophyll, carotenes, and xanthophylls. since these components have different colors ( green, orange, and yellow, respectively ) they gave the technique its name. new types of chromatography developed during the 1930s and 1940s made the technique useful for many separation processes. chromatography technique developed substantially as a result of the work of archer john porter martin and richard laurence millington synge during the 1940s and 1950s. they established the principles and basic techniques of partition chromatography, and their work encouraged the rapid development of several chromatographic methods : paper chromatography, gas chromatography, and what would become known as high performance liquid chromatography. since then, the technology has advanced rapidly. researchers found that the main principles", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5511197709665824, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.182331"} {"text": "development of several chromatographic methods : paper chromatography, gas chromatography, and what would become known as high performance liquid chromatography. since then, the technology has advanced rapidly. researchers found that the main principles of tsvet ' s chromatography could be applied in many different ways, resulting in the different varieties of chromatography described below. advances are continually improving the technical performance of chromatography, allowing the separation of increasingly similar molecules. chromatography terms - the analyte is the substance to be separated during chromatography. - analytical chromatography is used to determine the existence and possibly also the concentration of analyte ( s ) in a sample. - a bonded phase is a stationary phase that is covalently bonded to the support particles or to the inside wall of the column tubing. - a chromatogram is the visual output of the chromatograph. in the case of an optimal separation, different peaks or patterns on the chromatogram correspond to different components of the separated mixture. - plotted on the x - axis is the retention time and plotted on the y - axis a signal ( for example obtained by a spectrophotometer, mass spectrometer or a variety of other detectors ) corresponding to the response created by the analytes exiting the system. in the case of an optimal system the signal is proportional to the concentration of the specific analyte separated. - a chromatograph is equipment that enables a sophisticated separation e. g. gas chromatographic or liquid chromatographic separation. - chromatography is a physical method of separation that distributes components to separate between two phases, one stationary ( stationary phase ), while the other ( the mobile phase ) moves in a definite direction. - the eluate is the mobile phase leaving the column. - the eluent is the solvent that carries the analyte. - an eluotropic series is a list of solvents ranked according to their eluting power. - an immobilized phase is a stationary phase that is immobilized on the support particles, or on the inner wall of the column tubing. - the mobile phase is the phase that moves in a definite direction. it may be a liquid ( lc and capillary electrochromatography ( cec ) ), a gas ( gc ), or a supercritical fluid ( supercritical - fluid chromatography,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5795262748639654, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.183373"} {"text": "a definite direction. it may be a liquid ( lc and capillary electrochromatography ( cec ) ), a gas ( gc ), or a supercritical fluid ( supercritical - fluid chromatography, sfc ). the mobile phase consists of the sample being separated / analyzed and the solvent that moves the sample through the column. in the case of hplc the mobile phase consists of a non - polar solvent ( s ) such as hexane in normal phase or polar solvents in reverse phase chromotagraphy and the sample being separated. the mobile phase moves through the chromatography column ( the stationary phase ) where the sample interacts with the stationary phase and is separated. - preparative chromatography is used to purify sufficient quantities of a substance for further use, rather than analysis. - the retention time is the characteristic time it takes for a particular analyte to pass through the system ( from the column inlet to the detector ) under set conditions. see also : kovats ' retention index - the sample is the matter analyzed in chromatography. it may consist of a single component or it may be a mixture of components. when the sample is treated in the course of an analysis, the phase or the phases containing the analytes of interest is / are referred to as the sample whereas everything out of interest separated from the sample before or in the course of the analysis is referred to as waste. - the solute refers to the sample components in partition chromatography. - the solvent refers to any substance capable of solubilizing another substance, and especially the liquid mobile phase in liquid chromatography. - the stationary phase is the substance fixed in place for the chromatography procedure. examples include the silica layer in thin layer chromatography chromatography is based on the concept of partition coefficient. any solute partitions between two immiscible solvents. when we make one solvent immobile ( by adsorption on a solid support matrix ) and another mobile it results in most common applications of chromatography. if matrix support is polar ( e. g. paper, silica etc. ) it is forward phase chromatography, and if it is non polar ( c - 18 ) it is reverse phase. techniques by chromatographic bed shape column chromatography column chromatography is a separation technique in which the stationary bed is within a tube.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5471209735507971, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.184379"} {"text": "mixture travel different distances according to how strongly they interact with the stationary phase as compared to the mobile phase. the specific retention factor ( rf ) of each chemical can be used to aid in the identification of an unknown substance. paper chromatography paper chromatography is a technique that involves placing a small dot or line of sample solution onto a strip of chromatography paper. the paper is placed in a jar containing a shallow layer of solvent and sealed. as the solvent rises through the paper, it meets the sample mixture, which starts to travel up the paper with the solvent. this paper is made of cellulose, a polar substance, and the compounds within the mixture travel farther if they are non - polar. more polar substances bond with the cellulose paper more quickly, and therefore do not travel as far. thin layer chromatography thin layer chromatography ( tlc ) is a widely employed laboratory technique and is similar to paper chromatography. however, instead of using a stationary phase of paper, it involves a stationary phase of a thin layer of adsorbent like silica gel, alumina, or cellulose on a flat, inert substrate. compared to paper, it has the advantage of faster runs, better separations, and the choice between different adsorbents. for even better resolution and to allow for quantification, high - performance tlc can be used. displacement chromatography the basic principle of displacement chromatography is : a molecule with a high affinity for the chromatography matrix ( the displacer ) competes effectively for binding sites, and thus displace all molecules with lesser affinities. there are distinct differences between displacement and elution chromatography. in elution mode, substances typically emerge from a column in narrow, gaussian peaks. wide separation of peaks, preferably to baseline, is desired for maximum purification. the speed at which any component of a mixture travels down the column in elution mode depends on many factors. but for two substances to travel at different speeds, and thereby be resolved, there must be substantial differences in some interaction between the biomolecules and the chromatography matrix. operating parameters are adjusted to maximize the effect of this difference. in many cases, baseline separation of the peaks can be achieved only with gradient elution and low column loadings. thus, two drawbacks to elution mode chromatography, especially at the preparative", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5499238122648585, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.186666"} {"text": "maximize the effect of this difference. in many cases, baseline separation of the peaks can be achieved only with gradient elution and low column loadings. thus, two drawbacks to elution mode chromatography, especially at the preparative scale, are operational complexity, due to gradient solvent pumping, and low throughput, due to low column loadings. displacement chromatography has advantages over elution chromatography in that components are resolved into consecutive zones of pure substances rather than \u201c peaks \u201d. because the process takes advantage of the nonlinearity of the isotherms, a larger column feed can be separated on a given column with the purified components recovered at significantly higher concentrations. techniques by physical state of mobile phase gas chromatography gas chromatography ( gc ), also sometimes known as gas - liquid chromatography, ( glc ), is a separation technique in which the mobile phase is a gas. gas chromatography is always carried out in a column, which is typically \" packed \" or \" capillary \" ( see below ). gas chromatography is based on a partition equilibrium of analyte between a solid stationary phase ( often a liquid silicone - based material ) and a mobile gas ( most often helium ). the stationary phase is adhered to the inside of a small - diameter glass tube ( a capillary column ) or a solid matrix inside a larger metal tube ( a packed column ). it is widely used in analytical chemistry ; though the high temperatures used in gc make it unsuitable for high molecular weight biopolymers or proteins ( heat denatures them ), frequently encountered in biochemistry, it is well suited for use in the petrochemical, environmental monitoring and remediation, and industrial chemical fields. it is also used extensively in chemistry research. liquid chromatography liquid chromatography ( lc ) is a separation technique in which the mobile phase is a liquid. liquid chromatography can be carried out either in a column or a plane. present day liquid chromatography that generally utilizes very small packing particles and a relatively high pressure is referred to as high performance liquid chromatography ( hplc ). in hplc the sample is forced by a liquid at high pressure ( the mobile phase ) through a column that is packed with a stationary phase composed of irregularly or spherically shaped particles, a porous monolithic layer, or a porous membrane. hplc is historically divided into two", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.560233913804396, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.187622"} {"text": "a liquid at high pressure ( the mobile phase ) through a column that is packed with a stationary phase composed of irregularly or spherically shaped particles, a porous monolithic layer, or a porous membrane. hplc is historically divided into two different sub - classes based on the polarity of the mobile and stationary phases. methods in which the stationary phase is more polar than the mobile phase ( e. g., toluene as the mobile phase, silica as the stationary phase ) are termed normal phase liquid chromatography ( nplc ) and the opposite ( e. g., water - methanol mixture as the mobile phase and c18 = octadecylsilyl as the stationary phase ) is termed reversed phase liquid chromatography ( rplc ). ironically the \" normal phase \" has fewer applications and rplc is therefore used considerably more. specific techniques under this broad heading are listed below. affinity chromatography affinity chromatography is based on selective non - covalent interaction between an analyte and specific molecules. it is very specific, but not very robust. it is often used in biochemistry in the purification of proteins bound to tags. these fusion proteins are labeled with compounds such as his - tags, biotin or antigens, which bind to the stationary phase specifically. after purification, some of these tags are usually removed and the pure protein is obtained. affinity chromatography often utilizes a biomolecule ' s affinity for a metal ( zn, cu, fe, etc. ). columns are often manually prepared. traditional affinity columns are used as a preparative step to flush out unwanted biomolecules. however, hplc techniques exist that do utilize affinity chromatogaphy properties. immobilized metal affinity chromatography ( imac ) is useful to separate aforementioned molecules based on the relative affinity for the metal ( i. e. dionex imac ). often these columns can be loaded with different metals to create a column with a targeted affinity. supercritical fluid chromatography supercritical fluid chromatography is a separation technique in which the mobile phase is a fluid above and relatively close to its critical temperature and pressure. techniques by separation mechanism ion exchange chromatography ion exchange chromatography ( usually referred to as ion chromatography ) uses an ion exchange mechanism to separate analytes based on their respective charges. it is usually performed in columns but can also be useful in", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5578261344304504, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.188523"} {"text": "exchange chromatography ion exchange chromatography ( usually referred to as ion chromatography ) uses an ion exchange mechanism to separate analytes based on their respective charges. it is usually performed in columns but can also be useful in planar mode. ion exchange chromatography uses a charged stationary phase to separate charged compounds including anions, cations, amino acids, peptides, and proteins. in conventional methods the stationary phase is an ion exchange resin that carries charged functional groups that interact with oppositely charged groups of the compound to retain. ion exchange chromatography is commonly used to purify proteins using fplc. size - exclusion chromatography size - exclusion chromatography ( sec ) is also known as gel permeation chromatography ( gpc ) or gel filtration chromatography and separates molecules according to their size ( or more accurately according to their hydrodynamic diameter or hydrodynamic volume ). smaller molecules are able to enter the pores of the media and, therefore, molecules are trapped and removed from the flow of the mobile phase. the average residence time in the pores depends upon the effective size of the analyte molecules. however, molecules that are larger than the average pore size of the packing are excluded and thus suffer essentially no retention ; such species are the first to be eluted. it is generally a low - resolution chromatography technique and thus it is often reserved for the final, \" polishing \" step of a purification. it is also useful for determining the tertiary structure and quaternary structure of purified proteins, especially since it can be carried out under native solution conditions. expanded bed adsorption ( eba ) chromatographic separation expanded bed adsorption ( eba ) chromatographic separation captures a target protein from a crude feed stream when it passes through a chromatography column system containing adsorbent beads. with this technique the crude feedstock can be treated directly in the chromatographic column, avoiding the traditional clarification and pre - treatment steps. eba chromatographic separation is highly scalable, from laboratory - based 1 cm diameter columns to large production columns up to 2 meter in diameter. these columns can typically handle feed stock throughput of more than 1, 000, 000 liter per day with a production capacity of 1000 mt protein per year. special techniques reversed - phase chromatography reversed - phase chromatography ( r", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5317440687897832, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 7, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.189475"} {"text": ". these columns can typically handle feed stock throughput of more than 1, 000, 000 liter per day with a production capacity of 1000 mt protein per year. special techniques reversed - phase chromatography reversed - phase chromatography ( rpc ) is any liquid chromatography procedure in which the mobile phase is significantly more polar than the stationary phase. it is so named because in normal - phase liquid chromatography, the mobile phase is significantly less polar than the stationary phase. hydrophobic molecules in the mobile phase tend to adsorb to the relatively hydrophobic stationary phase. hydrophilic molecules in the mobile phase will tend to elute first. two - dimensional chromatography in some cases, the chemistry within a given column can be insufficient to separate some analytes. it is possible to direct a series of unresolved peaks onto a second column with different physico - chemical ( chemical classification ) properties. since the mechanism of retention on this new solid support is different from the first dimensional separation, it can be possible to separate compounds that are indistinguishable by one - dimensional chromatography. the sample is spotted at one corner of a square plate, developed, air - dried, then rotated by 90\u00b0 and usually redeveloped in a second solvent system. simulated moving - bed chromatography pyrolysis gas chromatography pyrolysis gas chromatography mass spectrometry is a method of chemical analysis in which the sample is heated to decomposition to produce smaller molecules that are separated by gas chromatography and detected using mass spectrometry. pyrolysis is the thermal decomposition of materials in an inert atmosphere or a vacuum. the sample is put into direct contact with a platinum wire, or placed in a quartz sample tube, and rapidly heated to 600 \u2013 1000 \u00b0c. depending on the application even higher temperatures are used. three different heating techniques are used in actual pyrolyzers : isothermal furnace, inductive heating ( curie point filament ), and resistive heating using platinum filaments. large molecules cleave at their weakest points and produce smaller, more volatile fragments. these fragments can be separated by gas chromatography. pyrolysis gc chromatograms are typically complex because a wide range of different decomposition products is formed. the data can either be used as fingerprint to prove material identity or the gc / ms data is used to identify individual", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5195595058118617, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 8, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.190404"} {"text": "pyrolysis gc chromatograms are typically complex because a wide range of different decomposition products is formed. the data can either be used as fingerprint to prove material identity or the gc / ms data is used to identify individual fragments to obtain structural information. to increase the volatility of polar fragments, various methylating reagents can be added to a sample before pyrolysis. besides the usage of dedicated pyrolyzers, pyrolysis gc of solid and liquid samples can be performed directly inside programmable temperature vaporizer ( ptv ) injectors that provide quick heating ( up to 30 \u00b0c / s ) and high maximum temperatures of 600 \u2013 650 \u00b0c. this is sufficient for some pyrolysis applications. the main advantage is that no dedicated instrument has to be purchased and pyrolysis can be performed as part of routine gc analysis. in this case quartz gc inlet liners have to be used. quantitative data can be acquired, and good results of derivatization inside the ptv injector are published as well. fast protein liquid chromatography fast protein liquid chromatography ( fplc ) is a term applied to several chromatography techniques which are used to purify proteins. many of these techniques are identical to those carried out under high performance liquid chromatography, however use of fplc techniques are typically for preparing large scale batches of a purified product. countercurrent chromatography countercurrent chromatography ( ccc ) is a type of liquid - liquid chromatography, where both the stationary and mobile phases are liquids. the operating principle of ccc equipment requires a column consisting of an open tube coiled around a bobbin. the bobbin is rotated in a double - axis gyratory motion ( a cardioid ), which causes a variable gravity ( g ) field to act on the column during each rotation. this motion causes the column to see one partitioning step per revolution and components of the sample separate in the column due to their partitioning coefficient between the two immiscible liquid phases used. there are many types of ccc available today. these include hsccc ( high speed ccc ) and hpccc ( high performance ccc ). hpccc is the latest and best performing version of the instrumentation available currently. chiral chromatography chiral chromatography involves the separation of stereoisomers.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5299121027640942, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 9, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.191299"} {"text": "ccc ) and hpccc ( high performance ccc ). hpccc is the latest and best performing version of the instrumentation available currently. chiral chromatography chiral chromatography involves the separation of stereoisomers. in the case of enantiomers, these have no chemical or physical differences apart from being three - dimensional mirror images. conventional chromatography or other separation processes are incapable of separating them. to enable chiral separations to take place, either the mobile phase or the stationary phase must themselves be made chiral, giving differing affinities between the analytes. chiral chromatography hplc columns ( with a chiral stationary phase ) in both normal and reversed phase are commercially available. see also - iupac nomenclature for chromatography iupac recommendations 1993, pure & appl. chem., vol. 65, no. 4, pp. 819 \u2013 872, 1993. - still, w. c. ; kahn, m. ; mitra, a. j. org. chem. 1978, 43 ( 14 ), 2923 \u2013 2925. doi : 10. 1021 / jo00408a041 - laurence m. harwood, christopher j. moody ( 13 june 1989 ). experimental organic chemistry : principles and practice ( illustrated ed. ). wileyblackwell. pp. 180 \u2013 185. isbn 978 - 0 - 632 - 02017 - 1 [ amazon - us | amazon - uk ]. - christian b. anfinsen, john tileston edsall, frederic middlebrook richards advances in protein chemistry. science 1976, 6 - 7. - displacement chromatography 101. sachem, inc. austin, tx 78737 - pascal bailon, george k. ehrlich, wen - jian fung and wolfgang berthold, an overview of affinity chromatography, humana press, 2000. isbn 978 - 0 - 89603 - 694 - 9 [ amazon - us | amazon - uk ], isbn 978 - 1 - 60327 - 261 - 2 [ amazon - us | amazon - uk ]. - iupac nomenclature for chromatography - chromedia on line database and community for chromatography practitioners ( paid subscription required ) - library 4 science : chrom - ed series - overlapping peaks program \u2013 learning by simulations - chromatography videos \u2013 mit ocw \u2013 digital lab techniques manual - chromato", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.527970305148743, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 10, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.193359"} {"text": "other proposed treatments it is one of the cardinal principles of natural medicine that treatment should aim not only to treat illness but also to enhance wellness. according to this ideal, a proper course of treatment should improve your sense of general well - being, enhance your immunity to illness, raise your physical stamina, and increase mental alertness, as well as resolve the specific condition you took it for. unfortunately, while there can be little doubt that this is a laudable goal, it is easier to laud it than to achieve it. conventional medicine tends to focus on treating diseases rather than increasing wellness, not as a matter of philosophical principle, but because it is easier to accomplish. probably the strongest force affecting wellness is genetics. beyond that, common sense steps endorsed by all physicians include increasing exercise, reducing stress, improving diet, getting enough sleep, and living a life of moderation without bad habits, such as smoking or overeating. beyond this, however, it is difficult to make strong affirmations, and the optimum forms of diet and exercise and other aspects of lifestyle remain unclear. in fact, they may always remain unclear, as it is impossible to perform double - blind, placebo - controlled studies on most lifestyle habits. ( for information on why such studies are irreplaceable see \" why does this database depend on double - blind studies? \" ) principal proposed natural treatments in order to function at our best, we need good nutrition. however, the modern diet often fails to provide people with sufficient amounts of all the necessary nutrients. for this reason, use of a multivitamin / multimineral supplement might be expected to enhance overall health and well - being, and preliminary double - blind trials generally support this view. for more information, see the article on general nutritional support. the herb panax ginseng has an ancient reputation as a healthful \u201c tonic. \u201d according to a more modern concept developed in the former ussr, ginseng functions as an \u201c adaptogen. \u201d this term is defined as follows : an adaptogen helps the body adapt to stresses of various kinds, whether heat, cold, exertion, trauma, sleep deprivation, toxic exposure, radiation, infection, or psychologic stress. in addition, an adaptogen causes no side effects, is effective in treating a wide variety of illnesses, and helps return an organism toward balance no matter what may have gone wrong. from a modern scientific perspective, it is not truly clear that such things as adaptogens actually exist. however, there is some", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5445322133173672, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.198671"} {"text": ", attend a full schedule of groups and individual therapies at our clinical campus [ near the residential complex ], attend local community support groups in the evenings, and visit with our physicians and clinical staff regularly throughout their stay. in effect, the experience is one of providing a supportive and structured setting without the restrictive elements of a \" hospital \" or institutional facility. a key element in providing the support necessary to begin recovery is remaining in the company of other participants during the initial phase of the treatment. this provides both a form of supervision and a deterrent from the behavior often associated with binge eating : namely eating in isolation or alone. secondly, milestones approaches treatment from a more \" holistic \" perspective. doing so is best described by the acronym \" serf \" - spirituality, exercise, rest, and food plan. spirituality need not equate with any religious or spiritual beliefs imposed on or by anyone. in fact, spirituality at milestones simply is left up to the individual to cultivate with his or her own working definition. for most, it is a belief in a \" higher power \" and still for others it may be a return to some of their original religious beliefs. for everyone, it is an individual journey. exercise is individualized and represents collaboration between the resident and clinical team. it is meant to be in the service of restoring and maintaining a healthy body rather than an \" intensive \" means of controlling body weight. rest is simply about finding the correct balance in recovery between work and play and narrowing the gap between an \" all or none \", \" feast or famine \" approach to daily living. the food plan suggested by milestones is a blend of structured eating and a combination of healthy, whole foods that are bought and prepared by participants with the guidance and supervision of our dietitian and ancillary staff. in brief participants select their own preferences within the guidelines of their individual food plans. the guidelines require participants to abstain from \" junk foods \" and eliminate most highly processed [ sugar and flour laden ] food products as well as weigh and measure portions per their food plan while in residence. it is important to mention most participants who seek treatment for most eating disorders may have a tendency to focus on \" trading in the binging and / or \" purging \" to become better at restricting or \" losing weight \" and as such, it is important to understand the predisposition to replace one form of an eating disorder for another. acknowledging this is helpful to maintaining the prescribed treatment plan both during and after the residential treatment experience.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5396311928084536, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.204889"} {"text": "deep - space communication improved with electromagnetic radiation antenna - robert c. dye - technology transfer - ( 505 ) 667 - 3404 electromagnetic radiation antenna has potential for deep - space communication - directed energy - long - range communications - medicine ( oncology ) - radar imaging applications are countermeasure - resistant - communications can be spatially - encrypted - 4 - dimensional volumes of energy can be aimed at a single space - time point for directed energy applications - nonspherical decay of the cusp enables low - power communications and propagation over great distances los alamos national laboratory ( lanl ) researchers have developed the lightslinger, a completely new type of antenna that produces tightly - focused packets of electromagnetic radiation fundamentally different from the emissions of conventional transmitters. the device has potential applications in radar, directed - energy ( non - kinetic kill ), secure communications, ultra - long - range communications ( e. g., deep - space ), medicine ( oncology ) and astrophysics. the lightslinger functions by producing a moving polarization pattern in a ring of alumina. by careful timing of voltages applied to electrodes that surround the alumina, the polarization pattern can be made to move superluminally, i. e., faster than the speed of light in a vacuum. nobel laureate vitaly ginzberg showed both that such superluminal polarization patterns do not violate the principles of special relativity and that they emit electromagnetic radiation. once a source travels faster than the waves that it emits, it can make contributions at multiple retarded times to a signal received instantaneously at a distance. this effect is already well known in acoustics ; when a supersonic airplane accelerates through the speed of sound, a violent \u201c sonic boom \u201d is heard many miles away, even if the airplane itself is rather quiet. the lightslinger enables the same thing to be done with electromagnetic radiation ; i. e., a relatively low - power source can make an \u201c electromagnetic boom \u201d, an intense concentration of radiowaves at a great distance. the \u201c electromagnetic boom \u201d is due to temporal focusing, that is, focusing in the time domain. because of this effect, part of the emitted radiation possesses an intensity that decays with distance r as 1 / r rather than as the conventional inverse square law, 1 / r2. these nonspherically - decaying wavepackets represent a game - changing technology in the applications of electromagnetic radiation. development stage : working prototype patent status : patent pending", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5989238002508012, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.223003"} {"text": "jim lake and maria rivera, at the university of california - los angeles ( ucla ), report their finding in the sept. 9 issue of the journal nature. scientists refer to both bacteria and archaea as \" prokaryotes \" - - a cell type that has no distinct nucleus to contain the genetic material, dna, and few other specialized components. more - complex cells, known as \" eukaryotes, \" contain a well - defined nucleus as well as compartmentalized \" organelles \" that carry out metabolism and transport molecules throughout the cell. yeast cells are some of the most - primitive eukaryotes, whereas the highly specialized cells of human beings and other mammals are among the most complex. \" a major unsolved question in biology has been where eukaryotes came from, where we came from, \" lake said. \" the answer is that we have two parents, and we now know who those parents were. \" further, he added, the results provide a new picture of evolutionary pathways. \" at least 2 billion years ago, ancestors of these two diverse prokaryotic groups fused their genomes to form the first eukaryote, and in the processes two different branches of the tree of life were fused to form the ring of life, \" lake said. the work is part of an effort supported by the national science foundation - - the federal agency that supports research and education across all disciplines of science and engineering - - to re - examine historical schemes for classifying earth ' s living creatures, a process that was once based on easily observable traits. microbes, plants or animals wer contact : leslie fink national science foundation", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5277760599912864, "token_count": 338, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.240495"} {"text": "refraction and acceleration name : christopher s. why is it that when light travels from a more dense to a less dense medium, its speed is higher? i ' ve read answers to this question in your archives but, sadly, still don ' t get it. one answer ( jasjeet s bagla ) says that we must not ask the question because light is massless, hence questions of acceleration don ' t make sense. it does, however, seem to be ok to talk about different speeds of light. if you start at one speed and end at a higher one, why is one not allowed to talk about acceleration? bagla goes on to say that it depends on how the em fields behave in a given medium. it begs the question : what is it about, say, perspex and air that makes light accelerate, oops, travel at different speeds? if you ' re dealing with the same ray of light, one is forced to speak of acceleration, no? what other explanation is there for final velocity > initial velocity? arthur smith mentioned a very small \" evanescent \" component that travels ahead at c. where can i learn more about this? sorry for the long question. i understand that f = ma and if there is no m, you cannot talk about a, but, again, you have one velocity higher than another for the same thing. i need to know more than \" that ' s just the way em fields are! \" an explanation that satisfies me relates to travel through an interactive medium. when light interacts with an atom, the photon of light is absorbed and then emitted. for a moment, the energy of the light is within the atom. this causes a slight delay. light travels at the standard speed of light until interacting with another atom. it is absorbed and emitted, causing another slight delay. the average effect is taking more time to travel a meter through glass than through air. this works like a slower speed. an individual photon does not actually slow down. it gets delayed repeatedly by the atoms of the medium. a more dense medium has more atoms per meter to dr. ken mellendorf illinois central college congratulations! on not being willing to accept \" that is just the way em fields are! \" the answer to your inquiry is not all that simple ( my opinion ), but i won ' t try to do so in the limited space allowed here, not to say my own limitations of knowledge. like so many \" simple \" physics questions, i find the most lucid", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5991432918736448, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.260057"} {"text": "is not all that simple ( my opinion ), but i won ' t try to do so in the limited space allowed here, not to say my own limitations of knowledge. like so many \" simple \" physics questions, i find the most lucid, but accurate, explanation in richard feynman ' s, \" lectures on physics \" which most libraries will have. volume i, chapter 31 - 1 through 31 - 6, which describes refraction, dispersion, diffraction. the \" answer \" has to do with how matter alters the electric field of incident radiation, but i won ' t pretend to be able to do a better job than feynman. the answer is that you are not dealing with the same ray of light. in vacuum a photon just keeps going at the speed of light. in a medium, however, it interacts with the atoms, often being absorbed while bumping an atomic or molecular motion into a higher energy state. the excited atom / molecule then can jump to a lower energy state, emitting a photon while doing so. this can obviously make light appear to travel slower in a in detail, it is a very complicated question, requiring at least a graduate course in electromagnetism to begin to understand. why, for example do the emitted photons tend to travel in the same direction? best, richard j. plano click here to return to the physics archives update : june 2012", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6262009207897916, "token_count": 290, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.261087"} {"text": "attempts to relay mail by issuing a predefined combination of smtp commands. the goal of this script is to tell if a smtp server is vulnerable to mail relaying. an smtp server that works as an open relay, is a email server that does not verify if the user is authorised to send email from the specified email address. therefore, users would be able to send email originating from any third - party email address that they want. the checks are done based in combinations of mail from and rcpt to commands. the list is hardcoded in the source file. the script will output all the working combinations that the server allows if nmap is in verbose mode otherwise the script will print the number of successful tests. the script will not output if the server requires authentication. if debug is enabled and an error occurrs while testing the target host, the error will be printed with the list of any combinations that were found prior to the error. use this to change the ip address to be used ( default is the target ip address ) define the destination email address to be used ( without the domain, default is relaytest ) or smtp - open - relay. domain define the domain to be used in the anti - spam tests and ehlo command ( default is nmap. scanme. org ) define the source email address to be used ( without the domain, default is antispam ) smbdomain, smbhash, smbnoguest, smbpassword, smbtype, smbusernamesee the documentation for the smbauth library. nmap - - script smtp - open - relay. nse [ - - script - args smtp - open - relay. domain = < domain >, smtp - open - relay. ip = < address >,... ] - p 25, 465, 587 < host > host script results : | smtp - open - relay : server is an open relay ( 1 / 16 tests ) | _ mail from : < email @ example. com > - > rcpt to : < firstname. lastname @ example. org > author : arturo ' buanzo ' busleiman license : same as nmap - - see http : / / nmap. org / book / man - legal. html", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5161413629848881, "token_count": 477, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.263774"} {"text": "topics covered : ideal solutions instructor / speaker : moungi bawendi, keith nelson the following content is provided under a creative commons license. your support will help mit opencourseware continue to offer high quality educational resources for free. to make a donation or view additional materials from hundreds of mit courses, visit mit opencourseware at ocw. mit. edu. professor : so. in the meantime, you ' ve started looking at two phase equilibrium. so now we ' re starting to look at mixtures. and so now we have more than one constituent. and we have more than one phase present. right? so you ' ve started to look at things that look like this, where you ' ve got, let ' s say, two components. both in the gas phase. and now to try to figure out what the phase equilibria look like. of course it ' s now a little bit more complicated than what you went through before, where you can get pressure temperature phase diagrams with just a single component. now we want to worry about what ' s the composition. of each of the components. in each of the phases. and what ' s the temperature and the pressure. total and partial pressures and all of that. so you can really figure out everything about both phases. and there are all sorts of important reasons to do that, obviously lots of chemistry happens in liquid mixtures. some in gas mixtures. some where they ' re in equilibrium. all sorts of chemical processes. distillation, for example, takes advantage of the properties of liquid and gas mixtures. where one of them might be richer, will be richer, and the more volatile of the components. that can be used as a basis for purification. you mix ethanol and water together so you ' ve got a liquid with a certain composition of each. the gas is going to be richer and the more volatile of the two, the ethanol. so in a distillation, where you put things up in the gas, more of the ethanol comes up. you could then collect that gas, right? and re - condense it, and make a new liquid. which is much richer in ethanol than the original liquid was. then you could make, then you could put some of them up into the gas phase. where it will be still richer in ethanol. and then you could collect that and repeat the process. so the point is that properties of liquid gas, two - component or multi - component mixtures like this can", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.6051240499873883, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.303659"} {"text": "of them up into the gas phase. where it will be still richer in ethanol. and then you could collect that and repeat the process. so the point is that properties of liquid gas, two - component or multi - component mixtures like this can be exploited. basically, the different volatilities of the different components can be exploited for things like purification. also if you want to calculate chemical equilibria in the liquid and gas phase, of course, now you ' ve seen chemical equilibrium, so the amount of reaction depends on the composition. so of course if you want reactions to go, then this also can be exploited by looking at which phase might be richer in one reactant or another. and thereby pushing the equilibrium toward one direction or the other. ok. so. we ' ve got some total temperature and pressure. and we have compositions. so in the gas phase, we ' ve got mole fractions ya and yb. in the liquid phase we ' ve got mole fractions xa and xb. so that ' s our system. one of the things that you established last time is that, so there are the total number of variables including the temperature and the pressure. and let ' s say the mole fraction of a in each of the liquid and gas phases, right? but then there are constraints. because the chemical potentials have to be equal, right? chemical potential of a has to be equal in the liquid and gas. same with b. those two constraints reduce the number of independent variables. so there ' ll be two in this case rather than four independent variables. if you control those, then everything else will follow. what that means is if you ' ve got a, if you control, if you fix the temperature and the total pressure, everything else should be determinable. no more free variables. and then, what you saw is that in simple or ideal liquid mixtures, a result called raoult ' s law would hold. which just says that the partial pressure of a is equal to the mole fraction of a in the liquid times the pressure of pure a over the liquid. and so what this gives you is a diagram that looks like this. if we plot this versus xb, this is mole fraction of b in the liquid going from zero to one. then we could construct a diagram of this sort. so this is the total pressure of a and b. the partial pressures are given by these lines. so this is our pa star and pb star. the pressures over", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5831583003650295, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.304562"} {"text": "going from zero to one. then we could construct a diagram of this sort. so this is the total pressure of a and b. the partial pressures are given by these lines. so this is our pa star and pb star. the pressures over the pure liquid a and b at the limits of mole fraction of b being zero and one. so in this situation, for example, a is the more volatile of the components. so it ' s partial pressure over its pure liquid. at this temperature. is higher than the partial pressure of b over its pure liquid. a would be the ethanol, for example and b the water in that mixture. ok. then you started looking at both the gas and the liquid phase in the same diagram. so this is the mole fraction of the liquid. if you look and see, well, ok now we should be able to determine the mole fraction in the gas as well. again, if we note total temperature and pressure, everything else must follow. and so, you saw this worked out. relation between p and ya, for example. the result was p is pa star times pb star over pa star plus pb star minus pa star times ya. and the point here is that unlike this case, where you have a linear relationship, the relationship between the pressure and the liquid mole fraction isn ' t linear. we can still plot it, of course. so if we do that, then we end up with a diagram that looks like the following. now i ' m going to keep both mole fractions, xb and yb, i ' ve got some total pressure. i still have my linear relationship. and then i have a non - linear relationship between the pressure and the mole fraction in the gas phase. so let ' s just fill this in. here is pa star still. here ' s pb star. of course, at the limits they ' re still, both mole fractions they ' re zero and one. ok. i believe this is this is where you ended up at the end of the last lecture. but it ' s probably not so clear exactly how you read something like this. and use it. it ' s extremely useful. you just have to kind of learn how to follow what happens in a diagram like this. and that ' s what i want to spend some of today doing. is just, walking through what ' s happening physically, with a container with a mixture of the two. and how does that correspond to what gets read off the diagram under different", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5812745934436354, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.305453"} {"text": ". and that ' s what i want to spend some of today doing. is just, walking through what ' s happening physically, with a container with a mixture of the two. and how does that correspond to what gets read off the diagram under different conditions. so. let ' s just start somewhere on a phase diagram like this. let ' s start up here at some point one, so we ' re in the pure - well, not pure, you ' re in the all liquid phase. it ' s still a mixture. it ' s not a pure substance. pa star, pb star. there ' s the gas phase. so, if we start at one, and now there ' s some total pressure. and now we ' re going to reduce it. what happens? we start with a pure - with an all - liquid mixture. no gas. and now we ' re going to bring down the pressure. allowing some of the liquid to go up into the gas phase. so, we can do that. and once we reach point two, then we find a coexistence curve. now the liquid and gas are going to coexist. so this is the liquid phase. and that means that this must be xb. and it ' s xb at one, but it ' s also xb at two, and i want to emphasize that. so let ' s put our pressure for two. and if we go over here, this is telling us about the mole fraction in the gas phase. that ' s what these curves are, remember. so this is the one that ' s showing us the mole fraction in the liquid phase. this nonlinear one in the gas phase. so that means just reading off it, this is xb, that ' s the liquid mole fraction. here ' s yb. the gas mole fraction. they ' re not the same, right, because of course the components have different volatility. a ' s more volatile. so that means that the mole fraction of b in the liquid phase is higher than the mole fraction of b in the gas phase. because a is the more volatile component. so more, relatively more, of a, the mole fraction of a is going to be higher up in the gas phase. which means the mole fraction of b is lower in the gas phase. so, yb less than xb if a is more volatile. ok, so now what ' s happening physically? well, we started at a point where we only had the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5967107888087338, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.306318"} {"text": "which means the mole fraction of b is lower in the gas phase. so, yb less than xb if a is more volatile. ok, so now what ' s happening physically? well, we started at a point where we only had the liquid present. so at our initial pressure, we just have all liquid. there ' s some xb at one. that ' s all there is, there isn ' t any gas yet. now, what happened here? well, now we lowered the pressure. so you could imagine, well, we made the box bigger. now, if the liquid was under pressure, being squeezed by the box, right then you could make the box a little bit bigger. and there ' s still no gas. that ' s moving down like this. but then you get to a point where there ' s just barely any pressure on top of the liquid. and then you keep expanding the box. now some gas is going to form. so now we ' re going to go to our case two. we ' ve got a bigger box. and now, right around where this was, this is going to be liquid. and there ' s gas up here. so up here is yb at pressure two. here ' s xb at pressure two. liquid and gas. so that ' s where we are at point two here. now, what happens if we keep going? let ' s lower the pressure some more. well, we can lower it and do this. but really if we want to see what ' s happening in each of the phases, we have to stay on the coexistence curves. those are what tell us what the pressures are. what the partial pressure are going to be in each of the phases. in each of the two, in the liquid and the gas phases. so let ' s say we lower the pressure a little more. what ' s going to happen is, then we ' ll end up somewhere over here. in the liquid, and that ' ll correspond to something over here in the gas. so here ' s three. so now we ' re going to have, that ' s going to be xb at pressure three. and over here is going to be yb at pressure three. and all we ' ve done, of course, is we ' ve just expanded this further. so now we ' ve got a still taller box. and the liquid is going to be a little lower because some of it has evaporated, formed the gas phase", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5721867654189373, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.307277"} {"text": "' ve done, of course, is we ' ve just expanded this further. so now we ' ve got a still taller box. and the liquid is going to be a little lower because some of it has evaporated, formed the gas phase. so here ' s xb at three. here ' s yb at three, here ' s our gas phase. now we could decrease even further. and this is the sort of thing that you maybe can ' t do in real life. but i can do on a blackboard. i ' m going to give myself more room on this curve, to finish this illustration. there. beautiful. so now we can lower a little bit further, and what i want to illustrate is, if we keep going down, eventually we get to a pressure where now if we look over in the gas phase, we ' re at the same pressure, mole fraction that we had originally in the liquid phase. so let ' s make four even lower pressure. what does that mean? what it means is, we ' re running out of liquid. so what ' s supposed to happen is a is the more volatile component. so as we start opening up some room for gas to form, you get more of a in the gas phase. but of course, and the liquid is richer in b. but of course, eventually you run out of liquid. you make the box pretty big, and you run out, or you have the very last drop of liquid. so what ' s the mole fraction of b in the gas phase? it has to be the same as what it started in in the liquid phase. because after all the total number of moles of a and b hasn ' t changed any. so if you take them all from the liquid and put them all up into the gas phase, it must be the same. so yb of four. once you just have the last drop. so then yb of four is basically equal to xb of one. because everything ' s now up in the gas phase. so in principle, there ' s still a tiny, tiny bit of xb at pressure four. well, we could keep lowering the pressure. we could make the box a little bigger. then the very last of the liquid is going to be gone. and what ' ll happen then is, we ' re all here. there ' s no more liquid. we ' re not going down on the coexistence curve any more. we don ' t have a liquid gas", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5853627121937783, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.308140"} {"text": "going to be gone. and what ' ll happen then is, we ' re all here. there ' s no more liquid. we ' re not going down on the coexistence curve any more. we don ' t have a liquid gas coexistence any more. we just have a gas phase. of course, we can continue to lower the pressure. and then what we ' re doing is just going down here. so there ' s five. and five is the same as this only bigger. and so forth. ok, any questions about how this works? it ' s really important to just gain facility in reading these things and seeing, ok, what is it that this is telling you. and you can see it ' s not complicated to do it, but it takes a little bit of practice. ok. now, of course, we could do exactly the same thing starting from the gas phase. and raising the pressure. and although you may anticipate that it ' s kind of pedantic, i really do want to illustrate something by it. so let me just imagine that we ' re going to do that. let ' s start all in the gas phase. up here ' s the liquid. pa star, pb star. and now let ' s start somewhere here. so we ' re down somewhere in the gas phase with some composition. so it ' s the same story, except now we ' re starting here. it ' s all gas. and we ' re going to start squeezing. we ' re increasing the pressure. and eventually here ' s one, will reach two, so of course here ' s our yb. we started with all gas, no liquid. so this is yb of one. it ' s the same as yb of two, i ' m just raising the pressure enough to just reach the coexistence curve. and of course, out here tells us xb of two, right? so what is it saying? we ' ve squeezed and started to form some liquid. and the liquid is richer in component b. maybe it ' s ethanol water again. and we squeeze, and now we ' ve got more water in the liquid phase than in the gas phase. because water ' s the less volatile component. it ' s what ' s going to condense first. so the liquid is rich in the less volatile of the components. now, obviously, we can continue in doing exactly the reverse of what i showed you. but all i want to", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5929631123077167, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.309053"} {"text": "component. it ' s what ' s going to condense first. so the liquid is rich in the less volatile of the components. now, obviously, we can continue in doing exactly the reverse of what i showed you. but all i want to really illustrate is, this is a strategy for purification of the less volatile component. once you ' ve done this, well now you ' ve got some liquid. now you could collect that liquid in a separate vessel. so let ' s collect the liquid mixture with xb of two. so it ' s got some mole fraction of b. so we ' ve purified that. but now we ' re going to start, we ' ve got pure liquid. now let ' s make the vessel big. so it all goes into the gas phase. then lower p. all gas. so we start with yb of three, which equals xb of two. in other words, it ' s the same mole fraction. so let ' s reconstruct that. so here ' s p of two. and now we ' re going to go to some new pressure. and the point is, now we ' re going to start, since the mole fraction in the gas phase that we ' re starting from is the same number as this was. so it ' s around here somewhere. that ' s yb of three equals xb of two. and we ' re down here. in other words, all we ' ve done is make the container big enough so the pressure ' s low and it ' s all in the gas phase. that ' s all we have, is the gas. but the composition is whatever the composition is that we extracted here from the liquid. so this xb, which is the liquid mole fraction, is now yb, the gas mole fraction. of course, the pressure is different. lower than it was before. great. now let ' s increase. so here ' s three. and now let ' s increase the pressure to four. and of course what happens, now we ' ve got coexistence. so here ' s liquid. here ' s gas. so, now we ' re over here again. there ' s xb at pressure four. pure still in component b. we can repeat the same procedure. collect it. all liquid, put it in a new vessel. expand it, lower the pressure, all goes back into the gas phase. do it all again. and the point is, what you ' re doing is walking along", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5859091904849248, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 7, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.309901"} {"text": "the same procedure. collect it. all liquid, put it in a new vessel. expand it, lower the pressure, all goes back into the gas phase. do it all again. and the point is, what you ' re doing is walking along here. here to here. then you start down here, and go from here to here. from here to here. and you can purify. now, of course, the optimal procedure, you have to think a little bit. because if you really do precisely what i said, you ' re going to have a mighty little bit of material each time you do that. so yes it ' ll be the little bit you ' ve gotten at the end is going to be really pure, but there ' s not a whole lot of it. because, remember, what we said is let ' s raise the pressure until we just start being on the coexistence curve. so we ' ve still got mostly gas. little bit of liquid. now, i could raise the pressure a bit higher. so that in the interest of having more of the liquid, when i do that, though, the liquid that i have at this higher pressure won ' t be as enriched as it was down here. now, i could still do this procedure. i could just do more of them. so it takes a little bit of judiciousness to figure out how to optimize that. in the end, though, you can continue to walk your way down through these coexistence curves and purify repeatedly the component b, the less volatile of them, and end up with some amount of it. and there ' ll be some balance between the amount that you feel like you need to end up with and how pure you need it to be. any questions about how this works? so purification of less volatile components. now, how much of each of these quantities in each of these phases? so, pertinent to this discussion, of course we need to know that. if you want to try to optimize a procedure like that, of course it ' s going to be crucial to be able to understand and calculate for any pressure that you decide to raise to, just how many moles do you have in each of the phases? so at the end of the day, you can figure out, ok, now when i reach a certain degree of purification, here ' s how much of the stuff i end up with. well, that turns out to be reasonably straightforward to", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5513951902389312, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 8, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.310787"} {"text": "phases? so at the end of the day, you can figure out, ok, now when i reach a certain degree of purification, here ' s how much of the stuff i end up with. well, that turns out to be reasonably straightforward to do. and so what i ' ll go through is a simple mathematical derivation. and it turns out that it allows you to just read right off the diagram how much of each material you ' re going to end up with. so, here ' s what happens. this is something called the lever rule. how much of each component is there in each phase? so let ' s consider a case like this. let me draw yet once again, just to get the numbering consistent. with how we ' ll treat this. so we ' re going to start here. and i want to draw it right in the middle, so i ' ve got plenty of room. and we ' re going to go up to some pressure. and somewhere out there, now i can go to my coexistence curves. liquid. and gas. and i can read off my values. so this is the liquid xb. so i ' m going to go up to some point two, here ' s xb of two. here ' s yb of two. great. now let ' s get these written in. so let ' s just define terms a little bit. na, nb. or just our total number of moles. ng and n liquid, of course, total number of moles. in the gas and liquid phases. so let ' s just do the calculation for each of these two cases. we ' ll start with one. that ' s the easier case. because then we have only the gas. so at one, all gas. it says pure gas in the notes, but of course that isn ' t the pure gas. it ' s the mixture of the two components. so. how many moles of a? well it ' s the mole fraction of a in the gas. times the total number of moles in the gas. let me put one in here. just to be clear. and since we have all gas, the number of moles in the gas is just the total number of moles. so this is just ya at one times n total. let ' s just write that in. and of course n total is equal to na plus nb. so now let ' s look at condition two. now we have to look a little more carefully", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5682174677714152, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 9, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.312617"} {"text": "this is just ya at one times n total. let ' s just write that in. and of course n total is equal to na plus nb. so now let ' s look at condition two. now we have to look a little more carefully. because we have a liquid gas mixture. so na is equal to ya at pressure two. times the number of moles of gas at pressure two. plus xa, at pressure two, times the number of moles of liquid at pressure two. now, of course, these things have to be equal. the total number of moles of a didn ' t change, right? so those are equal. then ya of two times ng of two. plus xa of two times n liquid of two, that ' s equal to ya of one times n total. which is of course equal to ya of one times n gas at two plus n liquid at two. i suppose i could be, add that equality. of course, it ' s an obvious one. but let me do it anyway. the total number of moles is equal to na plus nb. but it ' s also equal to n liquid plus n gas. and that ' s all i ' m taking advantage of here. and now i ' m just going to rearrange the terms. so i ' m going to write ya at one minus ya at two, times ng at two, is equal to, and i ' m going to take the other terms, the xa term. xa of two minus ya of one times n liquid at two. so i ' ve just rearranged the terms. and i ' ve done that because now, i think i omitted something here. ya of one times ng. no, i forgot a bracket, is what i did. ya of one there. and i did this because now i want to do is look at the ratio of liquid to gas at pressure two. so, ratio of i ' ll put it gas to liquid, that ' s ng of two over n liquid at two. and that ' s just equal to xa of two minus ya at one minus ya at one minus ya at two. so what does it mean? it ' s the ratio of these lever arms. that ' s what it ' s telling me. i can look, so i raise the pressure up to two. and so here ' s xb at two, here ' s yb at two. and i ' m here somewhere. and this little amount and this", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5498881703329155, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 10, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.313626"} {"text": "it ' s telling me. i can look, so i raise the pressure up to two. and so here ' s xb at two, here ' s yb at two. and i ' m here somewhere. and this little amount and this little amount, that ' s that difference. and it ' s just telling me that ratio of those arms is the ratio of the total number of moles of gas to liquid. and that ' s great. because now when i go back to the problem that we were just looking at, where i say, well i ' m going to purify the less volatile component by raising the pressure until i ' m at coexistence starting in the gas phase. raise the pressure, i ' ve got some liquid. but i also want some finite amount of liquid. but i don ' t want to just, when i get the very, very first drop of liquid now collected, of course it ' s enriched in the less volatile component. but there may be a minuscule amount, right? so i ' ll raise the pressure a bit more. i ' ll go up in pressure. and now, of course, when i do that the amount of enrichment of the liquid isn ' t as big as it was if i just raised it up enough to barely have any liquid. then i ' d be out here. but i ' ve got more material in the liquid phase to collect. and that ' s what this allows me to calculate. is how much do i get in the end. so it ' s very handy. you can also see, if i go all the way to the limit where the mole fraction in the liquid at the end is equal to what it was in the gas when i started, what that says is that there ' s no more gas left any more. in other words, these two things are equal. if i go all the way to the point where i ' ve got all the, this is the amount i started with, in the pure gas phase, now i keep raising it all the way. until i ' ve got the same mole fraction in the liquid. of course, we know what that really means. that means that i ' ve gone all the way from pure gas to pure liquid. and the mole fraction in that case has to be the same. and what this is just telling us mathematically is, when that happens this is zero. that means i don ' t have any gas left. yeah. professor : no. because, so it", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.600896086505662, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 11, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.314537"} {"text": "mole fraction in that case has to be the same. and what this is just telling us mathematically is, when that happens this is zero. that means i don ' t have any gas left. yeah. professor : no. because, so it ' s the mole fraction in the gas phase. but you ' ve started with some amount that it ' s only going to go down from there. professor : yeah. yeah. any other questions? ok. well, now what i want to do is just put up a slightly different kind of diagram, but different in an important way. namely, instead of showing the mole fractions as a function of the pressure. and i haven ' t written it in, but all of these are at constant temperature, right? i ' ve assumed the temperature is constant in all these things. now let ' s consider the other possibility, the other simple possibility, which is, let ' s hold the pressure constant and vary the temperature. of course, you know in the lab, that ' s usually what ' s easiest to do. now, unfortunately, the arithmetic gets more complicated. it ' s not monumentally complicated, but here in this case, where you have one linear relationship, which is very convenient. from raoult ' s law. and then you have one non - linear relationship there for the mole fraction of the gas. in the case of temperature, they ' re both, neither one is linear. nevertheless, we can just sketch what the diagram looks like. and of course it ' s very useful to do that, and see how to read off it. and i should say the derivation of the curves isn ' t particularly complicated. it ' s not particularly more complicated than what i think you saw last time to derive this. there ' s no complicated math involved. but the point is, the derivation doesn ' t yield a linear relationship for either the gas or the liquid part of the coexistence curve. ok, so we ' re going to look at temperature and mole fraction phase diagrams. again, a little more complicated mathematically but more practical in real use. and this is t. and here is the, sort of, form that these things take. so again, neither one is linear. up here, now, of course if you raise the temperatures, that ' s where you end up with gas. if you lower the temperature, you condense and get the liquid. so, this is ta star. tb star. so now i want to stick with a as", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5972901760914038, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 12, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.315460"} {"text": "course if you raise the temperatures, that ' s where you end up with gas. if you lower the temperature, you condense and get the liquid. so, this is ta star. tb star. so now i want to stick with a as the more volatile component. at constant temperature, that meant that pa star is bigger than pb star. in other words, the vapor pressure over pure liquid a is higher than the vapor pressure over pure liquid b. similarly, now i ' ve got constant pressure and really what i ' m looking at, let ' s say i ' m at the limit where i ' ve got the pure liquid. or the pure a. and now i ' m going to, let ' s say, raise the temperature until i ' m at the liquid - gas equilibrium. that ' s just the boiling point. so if a is the more volatile component, it has the lower boiling point. and that ' s what this reflects. so higher pb star a corresponds to lower ta star a. which is just the boiling point of pure a. so, this is called the bubble line. that ' s called the dew line. all that means is, let ' s say i ' m at high temperature. i ' ve got all gas. right no coexistence, no liquid yet. and i start to cool things off. just to where i just barely start to get liquid. what you see that as is, dew starts forming. a little bit of condensation. if you ' re outside, it means on the grass a little bit of dew is forming. similarly, if i start at low temperature, all liquid now i start raising the temperature until i just start to boil. i just start to see the first bubbles forming. and so that ' s why these things have those names. so now let ' s just follow along what happens when i do the same sort of thing that i illustrated there. i want to start at one point in this phase diagram. and then start changing the conditions. so let ' s start here. so i ' m going to start all in the liquid phase. that is, the temperature is low. here ' s xb. and my original temperature. now i ' m going to raise it. so if i raise it a little bit, i reach a point at which i first start to boil. start to find some gas above the liquid. and if i look right here, that ' ll be my composition. let me raise it a little farther", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5698886626748705, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 13, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.316351"} {"text": "if i raise it a little bit, i reach a point at which i first start to boil. start to find some gas above the liquid. and if i look right here, that ' ll be my composition. let me raise it a little farther, now that we ' ve already seen the lever rule and so forth. i ' ll raise it up to here. and that means that out here, i suppose i should do here. so, here is the liquid mole fraction at temperature two. xb at temperature two. this is yb at temperature two. the gas mole fraction. so as you should expect, what ' s going to happen here is that the gas, this is going to be lower in b. a, that means that the mole fraction of a must be higher in the gas phase. that ' s one minus yb. so xa is one minus - - ya, which is one minus yb higher in gas phase. than xa, which is one minus xb. in other words, the less volatile component is enriched up in the gas phase. now, what does that mean? that means i could follow the same sort of procedure that i indicated before when we looked at the pressure mole fraction phase diagram. namely, i could do this and now i could take the gas phase. which has less of b. it has more of a. and i can collect it. and then i can reduce the temperature. so it liquefies. so i can condense it, in other words. so now i ' m going to start with, let ' s say i lower the temperature enough so i ' ve got basically pure liquid. but its composition is the same as the gas here. because of course that ' s what that liquid is formed from. i collected the gas and separated it. so now i could start all over again. except instead of being here, i ' ll be down here. and then i can raise the temperature again. to some place where i choose. i could choose here, and go all the way to hear. a great amount of enrichment. but i know from the lever rule that if i do that, i ' m going to have precious little material over here. so i might prefer to raise the temperature a little more. still get a substantial amount of enrichment. and now i ' ve got, in the gas phase, i ' ll further enriched in component a. and again i can collect the gas. condense it. now i ' m out here somewhere", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.565023380786261, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 14, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.317247"} {"text": "more. still get a substantial amount of enrichment. and now i ' ve got, in the gas phase, i ' ll further enriched in component a. and again i can collect the gas. condense it. now i ' m out here somewhere, i ' ve got all liquid and i ' ll raise the temperature again. and i can again keep walking my way over. and that ' s what happens during an ordinary distillation. each step of the distillation walks along in the phase diagram at some selected point. and of course what you ' re doing is, you ' re always condensing the gas. and starting with fresh liquid that now is enriched in more volatile of the components. so of course if you ' re really purifying, say, ethanol from an ethanol water mixture, that ' s how you do it. ethanol is the more volatile component. so a still is set up. it will boil the stuff and collect the gas and and condense it. and boil it again, and so forth. and the whole thing can be set up in a very efficient way. so you have essentially continuous distillation. where you have a whole sequence of collection and condensation and reheating and so forth events. so then, in a practical way, it ' s possible to walk quite far along the distillation, the coexistence curve, and distill to really a high degree of purification. any questions about how that works? ok. i ' ll leave till next time the discussion of the chemical potentials. but what we ' ll do, just to foreshadow a little bit, what i ' ll do at the beginning of the next lecture is what ' s at the end of your notes here. which is just to say ok, now if we look at raoult ' s law, it ' s straightforward to say what is the chemical potential for each of the substances in the liquid and the gas phase. of course, it has to be equal. given that, that ' s for an ideal solution. we can gain some insight from that. and then look at real solutions, non - ideal solutions, and understand a lot of their behavior as well. just from starting from our understanding of what the chemical potential does even in a simple ideal mixture. so we ' ll look at the chemical potentials. and then we ' ll look at non - ideal solution mixtures next time. see you then.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.6204814420972486, "token_count": 502, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 15, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.318099"} {"text": "topics covered : encapsulation, inheritance, shadowing instructor : prof. eric grimson, prof. john guttag operator : the following content is provided under a creative commons license. your support will help mit opencourseware continue to offer high quality educational resources for free. to make a donation or view additional materials from hundreds of mit courses, visit mit opencourseware at ocw. mit. edu. professor : last lecture we were talking about classes, and object - oriented programming, and we ' re going to come back to it today. i ' m going to remind you, we were talking about it because we suggested it is a really powerful way of structuring systems, and that ' s really why we want to use it, it ' s a very common way of structuring systems. so today i ' m going to pick up on a bunch of more nuanced, or more complex if you like, ways of leveraging the power of classes. but we ' re going to see a bunch of examples that are going to give us a sense. i ' m going to talk about inheritance, we ' re going to talk about shadowing, we ' re going to talk about iterators. but before get to it, i want to start by just highlighting, sort of, what was the point of classes? so i ' ll remind you. a class, i said, was basically a template for an abstract data type. and this was really to drive home this idea of modularity. i want the ability to say, i ' ve got a set of things that naturally belong together, i ' m going to cluster them together, i want to treat it like it ' s a primitive, i want to treat it like it ' s a float or an int or a string. is this going to be a point or a segment or something different like that. so it ' s really a way, as i said, of just trying to cluster data together. and this is a notion of modularity slash abstraction where i ' m treating them as primitives. but the second thing we talked about is that we also have a set of methods, using the special name method because we ' re talking classes. but basically functions that are designed to deal with this data structure. we ' re trying to group those together as well. so we cluster data and methods. second key thing we said was, in the ideal case, which unfortunately python isn ' t, but we ' ll come back", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.6178352973564343, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.349894"} {"text": "to deal with this data structure. we ' re trying to group those together as well. so we cluster data and methods. second key thing we said was, in the ideal case, which unfortunately python isn ' t, but we ' ll come back to that, in the ideal case, we would have data hiding, and by data hiding, which is sort of a version of encapsulation, what we meant was that you could only get to the internal pieces of that data structure through a proscribed method. proscribed meaning it ' s something i set up. so data hiding saying, you would only access the parts through a method. and as we said, unfortunately python does not enforce this. meaning that i could create one of these data structures, ideally i ' d have a method, that i ' m going to see some examples of that i used to get the parts out, unfortunately in python you could take the name the instance dot some internal variable you ' ll get it back. it is exposed. and this is actually just not a good idea. so i suggested in my very bad humor, that you practice computational hygiene and you only use appropriate methods to get the parts out. ok didn ' t laugh the joke last time, you ' re not going to laugh at it this time, i don ' t blame you. all right, and then the last piece of this is that we said the class is a template. when we call that class, it makes an instance. so class is used to make instances, meaning particular versions, of that structure, and we said inside the instances we have a set of attributes. internal variables, methods, that are going to belong to that structure. ok, so with that in mind, here ' s what i want to do. i ' m going to show you a set of examples, and i want to warn you ahead of time, the code handout today is a little longer than normal because we want to build essentially an extended example of a sequence of examples of classes. we ' re going to see the idea, of which we ' re gonna talk about, of inheritance or hierarchy, in which we can have classes that are specializations of other classes. we ' re gonna see how we can inherit methods, how we can shadow methods, how we can use methods in a variety of ways. so this is a way of suggesting you may find it more convenient to put notes on the code handout rather than in your own notes. do whatever you like, but", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.596461426531711, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.350852"} {"text": "we can shadow methods, how we can use methods in a variety of ways. so this is a way of suggesting you may find it more convenient to put notes on the code handout rather than in your own notes. do whatever you like, but i just wanted to alert you, we ' re going to go through a little more code than normal. so, the little environment i ' m going to build is an environment of people. i ' ll build a simple little simulation of people. so i ' m going to start off with the first class, which i ' ve got up on the screen, and it ' s on your handout as well, which is i ' m going to build an instance, or a class rather, of persons. i ' m going to draw a diagram, which i ' m gonna try and see if i can do well, over here, of the different objects we ' re going to have. so i ' ve got, a class, and by the way a class is an object. instances are also objects, but classes are objects. we ' re gonna see why we want that in a second. because i ' m gonna build an object, sorry a class, called a person. now, let ' s walk through some of the pieces here. the first one is, there ' s something a little different. remember last time we had that keyword class and then a name, that name, in this case, person says this is the name for the class, and then we would have just had the semicolon and a bunch of internal things. here i ' ve got something in parens, and i want to stress this is not a variable. all right, this is not a def, this is a class. i ' m going to come back to it, but what this is basically saying is that the person class is going to inherit from another class, which in this case is just the built - in python object class. hold on to that thought, it ' s going to make more sense when we look at a little more interesting example, but i want to highlight that. all right now, if we do this, as i said before, we can create a version of a person, let me just call it per, person. ok? and what we said last time is, when we wanted to create an instance inside of this class definition, we ' ve got one of those built - in things called init. i ' m gonna again remind you, some of", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5729331785786869, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.351665"} {"text": "person. ok? and what we said last time is, when we wanted to create an instance inside of this class definition, we ' ve got one of those built - in things called init. i ' m gonna again remind you, some of the methods we have, underbar underbar init is going to be the thing that creates the instance. actually slightly misspeaking, actually python creates the instance, but it ' s one thing that fills it in. so in this case, i ' m going to give it 2 arguments : frank foobar now, you might have said, wait a minute, init here has 3 arguments : self, family name, and first name. so again, just to remind you, what we said happens here is that when i call this class, person, i ' m creating an instance. we ' ll draw a little instance diagram down here. i ' m going to give it the name per. and i should have said inside of person, we ' ve got a set of things. we ' ve got our underbar underbar init, we ' ve got, what else do i have up there? family name. and a bunch of other methods, down to say. what happens inside of python is, when we called the class definition, person, it creates an instance, there it is. think of it as a pointer to a spot in memory, and then what we do is, we call, or find, that init method, up here, and we apply it. and the first argument self, points to the instance. so this object here is what self looks at. now you can see what init ' s going to do. it says, oh, inside of self, which is pointing to here, let me bind a variable, which was, can read that very carefully, it ' s family underbar name, to the value i passed in, which was 4. same thing with first name. ok, so the reason i ' m stressing this is, self we do not supply explicitly, it is supplied as pointing to the instance, it ' s giving us that piece of memory. and that is what then gets created. so here ' s, now, the instance for per. ok, and i put a little label on there, i ' m going to call that an isalink, because it is an instance of that class. god bless you. all right, so once we got this, let ' s look at what we can", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5470060016816741, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.352495"} {"text": "and i put a little label on there, i ' m going to call that an isalink, because it is an instance of that class. god bless you. all right, so once we got this, let ' s look at what we can do with person. that ' s why i built person here. and as i said, i ' ve already bound basically, those two pieces. if i want to get a value out, i can give person, or per, rather, this instance, a messaging. in this case i want to get family, what did i say, family name out, now, again i want to stress, what is happening here? per is an instance, it ' s this thing here. when i say per dot family name, i ' m sending it a message, in essence what that does is, it says, from here it ' s going to go up the chain to this class object and find the appropriate method, which was family name. it is then going to apply that to self, which points to this instance. and that allows it, therefore, is you can see on the code, to look up under self, what ' s the binding for family name, and print it back up. so self is always going to point to the instance i want and i can use it. ok what else do we have in here? we can get the first name, that ' s not particularly interesting. we ' ve got 2 other special methods : that ' s cmp and str. all right, cmp is our comparison method. and since i, i was about to say i blew it last time, i misspoke last time, a wonderful phrase that politicians like to use, i misspoke last time. let me clarify again what cmp will do. underbar underbar cmp is going to be the method you ' re going to use to compare two instances of an object. now, let ' s back up for second. if i wanted to test equality, in fact i could use underbar underbar eq, under under. it ' s natural to think about an equality tester as returning a boolean, it ' s either gonna be true or false, because something ' s either equal to or not. in many languages, comparisons also return booleans, which is why i went down this slippery slope. for many languages, either it ' s greater than or it ' s not. but python is different. python use cmp, in fact", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.582357459151049, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.353277"} {"text": ". in many languages, comparisons also return booleans, which is why i went down this slippery slope. for many languages, either it ' s greater than or it ' s not. but python is different. python use cmp, in fact it has a built in cmp, which is what we ' re relying on here. where am i, right there. and what cmp returns is 1 of 3 values. given 2 objects, it says if the first one is less than the second one, it returns - 1, if it ' s equal it returns 0, if it ' s greater than, it returns 1. so it allows you this broader range of comparisons. and if you think about it, cmp, you could apply on integers, you could apply it on floats, apply it on strings. so it ' s overloaded, it has the ability to do all of those. and in this case what we ' re saying is, given 2 objects, let ' s create a tuple of the first, sorry, family and first name of ourselves, and other is another object, family and first name of that, and then just use cmp to compare them. all right, so it ' s going to use the base pieces. ok, so it gives me a way of doing comparisons. and str we saw last time as well, this is cmp does comparison, and str is our printed representation. ok. so what we ' ve got now, is a simple little class. we ' ve also got two methods there. i want to look at them, we ' re gonna come back to them, but they start to highlight things we can do with our classes. so i ' ve built one simple version of it here, which is per. and notice i ' ve got another method, right up here, called say. and say takes two arguments, for the moment the second argument, or the first argument ' s, not going to make a lot of sense, but say takes two arguments besides itself. it ' s going to take another object to which it ' s saying something and the thing to say. since i only have one object here, i ' m going to have person talk to himself. you may have met a few other undergraduates who have this behavior. i ' ll have him talk to himself and say, just some random message the faculty members occasionally worry about. ok, what does this thing do? now you ' re going to see some of the power of this", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5397126749300074, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.354129"} {"text": "undergraduates who have this behavior. i ' ll have him talk to himself and say, just some random message the faculty members occasionally worry about. ok, what does this thing do? now you ' re going to see some of the power of this. again, remember, i ' m down here, i ' m sending this the message say, it ' s going to go up the chain to find the say message in person. and what does say do, it says given another object and some string, it ' s going to return, oh, and interesting things, part of which you can ' t see on the screen. first what it does, is it gets first name of self. remember self is pointing to this instance, so it ' s simply looks up that binding, which is frank. it ' s going to create a string in which it adds to that the family name of self, and then another thing that says to, and then ah, i ' m now going to send a message to the other object, saying give me your first name. going to add that to the second piece, and you can see in this case it happens to be the same first and family name. and then at the end of it, which you can ' t see here but you can see in your handout, i just append the whole string, so it spits it out. what ' s the point of this, other than i can get it to say things? notice, i can now reference values of the instance. but i can also get values of other instances, by sending in a message. and that ' s why we have that form right there. and then it glued all together. if you think about this for a second, you might say, wait a minute, actually you might have said wait a minute a while ago, why am i just using the variable name there in the function over here? well in fact, i could ' ve used the function here, first name open close, right? it would have done the same thing. but because i know i ' m inside the instance, it ' s perfectly reasonable to just look up the value. ok, i could have, although i don ' t want you to do it, have done the same thing there and used underbar, sorry, first name underbar, sorry, first underbar name, but that ' s really breaking this contract that i want to happen. i should send the message to get the method back out. so again the standard", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5357889756251337, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.355012"} {"text": "there and used underbar, sorry, first name underbar, sorry, first underbar name, but that ' s really breaking this contract that i want to happen. i should send the message to get the method back out. so again the standard practices is if you know you ' re inside the object, you can just access the values. if you ' re doing it with any other objects, send it a message to get it out. ok, now, that gives you an ability to say, let ' s look at one more example here, and then we ' re going to start building our hierarchy, which is, that this person can also sing. and we ' ve got a little sing method here. and notice what it does, it ' s going to sing to somebody, i guess you ' re part of the chorallaries. you ' re going to sing something, and notice what it does, it ' s simply going to use its say method, but add at the end of whatever ' s being said, just tra la la at the end. so this is now an example of a method using another method. why would you want that? it ' s nice modularly. i have one method that ' s doing saying, i have another method that ' s just building on it. so if i have is person sing to themselves, not a highly recommended activity, it would help if i had it sing to itself, not sing to sing, sorry about that. notice what it does. looks like exactly like a say method, except it ' s got tra la la at the end. don ' t worry i ' m not going to sing to you. i ' ll simply say the words. power of this, other than the silly examples. you see how i can access variables of the instance, how i can access variables of other instances, going to come back to that, and how i can use versions of my own methods to implement other methods. in this case sing is using say as part of what it wants to get out. ok, so we got a simple little example. now, let ' s start adding some other pieces to this. ok, and what do i want to add. find my spot here. ok, we ' re going to add an mit person. sorry, machine is - - do this, let ' s go down. ok so i ' m going to add an mit person. look at the code for second. aha! notice what this says. mit person", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.531414644402858, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 7, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.355898"} {"text": "to add an mit person. sorry, machine is - - do this, let ' s go down. ok so i ' m going to add an mit person. look at the code for second. aha! notice what this says. mit person says it inherits from person. that is, that ' s the first thing in parens up there. it says, you know, class of mit person is person. what that is saying is, that this is a specialization of the person class. or another way of saying it is, we have a super class, in this case it ' s person. and we have a subclass, in this case its mit person. and we ' re going to walk through some examples, but what it says is that that subclass of mit person can inherit the attributes of the person class. can inherit the methods, it can inherit variables. ok, what does mit person do? well, here ' s 1 of the new things it does. it has a local variable called next id num, which is initially set to 0. see that up there. and then it ' s got some methods, it ' s got an init method, a get id method, a few other things. ok, let ' s run this. in particular, i go back down to this one. let me just uncomment this and do it here. assuming my machine will do what i want it to do, which it really doesn ' t seem to want to do today. try one more time. thank you, yep. still not doing it for me, john. ok, we type it. no idea what python doesn ' t like me today, but it doesn ' t. so we ' re gonna define p 1, i ' ve lost my keyboard, indeed i have. try one more time. p 1 mit person, see how fast i can type here - - ok, now, let ' s look at what the code does, because again it ' s going to highlight some things. i called mit person, push this up slightly, it ' s going to create an instance down here, i called p 1. and when i would do that, i ' m gonna initialize it. so i ' ve got, right up here, an initializer, init for mit person, takes in the family name and the first name. notice what it does. huh. it says, if i ' m sitting here at mit person, i ' m going to go up and", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5103205870055321, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 8, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.356694"} {"text": "here, an initializer, init for mit person, takes in the family name and the first name. notice what it does. huh. it says, if i ' m sitting here at mit person, i ' m going to go up and inherit from person its init function and call it. and what am i calling it on? i ' m calling it on self, which is pointing to this object, so i ' ve still got it, and then i ' m then going to apply the base initialization. and that does exactly what you ' d expect, which is just going to create a binding for family name down here. as well as some other things. so this is an example of inheritance. mit person inherits the init method from person, can get access to by simply referring to it, and i refer to it right there. and it ' s take the person class, get its init and apply it to my instance plus those things. so i ' m just using the same piece of code notice the second thing it does. it says inside of self, i ' m going to bind the local variable id name to the value of next id name in mit person. self is down here, id num, sorry, not id name. i ' m going to bind that to the value that i find my going up to here, which is 0, and having done that, i simply increment that value. ok? so what has this done? it says i now have captured in the class, a local variable that i can keep track of. and when i use it, every time i generate an example, let me build another one. i make p 2 another mit person. ok, i can do things like saying, what is the id number for each of these. first one is 0, second one is 1, which makes sense, right? i ' m just incrementing a global variable. now, things i want you to see about this. now that i ' ve got a beginning of a hierarchy, i have this notion of inheritance. i can ask a function inside one class to use a function from a class that it can reach by going up the chain. i just did it there. i can ask it to go get values of variables, right, so that looks good. what else do we have in person or mit person? well, we can get the id number, we just did. we have a thing to do with this string. notice it ' s", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5392047718485042, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 9, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.357605"} {"text": "get values of variables, right, so that looks good. what else do we have in person or mit person? well, we can get the id number, we just did. we have a thing to do with this string. notice it ' s going to print out something a little different. in fact, there ' s a kind of funky form there. which just says, if i want to print it out, i ' m gonna create, what this says to do is, i ' m gonna create an output template that has that structure to it, but where i see that percent s i ' m going to substitute this value for the first one, that value for the second. so if i say, what is p 1? it says ok, mit person fred smith. on the other hand, if i said, what is per, which is that thing i build earlier, it had a different string method, which is just print out person, those pieces. all right, one last piece to this and we ' re going to add to it. suppose i want fred to say something. say something to jane. ok, he said it. where ' s the say method? ok, fred is an instance of an mit person. where ' s the say method? well, there isn ' t one there, but again, that ' s where the hierarchy comes in. fred is this object here, i ' m sending it the message say. that turns into going up the chain to this object, which is the class object, and saying find a say method and apply it to that instance. fudge - knuckle, it ain ' t here. don ' t worry about it, because it says if i can ' t find one there, i ' m going to go up the chain to this method, sorry to this class, and look for a method there. which there was one, i have a say method. it ' s going to use that say method. apply to it. well, you might say, ok, what happens if it isn ' t there? well, that ' s where, remember i defined person to be an instance of an object, it will go up the chain one last time to the base object in python to see is there a method there or not. probably isn ' t a say method for an object, so at that point it ' s going to raise an exception or throw an error. but now you again see this idea that the inheritance lets you capture methods. now you might", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5505312030273455, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 10, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.358538"} {"text": "there or not. probably isn ' t a say method for an object, so at that point it ' s going to raise an exception or throw an error. but now you again see this idea that the inheritance lets you capture methods. now you might say, why not just put a say method inside of mit person? well, if you wanted it to do something different, that would be the right thing to do. but the whole notion here ' s that i ' m capturing modularity, i ' ve got base methods up in my base class. if i just want to use them i ' m just going to inherit them by following that chain, if you like, basically up the track. ok, so we ' ve got an mit person, we can use that. let ' s add a little bit more to our hierarchy here. i ' m going to create, if i can do this right, a specialization of an mit person, which is an undergraduate. a special kind of mit person. all right, so if i go back up here, even though my thing is not going to let me do it, let ' s build an undergraduate. ok, there ' s the class definition for an undergrad. we ' re just starting to see some of the pieces, right, so in an undergraduate, where am i here, an undergraduate. ok, it ' s also got an initialization function. so if i call undergrad, i ' m gonna make an undergrad here, again let me go back down here, line ug 2 it ' s making undergrad, jane doe. now, what happens when i do the initialization here? notice what goes on. it simply calls the person initialization method. all right, so i ' m down here. i ' m going to call the person initialization method, what did do? sorry, the mit person method, it calls the person method. just walking up the chain, that ' s going to do exactly what i did with all the other ones, so i now have a family name and a first name. so i can, for example, say family name and get it back out. all right? and then, other things that i can do, well i can set what year the person ' s in, i can figure out what year they ' re in, there ' s this unfortunate overflow error if you ' ve hung around too long, but that ' s not going to happen to you. and i ' ve now got a say method", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5511048802016172, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 11, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.359400"} {"text": "in, i can figure out what year they ' re in, there ' s this unfortunate overflow error if you ' ve hung around too long, but that ' s not going to happen to you. and i ' ve now got a say method here, so let ' s look what happens if i ask the undergraduate to say something. ok, it ' s not a realistic dialogue i know, but, what did this method do? i asked this object to do a say. and notice what it does. it simply passes it back up to mit person. there ' s that inheritance again. it ' s saying, i ' m going to have my base say method say something. i ' m going to say it to a person, but all i ' m going to do because undergraduates in my experience, at least, are always very polite, i ' m going to put \" excuse me but \" at the front of it. ok, what am i trying to show you here? i know the jokes are awful, but what am i trying to show you here? that i can simply pass up the chain to get it. in fact, what method does the final say here? what class does it come from? person class, yes, thank you. it goes all the way up to person, right, because mit person didn ' t have a say. so i can simply walk up the chain until i find the method i want to have. now this is an example of shadowing. not a great example, but it ' s a beginning example of shadowing, in that this same method for an undergraduate, shadows the base say method, it happens to call it, but it changes it. it puts \" excuse me but \" at the front, before it goes on to do something. now again, i could have decided here to actually copy what the original say method did, stitch all the other things together. but again, that loses my modularity. i ' d really to only have to change it in one place. so by putting my say method up in person, i can add these nuances to it, and it lets me have something that has that variation. if i decide i want to change what say does, i only have to change it in one place. it is in the person class definition, and everything else will follow through for free. ok, so now i ' ve got an undergrad, right? let ' s look at a couple of variations of what happens here. so first of all", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_computing", "similarity_score": 0.532795238032953, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 12, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.360948"} {"text": ". it is in the person class definition, and everything else will follow through for free. ok, so now i ' ve got an undergrad, right? let ' s look at a couple of variations of what happens here. so first of all, i can - - yes? professor 2 : shadowing here is often sometimes called overriding. professor : yes, thank you, because i ' m going to do a pure example of shadowing in a second, john right. also called overriding. part of the reason i like the phrase shadow is, if you think about it as looking at it from this direction, you see this version of init before you see the other ones, or you see that version of say, but it is overriding the base say example. ok, so i can say, what does p 1, sorry, yes, what does undergrad look like? and i said wait a minute, mit person, not undergrad, is that right? well, where ' s the str method? i didn ' t define one in undergrad, so it again tracks up the chain and finds the str method here, so it ' s ok undergrads are mit people most the time, so it ' s perfectly fine. ok, now, i have built into this also these cmp methods. so i ' ve got two examples. i ' ve got undergrad, or ug. and then i ' ve got poor old frank foobar back there, per person. so suppose i want to compare them? what do you think happens here? compare sounds weird, right, i compare an undergraduate to a person. i don ' t know what that ' s doing, some kind of weird psychological thing, but what do you think happens in terms of the code here if i run this. i know it ' s a little hard because you got a lot of code to look at. do i have a cmp method defined somewhere? yeah. so, it ' s hard to know what it ' s going to do, but let ' s look at it. hmm. now sometimes i type things and i got errors i don ' t expect, this one i did expect. so what happened here? well let ' s talk about what happens if i do that comparison i was doing, what was i doing? ug greater than per? what unwinds into is, i ' m going to send to ug, that instance, a cmp method. this is really going to", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5794155076412661, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 13, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.361868"} {"text": "if i do that comparison i was doing, what was i doing? ug greater than per? what unwinds into is, i ' m going to send to ug, that instance, a cmp method. this is really going to become something like ug dot under under cmp under under applied to per. i think that ' s close. what does that do? it says starting in ug, i ' m going to look for the first cmp method i could find, which is actually sitting here. i had a cmp method in mit person. if you look at your code, what does it do? it looks up the id numbers to compare them. well the, ug has an id number because it was created along this chamber. remember per over here was just created as a person. it doesn ' t have an id number, so that ' s why it complaints. ok, happens if i do that? compare per to ug. how many people think i get an error? wow. how many people think i ' m going to get either true or false out of this? a few brave hands. why? can i ask you, please? why do you think i ' m going to get a, doesn ' t matter whether it ' s true or false, why am i going to have something work this time that didn ' t work last time? professor : yeah, exactly. and in case you didn ' t hear it, thank you, great answer, sorry, terrible throw. in this case i ' m using per, that ' s the first part, so it ' s not symmetric. it ' s gonna use per to do the look up. and as it was said there, per over here goes up and finds a cmp method here which it can apply. in that case, it simply looked at, remember, it took the tuples of first and last name which are both defined here, and did some comparison on that. so this is a way of again pointing out to you that the things are not always symmetric, and i have to be careful about where do i find the methods as i want to use them. ok? all right. let ' s add, i ' m gonna do two more classes here. let ' s add one more class, some people debate whether these are really people or not, but we ' re going to add a class called a professor. ok. now what am i doing? i ' m creating another version of class down here", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5539308422253088, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 14, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.362754"} {"text": "let ' s add one more class, some people debate whether these are really people or not, but we ' re going to add a class called a professor. ok. now what am i doing? i ' m creating another version of class down here. which again is an instance, or a subclass, sorry, not an instance, a subclass of an mit person. i see that because i built it to be there. again i ' ve got an initialization that ' s going to call the person initialization, which we know is going to go up - - i keep saying that - - going to call the mit person initialization, which is going to go up and call this one. so again i ' m going to be able to find names. and i do a couple of other different things here. i ' m gonna pass in a rank, full professor, associate professor, assistant professor, which i ' m just going to bind locally. but i ' m gonna add one other piece here, which is i ' m gonna add a little dictionary on teaching. so when i create a professor, i ' m gonna associate with it a dictionary that says, what have you been teaching? and then notice the methods i create. i ' ve got a method here called add teaching, takes, obviously a pointer to the instance. a term, which will just be a string, and a subject. and let ' s look at what it does right here. ok. in fact the call i ' m going to make, i ' m not certain i ' m going to be able to get away with it, my machine is still wonderfully broken, all right, it is, let me just show you what the calls would look like. as you can see here i ' m not going to be able to do them. but i ' m going to add teaching, as a method call with this with a string for term, and a subject number. what is this going to do? yeah, i know i ' m just worried if i restart python, i may not be able to pull the thing back in, so i ' m going to try and wing it, john, and see if i can make it happen. right, what does that teaching do? it ' s got one of those try except methods. so what does it say it ' s going to do? it ' s going to go into the dictionary associated with teaching, under the value of term, and get out a list. and it ' s", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5288936087643646, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 15, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.363642"} {"text": "s got one of those try except methods. so what does it say it ' s going to do? it ' s going to go into the dictionary associated with teaching, under the value of term, and get out a list. and it ' s going to append to the end of the list the new subject. so it ' s going to be stored in there, is then going to be term, and a list of what i taught, in case i teach more than one thing each term. it ' s going to do that, but notice it ' s a try. if in fact there is no term currently in the dictionary, started out empty, it ' s going to throw an error, sorry, not throw an error, it ' s going to raise an exception. which is a key error, in which case notice what i ' m going to do, i ' m not going to treat it as an error. i ' m simply going to say, in that case, just start off with an empty, with an initial list with just that subject in and put it in the dictionary. as i add more things in, i ' ll just keep adding things to this dictionary under that term. and if i want to find out what i ' m doing, well i can use get teaching, which says given the term, find the thing in the dictionary under that term and return it. if i get an error, i ' m going to raise it, which says there is nothing for that term, and in that case i guess i ' m just going to return none. ok? and then the other two pieces we ' re going to have here, and we want to look at a little more carefully, i just wanted to show you that example, is a professor can lecture, and a professor can say something. look at the say method, because this now add one more nuance to what we want to do here. and i think in interest of making this go, let me actually, since i ' m not going to get my machine to do this right, let me create a couple of professors. if i look at what that is, it ' s an mit person because i didn ' t have any separate string thing there, and we will create a more important professor. what rank do you want, john? do you want to stay full? professor 2 : undergraduate. professor : undergraduate, right, a lot more fun i agree. sorry about that, and we can again just see what that looks like.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_computing", "similarity_score": 0.5357379180985211, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 16, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.364541"} {"text": "professor. what rank do you want, john? do you want to stay full? professor 2 : undergraduate. professor : undergraduate, right, a lot more fun i agree. sorry about that, and we can again just see what that looks like. and that of course, we ' ll print out, he ' s also an mit person. but now here ' s what i want to do. i want to say something to my good colleague professor guttag. actually i ' m going to start a separate - - i ' m going to say something to a smart undergraduate. so if i say, remember we have ug defined as an undergraduate, let me do something a little different here. well let, me do it that way. it says, i don ' t understand why you say you were enjoying 6. 00. not a good thing to say, right, but if i say to my good colleague professor guttag. i have to spell say right, i know, i need help with this, what can i say? we flatter each other all the time. it ' s part of what makes us feel good about ourselves. why is the sky blue? i enjoyed your paper, but why is the sky blue? ok, terrible examples, but what ' s going on here? one more piece that i want to add. here ' s my say method for professor, and now i ' m actually taking advantage of to whom i am saying something. notice again, what does it do? there ' s the self argument, that ' s just pointing to the instance of me. i ' m passing in another argument, going to call it to who, in one case it was ug, in one case it was guttag. and then the thing i want to say, ah, look what it does, it says, check the type. and the type is going to take that instance, i had an instance, for example, of a professor down here, and it ' s going to pick up what type of object it is. so if the type of the person i ' m speaking to is undergrad, let ' s pause for second. remember i started away back saying we ' re building abstract data types. well, here ' s a great example of how i ' m using exactly that, right? i ' ve got int, i ' ve got float, i now have ug, it ' s a type. so it ' s says if the object to whom i ' m speaking is an under", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.6007583432066488, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 17, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.365495"} {"text": "i ' m using exactly that, right? i ' ve got int, i ' ve got float, i now have ug, it ' s a type. so it ' s says if the object to whom i ' m speaking is an undergrad, then use the same method from person where i ' m going to put this on the front. on the other hand, if the object to whom i ' m speaking is a professor, then i ' m going to tag this on the front and use the underlying say method. on the other hand, if i ' m speaking to somebody else, i ' m just going to go lecture. all right, and when a professor lectures, they just put it ' s obvious on the end of things, as you may have noticed. what ' s the point i want you to see here? i ' m now using the instances to help me to find what the code should do. i ' m looking at the type. if the type is this, do that. if the type is this, do something different, ok? and i can now sort of build those pieces up. ok, i said one more class. notice what we ' re doing. i know they ' re silly examples, but, sorry, they are cleverly designed examples to highlight key points. what i ' m trying to do is show you how we have methods inherit methods, how have message shadow methods, how we have methods override methods, how we can use instances as types to define what the method should do. let me show you one last class, because i ' m gonna have one more piece that we want to use. and the last class is, sort of, once you ' ve got a set of professors, you can have an aggregate of them. and i don ' t know, if a group of geese are gaggle, i don ' t know what a set of professors are, john. flamers? i, you know, we ' ve got to figure out what the right collective noun here is. we ' re going to call them a faculty for lack of a better term, right? now the reason i want to show you this example is, this class, notice, it only is going to inherit from object. it actually makes sense. this is going to be a collection of things, but it ' s not a subclass of a particular kind of person. and what i want the faculty to do, is to be able to gather together a set of faculty. so if", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5489037494325483, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 18, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.366340"} {"text": "sense. this is going to be a collection of things, but it ' s not a subclass of a particular kind of person. and what i want the faculty to do, is to be able to gather together a set of faculty. so if i go down here, grab this for second, and pull it down so you can see it. it looks like i ' m not going to be able to run this because my machine is broken, but basically i ' m gonna define a set of professors, and then i ' m gonna create a new class called faculty. there ' s the definition of it. it ' s got an init. you can kind of see what it does. it ' s going to set up an internal variable called names, which is initially an empty list, internal variable called ids, which is empty, an internal variable called members, which is empty, and another special variable called place, which we ' re going to come back to in a second, initially bound to none. ok, i ' ve got a method called add which i ' m going to use down here to add professors to the course 6 faculty. here ' s what i want to add to do. first of all, notice i ' m going to check the type. if this is not a professor, i ' m gonna raise an error, a type error, it ' s the wrong type of object to pass in. the second thing i ' m gonna do is say, if that ' s okay, then let me go off and get the id number. now remember, that ' s right up here, so i ' m asking the instance of the professor to go up and get the id number. and i want to make sure i only have one instance of each professor in my faculty, so if the id number is in the list of ids already, i ' m going to raise an error, sorry, raise an exception as well, saying i ' ve got a duplicate id. ok? and the reason that ' s going to come up is, notice what i do now. inside of the instant self, i take the variable names and i add to it the family name of the person i just added. ok, notice the form. i ' m using the method, there ' s the parens to get the family name of the person. i ' m just adding it to the list. i ' ve got the id number, i ' ve added the ids, and i add the object itself into members", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5470539301032439, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 19, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.367229"} {"text": ", there ' s the parens to get the family name of the person. i ' m just adding it to the list. i ' ve got the id number, i ' ve added the ids, and i add the object itself into members. so as i do this, what am i doing? i ' m creating a list, actually several lists : a list of ids, a list of the actual instances, and a list of the family names. and as a cost i want to add, that ' s why i can check and see, is this in here already or not? now, the last reason i want to do this is, i want to be able to support things like that. this is now different, right, this instance is a collection. i want to be able to do things like, for all the things in that collection, do something, like print out the family names. and to do that, i need two special forms : iter and next. ok, now let me see if i can say this cleanly. whenever i use a for, in structure, even if it was on just a normal list you built, what python is doing is returning an, what is called an iterator. which is something that we talked earlier. it ' s keeping track of where are you in the list, and how do i get to the next thing in the list? i ' m going to do the same thing here, and i ' m going to create it for this particular structure. so this little thing iter, when i call a for something in, one of these instances, it calls iter, and notice what it does. it initializes place to 0. that was that variable i had up there. that ' s basically saying i ' m at the beginning of the list. it ' s a pointer to the beginning of the list, and it returns self. just gives me back a pointer to the instance. that now allows me at each step in that loop to call next. and what does next do? next says, check to see if that value is too long, if it ' s longer than, for example, the list of names, raise an exception called stop iteration, which the for loop will use to say ok, i ' m done. i ' m going to break out of the for loop. otherwise, what am i going to do? i ' ll increment place by 1, that ' s going to move me to the next place in", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5018399394584298, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 20, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.368085"} {"text": "ok, i ' m done. i ' m going to break out of the for loop. otherwise, what am i going to do? i ' ll increment place by 1, that ' s going to move me to the next place in the list, and then in this case i ' ll just return the instance itself, right? members is a list of instances, place i ' ve incremented by 1, i take 1 off of it, i get to it. so iter and next work together. iter creates this method, that ' s going to give you a pointer to the place in the structure, and then next literally walks along the structure giving you the next element and returning elements in turn so you can do something with it. right, so now what that says is, i can have classes that just have local variables. i can have classes that get methods from other variables, and i can also have classes that are collections. and i ' ve supported that by adding in this last piece. ok once you have all of that, in principle we could start doing some fun things. so let ' s see what happens if we try and make all of this go. and let me, since i ' m not going to be able to run it, let me simply do it this way. if i have my undergraduate, ug. i can - - sorry, let ' s not do it that way - - i can have undergraduate say things like - - all right, what did i just do wrong here? do i not have undergrad defined? i do. oh, i didn ' t have grimson, sorry, it ' s me, isn ' t it? thank you. the undergraduate very politely asks why he didn ' t understand, you can have the professor respond. again, it simply puts a different thing into there. on the other hand, if professor guttag asks me something about understanding, i say i really like this paper on, you do not understand, it ' s a deep paper on programming languages 5, i think, john, isn ' t it? what else can you do with this thing, right? you can have an undergraduate talk to an undergraduate, in which case they ' re still polite. or you could have - - sorry, let me do that the other way - - you could also have an undergraduate simply talk to a normal person. all right, but the good news is you know eventually you get it done, and when you ' re really done you", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5693466819988855, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 21, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.368995"} {"text": "- - sorry, let me do that the other way - - you could also have an undergraduate simply talk to a normal person. all right, but the good news is you know eventually you get it done, and when you ' re really done you can have the undergraduate be really happy about this, and so she sings to herself. ok it ' s a little silly, but notice what we ' ve just illustrated. and this is where i want to pull it together. with a simple set of classes, and the following abilities, an ability to inherit methods from subclasses, sorry from superclasses, that is having this hierarchy of things. i can create a fairly complex kind of interaction. i can take advantage of the types of the objects to help me decide what to do. and if you think about that, i know it sounds very straightforward, but you would do exactly that if you were writing earlier code to deal with some numerical problem. all right, if the thing is an integer, do this, if it ' s a float, do that, if it ' s a string, do something else. i ' m now giving you exactly the same ability, but the types now can be things that you could create. and what i ' ve also got is now the ability to inherit those methods as they go up the chain. so another way of saying it is, things that you want to come away from here, are, in terms of these classes. we now have this idea of encapsulation. i ' m gathering together data that naturally belongs as a unit, and i ' m gathering together with it methods that apply to that unit. just like we would have done with float or int. ideally, we data hide, we don ' t happen to do it here, which is too bad. basically we ' ve got the idea of encapsulation. the second thing we ' ve got is this idea of inheritance. inheritance both meaning i can inherit attributes or field values. i can inherit methods by moving up the chain. i can also the shadow or override methods, so that i can specialise. and i do all of that with this nice hierarchy of classes. so what hopefully you ' ve seen, between these two lectures, and we ' re going to come back to it in some subsequent lectures, is that this is now a different way of just structuring a computational system. now, you ' ll also get arguments, polite arguments from faculty members or other experts about which is a better", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5785061330300745, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 22, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.369934"} {"text": "talk : 20. 109 ( f12 ) pre - proposal : engineering viral magnetic nanoparticles for magnetic hyperthermic cancer therapy - this is a brainstorming page. you are very welcome to write any crazy / non - crazy / inventive / conventional / knowledgeable ideas or information you may have about our project. some key words : magnetic nanoparticles ( mnp ), viruses, magnetic hyperthermia, bioengineering what is magnetic hyperthermia? how it works? under an alternating magnetic field, mnp releases heat due to relaxation of magnetic moments ( hysteresis ). this can cause an increase in temperature to the range of 41c to 47c. since tumor cells are more heat sensitive than normal cells, they will be killed by this thermal dissipation. here is an interesting tidbit from a paper i was reading : \" in addition to the expected tumor cell death, hyperthermia treatment has also induced unexpected biological responses, such as tumor - specific immune responses as a result of heat - shock protein expression. these results suggest that hyperthermia is able to kill not only local tumors exposed to heat treatment, but also tumors at distant sites, including metastatic cancer cells. \" ( kobayashi ) - clinical trials in prostate cancer - shows promising results when coupled with irradiation on breast cancer ( mouse ) current limitations ( this information will help us shape and define the problem. ) ( 1 ) to achieve the necessary rise in temperature with minimal dose of mnp. - in other words, this means : - high specific loss power / specific absorption rate ( slp ) of the mnp. - why is higher applied dosage bad? > leads to unnecessary heat dissipation ( 2 ) lack of knowledge about the metabolism, clearance, and toxicity of mnp. biomedical potentials of mnp - could be used as early detection for the following using mri : - drug delivery - cellular labeling and tissue targeting - purifying and separating cells and dnas - transfection by magnetic nanoparticles - tissue repair - magnetic resonance imaging ( mri ) types of relevant viruses 1. tobacco mosaic virus ( tmv ) - 18nmx300nm, helical - can withstand high temperatures up to 50c for 30mins ( conventional hyperthermia involves heating up to 50c from an external source - safe for human consumption - mann group has active research on it - 2130 molecules of coat protein 2. m13 bacteriophage -", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5791850518690027, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.383875"} {"text": "50c for 30mins ( conventional hyperthermia involves heating up to 50c from an external source - safe for human consumption - mann group has active research on it - 2130 molecules of coat protein 2. m13 bacteriophage - 6. 6nmx880nm, helical ( length is too long - pose an issue in targeting cells ) - lots of research done by the belcher group, including attaching mnps to m13 for imaging purposes - we are familiar with the system 3. cowpea chlorotic mottle virus ( ccmv ) - 26nm, icosahedral 4. cowpea mosaic virus ( cpmv ) - 27nm, icosahedral 5. brome mosaic virus ( bmv ) - 28nm, icosahedral 6. turnip yellow mosaic virus ( tymv ) - 30nm, icosahedral current work in viral mnp attachment attachment of mnps to m13 phage for in vivo imaging of prostate cancer what we propose to do see flowchart sketch. - identifying / screening for appropriate virus vehicles and tumor - specific anchoring sequencse - developing / engineering viral mnps - in vivo testing for efficacy of engineered vmnps in mouse tumor cells. we will start with using ferritin ( fe3o4 ) as the mnp. stage 1 : virus hunt - we need to investigate how the selected virus ( likely one of the following : tmv, m13, ccmv, cpmv, bmv or tpmv ) interacts with mammalian cells in vivo. stage 2 : screening for mnp binding site on virus - we will start by using fe3o4 as our mnp of interest. with this, a protein coat screen of the selected virus for a protein coat that can bind with our mnp is necessary. stage 3 : screening for tumor - specific sequence binding site on virus - we need to do a protein coat or rna screen of the virus for a region that can bind with a tumor - specific peptide sequence. if necessary, we might need to screen tumors for unique short sequences on their cell surfaces. stage 4 : virus engineering - we can now engineer wild - type viruses using specific protein coats or rna regions isolated in stage 2 and 3 to produce the viral mnp of interest. stage 5 : in vivo testing - perform an in vivo experiment by injecting the engineered viral mnps into the circulatory system of", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5335740497521136, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.384683"} {"text": "specific protein coats or rna regions isolated in stage 2 and 3 to produce the viral mnp of interest. stage 5 : in vivo testing - perform an in vivo experiment by injecting the engineered viral mnps into the circulatory system of mice that have developed tumors. by subjecting these mice to an alternating magnetic field under standard hyperthermia conditions and measuring the change in tumor size, we will be able to quantify the efficacy of using viral mnps in magnetic hyperthermia. - experimenting with double layer mnp to increase response - target other cancerous cells - experiment with other types of viruses quantitative goals ( we can quantify with ic50 value ) - currently, with the aid of 10gy radiation, the hyperthermia treatment successfully accumulated less than 0. 3mg fe / g tissue. dosage : 0. 2mg fe per gram of mouse. say mouse is 25g, so 5mg total dosage injected. so 1 % efficiency with the aid of radiation. ( mnp sizes used : 70nm and 120nm ; murine flank breast tumors were 150mm3 ) from http : / / manalis - lab. mit. edu / publications / grover % 20pnas % 202011. pdf, we estimated that a typical cell has an average density of 1. 1g / ml. since the murine flank breast tumors were 150mm3, and 0. 25mg fe / g of tumor was detected in the tumors, we can calculate that only a total of 0. 0495mg of fe is accumulated in the tumors. this gives a % efficacy of 1 %. - south korean experiment : 75ug of mnps were injected. - from belcher lab ' s paper, what is the % efficacy of using m13? - \" the actual rotations of the nanoparticles are disordered because the microviscosity of the local environment in cancer cells is not constant, and effective elasticity depends on the binding conditions between nanoparticles and membranes. \" - but this is actually present because when treatment is done with individual mnps, one side of the mnp is always bound to the targeted cell, so direction is never constant! - gupta ak, naregalkar rr, vaidya vd, and gupta m. recent advances on surface engineering of magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles and their biomedical applications. future medicine. 2007. 2 ( 1 ), 23 - 39. - bakoglidis kd, simeonidis k", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5526477194873298, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.385513"} {"text": "##d, and gupta m. recent advances on surface engineering of magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles and their biomedical applications. future medicine. 2007. 2 ( 1 ), 23 - 39. - bakoglidis kd, simeonidis k, sakellari d, g. stefanou, and angelakeris m. size - dependent mechanisms in ac magnetic hyperthermia response of iron - oxide nanoparticles. ieee transactions on magnetics. 2012. 48 : 1320 - 1323. - great layman ' s way of explaining magnetic hyperthermia http : / / trialx. com / curetalk / 2012 / 11 / cancer - treatment - multifunctional - magnetic - nanoparticles - for - molecular - imaging - and - hyperthermia / - a. j. giustini, a. a. petryk, s. m. cassim, j. a. tate, i. baker, p. j. hoopes. magnetic nanoparticle hyperthermia in cancer treatment. nano life 2010 ; 01 : 17. - d. ghosh, y. lee, s. thomas, a. g. kohli, d. s. yun, a. m. belcher, k. a. kelly. m13 - templated magnetic nanoparticles for targeted in vivo imaging of prostate cancer. nat. nanotechnol. 2012 ; 7 ( 10 ) : 677 \u2013 82. - add more references as deem appropriate 11 / 29 from professor angela belcher : - look at nature nano belcher lab paper - need to do very good characterization of materials using tem, elemental analysis, etc.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5351593298846593, "token_count": 345, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.386144"} {"text": "sleep apnea is a condition in which breathing is repeatedly interrupted during sleep. the time period for which the breathing stops or decreases is usually between 10 and 30 seconds. when these episodes occur repeatedly, sleep apnea can seriously disrupt the quality of sleep. there are three types of respiratory events : - obstructive apnea \u2014 caused by a temporary, partial, or complete blockage of the airway - central apnea \u2014 caused by a temporary failure to make an effort to breathe - mixed apnea \u2014 combination of the first two types these factors increase your chance of developing sleep apnea. tell your doctor if you have any of these risk factors : - sex : male - large neck circumference - age : middle to older age - family history of apnea structural abnormalities of the nose, throat, or other part of the respiratory tract. examples include : - severely enlarged tonsils - deviated nasal septum - medicines : sedatives and sleeping aids - alcohol consumption - fatigue and sleepiness during waking hours - loud snoring - breathing that stops during the night ( noticed by the partner ) - repeated waking at night - unrefreshing sleep - morning headaches - poor concentration or problems with memory - irritability or short temper people with chronic untreated sleep apnea may be at risk for : an overnight sleep study is used to help diagnose sleep apnea. overnight sleep study ( polysomnography ) this test helps detect the presence and severity of sleep apnea. during sleep, it measures your : - eye and muscle movements - brain activity ( electroencephalogram ) - heart rate - breathing ( pattern and depth ) - percent saturation of your red blood cells with oxygen there are a number of treatment options for sleep apnea, including : - lose weight if you are overweight. - avoid using sedatives, sleeping pills, alcohol, and nicotine, which tend to make the condition worse. - try sleeping on your side instead of your back. - place pillows strategically so you are as comfortable as possible. - for daytime sleepiness, practice safety measures, such as avoiding driving or operating potentially hazardous equipment. continuous positive airway pressure ( cpap ) entails wearing a mask over your nose and / or mouth during sleep. an air blower forces enough constant and continuous air through your air passages to prevent the tissues from collapsing and blocking the airway. in some cases, dental appliances that help keep the tongue or jaw in a more forward position may help. in some", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5219509739253574, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.389369"} {"text": "we had a running joke in science ed that kids get so overexposed to discrepant events involving density and air pressure that they tend to try to explain anything and everything they don ' t understand with respect to science in terms of those two concepts. why do we have seasons? ummm... air pressure? why did dr. smith use that particular research design? ummm... density? i think we need another catch - all explanation. i suggest index of refraction. to simplify greatly, index of refraction describes the amount of bending a light ray will undergo as it passes from one medium to another ( it ' s also related to the velocity of light in both media, but i do want to keep this simple ). if the two media have significantly different indices, light passing from one to the other at an angle ( not perpendicularly, in which case there is no bending ) will be bent more than if indices of the two are similar. the first four data points are from hyperphysics, the final one from wikipedia... glass has a wide range of compositions and thus indices of refraction. water at 20 c : 1. 33 typical soda - lime glass : close to 1. 5 since glycerine and glass have similar ior, light passing from one to the other isn ' t bent ; as long as both are transparent and similarly colored, each will be effectively \" invisible \" against the other. so, why does it rain? umm... index of refraction? a bright moon impact 12 hours ago", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6049736594975766, "token_count": 317, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.395291"} {"text": "an introduction to 127. 0. 0. 1 127. 0. 0. 1 is an ip address utilized for a looplock network connection. what does this mean? if a user tries to connect to this ip address, they will be sent back to their computer. the address is also known as a localhost. the localhost is the computer. how the localhost works if the command is relayed to the localhost, you would be hooked up to the system where the commands were sent out. for instance, suppose the computer is called \" joker \". if you telnet from the joker computer to the localhost, a message will appear. it will attempt to hook up to the localhost is employed in lieu of the computer hostname to be linked to. this ip address is the most wisely used localhost address. however, you can actually use any ip address provided it starts with 127. this means 127. *. *. * can be used as a localhost. establishing a connection with the loopback address is similar to creating a connection with remote network computers. the only difference is you don ' t have to deal with network for this reason it is widely utilized by software developers. it is also used by system administrators. it is often used for testing programs and apps. if the connection is ipv4, the computer ' s loopback address will be the 127. *. *. *. the subnet mask is typically 255. 0. 0. 0. this ip addresses 127. *. *. *. are defined in rfc 330 as special - use ipv4 addresses. the 127. 0. 0. 0 / 8 block is defined as the net host loopback address. if a higher level protocol sends a datagram anywhere in the block, it will be looped in the host. this is typically implemented with the 127. 0. 0. 1 / 32 for looplock. however, addresses in the block must not be visible anywhere else in the network. there is also a localhost ipv6 version. in rfc 3513, it is defined as internet protocol version 6 ( ipv6 ) addressing architecture : : 1 / 128. more information about the localhost in simple terms, the localhost means the computer. it is the hostname allocated loopback network interface address. the name is likewise a domain name. this will help prevent confusion with the hostname definition. in ipv6, the loopback ip address", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5361481604594478, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.400827"} {"text": "| gallium metal is silver - white and melts at approximately body temperature ( wikipedia image ). | | atomic number : | | 31 | | atomic radius : | | 187 pm ( van der waals ) | | atomic symbol : | | ga | | melting point : | | 29. 76 \u00b0c | | atomic weight : | | 69. 72 | | boiling point : | | 2204 \u00b0c | | electron configuration : | | [ ar ] 4s23d104p1 | | oxidation states : | | 3 | from the latin word gallia, france ; also from latin, gallus, a translation of \" lecoq, \" a cock. predicted and described by mendeleev as ekaaluminum, and discovered spectroscopically by lecoq de boisbaudran in 1875, who in the same year obtained the free metal by electrolysis of a solution of the hydroxide in koh. gallium is often found as a trace element in diaspore, sphalerite, germanite, bauxite, and coal. some flue dusts from burning coal have been shown to contain as much 1. 5 percent gallium. it is one of four metals - - mercury, cesium, and rubidium - - which can be liquid near room temperature and, thus, can be used in high - temperature thermometers. it has one of the longest liquid ranges of any metal and has a low vapor pressure even at high temperatures. there is a strong tendency for gallium to supercool below its freezing point. therefore, seeding may be necessary to initiate solidification. ultra - pure gallium has a beautiful, silvery appearance, and the solid metal exhibits a conchoidal fracture similar to glass. the metal expands 3. 1 percent on solidifying ; therefore, it should not be stored in glass or metal containers, because they may break as the metal solidifies. high - purity gallium is attacked only slowly by mineral acids. gallium wets glass or porcelain and forms a brilliant mirror when it is painted on glass. it is widely used in doping semiconductors and producing solid - state devices such as transistors. magnesium gallate containing divalent impurities, such as mn + 2, is finding use in commercial ultraviolet - activated powder phosphors. gallium arsenide is capable of converting electricity directly into coherent light. gallium readily alloys with most metals, and has been used as a component in low - melting alloys.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5180905403226441, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.408058"} {"text": "from oxford university press : there is a broad consensus among scholars that the idea of human rights was a product of the enlightenment but that a self - conscious and broad - based human rights movement focused on international law only began after world war ii. in this narrative, the nineteenth century ' s absence is conspicuous - - few have considered that era seriously, much less written books on it. but as jenny martinez shows in this novel interpretation of the roots of human rights law, the foundation of the movement that we know today was a product of one of the nineteenth century ' s central moral causes : the movement to ban the international slave trade. originating in england in the late eighteenth century, abolitionism achieved remarkable success over the course of the nineteenth century. martinez focuses in particular on the international admiralty courts, which tried the crews of captured slave ships. the courts, which were based in the caribbean, west africa, cape town, and brazil, helped free at least 80, 000 africans from captured slavers between 1807 and 1871. here then, buried in the dusty archives of admiralty courts, ships ' logs, and the british foreign office, are the foundations of contemporary human rights law : international courts targeting states and non - state transnational actors while working on behalf the world ' s most persecuted peoples - - captured west africans bound for the slave plantations of the americas. fueled by a powerful thesis and novel evidence, martinez ' s work will reshape the fields of human rights history and international human rights law. - forces us to fundamentally rethink the origins of human rights activism - filled with fascinating stories of captured slave ship crews brought to trial across the atlantic world in the nineteenth century - shows how the prosecution of the international slave trade was crucial to the development of modern international law", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5035230322533706, "token_count": 353, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.409761"} {"text": "phantom phone calls ospri. net - alleged contact with the dead has occurred universally throughout history, taking various forms ; as dreams, waking visions and auditory hallucinations, either spontaneous or induced through trance. in many cultures, the spirits of the dead have been sought for their wisdom, advice and knowledge of the future. the dead also seem to initiate their own communication, using whatever means seem to be most effective. with the advent of electromagnetic technology, mysterious messages have been communicated by telegraph, wireless, phonographs and radio. a curious phenomenon of modern times is the communication via the telephone. phone calls from the dead seem to be random and occasional occurrences that happen without explanation. the great majority are exchanges between persons who shared a close emotional tie while both were living : spouses, parents and children, siblings, and occasionally friends and other relatives. most communications are \" intention \" calls, initiated by the deceased to impart a message, such as farewell upon death, a warning of impending danger, or information the living needs to carry out a task. for example, actress ida lupino ' s father, stanley, who died intestate in london during world war ii, called lupino six months after his death to relate information concerning his estate, the location of some unknown but important papers. some calls appear to have no other purpose than to make contact with the living ; many of these occur on emotionally charged \" anniversary \" days, such as mothers day or fathers day, a birthday or holiday. in a typical \u201d anniversary \u201d call, the dead may do nothing more than repeat a phrase over and over, such as \" hello, mom, is that you? \" persons who have received phone calls from the dead report that the voices are exactly the same as when the deceased was living, furthermore, the voice often uses pet names and words. the telephone usually rings normally, although some recipients say that the ring sounded flat and abnormal. in many cases, the connection is bad, with a great deal of static and line noise, and occasionally the faint voices of the other persons are heard, as though lines have been crossed. in many cases, the voice of the dead one is difficult to hear and grows fainter as the call goes on. sometimes, the voice just fades away but the line remains open, and the recipient hangs up after giving up on further communication. sometimes the call is terminated by the dead and the recipient hers the click of disengagement, other times, the line simply goes dead. the phantom phone calls typically", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_entanglement", "similarity_score": 0.5255609301479602, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.416286"} {"text": "line remains open, and the recipient hangs up after giving up on further communication. sometimes the call is terminated by the dead and the recipient hers the click of disengagement, other times, the line simply goes dead. the phantom phone calls typically occur when the recipient is in a passive state of mind. if the recipient knows the caller is dead, the shock is great and the phone call very brief, invariably, the caller terminates the call after a few seconds or minutes, or the line goes dead. if the recipient does not know the caller is dead, a lengthy conversation of up to 30 minutes or so may take place, during which the recipient is not aware of anything amiss. in a minority of cases, the call is placed person - to - person, long - distance with the assistance of a mysterious operator. checks with the telephone company later turn up no evidence of a call being places. similar phone calls from the dead are \" intention \" phone calls occurring between two living persons. such calls are much rarer than calls from the dead. in a typical \" intention \" call, the caller thinks about making the call but never does, the recipient nevertheless receives a call. in some cases, emergencies precipitate phantom calls, a surgeon is summoned by a nurse to the hospital to perform an emergency operation, a priest is called by a \" relative \" to give last rites to a dying man and so forth. some persons who claim to have had ufo encounters report receiving harassing phantom phone calls. the calls are received soon after the witness returns home, or within a day or two of the encounter, in many cases, the calls come before the witness has shared the experience with anyone, stranger still, they are often placed to unlisted phone numbers. the unidentified caller warns the witness not to talk and to \" forget \" what he or she saw. phone calls allegedly may be placed to the dead as well. the caller does not find out until sometime after the call that the person on the other end has been dead. in one such case, a woman dreamed of a female friend she had not seen for several years. in the disturbing dream, she witnessed the friend sliding down into a pool of blood. upon awakening, she worried that the dream was a portent of trouble, and called the friend. she was relieved when the friend answered. the friend explained that she had been in the hospital, had been released and was due to be readmitted in a few days. she demurred when the woman offered to visit", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_entanglement", "similarity_score": 0.5128792166649556, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.417339"} {"text": "and called the friend. she was relieved when the friend answered. the friend explained that she had been in the hospital, had been released and was due to be readmitted in a few days. she demurred when the woman offered to visit, saying she would call later. the return call never came. the woman called her friend again, to be told by a relative that the friend has been dead for six months at the time the conversation took place. in several cases studied by researchers, the deceased callers make reference to an anonymous \u201d they \u201d and caution that there is little time to talk. the remarks imply that communication between the living and the dead is not only difficult, but not necessarily desirable. most phone calls from the dead occur within 24 hours of the death of the caller. most short calls come from those who have been dead seven days or less : most lengthy calls come from those who have been dead several months. one of the longest death - intervals on record is two years. in a small number of cases, the callers are strangers who say they are calling on behalf of a third party, whom the recipient later discovered is dead. several theories exist as to the origin of phantom phone calls. ( 1 ) they are indeed placed by the dead, who somehow manipulate the telephone mechanisms and circuitry : ( 2 ) they are deceptions of elemental - type spirits who enjoy playing tricks on the living : ( 3 ) they are psychokinetic acts caused subconsciously by the recipient, whose intense desire to communicate with the dead creates a type of hallucinatory experience : ( 4 ) they are entirely fantasy created by the recipient. for the most part, phantom phone calls are not seriously regarded by parapsychologists. in the early 20th century, numerous devices were built by investigators in hopes of capturing ghostly voices : many of them were modifications of the telegraph and wireless. thomas alva edison, whose parents were spiritualists, believed that a telephone could be invented that would connect the living to the dead. he verified that he was working on such a device, but apparently it never was completed before his death. \" psychic telephone \" experiments were conducted in the 1940 ' s in england and america. interest in the phenomenon waned until the 1960 \u2019 s, following the findings of konstantin raudive that ghostly voices could be captured on electromagnetic tape.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_entanglement", "similarity_score": 0.5290522403649642, "token_count": 474, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.418280"} {"text": "researchers at ut southwestern medical center have found that fluctuations in internal body temperature regulate the body ' s circadian rhythm, the 24 - hour cycle that controls metabolism, sleep and other bodily functions. a light - sensitive portion of the brain called the suprachiasmatic nucleus ( scn ) remains the body ' s \" master clock \" that coordinates the daily cycle, but it does so indirectly, according to a study published by ut southwestern researchers in the oct. 15 issue of science. the scn responds to light entering the eye, and so is sensitive to cycles of day and night. while light may be the trigger, the ut southwestern researchers determined that the scn transforms that information into neural signals that set the body ' s temperature. these cyclic fluctuations in temperature then set the timing of cells, and ultimately tissues and organs, to be active or inactive, the study showed. scientists have long known that body temperature fluctuates in warm - blooded animals throughout the day on a 24 - hour, or circadian, rhythm, but the new study shows that temperature actually controls body cycles, said dr. joseph takahashi, chairman of neuroscience at ut southwestern and senior author of the study. \" small changes in body temperature can send a powerful signal to the clocks in our bodies, \" said dr. takahashi, an investigator with the howard hughes medical institute. \" it takes only a small change in internal body temperature to synchronize cellular ' clocks ' throughout the body. \" daily changes in temperature span only a few degrees and stay within normal healthy ranges. this mechanism has nothing to do with fever or environmental temperature, dr. takahashi said. this system might be a modification of an ancient circadian control system that first developed in other organisms, including cold - blooded animals, whose daily biological cycles are affected by external temperature changes, dr. takahashi said. \" circadian rhythms in plants, simple organisms and cold - blooded animals are very sensitive to temperature, so it makes sense that over the course of evolution, this primordial mechanism could have been modified in warm - blooded animals, \" he said. in the current study, the researchers focused on cultured mouse cells and tissues, and found that genes related to circadian functions were controlled by temperature fluctuations. scn cells were not temperature - sensitive, however. this finding makes sense, dr. takahashi said, because if the scn, as the master control mechanism, responded to temperature cues, a disruptive feedback loop could result, he said. explore further : now we know why old scizoph", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5631787932852734, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.420985"} {"text": "major section : break - rewrite example : ( brr @ : target ) ; the term being rewritten ( brr @ : unify - subst ) ; the unifying substitutionwhere general form : ( brr @ : symbol ) : symbolis one of the following keywords. those marked with * probably require an implementor ' s knowledge of the system to use effectively. they are supported but not well documented. more is said on this topic following the table. : symbol ( brr @ : symbol ) - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - in general : target the term to be rewritten. this term is an instantiation of the left - hand side of the conclusion of the rewrite - rule being broken. this term is in translated form! thus, if you are expecting ( equal x nil ) - - and your expectation is almost right - - you will see ( equal x ' nil ) ; similarly, instead of ( cadr a ) you will see ( car ( cdr a ) ). in translated forms, all constants are quoted ( even nil, t, strings and numbers ) and all macros are expanded. : unify - subst the substitution that, when applied to : target, produces the left - hand side of the rule being broken. this substitution is an alist pairing variable symbols to translated (! ) terms. : wonp t or nil indicating whether the rune was successfully applied. ( brr @ : wonp ) returns nil if evaluated before : evaling the rule. : rewritten - rhs the result of successfully applying the rule or else nil if ( brr @ : wonp ) is nil. the result of successfully applying the rule is always a translated (! ) term and is never nil. : failure - reason some non - nil lisp object indicating why the rule was not applied or else nil. before the rule is : evaled, ( brr @ : failure - reason ) is nil. after : evaling the rule, ( brr @ : failure - reason ) is nil if ( brr @ : wonp ) is t. rather than document the various non - nil objects returned as the failure reason, we encourage you simply to evaluate ( brr @ : failure - reason ) in the contexts of interest. alternatively, study the acl2 function tilde -", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5569912078052003, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.426392"} {"text": "t. rather than document the various non - nil objects returned as the failure reason, we encourage you simply to evaluate ( brr @ : failure - reason ) in the contexts of interest. alternatively, study the acl2 function tilde - @ - failure - reason - phrase. : lemma * the rewrite rule being broken. for example, ( access rewrite - rule ( brr @ : lemma ) : lhs ) will return the left - hand side of the conclusion of the rule. : type - alist * a display of the type - alist governing : target. elements on the displayed list are of the form ( term type ), where term is a term and type describes information about term assumed to hold in the current context. the type - alist may be used to determine the current assumptions, e. g., whether a is a consp. : ancestors * a stack of frames indicating the backchain history of the current context. the theorem prover is in the process of trying to establish each hypothesis in this stack. thus, the negation of each hypothesis can be assumed false. each frame also records the rules on behalf of which this backchaining is being done and the weight ( function symbol count ) of the hypothesis. all three items are involved in the heuristic for preventing infinite backchaining. exception : some frames are ` ` binding hypotheses ' ' ( equal var term ) or ( equiv var ( double - rewrite term ) ) that bind variable var to the result of rewriting term. : gstack * the current goal stack. the gstack is maintained by rewrite and is the data structure printed as the current ` ` path. ' ' thus, any information derivable from the : path brr command is derivable from gstack. for example, from gstack one might determine that the current term is the second hypothesis of a certain rewrite rule. brr @ - expressionsare used in break conditions, the expressions that determine whether interactive breaks occur when monitored runes are applied. see monitor. for example, you might want to break only those attempts in which one particular term is being rewritten or only those attempts in which the binding for the variable ais known to be a consp. such conditions can be expressed using acl2 system functions and the information provided by brr @. unfortunately, digging some of this information out of the internal data structures may be awkward or may, at least", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5898317157849992, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.427422"} {"text": "step - by - step instructions for activities like folding paper airplanes is testament to the generalized longing for play ' s good old days. so were the questions after stuart brown ' s library talk ; one woman asked how her children will learn trust, empathy and social skills when their most frequent playing is done online. brown told her that while video games do have some play value, a true sense of ' ' interpersonal nuance ' ' can be achieved only by a child who is engaging all five senses by playing in the three - dimensional world. this is part of a larger conversation americans are having about play. parents bobble between a nostalgia - infused yearning for their children to play and fear that time spent playing is time lost to more practical pursuits. alarming headlines about u. s. students falling behind other countries in science and math, combined with the ever - more - intense competition to get kids into college, make parents rush to sign up their children for piano lessons and test - prep courses instead of just leaving them to improvise on their own ; playtime versus r? m? uilding. discussions about play force us to reckon with our underlying ideas about childhood, sex differences, creativity and success. do boys play differently than girls? are children being damaged by staring at computer screens and video games? are they missing something when fantasy play is populated with characters from hollywood ' s imagination and not their own? most of these issues are too vast to be addressed by a single field of study ( let alone a magazine article ). but the growing science of play does have much to add to the conversation. armed with research grounded in evolutionary biology and experimental neuroscience, some scientists have shown themselves eager - - at times perhaps a little too eager - - to promote a scientific argument for play. they have spent the past few decades learning how and why play evolved in animals, generating insights that can inform our understanding of its evolution in humans too. they are studying, from an evolutionary perspective, to what extent play is a luxury that can be dispensed with when there are too many other competing claims on the growing brain, and to what extent it is central to how that brain grows in the first place. scientists who study play, in animals and humans alike, are developing a consensus view that play is something more than a way for restless kids to work off steam ; more than a way for chubby kids to burn off calories ; more than a frivolous luxury. play, in their view, is a central part of neurological growth and development -", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5357792738118983, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.493621"} {"text": "buildings, equipment, intangible assets ( like patents ) | liabilities | | liabilities are creditors ' claims for funds, usually because they have provided funds, or goods and services, to the firm. | examples : accounts payable, unearned income, notes payable, buildings, accrued salaries | shareholders ' equity | | shareholders ' equity shows the amounts of funds owners have provided and, in parallel, their claims on the assets of a firm. | examples : common stock, contributed capital, retained earnings | what are the separate sections on a balance sheet ( balance sheet classification ) | | 1. current assets represent assets that a firm expects to turn into cash, or sell, or consume within approximately one year from the date of the balance sheet ( i. e., accounts receivable and inventory ). | 2. current liabilities represent obligations a firm expects to pay within one year ( i. e., accounts payable and salaries payable ). 3. non - current assets are typically held and used for several years ( i. e., land, buildings, equipment, patents, long - term security investments ). 4. noncurrent liabilities and shareholders ' equity are sources of funds where the supplier of funds does not expect to receive them all back within the next year. | income statement | | 1. sometimes called the statement of profit and loss by firms applying ifrs | 2. provides information on profitability 3. may use the terms net income, earnings, and profit interchangeably 4. reports amounts for a period of time 5. typically one year 6. is represented by the basic income equation : net income = revenues - expenses | revenues | | ( also known as sales, sales revenue, or turnover, a term used by some firms reporting under ifrs ) measure the inflows of assets ( or reductions in liabilities ) from selling goods and providing services to customers. | | expenses | | measure the outflow of assets ( or increases in liabilities ) used in generating revenues. | | relationship between the balance sheet and the income statement | | 1. the income statement links the balance sheet at the beginning of the period with the balance sheet at the end of the period. | 2. retained earnings is increased by net income and decreased by dividends. | statement of cash flows | | the statement of cash flows ( also called the | cash flow statement ) reports information about cash generated from or used by : 2. investing, and 3. financing activities during specified time periods", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5195382979152157, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.524204"} {"text": "or sales : | ( common income statement terms ) | assets received in exchange for goods sold and services rendered. | | cost of goods sold : | ( common income statement terms ) | the cost of products sold. | | selling, general, and administrative ( sg & a ) : | ( common income statement terms ) | costs incurred to sell products / services as well as costs of administration. | | research and development ( r & d ) expense : | ( common income statement terms ) | costs incurred to create / develop new products, processes, and services. | | interest income : | ( common income statement terms ) | income earned on amounts lent to others or from investments in interest - yielding securities. | | unique relationships exist between the balance sheet and the income statement | | important account differences | | 1. balance sheet accounts are permanent accounts in the sense that they remain open, with nonzero balances, at the end of the reporting period. | 2. in contrast, income statement accounts are temporary accounts in the sense that they start a period with a zero balance, accumulate information during the reporting period, and have a zero balance at the end of the reporting period. | the financial statement relationships can be summarized as : | - after preparing the end - of - period income statement, the accountant transfers the balance in each temporary revenue and expense account to the retained earnings account. - this procedure is called closing the revenue and expense accounts. after transferring to retained earnings, each revenue and expense account is ready to begin the next period with a zero balance. | expense and revenue transactions | | dividend declaration and payment | | issues of capital stock | | posting | | 1. after each transaction is recognized by a journal entry, the information is transferred in the accounting system via an activity known as posting. | 2. the balance sheet ledger accounts ( or permanent accounts ) where these are posted begin each period with a balance equal to the ending balance of the previous period. 3. the income statement ledger accounts ( or temporary accounts ) have zero beginning balances. | adjusting entries | | there are some journal entries that are not triggered by a transaction or exchange. | - rather, journal entries known as adjusting entries, result from the passage of time at the end of an accounting period or are used to correct errors ( more commonly known as correcting entries ). | four basic types of adjusting entries | | 1. unearned revenues | | closing process | | 1. after adjusting and correcting entries are made, the income statement can be", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5034217776818307, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.529169"} {"text": "intel demonstrated a wireless electric power system that could revolutionize modern life by eliminating chargers, wall outlets and eventually batteries all together by 2050. intel chief technology officer justin rattner demonstrated a wireless energy resonant link at intel \u2019 s 2008 developer \u2019 s forum. during the demo electricity was sent wirelessly to a lamp on stage, lighting a 60 watt bulb that uses more power than a typical laptop computer. most importantly, the electricity was transmitted without zapping anything or anyone that got between the sending and receiving units. \u201c the trick with wireless power is not can you do it ; it \u2019 s can you do it safely and efficiently, \u201d according to intel researcher josh smith. \u201c it turns out the human body is not affected by magnetic fields ; it is affected by elective fields. so what we are doing is transmitting energy using the magnetic field not the electric field. \u201d examples of potential applications include airports, offices or other buildings that could be rigged to supply power to laptops, mobile telephones or other devices toted into them. the technology could also be built into plugged in computer components, such as monitors, to enable them to broadcast power to devices left on desks or carried into rooms, according to mr. smith. - duracell, energizer, texas instruments and motorola mobility in attendance at the international wireless power summit ( prweb. com ) - british start - up working to bring wireless charging to the racetrack ( wheels. blogs. nytimes. com )", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5581101952581009, "token_count": 303, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.531315"} {"text": "by roger fox i doubt the keystone project is even a real long term goal by transcanada,. certainly in the big picture keystone is only a single chapter in a much larger book. if you read this diary you will risk information overload, you will be offered numerous disparate data points that at first glance may seem unconnected. you will need to digest all the information offered, and then analyze. crude is is classified by the american petroleum institute ( api ) into light, medium, heavy and extra heavy crudes, by api gravity. if its api gravity is greater than 10, it is lighter and floats on water ; if less than 10, it is heavier and sinks. the albert tar sands contain crudes of api 10 or less that is called extra heavy or bitumen. heavy oil is defined as having an api gravity below 22. 3, medium oil is defined as having an api gravity between 22. 3 \u00b0api and 31. 1 \u00b0api, light crude oil is defined as having an api gravity higher than 31. 1. at a production rate of 3 million barells a day the tar sands can last for 170 years. this would also mean a hole in the ground visible from orbit. the keystone pipeline is only one of a couple of handfuls of pipeline proposals over the last decade in the western us, canada and alaska. alaskan nat gas is largely unexploited, and is used locally on the north slope. its estimated that 70 trillion cubic feet of nat gas can be found in alaska, a lot of it in the north slope area. there are at least 3 major proposals for nat gas pipelines from the north slope area and the adjacent mackenzie river delta in canada. 2 of these projects point right at alberta. transcanada and exxon mobil are partnered in the alaska gas pipeline proposal that will directly link nat gas production in the north slope of alaska thru alberta to the us mid west. this project may be the same as the denali proposal, and was reintroduced to thesenate in feb, of 2011. there also at least 2 variations. additionally there is the dempster lateral. - > next page : follow the routes south", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5367376627803235, "token_count": 443, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.534625"} {"text": "w hy is it important for scientists to contribute to science education? our nation has failed to meet important educational challenges, and our children are ill prepared to respond to the demands of today? s world. results of the third international mathematics and science study ( timss ) - - and its successor, timss - r - - show that the relatively strong international performance of u. s. 4th graders successively deteriorates across 8th - and 12th - grade cohorts. related studies indicate that u. s. prek - 12 curricula lack coherence, depth, and continuity and cover too many topics superficially. by high school, unacceptably low numbers of students show motivation or interest in enrolling in physics ( only one - quarter of all students ) or chemistry ( only one - half ). we are rapidly approaching universal participation at the postsecondary level, but we still have critical science, technology, engineering, and mathematics ( stem ) workforce needs and too few teachers who have studied science or mathematics. science and engineering degrees as a percentage of the degrees conferred each year have remained relatively constant at about 5 %. in this group, women and minorities are gravely underrepresented. the consequences of these conditions are serious. the u. s. department of labor estimates that 60 % of the new jobs being created in our economy today will require technological literacy, yet only 22 % of the young people entering the job market now actually possess those skills. by 2010, all jobs will require some form of technological literacy, and 80 % of those jobs haven? t even been created yet. we must prepare our students for a world that we ourselves cannot completely anticipate. this will require the active involvement of scientists and engineers. how is nsf seeking to encourage scientists to work on educational issues? the nsf strategic plan includes two relevant goals : to develop \" a diverse, internationally competitive, and globally engaged workforce of scientists, engineers, and well - prepared citizens \" and to support \" discovery across the frontiers of science and engineering, connected to learning, innovation, and service to society. \" to realize both of these goals, our nation? s scientists and engineers must care about the educational implications of their work and explore educational issues as seriously and knowledgeably as they do their research questions. the phrase \" integration of research and education \" conveys two ideas. first, good research generates an educational asset, and we must effectively use that asset. second, we need to encourage more scientists and engineers to pursue research careers that focus", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5242473007280817, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.552735"} {"text": "research questions. the phrase \" integration of research and education \" conveys two ideas. first, good research generates an educational asset, and we must effectively use that asset. second, we need to encourage more scientists and engineers to pursue research careers that focus on teaching and learning within their own disciplines. all proposals submitted to nsf for funding must address two merit criteria : intellectual merit and broader impacts. in everyday terms, our approach to evaluating the broader impact of proposals is built on the philosophy that scientists and engineers should pay attention to teaching and value it, and that their institutions should recognize, support, and reward faculty, as well as researchers in government and industry, who take their role as educators seriously and approach instruction as a scholarly act. we think of education very broadly, including formal education ( k - graduate and postdoctoral study ) and informal education ( efforts to promote public understanding of science and research outside the traditional educational environment ). what does it mean to take education seriously and explore it knowledgeably? any scholarly approach to education must be intentional, be based on a valid body of knowledge, and be rigorously assessed. that is, our approach to educational questions must be a scholarly act. nsf actively invests in educational reform and models that encourage scientists and engineers to improve curriculum, teaching, and learning in science and mathematics at all levels of the educational system from elementary school to graduate study and postdoctoral work. we recognize that to interest faculty and practicing scientists and engineers in education, we must support research that generates convincing evidence that changing how we approach the teaching of science and mathematics will pay off in better learning and deeper interest in these fields. here are a few of the most recent efforts to stimulate interest in education that might be of interest to next wave readers. ( for more information, go to the nsf education and human resources directorate ' s web site. ) the gk - 12 program supports fellowships and training to enable stem graduate students and advanced undergraduates to serve in k - 12 schools as resources in stem content and applications. outcomes include improved communication and teaching skills for the fellows, increased content knowledge for prek - 12 teachers, enriched prek - 12 student learning, and stronger partnerships between higher education and local schools. the centers for learning and teaching ( clt ) program is a \" comprehensive, research - based effort that addresses critical issues and national needs of the stem instructional workforce across the entire spectrum of formal and informal education. \" the goal of the clt program is to support the development of new approaches to the assessment of learning, research on learning", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5713942403301753, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.553906"} {"text": "- based effort that addresses critical issues and national needs of the stem instructional workforce across the entire spectrum of formal and informal education. \" the goal of the clt program is to support the development of new approaches to the assessment of learning, research on learning within the disciplines, the design and development of effective curricular materials, and research - based approaches to instruction - - and through this work to increase the number of people who do research on education in the stem fields. this year ( fy 02 ) we are launching some prototype higher education centers to reform teaching and learning in our nation ' s colleges and universities through a mix of research, faculty development and exploration of instructional practices that can promote learning. like other nsf efforts, the centers incorporate a balanced strategy of attention to people, ideas and tools. we hope to encourage more science and engineering faculty to work on educational issues in both k - 12 and in postsecondary education. if you are interested in these issues and want to pursue graduate or postdoctoral study, or want to develop a research agenda on learning in stem fields, find the location and goals of the currently funded centers and also check later this summer to find out which higher education clt prototypes are funded. the following solicitations all involve the integration of research and education as well as attention to broadening participation in stem careers : the science, technology, engineering, and mathematics talent expansion program ( step ) program seeks to increase the number of students ( u. s. citizens or permanent residents ) pursuing and receiving associate or baccalaureate degrees in established or emerging fields within stem. the faculty early career development ( career ) program recognizes and supports the early career development activities of those teacher - scholars who are most likely to become the academic leaders of the 21st century. the course, curriculum, and laboratory improvement ( ccli ) program seeks to improve the quality of stem education for all students and targets activities affecting learning environments, course content, curricula, and educational practices. ccli offers three tracks : educational materials development, national dissemination, and adaptation and implementation. the integrative graduate education and research training ( igert ) program addresses the challenges of preparing ph. d. scientists and engineers with the multidisciplinary backgrounds and the technical, professional, and personal skills needed for the career demands of the future. the vertical integration of research and education in the mathematical sciences ( vigre ) program supports institutions with ph. d. - granting departments in the mathematical sciences in carrying out innovative educational programs, at all levels, that are integrated with", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5327837039580134, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.554926"} {"text": "file compression is to perform some algorithm on the file that reduces it in size but the reverse of the algorithm will return it to its original form. in data files, the compression and decompression must be lossless which means that the data must be returned to its exact form. there are various methods to do this : some hardware implementations and some software. the most popular ones that are implemented in hardware usually use a limpel - ziv algorithm to look for repeating sequences over a set span of data ( the run ) and replace that with special identifying information. compression does save space but may take extra time ( latency ). video and music data are typically already compressed. the compression rates are usually very high because of the data and the fact that a lossy compression algorithm is used. it can be lossy ( meaning that all bits may not be decompressed exactly ) because it won ' t be noticeable with video or music. zip files are the result of software compression. another compression round on already compressed data will probably not yield any substantial gain. evaluator group, inc. editor ' s note : do you agree with this expert ' s response? if you have more to share, post it in our storage networking forum at http : / / searchstorage. discussions. techtarget. com / webx? 50 @ @. ee83ce4 or e - mail us directly at firstname. lastname @ example. org. this was first published in december 2001", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5586164942465943, "token_count": 302, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.556547"} {"text": "classroom activities for teaching sedimentary geologythis collection of teaching materials allows for the sharing of ideas and activities within the community of geoscience teachers. do you have a favorite teaching activity you ' d like to share? please help us expand this collection by contributing your own teaching materials. subject : sedimentary geology results 1 - 4 of 4 matches chemical and physical weathering field and lab experiment : development and testing of hypotheses part of activities lisa greer, washington and lee university this exercise combines an integrated field and laboratory experiment with a significant scientific writing assignment to address chemical and physical weathering processes via hypothesis development, experimental... demystifying the equations of sedimentary geology part of activities larry lemke, wayne state university this activity includes three strategies to help students develop a deeper comfort level and stronger intuitive sense for understanding mathematical expressions commonly encountered in sedimentary geology. each can... digital sandstone tutorial part of activities kitty milliken, university of texas at austin, the the tutorial petrographic image atlas is designed to give students more exposure to petrographic features than they can get during organized laboratory periods. red rock and concretion models from earth to mars : teaching diagenesis part of activities margie chan, university of utah this activity teaches students concepts of terrestrial diagenesis ( cementation, fluid flow, porosity and permeability, concretions ) and encourages them to apply those concepts to new or unknown settings, including...", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5276048209625708, "token_count": 294, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.566899"} {"text": "- exam wrappers. as david thompson describes the process, \" exam wrappers required students to reflect on their performance before and after seeing their graded tests. \" the first four questions, completed just prior to receiving their graded test, asked students to report the time they spent preparing for the test, their methods of preparation, and their predicted test grade. after reviewing their graded test, students completed the final three reflection questions, including a categorization of test mistakes and a list of changes to implement in preparation for the next test. thompson then collected and made copies of the wrappers returned them to the students several days later, reminding them to consider what they planned to do differently or the same in preparation for the upcoming test. thompson reports that each reflection exercise required only 8 - 10 minutes of class time. clara hardy and others also describes uses exam wrappers. - reading reflections. as karl wirth writes, reading reflections, effectively outlined by david bressoud ( 2008 ), are designed to address some of the challenges students face with college - level reading assignments. students submit online reading reflections ( e. g., using moodle or blackboard ) after completing each reading assignment and before coming to class. in each reflection, students summarize the important concepts of the reading and describe what was interesting, surprising, or confusing to them. the reading reflections not only encourage students to read regularly before class, but they also promote content mastery and foster student development of monitoring, self - evaluation, and reflection skills. for the instructor, reading reflections facilitate \" just - in - time \" teaching and provide invaluable insights into student thinking and learning. according to wirth, expert readers are skilled at using a wide range of strategies during all phases of reading ( e. g., setting goals for learning, monitoring comprehension during reading, checking comprehension, and self - reflection ), but most college instruction simply assumes the mastery of such metacognitive skills. - knowledge surveys. many members of the group were influenced by karl wirth ' s work on \" knowledge surveys \" as a central strategy for helping students think about their thinking. knowledge surveys involve simple self - reports from students about their knowledge of course concepts and content. in knowledge surveys, students are presented with different facets of course content and are asked to indicate whether they know the answer, know some of the answer, or don ' t know the answer. faculty can use these reports to gauge how confident students feel in their understanding of course material at the beginning or end of a course, before", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5105289347962538, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.570445"} {"text": "bottom waters, takes the form of a spiral or helix. more than 95 per cent of the river ' s energy is lost in turbulence and friction. the direction of the flow of the thames is therefore quixotic. it might be assumed that it would move eastwards, but it defies any simple prediction. it flows north - west above henley and at teddington, west above abingdon, south from cookham and north above marlow and kingston. this has to do with the variegated curves of the river. it does not meander like the euphrates, where according to herodotus the voyager came upon the same village three times on three separate days, but it is circuitous. it specialises in loops. it will take the riparian traveller two or three times as long to cover the same distance as a companion on the high road. so the thames teaches you to take time, and to view the world from a different vantage. the average \" fall \" or decline of the river from its beginning to its end is approximately 17 to 21 inches ( 432 to 533 mm ) per mile. it follows gravity, and seeks out perpetually the simplest way to the sea. it falls some 600 feet ( 183 m ) from source to sea, with a relatively precipitous decline of 300 feet ( 91. 5 m ) in the first 9 miles ; it falls 100 ( 30. 4 m ) more in the next 11 miles, with a lower average for the rest of its course. yet averages may not be so important. they mask the changeability and idiosyncrasy of the thames. the mean width of the river is given as 1, 000 feet ( 305 m ), and a mean depth of 30 feet ( 9 m ) ; but the width varies from 1 or 2 feet ( 0. 3 to 0. 6 m ) at trewsbury to 51u2 miles at the nore. the tide, in the words of tennyson, is that which \" moving seems asleep, too full for sound and foam. \" on its flood inward it can promise benefit or danger ; on its ebb seaward it suggests separation or adventure. it is one general movement but it comprises a thousand different streams and eddies ; there are opposing streams, and high water is not necessarily the same thing as high tide. the water will sometimes begin to fall before the tide is over. the average speed of the tide lies between 1 and 3 knots ( 1. 15 and 3. 45 miles", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5081824631337143, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.588043"} {"text": "becomes a place of recreation, breezy and jaunty with the skiffs and the punts, the sports in port meadow and the picnic parties on the banks by binsey. but then by some change of light it becomes dark green, surrounded by vegetation like a jungle river ; and then the traveller begins to see the dwellings of oxford, and the river changes again. oxford is a pivotal point. from there you can look upward and consider the quiet source ; or you can look downstream and contemplate the coming immensity of london. in the reaches before lechlade the water makes its way through isolated pastures ; at wapping and rotherhithe the dwellings seem to drop into it, as if overwhelmed by numbers. the elements of rusticity and urbanity are nourished equally by the thames. that is why parts of the river induce calm and forgetfulness, and others provoke anxiety and despair. it is the river of dreams, but it is also the river of suicide. it has been called liquid history because within itself it dissolves and carries all epochs and generations. they ebb and flow like water. the river as metaphor the river runs through the language, and we speak of its influence in every conceivable context. it is employed to characterise life and death, time and destiny ; it is used as a metaphor for continuity and dissolution, for intimacy and transitoriness, for art and history, for poetry itself. in the principles of psychology ( 1890 ) william james first coined the phrase \" stream of consciousness \" in which \" every definite image of the mind is steeped... in the free water that flows around it. \" thus \" it flows \" like the river itself. yet the river is also a token of the unconscious, with its suggestion of depth and invisible life. the river is a symbol of eternity, in its unending cycle of movement and change. it is one of the few such symbols that can readily be understood, or appreciated, and in the continuing stream the mind or soul can begin to contemplate its own possible immortality. in the poetry of john denham ' s \" cooper ' s hill \" ( 1642 ), the thames is a metaphor for human life. how slight its beginning, how confident its continuing course, how ineluctable its destination within the great ocean : hasting to pay his tribute to the sea, like mortal life to meet eternity. the poetry of the thames has always emphasised its affiliations with human purpose and with human realities", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5375247881710026, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.590943"} {"text": "course, how ineluctable its destination within the great ocean : hasting to pay his tribute to the sea, like mortal life to meet eternity. the poetry of the thames has always emphasised its affiliations with human purpose and with human realities. so the personality of the river changes in the course of its journey from the purity of its origins to the broad reaches of the commercial world. the river in its infancy is undefiled, innocent and clear. by the time it is closely pent in by the city, it has become dank and foul, defiled by greed and speculation. in this regress it is the paradigm of human life and of human history. yet the river has one great advantage over its metaphoric companions. it returns to its source, and its corruption can be reversed. that is why baptism was once instinctively associated with the river. the thames has been an emblem of redemption and of renewal, of the hope of escaping from time itself. when wordsworth observed the river at low tide, with the vista of the \" mighty heart \" of london \" lying still, \" he used the imagery of human circulation. it is the image of the river as blood, pulsing through the veins and arteries of its terrain, without which the life of london would seize up. sir walter raleigh, contemplating the thames from the walk by his cell in the tower, remarked that the \" blood which disperseth itself by the branches or veins through all the body, may be resembled to these waters which are carried by brooks and rivers overall the earth. \" he wrote his history of the world ( 1610 ) from his prison cell, and was deeply imbued with the current of the thames as a model of human destiny. it has been used as the symbol for the unfolding of events in time, and carries the burden of past events upon its back. for raleigh the freight of time grew ever more complex and wearisome as it proceeded from its source ; human life had become darker and deeper, less pure and more susceptible to the tides of affairs. there was one difference raleigh noticed in his history, when he declared that \" for this tide of man ' s life, after it once turneth and declineth, ever runneth with a perpetual ebb and falling stream, but never floweth again. \" the thames has also been understood as a mirror of morality. the bending rushes and the yielding willows afford lessons in humility and forbearance ; the humble weeds along its banks have been praised for their lowliness", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5259486298131553, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.592029"} {"text": "never floweth again. \" the thames has also been understood as a mirror of morality. the bending rushes and the yielding willows afford lessons in humility and forbearance ; the humble weeds along its banks have been praised for their lowliness and absence of ostentation. and who has ventured upon the river without learning the value of patience, of endurance, and of vigilance? john denham makes the thames the subject of native discourse in a further sense : though deep, yet clear ; though gentle, yet not dull ; strong without rage ; without o ' erflowing, full. this suggests that the river represents an english measure, an aesthetic harmony to be sought or wished for, but in the same breath denham seems to be adverting to some emblem of englishness itself. the thames is a metaphor for the country through which it runs. it is modest and moderate, calm and resourceful ; it is powerful without being fierce. it is not flamboyantly impressive. it is large without being too vast. it eschews extremes. it weaves its own course without artificial diversions or interventions. it is useful for all manner of purposes. it is a practical river. when robert menzies, an erstwhile australian prime minister, was taken to runnymede he was moved to comment upon the \" secret springs \" of the \" slow english character. \" this identification of the land with the people, the characteristics of the earth and water with the temperament of their inhabitants, remains a poignant one. there is an inward and intimate association between the river and those who live beside it, even if that association cannot readily be understood. from the hardcover edition.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5298148802907214, "token_count": 345, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.592880"} {"text": "in my next few blogs, i will provide an overview of voltage source converter ( vsc ) hvdc technology and its suitability for smart grids operation and control discussed. vsc hvdc is based upon transistor technology and was developed in the 1990 \u2032 s. the switching element is the insulated gate bipolar thyristor ( igbt ), which can be switched on and off by applying a suitable voltage to the gate ( steering electrode ). because of the more switching operations, and the nature of the semiconductor devices itself, the converter losses are generally higher than those of hvdc classic converters. vsc hvdc is commonly used with underground or submarine cables with a transfer capacity in the range of 10 \u2013 1000 mw, and is suitable to serve as a connection to a wind farm or supply a remote load. vsc hvdc technology has very fast steer and control functionality and is suitable for meshed networks. it is characterised by compactness of the converter stations, due to the reduced need for ac harmonic filters and reactive power compensation. power flow reversal in vsc systems is achieved by reversal of the current, whereas in hvdc classic systems the voltage polarity has to change. an important consequence of this voltage source behavior is the ability to use cheaper and easier to install xlpe cables, instead of the mass - impregnated cables that are needed for hvdc classic. currently, only twelve vsc hvdc projects are in service. a few examples include : estlink, which connects estonia to finland ( 350 mw ), and borwin1, connecting an offshore wind farm to northern germany ( 400 mw ). both are equipped with \u00b1150 kv submarine cables, and the trans bay project in california ( 400 mw ) that consists of 90 km \u00b1200 kv submarine cable. most projects have submarine cable, but some projects include long lengths of underground cable, such as murraylink ( 220 mw, 177 km underground cable ), and nord e. on 1 ( 400 mw, 75km underground cable ). the 500 mw east - west interconnector between ireland and great britain, operating at \u00b1200 kv, is scheduled to go into service in 2012. a 2000 mw 65 km cable interconnector \u00b1320kv as part of the trans european network \u2014 between spain and france \u2014 is scheduled for commissioning in 2013, and will represent the highest power rating for a vsc hvdc system installed at this time. make sure to check back next", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5495411046623883, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.616038"} {"text": "the operations layer defines the operational processes and procedures necessary to deliver information technology ( it ) as a service. this layer leverages it service management concepts that can be found in prevailing best practices such as itil and mof. the main focus of the operations layer is to execute the business requirements defined at the service delivery layer. cloud - like service attributes cannot be achieved through technology alone and require a high level of it service management maturity. change management process is responsible for controlling the life cycle of all changes. the primary objective of change management is to eliminate or at least minimize disruption while desired changes are made to services. change management focuses on understanding and balancing the cost and risk of making the change versus the benefit of the change to either the business or the service. driving predictability and minimizing human involvement are the core principles for achieving a mature service management process and ensuring changes can be made without impacting the perception of continuous availability. standard ( automated ) change non - standard ( mechanized ) change it is important to note that a record of all changes must be maintained, including standard changes that have been automated. the automated process for standard changes should include the creation and population of the change record per standard policy in order to make sure auditability. automating changes also enables other key principles such as : the service asset and configuration management process is responsible for maintaining information on the assets, components, and infrastructure needed to provide a service. critical configuration data for each component, and its relationship to other components, must be accurately captured and maintained. this configuration data should include past and current states and future - state forecasts, and be easily available to those who need it. mature service asset and configuration management processes are necessary for achieving predictability. a virtualized infrastructure adds complexity to the management of configuration items ( cis ) due to the transient nature of the relationship between guests and hosts in the infrastructure. how is the relationship between cis maintained in an environment that is potentially changing very frequently? a service comprises software, platform, and infrastructure layers. each layer provides a level of abstraction that is dependent on the layer beneath it. this abstraction hides the implementation and composition details of the layer. access to the layer is provided through an interface and as long as the fabric is available, the actual physical location of a hosted vm is irrelevant. to provide infrastructure as a service ( iaas ), the configuration and relationship of the components within the fabric must be understood, whereas the details of the configuration within the vms hosted by the fabric are irrelevant. the configuration management system (", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_computing", "similarity_score": 0.5082079057339005, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.631556"} {"text": "is irrelevant. to provide infrastructure as a service ( iaas ), the configuration and relationship of the components within the fabric must be understood, whereas the details of the configuration within the vms hosted by the fabric are irrelevant. the configuration management system ( cms ) will need to be partitioned, at a minimum, into physical and logical ci layers. two configuration management databases ( cmdbs ) might be used ; one to manage the physical cis of the fabric ( facilities, network, storage, hardware, and hypervisor ) and the other to manage the logical cis ( everything else ). the cms can be further partitioned by layer, with separate management of the infrastructure, platform, and software layers. the benefits and trade - offs of each approach are summarized below. cms partitioned by layer cms partitioned into physical and logical table 2 : configuration management system options partitioning logical and physical ci information allows for greater stability within the cms, because cis will need to be changed less frequently. this means less effort will need to be expended to accurately maintain the information. during normal operations, mapping a vm to its physical host is irrelevant. if historical records of a vm \u2019 s location are needed, ( for example, for auditing or root cause analysis ) they can be traced through change logs. the physical or fabric cmdb will need to include a mapping of fault domains, upgrade domains, and live migration domains. the relationship of these patterns to the infrastructure cis will provide critical information to the fabric management system. the release and deployment management processes are responsible for making sure that approved changes to a service can be built, tested, and deployed to meet specifications with minimal disruption to the service and production environment. where change management is based on the approval mechanism ( determining what will be changed and why ), release and deployment management will determine how those changes will be implemented. the primary focus of release and deployment management is to protect the production environment. the less variation is found in the environment, the greater the level of predictability \u2013 and, therefore, the lower the risk of causing harm when new elements are introduced. the concept of homogenization of physical infrastructure is derived from this predictability principle. if the physical infrastructure is completely homogenized, there is much greater predictability in the release and deployment process. while complete homogenization is the ideal, it may not be achievable in the real world. homogenization is a continuum. the closer an environment gets to complete homogeneity,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_computing", "similarity_score": 0.5444833670364315, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.632539"} {"text": "predictability in the release and deployment process. while complete homogenization is the ideal, it may not be achievable in the real world. homogenization is a continuum. the closer an environment gets to complete homogeneity, the more predictable it becomes and the fewer the risks. full homogeneity means not only that identical hardware models are used, but all hardware configuration is identical as well. when complete hardware homogeneity is not feasible, strive for configuration homogeneity wherever possible. figure 2 : homogenization continuum the scale unit concept drives predictability in capacity planning and agility in the release and deployment of physical infrastructure. the hardware specifications and configurations have been pre - defined and tested, allowing for a more rapid deployment cycle than in a traditional data center. similarly, known quantities of resources are added to the data center when the capacity plan is triggered. however, when the scale unit itself must change ( for example, when a vendor retires a hardware model ), a new risk is introduced to the private cloud. there will likely be a period where both n and n - 1 versions of the scale unit exist in the infrastructure, but steps can be taken to minimize the risk this creates. work with hardware vendors to understand the life cycle of their products and coordinate changes from multiple vendors to minimize iterations of the scale unit change. also, upgrading to the new version of the scale unit should take place one fault domain at a time wherever possible. this will make sure that if an incident occurs with the new version, it can be isolated to a single fault domain. homogenization of the physical infrastructure means consistency and predictability for the vms regardless of which physical host they reside on. this concept can be extended beyond the production environment. the fabric can be partitioned into development, test, and pre - production environments as well. eliminating variability between environments enables developers to more easily optimize applications for a private cloud and gives testers more confidence that the results reflect the realities of production, which in turn should greatly improve testing efficiency. the virtualized infrastructure enables workloads to be transferred more easily between environments. all vms should be built from a common set of component templates housed in a library, which is used across all environments. this shared library includes templates for all components approved for production, such as vm images, the gold os image, server role templates, and platform templates. these component templates are downloaded from the shared library and become the building blocks of the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5649623523168565, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.633548"} {"text": "shared library includes templates for all components approved for production, such as vm images, the gold os image, server role templates, and platform templates. these component templates are downloaded from the shared library and become the building blocks of the development environment. from development, these components are packaged together to create a test candidate package ( in the form of a virtual hard disk ( vhd ) that is uploaded to the library. this test candidate package can then be deployed by booting the vhd in the test environment. when testing is complete, the package can again be uploaded to the library as a release candidate package \u2013 for deployment into the pre - production environment, and ultimately into the production environment. since workloads are deployed by booting a vm from a vhd, the release management process occurs very quickly through the transfer of vhd packages to different environments. this also allows for rapid rollback should the deployment fail ; the current release can be deleted and the vm can be booted off the previous vhd. virtualization and the use of standard vm templates allow us to rethink software updates and patch management. as there is minimal variation in the production environment and all services in production are built with a common set of component templates, patches need not be applied in production. instead, they should be applied to the templates in the shared library. any services in production using that template will require a new version release. the release package is then rebuilt, tested, and redeployed, as shown below. figure 3 : the release process this may seem counter - intuitive for a critical patch scenario, such as when an exploitable vulnerability is exposed. but with virtualization technologies and automated test scripts, a new version of a service can be built, tested, and deployed quite rapidly. variation can also be reduced through standardized, automated test scenarios. while not every test scenario can or should be automated, tests that are automated will improve predictability and facilitate more rapid test and deployment timelines. test scenarios that are common for all applications, or the ones that might be shared by certain application patterns, are key candidates for automation. these automated test scripts may be required for all release candidates prior to deployment and would make sure further reduction in variation in the production environment. knowledge management is the process of gathering, analyzing, storing, and sharing knowledge and information within an organization. the goal of knowledge management is to make sure that the right people have access to the information they need to maintain a private cloud. as operational", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5035409533524517, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.634620"} {"text": ". knowledge management is the process of gathering, analyzing, storing, and sharing knowledge and information within an organization. the goal of knowledge management is to make sure that the right people have access to the information they need to maintain a private cloud. as operational knowledge expands and matures, the ability to intelligently automate operational tasks improves, providing for an increasingly dynamic environment. an immature approach to knowledge management costs organizations in terms of slower, less - efficient problem solving. every problem or new situation that arises becomes a crisis that must be solved. a few people may have the prior experience to resolve the problem quickly and calmly, but their knowledge is not shared. immature knowledge management creates greater stress for the operations staff and usually results in user dissatisfaction with frequent and lengthy unexpected outages. mature knowledge management processes are necessary for achieving a service provider \u2019 s approach to delivering infrastructure. past knowledge and experience is documented, communicated, and readily available when needed. operating teams are no longer crisis - driven as service - impacting events grow less frequent and are quickly resolves when they do occur. when designing a private cloud, development of the health model will drive much of the information needed for knowledge management. the health model defines the ideal states for each infrastructure component and the daily, weekly, monthly, and as - needed tasks required to maintain this state. the health model also defines unhealthy states for each infrastructure component and actions to be taken to restore their health. this information will form the foundation of the knowledge management database. aligning the health model with alerts allows these alerts to contain links to the knowledge management database describing the specific steps to be taken in response to the alert. this will help drive predictability as a consistent, proven set of actions will be taken in response to each alert. the final step toward achieving a private cloud is the automation of responses to each alert as defined in the knowledge management database. once these responses are proven successful, they should be automated to the fullest extent possible. it is important to note, though, that automating responses to alerts does not make them invisible and forgotten. even when alerts generate a fully automated response they must be captured in the service management system. if the alert indicates the need for a change, the change record should be logged. similarly, if the alert is in response to an incident, an incident record should be created. these automated workflows must be reviewed regularly by operations staff to make sure the automated action achieves the expected result. finally, as the environment changes over time", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5608008576422592, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.635697"} {"text": "identification and possible resolution of the root much more quickly than non - automated processes. but automation may mask the root cause of the incident. careful consideration should be given to determining which troubleshooting steps should be automated and which require human analysis. human analysis of troubleshooting if a compute resource fails, it is no longer necessary to treat the failure as an incident that must be fixed immediately. it may be more efficient and cost effective to treat the failure as part of the decay of the resource pool. rather than treat a failed server as an incident that requires immediate resolution, treat it as a natural candidate for replacement on a regular maintenance schedule, or when the resource pool reaches a certain threshold of decay. each organization must balance cost, efficiency, and risk as it determines an acceptable decay threshold \u2013 and choose among these courses of action : the benefits and trade - off of each of the options are listed below : option 4 is the least desirable, as it does not take advantage of the resiliency and cost reduction benefits of a private cloud. a well - planned resource pool and reserve capacity strategy will account for resource decay. option 1 is the most recommended approach. a predictable maintenance schedule allows for better procurement planning and can help avoid conflicts with other maintenance activities, such as software upgrades. again, a well - planned resource pool and reserve capacity strategy will account for resource decay and minimize the risk of exceeding critical thresholds before the scheduled maintenance. option 3 will likely be the only option for self - contained scale unit scenarios, as the container must be replaced as a single scale unit when the decay threshold is reached. the goal of request fulfillment is to manage requests for service from users. users should have a clear understanding of the process they need to initiate to request service and it should have a consistent approach for managing these requests. much like any service provider, it should clearly define the types of requests available to users in the service catalog. the service catalog should include an sla on when the request will be completed, as well as the cost of fulfilling the request, if any. the types of requests available and their associated costs should reflect the actual cost of completing the request and this cost should be easily understood. for example, if a user requests an additional vm, its daily cost should be noted on the request form, which should also be exposed to the organization or person responsible for paying the bill. it is relatively easy to see the need for adding resources, but more difficult to see when a resource is no longer needed. a process for identifying and removing unused v", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_computing", "similarity_score": 0.5051327366391911, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.637715"} {"text": "##ing. as long as user actions are isolated and cannot impact mission critical applications, the agility and user empowerment may justify the risk of giving up control of release management. again, it is essential that in such a scenario, expiration timers are included to prevent server sprawl. the goal of access management is to make sure authorized users have access to the services they need while preventing access by unauthorized users. access management is the implementation of security policies defined by information security management at the service delivery layer. maintaining access for authorized users is critical for achieving the perception of continuous availability. besides allowing access, access management defines users who are allowed to use, configure, or administer objects in the management layer. from a provider \u2019 s perspective, it answers questions like : from a consumer \u2019 s perspective, it answers questions such as : access management is implemented at several levels and can include physical barriers to systems such as requiring access smartcards at the data center, or virtual barriers such as network and virtual local area network ( vlan ) separation, firewalling, and access to storage and applications. taking a service provider \u2019 s approach to access management will also make sure that resource segmentation and multi - tenancy is addressed. resource pools may need to be segmented to address security concerns around confidentiality, integrity, and availability. some tenants may not wish to share infrastructure resources to keep their environment isolated from others. access management of shared infrastructure requires logical access control mechanisms such as encryption, access control rights, user groupings, and permissions. dedicated infrastructure also relies on physical access control mechanisms, where infrastructure is not physically connected, but is effectively isolated through a firewall or other mechanisms. the goal of systems administration is to make sure that the daily, weekly, monthly, and as - needed tasks required to keep a system healthy are being performed. regularly performing ongoing systems administration tasks is critical for achieving predictability. as the organization matures and the knowledge management database becomes more robust and increasingly automated, systems administration tasks is no longer part of the job role function. it is important to keep this in mind as an organization moves to a private cloud. staff once responsible for systems administration should refocus on automation and scripting skills \u2013 and on monitoring the fabric to identify patterns that indicate possibilities for ongoing improvement of existing automated workflows.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5065055148818285, "token_count": 473, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 8, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.639667"} {"text": "published may 2008 properly located digital signage in high traffic areas on school campuses provides students and faculty with a convenient resource to stay up to date about the latest school news and activities. signage in education by anthony d. coppedge technology gets high marks. digital media and communications have come to play a vital role in people \u2019 s everyday lives, and a visit to the local k - 12 school, college or university campus quickly illustrates the many ways in which individuals rely on audio and visual technologies each day. the shift from analog media to digital, represented by milestones ranging from the replacement of the walkman by the mp3 player to the dtv transition currently enabling broadcasts beyond the home to mobile devices, has redefined the options that larger institutions, including those in our educational system, have for sharing information across the campus and facilities. flexible and efficient digital signage, in particular, is proving to be a flexible and efficient tool for delivering specific and up - to - date information within the educational environment. as a high - resolution, high - impact medium, it lives up to the now - widespread expectation that visual media be crisp and clear, displayed on a large screen. although the appeal of implementing digital signage networks does stem, in part, from plummeting screen prices and sophisticated content delivery systems, what \u2019 s equally or more important is that digital signage provides valuable information to the people who need it, when and where they need it. on school campuses \u2014 whether preschool, elementary, high school or post - secondary institutions \u2014 it does so effectively, for both educational purposes and for the security and safety of staff, administration and the student body as a whole. school campuses have begun leveraging digital signage technology in addition to, or in place of, printed material, such as course schedules, content and location ; time - sensitive school news and updates ; maps and directions ; welcome messages for visitors and applicants ; and event schedules. digital signage simplifies creation and delivery of multiple channels of targeted content to different displays on the network. although a display in the college admissions office might provide prospective students with a glimpse into student life, for example, another display outside a lab or seminar room might present the courses or lectures scheduled for that space throughout the day. this model of a distribution concept illustrates a school distributing educational content over a public tv broadcast network. at the k - 12 level, digital signage makes it easy to deliver information such as team or band practice schedules, or to post the cafeteria menu and give students information encouraging sound food choices. digital signage in the preschool and day", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5234306682772687, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.655418"} {"text": "public tv broadcast network. at the k - 12 level, digital signage makes it easy to deliver information such as team or band practice schedules, or to post the cafeteria menu and give students information encouraging sound food choices. digital signage in the preschool and daycare setting makes it easy for teachers and caregivers to share targeted educational programming with their classes. among the most striking benefits of communicating through digital signage is the quality of the pictures and the flexibility with which images, text and video can be combined in one or more windows to convey information. studies have shown that dynamic signage is noticed significantly more often than are static displays and, furthermore, that viewers are more likely to remember that dynamic content. though most regularly updated digital signage content tends to be text - based, digital signage networks also have the capacity to enable the live campus - wide broadcast of key events : a speech by a visiting dignitary, the basketball team \u2019 s first trip to the state or national tournament, or even the proceedings at commencement and graduation. when time is short, it \u2019 s impractical to gather the entire student body in one place or there simply isn \u2019 t the time or means to deliver the live message in any other way. the ability to share critical information to the entire school community, clearly and without delay, has made digital signage valuable as a tool for emergency response and communications. parents, administrators, teachers and students today can \u2019 t help but be concerned about the school \u2019 s ability to respond quickly and effectively to a dangerous situation, whether the threat be from another person, an environmental hazard, an unpredictable weather system or some other menace. digital signage screens installed across a school campus can be updated immediately to warn students and staff of the danger, and to provide unambiguous instructions for seeking shelter or safety : where to go and what to do. although early digital signage systems relied on ip - based networks and point - to - point connections between a player and each display, current solutions operate on far less costly and much more scalable platforms. broadcast - based digital signage models allow content to be distributed remotely from a single data source via transport media, such as digital television broadcast, satellite, broadband and wimax. the staff member responsible for maintaining the digital signage network can use popular content creation toolsets to populate both dynamic and static displays. this content is uploaded to a server that, in turn, feeds the digital signage network via broadcast, much like datacasting, to the receive site for playout. by slotting specific content into predefined", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.533311857105198, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.656534"} {"text": "both dynamic and static displays. this content is uploaded to a server that, in turn, feeds the digital signage network via broadcast, much like datacasting, to the receive site for playout. by slotting specific content into predefined display templates, each section with its own playlist, the administrator can schedule display of multiple elements simultaneously or a single - window static, video or animated display. the playlist enables delivery of the correct elements to the targeted display both at the scheduled time and in the appropriate layout. in networks with multicast - enabled routers, the administrator can schedule unique content for displays in different locations. in the case of delivering emergency preparedness or response information across a campus, content can be created through the same back - office software used for day - to - day digital signage displays. within the broadcast - based model, three components ensure the smooth delivery of content to each display. a transmission component serves as a content hub, allocating bandwidth and inserting content into the broadcast stream based on the schedule dictated by the network \u2019 s content management component. content is encapsulated into ip packets that, in turn, are encapsulated into mpeg2 packets for delivery. generic content distribution model for digital signage solution. the content management component of the digital signage network provides for organization and scheduling of content, as well as targeting of that content to specific receivers. flexibility in managing the digital signage system enables distribution of the same emergency message across all receivers and associated displays, or the delivery of select messages to particular displays within the larger network. with tight control over the message being distributed, school administrators can immediately provide the information that students and staff in different parts of the campus need to maintain the safest possible environment. receivers can be set to confirm receipt of content, in turn assuring administrative and emergency personnel that their communications are, in fact, being conveyed as intended. on the receiving end, the third component of the system, content, is extracted from the digital broadcast stream and fed to the display screen. the relationships that many colleges and universities share with public tv stations provide an excellent opportunity for establishing a digital signage network. today, the deployed base of broadcast - based content distribution systems in public tv stations is capable of reaching 50 % of the us population. these stations \u2019 dtv bandwidth is used not only for television programming, but also to generate new revenues and aggressively support public charters by providing efficient delivery of multimedia content for education, homeland security and other public services. educational institutions affiliated with such broadcasters already have", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5105479421769725, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.657749"} {"text": "these stations \u2019 dtv bandwidth is used not only for television programming, but also to generate new revenues and aggressively support public charters by providing efficient delivery of multimedia content for education, homeland security and other public services. educational institutions affiliated with such broadcasters already have the technology, and much of the necessary infrastructure, in place to launch a digital signage network. in taking advantage of the public broadcaster \u2019 s content delivery system, the college or university also can tap into the station \u2019 s existing links with area emergency response agencies. as digital signage technology continues to evolve, educational institutions will be able to extend both urgent alerts and more mundane daily communications over text and email messaging. smart content distribution systems will push consistent information to screens of all sizes, providing messages not only to displays, but also to the cell phones and pdas so ubiquitous in us schools. the continued evolution of mph technology will support this enhancement in delivery of messages directly to each student. mph in - band mobile dtv technology leverages atsc dtv broadcasts to enable extensions of digital signage and broadcast content directly to personal devices, whether stationary or on the move. rather than rely on numerous unrelated systems, such as ringing bells, written memos and intercom announcements, schools can unify messaging and its delivery, in turn reducing the redundancy involved in maintaining communications with the student body. an effective digital signage network provides day - to - day benefits for an elementary school, high school, college or university while providing invaluable emergency communications capabilities that increasingly are considered a necessity, irrespective of whether they get put to the test. the selection of an appropriate digital signage model depends, of course, on the needs of the organization. educational institutions share many of the same concerns held by counterparts in the corporate world, and key among those concerns is the simple matter of getting long - term value and use out of their technical investments. however, before even addressing the type of content the school wishes to create and distribute, the systems integrator, consultant or other av and media professional should work with the eventual operators of the digital signage network to identify and map out the existing workflow. once the system designer, integrator or installer has evaluated how staff currently work in an emergency to distribute information, he then can adjust established processes and adapt them to the digital signage model. the administrative staff who will be expected to update or import schedules to the digital signage system will have a much lower threshold of acceptance for a workflow that is completely unfamiliar or at odds with all their previous experience.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5188722355384477, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.658965"} {"text": "adapt them to the digital signage model. the administrative staff who will be expected to update or import schedules to the digital signage system will have a much lower threshold of acceptance for a workflow that is completely unfamiliar or at odds with all their previous experience. an intuitive, easy - to - use system is more likely to be used in an emergency if it has become familiar in everyday practice. turnkey digital signage solutions provide end - to - end functionality without forcing users and integrators to work with multiple systems and interfaces. the key in selecting a vendor lies in ensuring that they share the same vision and are moving in the same direction as the end user. in addition to providing ease of use, digital signage solutions for the education market also must provide a high level of built - in security, preventing abuse or misuse by hackers, or by those without the knowledge, experience or authority to distribute content over the network. because the network is a conduit for emergency messaging, its integrity must be protected. so, the installer must not only identify the number of screens to be used and where, but also determine who gets access to the system and how that access remains secure. scalable systems that can grow in number of displays or accommodate infrastructure improvements and distribution of higher - bandwidth content will provide the long - term utility that makes the investment worthwhile. by going into the project with an understanding of existing infrastructure, such as cabling, firewalls, etc., and the client \u2019 s goals, the professional is equipped to advise the customer as to the necessity, options and costs for enhancing or improving on that infrastructure. as with any other significant deployment of av technology, the installation of a digital signage network also requires knowledge of the site, local building codes, the availability of power and so forth. ralph bachofen, senior director of product management and marketing, triveni digital, has more than 15 years of experience in voice and multimedia over internet protocol ( ip ), telecommunications and the semiconductor business. the infrastructure requirements of a school in deploying a digital signage network will vary, depending on the type of content being delivered through the system. hd and streaming content clearly are bandwidth hogs, whereas tickers and other text - based messages put a low demand on bandwidth. most facilities today are equipped with gigabit ethernet networks that can handle the demands of live video delivery and lighter content. however, even bandwidth - heavy video can be delivered by less robust networks, as larger clips can be \u201c trickled \u201d over time to the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5176503939509562, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.659990"} {"text": "how we found the missing memristor the memristor - - the functional equivalent of a synapse - - could revolutionize circuit design image : bryan christie design thinking machine this artist ' s conception of a memristor shows a stack of multiple crossbar arrays, the fundamental structure of r. stanley williams ' s device. because memristors behave functionally like synapses, replacing a few transistors in a circuit with memristors could lead to analog circuits that can think like a human brain. it \u2019 s time to stop shrinking. moore \u2019 s law, the semiconductor industry \u2019 s obsession with the shrinking of transistors and their commensurate steady doubling on a chip about every two years, has been the source of a 50 - year technical and economic revolution. whether this scaling paradigm lasts for five more years or 15, it will eventually come to an end. the emphasis in electronics design will have to shift to devices that are not just increasingly infinitesimal but increasingly capable. earlier this year, i and my colleagues at hewlett - packard labs, in palo alto, calif., surprised the electronics community with a fascinating candidate for such a device : the memristor. it had been theorized nearly 40 years ago, but because no one had managed to build one, it had long since become an esoteric curiosity. that all changed on 1 may, when my group published the details of the memristor in nature. combined with transistors in a hybrid chip, memristors could radically improve the performance of digital circuits without shrinking transistors. using transistors more efficiently could in turn give us another decade, at least, of moore \u2019 s law performance improvement, without requiring the costly and increasingly difficult doublings of transistor density on chips. in the end, memristors might even become the cornerstone of new analog circuits that compute using an architecture much like that of the brain. for nearly 150 years, the known fundamental passive circuit elements were limited to the capacitor ( discovered in 1745 ), the resistor ( 1827 ), and the inductor ( 1831 ). then, in a brilliant but underappreciated 1971 paper, leon chua, a professor of electrical engineering at the university of california, berkeley, predicted the existence of a fourth fundamental device, which he called a memristor. he proved that memristor behavior could not be duplicated by any circuit built using only the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_computing", "similarity_score": 0.560245182560672, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.703394"} {"text": "professor of electrical engineering at the university of california, berkeley, predicted the existence of a fourth fundamental device, which he called a memristor. he proved that memristor behavior could not be duplicated by any circuit built using only the other three elements, which is why the memristor is truly fundamental. memristor is a contraction of \u201d memory resistor, \u201d because that is exactly its function : to remember its history. a memristor is a two - terminal device whose resistance depends on the magnitude and polarity of the voltage applied to it and the length of time that voltage has been applied. when you turn off the voltage, the memristor remembers its most recent resistance until the next time you turn it on, whether that happens a day later or a year later. think of a resistor as a pipe through which water flows. the water is electric charge. the resistor \u2019 s obstruction of the flow of charge is comparable to the diameter of the pipe : the narrower the pipe, the greater the resistance. for the history of circuit design, resistors have had a fixed pipe diameter. but a memristor is a pipe that changes diameter with the amount and direction of water that flows through it. if water flows through this pipe in one direction, it expands ( becoming less resistive ). but send the water in the opposite direction and the pipe shrinks ( becoming more resistive ). further, the memristor remembers its diameter when water last went through. turn off the flow and the diameter of the pipe \u201d freezes \u201d until the water is turned back on. that freezing property suits memristors brilliantly for computer memory. the ability to indefinitely store resistance values means that a memristor can be used as a nonvolatile memory. that might not sound like very much, but go ahead and pop the battery out of your laptop, right now \u2014 no saving, no quitting, nothing. you \u2019 d lose your work, of course. but if your laptop were built using a memory based on memristors, when you popped the battery back in, your screen would return to life with everything exactly as you left it : no lengthy reboot, no half - dozen auto - recovered files. but the memristor \u2019 s potential goes far beyond instant - on computers to embrace one of the grandest technology challenges : mimicking the functions of a brain. within a decade, memristors could let us emulate", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_computing", "similarity_score": 0.6022872236777963, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.704920"} {"text": "recovered files. but the memristor \u2019 s potential goes far beyond instant - on computers to embrace one of the grandest technology challenges : mimicking the functions of a brain. within a decade, memristors could let us emulate, instead of merely simulate, networks of neurons and synapses. many research groups have been working toward a brain in silico : ibm \u2019 s blue brain project, howard hughes medical institute \u2019 s janelia farm, and harvard \u2019 s center for brain science are just three. however, even a mouse brain simulation in real time involves solving an astronomical number of coupled partial differential equations. a digital computer capable of coping with this staggering workload would need to be the size of a small city, and powering it would require several dedicated nuclear power plants. memristors can be made extremely small, and they function like synapses. using them, we will be able to build analog electronic circuits that could fit in a shoebox and function according to the same physical principles as a brain. a hybrid circuit \u2014 containing many connected memristors and transistors \u2014 could help us research actual brain function and disorders. such a circuit might even lead to machines that can recognize patterns the way humans can, in those critical ways computers can \u2019 t \u2014 for example, picking a particular face out of a crowd even if it has changed significantly since our last memory of it. the story of the memristor is truly one for the history books. when leon chua, now an ieee fellow, wrote his seminal paper predicting the memristor, he was a newly minted and rapidly rising professor at uc berkeley. chua had been fighting for years against what he considered the arbitrary restriction of electronic circuit theory to linear systems. he was convinced that nonlinear electronics had much more potential than the linear circuits that dominate electronics technology to this day. chua discovered a missing link in the pairwise mathematical equations that relate the four circuit quantities \u2014 charge, current, voltage, and magnetic flux \u2014 to one another. these can be related in six ways. two are connected through the basic physical laws of electricity and magnetism, and three are related by the known circuit elements : resistors connect voltage and current, inductors connect flux and current, and capacitors connect voltage and charge. but one equation is missing from this group : the relationship between charge moving through a circuit and the magnetic flux surrounded by that circuit \u2014 or more subtly, a mathematical doppelganger defined by faraday \u2019", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_computing", "similarity_score": 0.6082501796750943, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.706873"} {"text": "and capacitors connect voltage and charge. but one equation is missing from this group : the relationship between charge moving through a circuit and the magnetic flux surrounded by that circuit \u2014 or more subtly, a mathematical doppelganger defined by faraday \u2019 s law as the time integral of the voltage across the circuit. this distinction is the crux of a raging internet debate about the legitimacy of our memristor [ see sidebar, \u201d resistance to memristance \u201d ]. chua \u2019 s memristor was a purely mathematical construct that had more than one physical realization. what does that mean? consider a battery and a transformer. both provide identical voltages \u2014 for example, 12 volts of direct current \u2014 but they do so by entirely different mechanisms : the battery by a chemical reaction going on inside the cell and the transformer by taking a 110a \u00bf \u00bf v ac input, stepping that down to 12 v ac, and then transforming that into 12 v dc. the end result is mathematically identical \u2014 both will run an electric shaver or a cellphone, but the physical source of that 12 v is completely different. conceptually, it was easy to grasp how electric charge could couple to magnetic flux, but there was no obvious physical interaction between charge and the integral over the voltage. chua demonstrated mathematically that his hypothetical device would provide a relationship between flux and charge similar to what a nonlinear resistor provides between voltage and current. in practice, that would mean the device \u2019 s resistance would vary according to the amount of charge that passed through it. and it would remember that resistance value even after the current was turned off. he also noticed something else \u2014 that this behavior reminded him of the way synapses function in a brain. even before chua had his eureka moment, however, many researchers were reporting what they called \u201d anomalous \u201d current - voltage behavior in the micrometer - scale devices they had built out of unconventional materials, like polymers and metal oxides. but the idiosyncrasies were usually ascribed to some mystery electrochemical reaction, electrical breakdown, or other spurious phenomenon attributed to the high voltages that researchers were applying to their devices. as it turns out, a great many of these reports were unrecognized examples of memristance. after chua theorized the memristor out of the mathematical ether, it took another 35 years for us to intentionally build the device at hp labs, and we only really understood the device about two years ago", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_computing", "similarity_score": 0.6042599095259595, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.708208"} {"text": "examples of memristance. after chua theorized the memristor out of the mathematical ether, it took another 35 years for us to intentionally build the device at hp labs, and we only really understood the device about two years ago. so what took us so long? it \u2019 s all about scale. we now know that memristance is an intrinsic property of any electronic circuit. its existence could have been deduced by gustav kirchhoff or by james clerk maxwell, if either had considered nonlinear circuits in the 1800s. but the scales at which electronic devices have been built for most of the past two centuries have prevented experimental observation of the effect. it turns out that the influence of memristance obeys an inverse square law : memristance is a million times as important at the nanometer scale as it is at the micrometer scale, and it \u2019 s essentially unobservable at the millimeter scale and larger. as we build smaller and smaller devices, memristance is becoming more noticeable and in some cases dominant. that \u2019 s what accounts for all those strange results researchers have described. memristance has been hidden in plain sight all along. but in spite of all the clues, our finding the memristor was completely serendipitous. in 1995, i was recruited to hp labs to start up a fundamental research group that had been proposed by david packard. he decided that the company had become large enough to dedicate a research group to long - term projects that would be protected from the immediate needs of the business units. packard had an altruistic vision that hp should \u201d return knowledge to the well of fundamental science from which hp had been withdrawing for so long. \u201d at the same time, he understood that long - term research could be the strategic basis for technologies and inventions that would directly benefit hp in the future. hp gave me a budget and four researchers. but beyond the comment that \u201d molecular - scale electronics \u201d would be interesting and that we should try to have something useful in about 10 years, i was given carte blanche to pursue any topic we wanted. we decided to take on moore \u2019 s law. at the time, the dot - com bubble was still rapidly inflating its way toward a resounding pop, and the existing semiconductor road map didn \u2019 t extend past 2010. the critical feature size for the transistors on an integrated circuit was 350 nanometers ; we had a long way to go before atomic sizes would become a", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.6170014940945103, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.709632"} {"text": "resounding pop, and the existing semiconductor road map didn \u2019 t extend past 2010. the critical feature size for the transistors on an integrated circuit was 350 nanometers ; we had a long way to go before atomic sizes would become a limitation. and yet, the eventual end of moore \u2019 s law was obvious. someday semiconductor researchers would have to confront physics - based limits to their relentless descent into the infinitesimal, if for no other reason than that a transistor cannot be smaller than an atom. ( today the smallest components of transistors on integrated circuits are roughly 45 nm wide, or about 220 silicon atoms. ) that \u2019 s when we started to hang out with phil kuekes, the creative force behind the teramac ( tera - operation - per - second multiarchitecture computer ) \u2014 an experimental supercomputer built at hp labs primarily from defective parts, just to show it could be done. he gave us the idea to build an architecture that would work even if a substantial number of the individual devices in the circuit were dead on arrival. we didn \u2019 t know what those devices would be, but our goal was electronics that would keep improving even after the devices got so small that defective ones would become common. we ate a lot of pizza washed down with appropriate amounts of beer and speculated about what this mystery nanodevice would be. we were designing something that wouldn \u2019 t even be relevant for another 10 to 15 years. it was possible that by then devices would have shrunk down to the molecular scale envisioned by david packard or perhaps even be molecules. we could think of no better way to anticipate this than by mimicking the teramac at the nanoscale. we decided that the simplest abstraction of the teramac architecture was the crossbar, which has since become the de facto standard for nanoscale circuits because of its simplicity, adaptability, and redundancy. the crossbar is an array of perpendicular wires. anywhere two wires cross, they are connected by a switch. to connect a horizontal wire to a vertical wire at any point on the grid, you must close the switch between them. our idea was to open and close these switches by applying voltages to the ends of the wires. note that a crossbar array is basically a storage system, with an open switch representing a zero and a closed switch representing a one. you read the data by probing the switch with a small voltage. like everything else at the nanoscale, the switches", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_computing", "similarity_score": 0.5737953968919114, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.710990"} {"text": "that a crossbar array is basically a storage system, with an open switch representing a zero and a closed switch representing a one. you read the data by probing the switch with a small voltage. like everything else at the nanoscale, the switches and wires of a crossbar are bound to be plagued by at least some nonfunctional components. these components will be only a few atoms wide, and the second law of thermodynamics ensures that we will not be able to completely specify the position of every atom. however, a crossbar architecture builds in redundancy by allowing you to route around any parts of the circuit that don \u2019 t work. because of their simplicity, crossbar arrays have a much higher density of switches than a comparable integrated circuit based on transistors. but implementing such a storage system was easier said than done. many research groups were working on such a cross - point memory \u2014 and had been since the 1950s. even after 40 years of research, they had no product on the market. still, that didn \u2019 t stop them from trying. that \u2019 s because the potential for a truly nanoscale crossbar memory is staggering ; picture carrying around the entire library of congress on a thumb drive. one of the major impediments for prior crossbar memory research was the small off - to - on resistance ratio of the switches ( 40 years of research had never produced anything surpassing a factor of 2 or 3 ). by comparison, modern transistors have an off - to - on resistance ratio of 10 000 to 1. we calculated that to get a high - performance memory, we had to make switches with a resistance ratio of at least 1000 to 1. in other words, in its off state, a switch had to be 1000 times as resistive to the flow of current as it was in its on state. what mechanism could possibly give a nanometer - scale device a three - orders - of - magnitude resistance ratio? we found the answer in scanning tunneling microscopy ( stm ), an area of research i had been pursuing for a decade. a tunneling microscope generates atomic - resolution images by scanning a very sharp needle across a surface and measuring the electric current that flows between the atoms at the tip of the needle and the surface the needle is probing. the general rule of thumb in stm is that moving that tip 0. 1 nm closer to a surface increases the tunneling current by one order of magnitude. we needed some similar mechanism by which we could change the effective spacing", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_computing", "similarity_score": 0.6173355294642401, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.713749"} {"text": "needle is probing. the general rule of thumb in stm is that moving that tip 0. 1 nm closer to a surface increases the tunneling current by one order of magnitude. we needed some similar mechanism by which we could change the effective spacing between two wires in our crossbar by 0. 3 nm. if we could do that, we would have the 1000 : 1 electrical switching ratio we needed. our constraints were getting ridiculous. where would we find a material that could change its physical dimensions like that? that is how we found ourselves in the realm of molecular electronics. conceptually, our device was like a tiny sandwich. two platinum electrodes ( the intersecting wires of the crossbar junction ) functioned as the \u201d bread \u201d on either end of the device. we oxidized the surface of the bottom platinum wire to make an extremely thin layer of platinum dioxide, which is highly conducting. next, we assembled a dense film, only one molecule thick, of specially designed switching molecules. over this \u201d monolayer \u201d we deposited a 2 - to 3 - nm layer of titanium metal, which bonds strongly to the molecules and was intended to glue them together. the final layer was the top platinum electrode. the molecules were supposed to be the actual switches. we built an enormous number of these devices, experimenting with a wide variety of exotic molecules and configurations, including rotaxanes, special switching molecules designed by james heath and fraser stoddart at the university of california, los angeles. the rotaxane is like a bead on a string, and with the right voltage, the bead slides from one end of the string to the other, causing the electrical resistance of the molecule to rise or fall, depending on the direction it moves. heath and stoddart \u2019 s devices used silicon electrodes, and they worked, but not well enough for technological applications : the off - to - on resistance ratio was only a factor of 10, the switching was slow, and the devices tended to switch themselves off after 15 minutes. our platinum devices yielded results that were nothing less than frustrating. when a switch worked, it was spectacular : our off - to - on resistance ratios shot past the 1000 mark, the devices switched too fast for us to even measure, and having switched, the device \u2019 s resistance state remained stable for years ( we still have some early devices we test every now and then, and we have never seen a significant change in resistance ). but our fantastic results were inconsistent. worse yet, the success or failure of a", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_computing", "similarity_score": 0.5870708349631374, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 7, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.714995"} {"text": "\u2019 s resistance state remained stable for years ( we still have some early devices we test every now and then, and we have never seen a significant change in resistance ). but our fantastic results were inconsistent. worse yet, the success or failure of a device never seemed to depend on the same thing. we had no physical model for how these devices worked. instead of rational engineering, we were reduced to performing huge numbers of edisonian experiments, varying one parameter at a time and attempting to hold all the rest constant. even our switching molecules were betraying us ; it seemed like we could use anything at all. in our desperation, we even turned to long - chain fatty acids \u2014 essentially soap \u2014 as the molecules in our devices. there \u2019 s nothing in soap that should switch, and yet some of the soap devices switched phenomenally. we also made control devices with no molecule monolayers at all. none of them switched. we were frustrated and burned out. here we were, in late 2002, six years into our research. we had something that worked, but we couldn \u2019 t figure out why, we couldn \u2019 t model it, and we sure couldn \u2019 t engineer it. that \u2019 s when greg snider, who had worked with kuekes on the teramac, brought me the chua memristor paper from the september 1971 ieee transactions on circuits theory. \u201d i don \u2019 t know what you guys are building, \u201d he told me, \u201d but this is what i want. \u201d to this day, i have no idea how greg happened to come across that paper. few people had read it, fewer had understood it, and fewer still had cited it. at that point, the paper was 31 years old and apparently headed for the proverbial dustbin of history. i wish i could say i took one look and yelled, \u201d eureka! \u201d but in fact, the paper sat on my desk for months before i even tried to read it. when i did study it, i found the concepts and the equations unfamiliar and hard to follow. but i kept at it because something had caught my eye, as it had greg \u2019 s : chua had included a graph that looked suspiciously similar to the experimental data we were collecting. the graph described the current - voltage ( i - v ) characteristics that chua had plotted for his memristor. chua had called them \u201d pinched - hysteresis loops \u201d ; we called our i - v characteristics \u201d bow ties. \u201d a pinched hyst", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_computing", "similarity_score": 0.5781128823871615, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 8, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.716232"} {"text": "voltage ( i - v ) characteristics that chua had plotted for his memristor. chua had called them \u201d pinched - hysteresis loops \u201d ; we called our i - v characteristics \u201d bow ties. \u201d a pinched hysteresis loop looks like a diagonal infinity symbol with the center at the zero axis, when plotted on a graph of current against voltage. the voltage is first increased from zero to a positive maximum value, then decreased to a minimum negative value and finally returned to zero. the bow ties on our graphs were nearly identical [ see graphic, \u201d bow ties \u201d ]. that \u2019 s not all. the total change in the resistance we had measured in our devices also depended on how long we applied the voltage : the longer we applied a positive voltage, the lower the resistance until it reached a minimum value. and the longer we applied a negative voltage, the higher the resistance became until it reached a maximum limiting value. when we stopped applying the voltage, whatever resistance characterized the device was frozen in place, until we reset it by once again applying a voltage. the loop in the i - v curve is called hysteresis, and this behavior is startlingly similar to how synapses operate : synaptic connections between neurons can be made stronger or weaker depending on the polarity, strength, and length of a chemical or electrical signal. that \u2019 s not the kind of behavior you find in today \u2019 s circuits. looking at chua \u2019 s graphs was maddening. we now had a big clue that memristance had something to do with our switches. but how? why should our molecular junctions have anything to do with the relationship between charge and magnetic flux? i couldn \u2019 t make the connection. two years went by. every once in a while i would idly pick up chua \u2019 s paper, read it, and each time i understood the concepts a little more. but our experiments were still pretty much trial and error. the best we could do was to make a lot of devices and find the ones that worked. but our frustration wasn \u2019 t for nothing : by 2004, we had figured out how to do a little surgery on our little sandwiches. we built a gadget that ripped the tiny devices open so that we could peer inside them and do some forensics. when we pried them apart, the little sandwiches separated at their weakest point : the molecule layer. for the first time, we could get a good look at what was going on inside. we were in for", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_computing", "similarity_score": 0.6082747506686432, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 9, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.717953"} {"text": "them and do some forensics. when we pried them apart, the little sandwiches separated at their weakest point : the molecule layer. for the first time, we could get a good look at what was going on inside. we were in for a shock. what we had was not what we had built. recall that we had built a sandwich with two platinum electrodes as the bread and filled with three layers : the platinum dioxide, the monolayer film of switching molecules, and the film of titanium. but that \u2019 s not what we found. under the molecular layer, instead of platinum dioxide, there was only pure platinum. above the molecular layer, instead of titanium, we found an unexpected and unusual layer of titanium dioxide. the titanium had sucked the oxygen right out of the platinum dioxide! the oxygen atoms had somehow migrated through the molecules and been consumed by the titanium. this was especially surprising because the switching molecules had not been significantly perturbed by this event \u2014 they were intact and well ordered, which convinced us that they must be doing something important in the device. the chemical structure of our devices was not at all what we had thought it was. the titanium dioxide \u2014 a stable compound found in sunscreen and white paint \u2014 was not just regular titanium dioxide. it had split itself up into two chemically different layers. adjacent to the molecules, the oxide was stoichiometric tio 2, meaning the ratio of oxygen to titanium was perfect, exactly 2 to 1. but closer to the top platinum electrode, the titanium dioxide was missing a tiny amount of its oxygen, between 2 and 3 percent. we called this oxygen - deficient titanium dioxide tio 2 - x, where x is about 0. 05. because of this misunderstanding, we had been performing the experiment backward. every time i had tried to create a switching model, i had reversed the switching polarity. in other words, i had predicted that a positive voltage would switch the device off and a negative voltage would switch it on. in fact, exactly the opposite was true. it was time to get to know titanium dioxide a lot better. they say three weeks in the lab will save you a day in the library every time. in august of 2006 i did a literature search and found about 300 relevant papers on titanium dioxide. i saw that each of the many different communities researching titanium dioxide had its own way of describing the compound. by the end of the month, the pieces had fallen into place. i finally knew how our device worked. i knew why we had a", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5577879597795791, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 10, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.719337"} {"text": ". i saw that each of the many different communities researching titanium dioxide had its own way of describing the compound. by the end of the month, the pieces had fallen into place. i finally knew how our device worked. i knew why we had a memristor. the exotic molecule monolayer in the middle of our sandwich had nothing to do with the actual switching. instead, what it did was control the flow of oxygen from the platinum dioxide into the titanium to produce the fairly uniform layers of tio 2 and tio 2 - x. the key to the switching was this bilayer of the two different titanium dioxide species [ see diagram, \u201d how memristance works \u201d ]. the tio 2 is electrically insulating ( actually a semiconductor ), but the tio 2 - x is conductive, because its oxygen vacancies are donors of electrons, which makes the vacancies themselves positively charged. the vacancies can be thought of like bubbles in a glass of beer, except that they don \u2019 t pop \u2014 they can be pushed up and down at will in the titanium dioxide material because they are electrically charged. now i was able to predict the switching polarity of the device. if a positive voltage is applied to the top electrode of the device, it will repel the ( also positive ) oxygen vacancies in the tio 2 - x layer down into the pure tio 2 layer. that turns the tio 2 layer into tio 2 - x and makes it conductive, thus turning the device on. a negative voltage has the opposite effect : the vacancies are attracted upward and back out of the tio 2, and thus the thickness of the tio 2 layer increases and the device turns off. this switching polarity is what we had been seeing for years but had been unable to explain. on 20 august 2006, i solved the two most important equations of my career \u2014 one equation detailing the relationship between current and voltage for this equivalent circuit, and another equation describing how the application of the voltage causes the vacancies to move \u2014 thereby writing down, for the first time, an equation for memristance in terms of the physical properties of a material. this provided a unique insight. memristance arises in a semiconductor when both electrons and charged dopants are forced to move simultaneously by applying a voltage to the system. the memristance did not actually involve magnetism in this case ; the integral over the voltage reflected how far the dopants had moved and thus how", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5807361406314078, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 11, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.720620"} {"text": "both electrons and charged dopants are forced to move simultaneously by applying a voltage to the system. the memristance did not actually involve magnetism in this case ; the integral over the voltage reflected how far the dopants had moved and thus how much the resistance of the device had changed. we finally had a model we could use to engineer our switches, which we had by now positively identified as memristors. now we could use all the theoretical machinery chua had created to help us design new circuits with our devices. triumphantly, i showed the group my results and immediately declared that we had to take the molecule monolayers out of our devices. skeptical after years of false starts and failed hypotheses, my team reminded me that we had run control samples without molecule layers for every device we had ever made and that those devices had never switched. and getting the recipe right turned out to be tricky indeed. we needed to find the exact amounts of titanium and oxygen to get the two layers to do their respective jobs. by that point we were all getting impatient. in fact, it took so long to get the first working device that in my discouragement i nearly decided to put the molecule layers back in. a month later, it worked. we not only had working devices, but we were also able to improve and change their characteristics at will. but here is the real triumph. the resistance of these devices stayed constant whether we turned off the voltage or just read their states ( interrogating them with a voltage so small it left the resistance unchanged ). the oxygen vacancies didn \u2019 t roam around ; they remained absolutely immobile until we again applied a positive or negative voltage. that \u2019 s memristance : the devices remembered their current history. we had coaxed chua \u2019 s mythical memristor off the page and into being. emulating the behavior of a single memristor, chua showed, requires a circuit with at least 15 transistors and other passive elements. the implications are extraordinary : just imagine how many kinds of circuits could be supercharged by replacing a handful of transistors with one single memristor. the most obvious benefit is to memories. in its initial state, a crossbar memory has only open switches, and no information is stored. but once you start closing switches, you can store vast amounts of information compactly and efficiently. because memristors remember their state, they can store data indefinitely, using energy only when you toggle or read", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_computing", "similarity_score": 0.6083930205714458, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 12, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.722016"} {"text": ", and no information is stored. but once you start closing switches, you can store vast amounts of information compactly and efficiently. because memristors remember their state, they can store data indefinitely, using energy only when you toggle or read the state of a switch, unlike the capacitors in conventional dram, which will lose their stored charge if the power to the chip is turned off. furthermore, the wires and switches can be made very small : we should eventually get down to a width of around 4 nm, and then multiple crossbars could be stacked on top of each other to create a ridiculously high density of stored bits. greg snider and i published a paper last year showing that memristors could vastly improve one type of processing circuit, called a field - programmable gate array, or fpga. by replacing several specific transistors with a crossbar of memristors, we showed that the circuit could be shrunk by nearly a factor of 10 in area and improved in terms of its speed relative to power - consumption performance. right now, we are testing a prototype of this circuit in our lab. and memristors are by no means hard to fabricate. the titanium dioxide structure can be made in any semiconductor fab currently in existence. ( in fact, our hybrid circuit was built in an hp fab used for making inkjet cartridges. ) the primary limitation to manufacturing hybrid chips with memristors is that today only a small number of people on earth have any idea of how to design circuits containing memristors. i must emphasize here that memristors will never eliminate the need for transistors : passive devices and circuits require active devices like transistors to supply energy. the potential of the memristor goes far beyond juicing a few fpgas. i have referred several times to the similarity of memristor behavior to that of synapses. right now, greg is designing new circuits that mimic aspects of the brain. the neurons are implemented with transistors, the axons are the nanowires in the crossbar, and the synapses are the memristors at the cross points. a circuit like this could perform real - time data analysis for multiple sensors. think about it : an intelligent physical infrastructure that could provide structural assessment monitoring for bridges. how much money \u2014 and how many lives \u2014 could be saved? i \u2019 m convinced that eventually the memristor will change circuit design", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_computing", "similarity_score": 0.5526700545353216, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 13, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.723535"} {"text": "in 1962 president john f. kennedy \u2019 s administration narrowly averted possible nuclear war with the ussr, when cia operatives spotted soviet surface - to - surface missiles in cuba, after a six - week gap in intelligence - gathering flights. in their forthcoming book blind over cuba : the photo gap and the missile crisis, co - authors david barrett and max holland make the case that the affair was a close call stemming directly from a decision made in a climate of deep distrust between key administration officials and the intelligence community. using recently declassified documents, secondary materials, and interviews with several key participants, the authors weave a story of intra - agency conflict, suspicion, and discord that undermined intelligence - gathering, adversely affected internal postmortems conducted after the crisis peaked, and resulted in keeping congress and the public in the dark about what really happened. we asked barrett, a professor of political science at villanova university, to discuss the actual series of events and what might have happened had the cia not detected soviet missiles on cuba. the actual sequence of events... \u201c some months after the cuban missile crisis, an angry member of the armed services committee of the house of representatives criticized leaders of the kennedy administration for having let weeks go by in september and early october 1962, without detecting soviet construction of missile sites in cuba. it was an intelligence failure as serious as the u. s. ignorance that preceded the japanese attack on pearl harbor in 1941, he said. secretary of defense robert mcnamara aggressively denied that there had been an american intelligence failure or ineptitude with regard to cuba in late summer 1962. mcnamara and others persuaded most observers the administration \u2019 s performance in the lead - up to the crisis had been almost flawless, but the legislator was right : the cia had not sent a u - 2 spy aircraft over western cuba for about a six week period. there were varying reasons for this, but the most important was that the kennedy administration did not wish to have a u - 2 \u201c incident. \u201d sending that aircraft over cuba raised the possibility that soviet surface - to - air missiles might shoot one down. since it was arguably against international law for the u. s. to send spy aircrafts over another country, should one be shot down, there would probably be the same sort of uproar as happened in may 1960, when the soviet union shot down an american u - 2 flying over its territory. furthermore, most state department and cia authorities did not believe that the ussr would put nuclear - armed missiles into cuba that could strike the u. s", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5191923828702993, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.752043"} {"text": "and the patient enduring loss, perceived loss, and / or trauma. time is well spent exploring the specific environmental stressors that precipitated the disorder. although ignoring circumstances surrounding onset might be prudent when employing strict behavioral treatment paradigms, it seems like a terrible waste of time to endure suffering without identifying some underlying meaning or purpose that would otherwise be missed if we overlook onset specifics. \u201c everything can be taken from a man but one thing : the last of human freedoms \u2013 to choose one \u2019 s attitude in any given set of circumstances, to choose one \u2019 s own way. \u201d ( frankl, 1997, p. 86 ) if we acknowledge that all behavior is purposeful, then we must know and understand the circumstances around onset if we will ever understand the purpose of said behavior. i liken this to a difference in professional opinion and personal preference because either position can be reasonably justified, but in the end the patient should make the ultimate decision about whether or not to explore onset contributions vis - a - vis \u201c imagery dialogue \u201d or a similar technique. ( young, klosko, & weishaar, 2003, p. 123 ) if such imagery techniques are unsuccessful or undesired by the client, a psychodynamic conversation between \u201c internal parts of oneself \u201d can add clarity to the persistent inability of the client to delay gratification. ( ingram, 2012, p. 292 ) such explorations are likely to be time consuming, comparatively speaking, and should not be explored with patients who are bound by strict eap requirements or managed care restrictions on the type and length of treatment. comorbid developmental disabilities and cognitive deficits may preclude this existential exploration. i employ the exploration of existential issues of origin in the interest of increasing treatment motivation, promoting adherence, enhancing the therapeutic milieu, and thwarting subsequent lapses by anchoring cognitive dissonance to a concrete event. tm represents a behavioral manifestation of a fixed action patterns ( faps ) that is rigid, consistent, and predicable. faps are generally thought to have evolved from our most primal instincts as animals \u2013 they are believed to contain fundamental behavioral \u2018 switches \u2019 that enhance the survivability of the human species. ( lambert & kinsley, 2011, p. 232 ) the nature of faps that leads some researchers to draw parallels to tm is that faps appear to be qualitatively \u201c ballistic. \u201d it \u2019 s an \u201c all or nothing \u201d reaction that is comparable to an action potential", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5191312637701857, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.808560"} {"text": ". 232 ) the nature of faps that leads some researchers to draw parallels to tm is that faps appear to be qualitatively \u201c ballistic. \u201d it \u2019 s an \u201c all or nothing \u201d reaction that is comparable to an action potential traveling down the axon of a neuron. once they are triggered they are very difficult to suppress and may have a tendency to \u201c kindle \u201d other effects. ( lambert & kinsley, 2011, p. 233 ) there are some unique considerations when it comes to assessing a new patient with tm. because chewing on or ingesting the hair is reported in nearly half of tm cases, the attending clinician should always inquire about oral manipulation and associated gastrointestinal pain associated with a connected hair mass in the stomach or bowel ( trichobezoar ). motivation for change should be assessed and measured because behavioral interventions inherently require a great deal of effort. family and social systems should not be ignored since family dynamics can exacerbate symptomatlogy vis - a - vis pressure to change ( negative reinforcement ), excessive attention ( positive reinforcement ), or both. ( kraemer, 1999, p. 299 ) what remains to be seen is the role of stress in the process of \u201c triggering \u201d a tm episode. some individuals experience an \u201c itch like \u201d sensation as a physical antecedent that remits once the hair is pulled. this \u201c itch like \u201d sensation is far from universal. some clinicians and researchers believe that the abnormal grooming behavior found in tm is \u201c elicited in response to stress \u201d with the necessary but not sufficient condition of \u201c limited options for motoric behavior and tension release. \u201d ( kraemer, 1999, p. 299 ) although this stress hypothesis may materialize as a tenable hypothesis in some cases, it \u2019 s by no means typical. most people diagnosed with tm report that the act of pulling typically occurs during affective states of relaxation and distraction. most individuals whom suffer from tm do not report clinically significant levels of anxiety as the \u201c trigger \u201d of bouts of hair pulling. we could attribute this to an absence of insight regarding anxiety related triggers or, perhaps anxiety simply does not play a significant role in the onset and maintenance of hair pulling episodes. regardless of the factors that trigger episodes, a comprehensive biopsychosocial assessment that includes environmental stressors ( past, present and anticipated ) should be explored. the options for treatment of tm are limited at best", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5277119653212492, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.809578"} {"text": "pulling hair. ( ingram, 2012, p. 292 ) just like a compulsive gambling addict isn \u2019 t in any danger if spends all his money on rent, someone with tm is much less likely to pull hair if they are doing something else with their hands. antecedents, or triggers, are sometimes referred to as discriminative stimuli. ( ingram, 2012, p. 230 ) \u201c we sense objects in a certain way because of our application of priori intuitions \u2026 \u201d ( pirsig, 1999, p. 133 ) altering the underlying assumptions entrenched in maladaptive priori intuitions is the core purpose of awareness and mindfulness training. \u201c there is a lack of constructive self - talk mediating between the trigger event and the behavior. the therapist helps the client build intervening self - messages : slow down and think it over ; think about the consequences. \u201d ( ingram, 2012, p. 221 ) the connection to contingency management should be self evident. utilizing a customized self - monitoring record, the patient begins to acquire the necessary insight to \u201c spot \u201d maladaptive self talk. \u201c spotting \u201d is not a new or novel concept \u2013 it is central component of abraham low \u2019 s revolutionary self help system recovery international. ( abraham low self - help systems, n. d. ) the customized self - monitoring record should invariably include various data elements such as precursors, length of episode, number of hairs pulled, and a subjective unit of distress representing the level of \u201c urge \u201d or desire to pull hair. ( kraemer, 1999 ) the act of recording behavior ( even in the absence of other techniques ) is likely to produce significant reductions in tm symptomatlogy. ( persons, 2008, p. 182 - 201 ) perhaps more importantly, associated activities, thoughts, and emotions that may be contributing to the urge to pull should be codified. ( kraemer, 1999, p. 300 ) in session, this record can be reviewed and subsequently tied to \u201c high risk circumstances \u201d and \u201c priori intuitions \u201d involving constructs such as anger, frustration, depression, and boredom. relaxation training is a critical component if we subscribe to the \u201c kindling \u201d hypothesis explained previously. relaxation is intended to reduce the urges that inevitably trigger the habit. examples abound, but diaphragmatic breathing, progressive relaxation, and visualization are all techniques that can be employed in isolation or in conjunction with each other. contingency management is inexorably tied", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5141012798035578, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.813804"} {"text": "urges that inevitably trigger the habit. examples abound, but diaphragmatic breathing, progressive relaxation, and visualization are all techniques that can be employed in isolation or in conjunction with each other. contingency management is inexorably tied to the existential anchor of cognitive dissonance described above. my emphasis on this element is where my approach might differ from some other clinicians. \u201c you are free to do whatever you want, but you are responsible for the consequences of everything that you do. \u201d ( ingram, 2012, p. 270 ) this might include the client writing down sources of embarrassment, advantages of controlling the symptomatlogy of tm, etc. ( kraemer, 1999 ) the moment someone with pyromania decides that no fire worth being imprisoned, they will stop starting fires. the same holds true with someone who acknowledges the consequences of pulling their hair. how do we define success? once habit reversal is successfully accomplished in one setting or situation, the client needs to be taught how to generalize that skill to other contexts. a hierarchical ranking of anxiety provoking situations can be helpful in this process since self - paced graduated exposure is likely to increase tolerability for the anxious client. ( ingram, 2012, p. 240 ) if skills are acquired, and generalization occurs, we can reasonably expect a significant reduction in tm symptomatlogy. the challenges are significant, cognitive behavioral therapy is much easier said than done. high levels of treatment motivation are required for the behavioral elements, and moderate to high levels of insight are exceptionally helpful for the cognitive elements. in addition, this is an impulse control disorder \u2026 impulsivity leads to treatment noncompliance and termination. the combination of all the above, in addition to the fact that tm is generally acknowledged as one of the more persistent and difficult to treat disorders, prevents me from providing any prognosis other than \u201c this treatment will work as well as the client allows it to work. \u201d abraham low self - help systems. ( n. d. ). recovery international terms and definitions. retrieved august 2, 2012, from http : / / www. lowselfhelpsystems. org / system / recovery - international - language. asp american psychiatric association. ( 2000 ). diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders ( 4th ed., text rev. ). washington, dc : author. frankl, v. e. ( 1997 ). man \u2019 s search for meaning ( rev. ed. ).", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5301419351549939, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 7, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.814862"} {"text": "2000 ). diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders ( 4th ed., text rev. ). washington, dc : author. frankl, v. e. ( 1997 ). man \u2019 s search for meaning ( rev. ed. ). new york, ny : pocket books. ingram, b. l. ( 2012 ). clinical case formulations : matching the integrative treatment plan to the client ( 2nd ed. ). hoboken, nj : john wiley & sons. kraemer, p. a. ( 1999 ). the application of habit reversal in treating trichotillomania. psychotherapy : theory, research, practice, training, 36 ( 3 ), 298 - 304. doi : 10. 1037 / h0092314 lambert, k. g., & kinsley, c. h. ( 2011 ). clinical neuroscience : psychopathology and the brain ( 2nd ed. ). new york : oxford university press. ledley, d. r., marx, b. p., & heimberg, r. g. ( 2010 ). making cognitive - behavioral therapy work : clinical process for new practitioners ( 2nd ed. ). new york, ny : guilford press. persons, j. b. ( 2008 ). the case formulation approach to cognitive - behavior therapy. new york, ny : guilford press. pirsig, r. m. ( 1999 ). zen and the art of motorcycle maintenance : an inquiry into values ( 25th anniversary ed. ). new york : quill. shiel, w. c., jr., & stoppler, m. c. ( eds. ). ( 2008 ). webster \u2019 s new world medical dictionary ( 3rd ed. ). hoboken, nj : wiley publishing. young, j. e., klosko, j. s., & weishaar, m. e. ( 2003 ). schema therapy : a practitioner \u2019 s guide. new york : guilford press.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5287989874357224, "token_count": 416, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 8, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.815602"} {"text": "introduction to principles of chemistry and fundamentals of inorganic and biochemistry. structure and chemistry of carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, biochemistry of enzymes, metabolism, body fluids and radiation effects. on - line materials includes the course syllabus, copies of the lecture slides and animations, interactive periodic table, chapter summaries and practice exams. this course is targeted towards health science majors. introduction to principles of chemistry. this course is targeted towards chemistry majors. laboratory experiments to develop techniques in organic chemistry and illustrate principles. on - line materials include step - by - step prelabs for many of the experiments that students will be conducting. theoretical principles of quantitative and instrumental analysis. emphasis is placed on newer analytical tools and equipment. intermediate level course. includes a discussion of the structure, function and metabolism of proteins, carbohydrates and lipids. in addition, there is a review of enzymes, dna and rna. this course stresses theory and application of modern chromatographic methods. on - line materials include the course syllabus, copies of course lecture slides and animations. a ' short course ' covering the use of a mass spectrometer as a gc detector. basic instrumentation, data treatment and spectral interpretation methods will be discussed. on - line materials include copies of course lecture slides and tables to assist in the interpretation of mass spectra. coverage of statistical methods in analytical chemistry. course includes basic statistics, experimental design, modeling, exploratory data analysis and other multivariate techniques. on - line materials include the course syllabus, homework problems and copies of the lecture slides. a survey of the basic equipment, data and methodology of analytical methods that rely on radioisotopic materials. on - line materials include the course syllabus, homework problems. copies of the lecture slides and animations. why i missed the exam", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5307698649379204, "token_count": 378, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.832328"} {"text": "now that we \u2019 ve said a lot about individual operators on vector spaces, i want to go back and consider some other sorts of structures we can put on the space itself. foremost among these is the idea of a bilinear form. this is really nothing but a bilinear function to the base field :. of course, this means that it \u2019 s equivalent to a linear function from the tensor square :. instead of writing this as a function, we will often use a slightly different notation. we write a bracket, or sometimes, if we need to specify which of multiple different inner products under consideration. another viewpoint comes from recognizing that we \u2019 ve got a duality for vector spaces. this lets us rewrite our bilinear form as a linear transformation. we can view this as saying that once we pick one of the vectors, the bilinear form reduces to a linear functional, which is a vector in the dual space. or we could focus on the other slot and define. we know that the dual space of a finite - dimensional vector space has the same dimension as the space itself, which raises the possibility that or is an isomorphism from to. if either one is, then both are, and we say that the bilinear form is nondegenerate. we can also note that there is a symmetry on the category of vector spaces. that is, we have a linear transformation defined by. this makes it natural to ask what effect this has on our form. two obvious possibilities are that and that. in the first case we \u2019 ll call the bilinear form \u201c symmetric \u201d, and in the second we \u2019 ll call it \u201c antisymmetric \u201d. in terms of the maps and, we see that composing with the symmetry swaps the roles of these two functions. for symmetric bilinear forms,, while for antisymmetric bilinear forms we have. this leads us to consider nondegenerate bilinear forms a little more. if is an isomorphism it has an inverse. then we can form the composite. if is symmetric then this composition is the identity transformation on. on the other hand, if is antisymmetric then this composition is the negative of the identity transformation. thus, the composite transformation measures how much the bilinear transformation diverges from symmetry. accordingly, we call it the asymmetry of the form. finally, if we \u2019 re working over a finite - dimensional vector space we can pick a basis for, and get a matrix for.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.6117858633237931, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.835443"} {"text": "the gram - schmidt process now that we have a real or complex inner product, we have notions of length and angle. this lets us define what it means for a collection of vectors to be \u201c orthonormal \u201d : each pair of distinct vectors is perpendicular, and each vector has unit length. in formulas, we say that the collection is orthonormal if. these can be useful things to have, but how do we get our hands on them? it turns out that if we have a linearly independent collection of vectors then we can come up with an orthonormal collection spanning the same subspace of. even better, we can pick it so that the first vectors span the same subspace as. the method goes back to laplace and cauchy, but gets its name from j\u00f8rgen gram and erhard schmidt. we proceed by induction on the number of vectors in the collection. if, then we simply set this \u201c normalizes \u201d the vector to have unit length, but doesn \u2019 t change its direction. it spans the same one - dimensional subspace, and since it \u2019 s alone it forms an orthonormal collection. now, lets assume the procedure works for collections of size and start out with a linearly independent collection of vectors. first, we can orthonormalize the first vectors using our inductive hypothesis. this gives a collection which spans the same subspace as ( and so on down, as noted above ). but isn \u2019 t in the subspace spanned by the first vectors ( or else the original collection wouldn \u2019 t have been linearly independent ). so it points at least somewhat in a new direction. to find this new direction, we define this vector will be orthogonal to all the vectors from to, since for any such we can check where we use the orthonormality of the collection to show that most of these inner products come out to be zero. so we \u2019 ve got a vector orthogonal to all the ones we collected so far, but it might not have unit length. so we normalize it : and we \u2019 re done.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6416442429043461, "token_count": 434, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.837598"} {"text": "sarin was developed in 1938 in germany as a pesticide. its name is derived from the names of the chemists involved in its creation : schrader, ambros, rudriger and van der linde. sarin is a colorless non - persistent liquid. the vapor is slightly heavier than air, so it hovers close to the ground. under wet and humid weather conditions, sarin degrades swiftly, but as the temperature rises up to a certain point, sarin \u2019 s lethal duration increases, despite the humidity. sarin is a lethal cholinesterase inhibitor. doses which are potentially life threatening may be only slightly larger than those producing least effects. signs and symptoms overexposure may occur within minutes or hours, depending upon the dose. they include : miosis ( constriction of pupils ) and visual effects, headaches and pressure sensation, runny nose and nasal congestion, salivation, tightness in the chest, nausea, vomiting, giddiness, anxiety, difficulty in thinking, difficulty sleeping, nightmares, muscle twitches, tremors, weakness, abdominal cramps, diarrhea, involuntary urination and defecation, with severe exposure symptoms progressing to convulsions and respiratory failure. breath until respiratory protective mask is donned. if severe signs of agent exposure appear ( chest tightens, pupil constriction, in coordination, etc. ), immediately administer, in rapid succession, all three nerve agent antidote kit ( s ), mark i injectors ( or atropine if directed by a physician ). injections using the mark i kit injectors may be repeated at 5 to 20 minute intervals if signs and symptoms are progressing until three series of injections have been administered. no more injections will be given unless directed by medical personnel. in addition, a record will be maintained of all injections given. if breathing has stopped, give artificial respiration. mouth - to - mouth resuscitation should be used when mask - bag or oxygen delivery systems are not available. do not use mouth - to - mouth resuscitation when facial contamination exists. if breathing is difficult, administer oxygen. seek medical attention immediately. contact : immediately flush eyes with water for 10 - 15 minutes, then don respiratory protective mask. although miosis ( pinpointing of the pupils ) may be an early sign of agent exposure, an injection will not be administered when miosis is the only sign present. instead, the individual will be taken immediately", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5221416659738572, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.840422"} {"text": "the press release doesn \u2019 t contain any pictures, and really doesn \u2019 t do this new web tool justice, so i \u2019 ve added some screencaps. in a nutshell, the new iswa site lets you arrange graphical packages of solar images and plots oncsreen for simultaneous evaluation. stuff that had been scattered over several solar related websites is now in one interface. pretty cool. \u2013 anthony when nasa \u2019 s satellite operators need accurate, real - time space - weather information, they turn to the community coordinated modeling center ( ccmc ) of the space weather laboratory at nasa \u2019 s goddard space flight center in greenbelt, md. the ccmc \u2019 s newest and most advanced space - weather science tool is the integrated space weather analysis ( iswa ) system. the iswa is a robust, integrated system provides information about space weather conditions past, present, and future and, unlike many other programs currently in use, has an interface that the user can customize to suit a unique set of data requirements. \u201c the iswa space - weather data analysis system offers a unique level of customization and flexibility to maintain, modify, and add new tools and data products as they become available, \u201d says marlo maddox, iswa system chief developer at nasa goddard. iswa draws together information about conditions from the sun to the boundary of the sun \u2019 s influence, known as the heliosphere. the iswa systems digests information from spacecraft including the national oceanic and atmospheric administration \u2019 s ( noaa ) geostationary operational environmental satellites ( goes ), nasa \u2019 s solar terrestrial relations observatory ( stereo ), the joint european space agency and nasa mission solar and heliospheric observatory ( soho ), and nasa \u2019 s advanced composition explorer ( ace ). citizen scientists and science enthusiasts can also use the data, models, and tools of the iswa system. similar to the way in which armchair astronomers have used soho data to discover comets, enthusiasts will find the iswa system a wonderful resource for increasing their familiarity with the concept of space weather. \u201c we are continuously evolving the iswa system, and we hope that it will benefit not only nasa satellite operators, but also that it may also help space - weather forecasting at other agencies such as the air force weather agency and noaa, \u201d says michael hesse, chief of the space weather laboratory at nasa goddard. space - weather information tends to be scattered over various web sites. nasa goddard space physicist antti pulkkinen says the iswa system represents \u201c the most comprehensive single interface", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5087417091877394, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.853597"} {"text": "\u201d says michael hesse, chief of the space weather laboratory at nasa goddard. space - weather information tends to be scattered over various web sites. nasa goddard space physicist antti pulkkinen says the iswa system represents \u201c the most comprehensive single interface for general space - weather - related information, \u201d providing data on past and current space - weather events. the system allows the user to configure or design custom displays of the information. the system compiles data about conditions on the sun, in earth \u2019 s magnetosphere \u2014 the protective magnetic field that envelops our planet \u2014 and down to earth \u2019 s surface. it provides a user interface to provide nasa \u2019 s satellite operators and with a real - time view of space weather. in addition to nasa, the iswa system is used by the air force weather agency. access to space - weather information that combines data from state - of - the - art space - weather models with concurrent observations of the space environment provides a powerful tool for users to obtain a personalized \u201c quick look \u201d at space - weather information, detailed insight into space - weather conditions, as well as tools for historical analysis of the space - weather \u2019 s impact. development of the iswa system has been a joint activity between the office of the chief engineer at nasa headquarters and the applied engineering and technology directorate and the science and exploration directorate at nasa goddard. the iswa system is located at nasa goddard. the community coordinated modeling center is funded by the heliophysics division in the science mission directorate at nasa headquarters, and the national science foundation. layout selector tool :", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5147020421956299, "token_count": 321, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.854451"} {"text": "- weak drug regulatory control and enforcement ; - scarcity and / or erratic supply of basic medicines ; - unregulated markets and distribution chains ; - high drug prices and / or - significant price differentials. at national level, governments, law enforcement agencies, heath professionals, the pharmaceutical industry, importers, distributors, and consumer organizations should adopt a shared responsibility in the fight against counterfeit drugs. cooperation between countries, especially trading partners is very useful for combating counterfeiting. cooperation should include the timely and appropriate exchange of information and the harmonization of measures to prevent the spread of counterfeit medicines. the world health organization has developed and published guidelines, guidelines for the development of measures to combat counterfeit medicines. these guidelines provide advice on measures that should be taken by the various stakeholders and interested parties to combat counterfeiting of medicines. governments and all stakeholders are encouraged to adapt or adopt these guidelines in their fight against counterfeiting of medicines. - guidelines for the development of measures to combat counterfeit medicines - rapid alert system for counterfeit medicines communication and advocacy - creating public awareness patients and consumers are the primary victims of counterfeit medicines. in order to protect them from the harmful effects of counterfeit medicines it is necessary to provide them with appropriate information and education on the consequences of counterfeit medicines. patients and consumers expect to get advice from national authorities, health - care providers, health professionals and others from where they should buy or get their medicines ; what measures they should take in case they come across such medicines or are affected by the use of such medicines. ministries of health, national medicines regulators, health professional associations, nongovernmental organizations and other stakeholders have the responsibility to participate in campaign activities targeting patients and consumers to promote awareness of the problem of counterfeit medicines. posters, brochures, radio and television programmes are useful means for disseminating messages and advice.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5105974180221835, "token_count": 379, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.873659"} {"text": "as part of work relevant to the war effort, he studied two - dimensional subsonic fluid flow. this was important at that time since aircraft wings were being designed for planes with jet engines capable of high speeds. between 1945 and 1949 bers worked at syracuse university, first at assistant professor, later as associate professor. gelbart wanted to build up the department at syracuse and attracting both bers and loewner was an excellent move. here bers began work on the problem of removability of singularities of non - linear elliptic equations. his major results in this area were announced by him at the international congress of mathematicians in 1950 and his paper isolated singularities of minimal surfaces was published in the annals of mathematics in 1951. courant writes : - the nonparametric differential equation of minimal surfaces may be considered the most accessible significant example revealing typical qualities of solutions of non - linear partial differential equations. with a view to such a general objective, [ bers ] has studied singularities, branch - points and behaviour in the large of minimal surfaces. abikoff writes in that this paper is : -... a magnificent synthesis of complex analytic techniques which relate the different parameterisations of minimal surfaces to the representations of the potential function for subsonic flow and thereby achieves the extension across the singularity. bers then became a member of the institute for advanced study at princeton where he began work on teichmuller theory, pseudoanalytic functions, quasiconformal mappings and kleinian groups. he was set in the right direction by an inequality he found in a paper of lavrentev who attributed the inequality to ahlfors. in a lecture he gave in 1986 bers explained what happened next : - i was in princeton at the time. ahlfors came to princeton and announced a talk on quasiconformal mappings. he spoke at the university so i went there and sure enough, he proved this theorem. so i came up to him after the talk and asked him \" where did you publish it? \", and he said \" i didn ' t \". \" so why did lavrentev credit you with it? \" ahlfors said \" he probably thought i must know it and was too lazy to look it up in the literature \". when bers met lavrentev three years later he asked him the same questions and, indeed, ahlfors had been correct in guessing why lavrentev had credited him. bers continued in his 1986 lecture :", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5583377689722543, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.887861"} {"text": "the literature \". when bers met lavrentev three years later he asked him the same questions and, indeed, ahlfors had been correct in guessing why lavrentev had credited him. bers continued in his 1986 lecture : - i immediately decided that, first of all, if quasiconformal mappings lead to such powerful and beautiful results and, secondly, if it is done in this gentlemanly spirit - where you don ' t fight over priority - this is something that i should spend the rest of my life studying. it is ironic, given bers strong political views on human rights, that he should find that teichmuller, a fervent nazi, had already made stunning contributions. in one of his papers on teichmuller theory, bers quotes plutarch : - it does not of necessity follow that, if the work delights you with its grace, the one who wrought it is worthy of your esteem. in 1951 bers went to the courant institute in new york, where he was a full professor, and remained there for 13 years. during this time he wrote a number of important books and surveys on his work. he published theory of pseudo - analytic functions in 1953 which protter, in a review, described as follows : - the theory of pseudo - analytic functions was first announced by [ bers ] in two notes. these lecture notes not only contain proofs and extensions of the results previously announced but give a self - contained and comprehensive treatment of the subject. the author sets as his goal the development of a function theory for solutions of linear, elliptic, second order partial differential equations in two independent variables ( or systems of two first - order equations ). one of the chief stumbling blocks in such a task is the fact that the notion of derivative is a hereditary property for analytic functions while this is clearly not the case for solutions of general second order elliptic equations. another classic text was mathematical aspects of subsonic and transonic gas dynamics published in 1958 : - it should be said, even though this is taken for granted by everybody in the case of professor bers, that the survey is masterly in its elegance and clarity. in 1958 bers address the international congress of mathematicians in edinburgh, scotland, where he lectured on spaces of riemann surfaces and announced a new proof of the measurable riemann mapping theorem. in his talk bers summarised recent work on the classical problem of moduli for compact riemann surfaces and sketched a proof of the te", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5861501617350388, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.888746"} {"text": "on spaces of riemann surfaces and announced a new proof of the measurable riemann mapping theorem. in his talk bers summarised recent work on the classical problem of moduli for compact riemann surfaces and sketched a proof of the teichmuller theorem characterizing extremal quasiconformal mappings. he showed that the teichmuller space for surfaces of genus g is a ( 6g - 6 ) - cell, and showed how to construct the natural complex analytic structure for the teichmuller space. bers was a guggenheim fellow in 1959 - 60, and a fulbright fellow in the same academic year. from 1959 until he left the courant institute in 1964, bers was chairman of the graduate department of mathematics. in 1964 bers went to columbia university where he was to remain until he retired in 1984. he was chairman of the department from 1972 to 1975. he was appointed davies professor of mathematics in 1972, becoming emeritus davies professor of mathematics in 1982. during this period bers was visiting miller research professor at the university of california at berkeley in 1968. tilla weinstein describes in bers as a lecturer : - lipa ' s courses were irresistible. he laced his lectures with humorous asides and tasty tidbits of mathematical gossip. he presented intricate proofs with impeccable clarity, pausing dramatically at the few most critical steps, giving us a chance to think for ourselves and to worry that he might not know what to do next. then, just as the silence got uncomfortable, he would describe the single most elegant way to complete the argument. jane gilman describes bers ' character : - underneath the force of bers ' personality and vivacity was the force of his mathematics. his mathematics had a clarity and beauty that went beyond the actual results. he had a special gift for conceptualising things and placing them in the larger context. in bers life is summed up by abikoff as follows : - lipa possessed a joy of life and an optimism that is difficult to find at this time and that is sorely missed. those of us who experienced it directly have felt an obligation to pass it on. that, in addition to the beauty of his own work, is lipa ' s enduring gift to us. we have yet to say something about bers ' great passion for human rights. in fact this was anything but a sideline in his life and one could consider that he devoted himself full - time to both his mathematical work and to his work as", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5237175227640467, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.889637"} {"text": ". we have yet to say something about bers ' great passion for human rights. in fact this was anything but a sideline in his life and one could consider that he devoted himself full - time to both his mathematical work and to his work as a social reformer. perhaps his views are most clearly expressed by quoting from an address he gave in 1984 when awarded an honorary degree by the state university of new york at stony brook : - by becoming a human rights activist... you do take upon yourself certain difficult obligations.... i believe that only a truly even - handed approach can lead to an honest, morally convincing, and effective human rights policy. a human rights activist who hates and fears communism must also care about the human rights of latin american leftists. a human rights activist who sympathises with the revolutionary movement in latin america must also be concerned about human rights abuses in cuba and nicaragua. a devout muslim must also care about human rights of the bahai in iran and of the small jewish community in syria, while a jew devoted to israel must also worry about the human rights of palestinian arabs. and we american citizens must be particularly sensitive to human rights violations for which our government is directly or indirectly responsible, as well as to the human rights violations that occur in our own country, as they do. bers received many honours for his contributions in addition to those we have mentioned above. he was elected to the american academy of arts and sciences, to the finnish academy of sciences, and to the american philosophical society. he served the american mathematical society in several capacities, particularly as vice - president ( 1963 - 65 ) and as president ( 1975 - 77 ). the american mathematical society awarded him their steele prize in 1975. he received the new york mayor ' s award in science and technology in 1985. he was an honorary life member of the new york academy of sciences, and of the london mathematical society. article by : j j o ' connor and e f robertson click on this link to see a list of the glossary entries for this page list of references ( 5 books / articles ) | | some quotations ( 3 ) | | mathematicians born in the same country | | honours awarded to lipman bers | ( click below for those honoured in this way ) | ams colloquium lecturer | | 1971 | | ams steele prize | | 1975 | | american maths society president | | 1975 - 1976 | | lms honorary member | | 1984 | other web sites | previous | | ( alphabetically", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5006133613007362, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.890559"} {"text": "x2 / 3 + y2 / 3 = a2 / 3 x = a cos3 ( t ), y = a sin3 ( t ) click below to see one of the associated curves. | definitions of the associated curves | | evolute | | involute 1 | | involute 2 | | inverse curve wrt origin | | inverse wrt another circle | | pedal curve wrt origin | | pedal wrt another point | | negative pedal curve wrt origin | | negative pedal wrt another point | | caustic wrt horizontal rays | | caustic curve wrt another point | the astroid only acquired its present name in 1836 in a book published in vienna. it has been known by various names in the literature, even after 1836, including cubocycloid and paracycle. the length of the astroid is 6a and its area is 3\u03c0a2 / 8. the gradient of the tangent t from the point with parameter p is - tan ( p ). the equation of this tangent t is x sin ( p ) + y cos ( p ) = a sin ( 2p ) / 2 let t cut the x - axis and the y - axis at x and y respectively. then the length xy is a constant and is equal to a. it can be formed by rolling a circle of radius a / 4 on the inside of a circle of radius a. it can also be formed as the envelope produced when a line segment is moved with each end on one of a pair of perpendicular axes. it is therefore a glissette. other web site : | main index | | famous curves index | | previous curve | | next curve | | history topics index | | birthplace maps | | mathematicians of the day | | anniversaries for the year | | societies, honours, etc | | search form | the url of this page is :", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5251615092562628, "token_count": 394, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.892186"} {"text": "arctic meltdown not caused by nature rapid loss of arctic sea ice - 80 per cent has disappeared since 1980 - is not caused by natural cycles such as changes in the earth ' s orbit around the sun, says dr karl. the situation is getting rather messy with regard to the ice melting in the arctic. now the volume of the ice varies throughout the year, rising to its peak after midwinter, and falling to its minimum after midsummer, usually in the month of september. over most of the last 1, 400 years, the volume of ice remaining each september has stayed pretty constant. but since 1980, we have lost 80 per cent of that ice. now one thing to appreciate is that over the last 4. 7 billion years, there have been many natural cycles in the climate \u2014 both heating and cooling. what ' s happening today in the arctic is not a cycle caused by nature, but something that we humans did by burning fossil fuels and dumping slightly over one trillion tonnes of carbon into the atmosphere over the last century. so what are these natural cycles? there are many many of them, but let ' s just look at the milankovitch cycles. these cycles relate to the earth and its orbit around the sun. there are three main milankovitch cycles. they each affect how much solar radiation lands on the earth, and whether it lands on ice, land or water, and when it lands. the first milankovitch cycle is that the orbit of the earth changes from mostly circular to slightly elliptical. it does this on a predominantly 100, 000 - year cycle. when the earth is close to the sun it receives more heat energy, and when it is further away it gets less. at the moment the orbit of the earth is about halfway between \" nearly circular \" and \" slightly elliptical \". so the change in the distance to the sun in each calendar year is currently about 5. 1 million kilometres, which translates to about 6. 8 per cent difference in incoming solar radiation. but when the orbit of the earth is at its most elliptical, there will be a 23 per cent difference in how much solar radiation lands on the earth. the second milankovitch cycle affecting the solar radiation landing on our planet is the tilt of the north - south spin axis compared to the plane of the orbit of the earth around the sun. this tilt rocks gently between 22. 1 degrees and 24. 5 degrees from the vertical. this cycle has a period of about 41, 000 years. at the moment we are roughly halfway in the middle \u2014 we '", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5035361834207992, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.908943"} {"text": "of the earth around the sun. this tilt rocks gently between 22. 1 degrees and 24. 5 degrees from the vertical. this cycle has a period of about 41, 000 years. at the moment we are roughly halfway in the middle \u2014 we ' re about 23. 44 degrees from the vertical and heading down to 22. 1 degrees. as we head to the minimum around the year 11, 800, the trend is that the summers in each hemisphere will get less solar radiation, while the winters will get more, and there will be a slight overall cooling. the third milankovitch cycle that affects how much solar radiation lands on our planet is a little more tricky to understand. it ' s called ' precession '. as our earth orbits the sun, the north - south spin axis does more than just rock gently between 22. 1 degrees and 24. 5 degrees. it also \u2014 very slowly, just like a giant spinning top \u2014 sweeps out a complete 360 degrees circle, and it takes about 26, 000 years to do this. so on january 4, when the earth is at its closest to the sun, it ' s the south pole ( yep, the antarctic ) that points towards the sun. so at the moment, everything else being equal, it ' s the southern hemisphere that has a warmer summer because it ' s getting more solar radiation, but six months later it will have a colder winter. and correspondingly, the northern hemisphere will have a warmer winter and a cooler summer. but of course, \" everything else \" is not equal. there ' s more land in the northern hemisphere but more ocean in a southern hemisphere. the arctic is ice that is floating on water and surrounded by land. the antarctic is the opposite \u2014 ice that is sitting on land and surrounded by water. you begin to see how complicated it all is. we have had, in this current cycle, repeated ice ages on earth over the last three - million years. during an ice age, the ice can be three kilometres thick and cover practically all of canada. it can spread through most of siberia and europe and reach almost to where london is today. of course, the water to make this ice comes out of the ocean, and so in the past, the ocean level has dropped by some 125 metres. from three million years ago to one million years ago, the ice advanced and retreated on a 41, 000 - year cycle. but from one million years ago until the present, the ice has advanced and retreated on a 100, 000 - year cycle. what", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5091525130174364, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.909978"} {"text": "black holes growing faster than expected black hole find existing theories on the relationship between the size of a galaxy and its central black hole are wrong according to a new australian study. the discovery by dr nicholas scott and professor alister graham, from melbourne ' s swinburne university of technology, found smaller galaxies have far smaller black holes than previously estimated. central black holes, millions to billions of times more massive than the sun, reside in the core of most galaxies, and are thought to be integral to galactic formation and evolution. however astronomers are still trying to understand this relationship. scott and graham combined data from observatories in chile, hawaii and the hubble space telescope, to develop a data base listing the masses of 77 galaxies and their central supermassive black holes. the astronomers determined the mass of each central black hole by measuring how fast stars are orbiting it. existing theories suggest a direct ratio between the mass of a galaxy and that of its central black hole. \" this ratio worked for larger galaxies, but with improved technology we ' re now able to examine far smaller galaxies and the current theories don ' t hold up, \" says scott. in a paper to be published in the astrophysical journal, they found that for each ten - fold decrease in a galaxy ' s mass, there was a one hundred - fold decrease in its central black hole mass. \" that was a surprising result which we hadn ' t been anticipating, \" says scott. the study also found that smaller galaxies have far denser stellar populations near their centres than larger galaxies. according to scott, this also means the central black holes in smaller galaxies grow much faster than their larger counterparts. black holes grow by merging with other black holes when their galaxies collide. \" when large galaxies merge they double in size and so do their central black holes, \" says scott. \" but when small galaxies merge their central black holes quadruple in size because of the greater densities of nearby stars to feed on. \" somewhere in between the findings also solve the long standing problem of missing intermediate mass black holes. for decades, scientists have been searching for something in between stellar mass black holes formed when the largest stars die, and supermassive black holes at the centre of galaxies. \" if the central black holes in smaller galaxies have lower mass than originally thought, they may represent the intermediate mass black hole population astronomers have been hunting for, \" says graham. \" intermediate sized black holes are between ten thousand and a few hundred thousand times the mass of the sun, and we think we '", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5164726172883376, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.913617"} {"text": "science fair project encyclopedia the chloride ion is formed when the element chlorine picks up one electron to form the anion ( negatively charged ion ) cl\u2212. the salts of hydrochloric acid hcl contain chloride ions and are also called chlorides. an example is table salt, which is sodium chloride with the chemical formula nacl. in water, it dissolves into na + and cl\u2212 ions. the word chloride can also refer to a chemical compound in which one or more chlorine atoms are covalently bonded in the molecule. this means that chlorides can be either inorganic or organic compounds. the simplest example of an inorganic covalently bonded chloride is hydrogen chloride, hcl. a simple example of an organic covalently bonded chloride is chloromethane ( ch3cl ), often called methyl chloride. other examples of inorganic covalently bonded chlorides which are used as reactants are : - phosphorus trichloride, phosphorus pentachloride, and thionyl chloride - all three are reactive chlorinating reagents which have been used in a laboratory. - disulfur dichloride ( scl2 ) - used for vulcanization of rubber. chloride ions have important physiological roles. for instance, in the central nervous system the inhibitory action of glycine and some of the action of gaba relies on the entry of cl\u2212 into specific neurons. the contents of this article is licensed from www. wikipedia. org under the gnu free documentation license. click here to see the transparent copy and copyright details", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5402413455775658, "token_count": 319, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.949479"} {"text": "science fair project encyclopedia industrial design is an applied art whereby the aesthetics and usability of products may be improved. design aspects specified by the industrial designer may include the overall shape of the object, the location of details with respect to one another, colors, texture, sounds, and aspects concerning the use of the product ergonomics. additionally the industrial designer may specify aspects concerning the production process, choice of materials and the way the product is presented to the consumer at the point of sale. the use of industrial designers in a product development process may lead to added values by improved usability, lowered production costs and more appealing products. product design is focused on products only, while industrial design has a broader focus on concepts, products and processes. in addition to considering aesthetics, usability, and ergonomics, it can also encompass the engineering of objects, usefulness as well as usability, market placement, and other concerns. product design and industrial design can overlap into the fields of user interface design, information design and interaction design. various schools of industrial design and / or product design may specialize in one of these aspects, ranging from pure art colleges ( product styling ) to mixed programs of engineering and design, to related disciplines like exhibit design and interior design. in the us, the field of industrial design hit a high - water mark of popularity in the late 30 ' s and early 40 ' s, with several industrial designers becoming minor celebrities. raymond loewy, norman bel geddes, and henry dreyfuss remain the best known. in the uk, the term \" industrial design \" increasingly implies design with considerable engineering and technology awareness alongside human factors - a \" total design \" approach, promoted by the late stuart pugh ( university of strathclyde ) and others. famous industrial designers - egmont arens ( 1888 - 1966 ) - norman bel geddes ( 1893 - 1958 ) - henry dreyfuss ( 1904 - 1972 ) - charles and ray eames ( 1907 - 1978 ) and ( 1912 - 1988 ) - harley j. earl ( 1893 - 1969 ) - virgil exner ( 1909 - 1973 ) - buckminster fuller ( 1895 - 1983 ) - kenneth grange ( 1929 - ) - michael graves ( 1934 - ) - walter adolph gropius ( 1883 - 1969 ) - jonathan ive ( 1967 - ) - arne jacobsen ( 1902 - 1971 ) - raymond loewy ( 1893 - 1986 ) - ludwig mies van der rohe ( 1886 - 1969 ) - laszlo moholy -", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5410348255587436, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.952456"} {"text": "- 1884 : publications : \" ueber die erden des gadolinits von ytterby \", \" ueber die seltenen erden \". 1885 : the first separation of the element \" didymium \" with help from a newly developed separation method from himself, based on the fractioned crystalisation of a didym - ammonium nitrat solution. after the characteristical colouring, auer gave the green components the name praseodymium, the pink components the name neodidymium. in time the latter element was more commonly known as neodymium. 1885 - 1892 : work on gas mantle for the incandescent lighting. development of a method to produce gas mantle ( \" auerlicht ) based on the impregnation from cottontissue by means, measures, methods of liquids, that rare earth has been absolved in and the ash from the material in a following glow process. production of the first incandescent mantle out of lanthanum oxide, in which the gas flame is surrounded from a stocking ; definite improvement in light emmission, but lack of stability in humidity. continuous improvements in the chemical composition of the incandescent mantel \" auerlicht \", experimentations of lanthanum oxide - magnesium oxide - variations. 18th of sept. 1885 : the patenting of a gas burner with a \" actinophor \" incandescent mantle made up of 60 % magnesium oxide, 20 % lanthanum oxide and 20 % yttrium oxide ; in the same year, the magnesium oxide part was replaced with zirconium oxide and the constitution of a second patent with reference to the additional use of the light body in a spirits flame. 9th of april 1886 : introduction the name \" gasgluehlicht \" through the journalist motiz szeps after the successful presentation from the actinophors in the lower austrian trade union ; regular production of the impregnation liquid, called \" fluid \", at the chemical institute. 1887 : the acquisition of the factory wurth & co. for chemical - pharmaceutical products in atzgersdorf and the industrial production of the light bodies. 1889 : the beginning of sales problems because of the defaults with the earlier incandescent mantle, ie. it ` s fragility, the short length of use, as well as having an unpleasant, cold, green coloured light, and the relatively high price. the factory in atzgersdorf closes. the development of fraction", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5167004008637572, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.964980"} {"text": "ethics of dementia research what are clinical trials and how are they controlled / governed? a clinical trial is a biomedical / health - related study into the effects on humans of a new medical treatment ( medicine / drug, medical device, vaccine or new therapy ), sometimes called an investigational medicinal product ( imp ). before a new drug is authorised and can be marketed, it must pass through several phases of development including trial phases in which its safety, efficacy, risks, optimal use and / or benefits are tested on human beings. existing drugs must also undergo clinical testing before they can be used to treat other conditions than that for which they were originally intended. organisations conducting clinical trials in the european union must, if they wish to obtain marketing authorisation, respect the requirements for the conduct of clinical trials. these can be found in the clinical trials directive ( \u201c directive 2001 / 20 / ec of the european parliament and of the council of 4 april 2001 on the approximation of the laws, regulations and administrative provisions of the member states relating to the implementation of good clinical practice in the conduct of clinical trials on medicinal products for human use \u201d ). there are also guidelines to ensure that clinical trials are carried out in accordance with good clinical practice. these are contained in the \u201c commission directive 2005 / 28 / ec of 8 april 2005 laying down principles and detailed guidelines for good clinical practice as regards investigational medicinal products for human use, as well as the requirements for authorisation of the manufacturing or importation of such products \u201d ( also known as the good clinical practice or gcp for short ). this document provides more concrete guidelines and lends further support to the clinical trials directive. the london - based european medicines agency ( ema ) has published additional, more specific guidelines which must also be respected. these include guidelines on inspection procedures and requirements related to quality, safety and efficacy. copies of the above - mentioned documents in 22 languages can be found at : http : / / ec. europa. eu / enterprise / pharmaceuticals / clinicaltrials / clinicaltrials _ en. htm the protection of people participating in clinical trials ( and in most cases in other types of research ) is further promoted by provisions of : - the european convention on human rights and biomedicine ( oviedo convention, act 2619 / 1998 ), - the additional protocol to the oviedo convention concerning biomedical research - the nuremberg code of 1949, - the revised helsinki declaration of the world medical association regarding ethical principles for medical research involving human subjects, - the belmont report of 18 april 1979", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_entanglement", "similarity_score": 0.5143169399671765, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.997427"} {"text": "), - the additional protocol to the oviedo convention concerning biomedical research - the nuremberg code of 1949, - the revised helsinki declaration of the world medical association regarding ethical principles for medical research involving human subjects, - the belmont report of 18 april 1979 on the ethical principles and guidelines for the protection of human subjects of research. what are the different phases of trials? testing an experimental drug or medical procedure is usually an extremely lengthy process, sometimes lasting several years. the overall procedure is divided into a series of stages ( known as phases ) which are described below. clinical testing on humans can only begin after a pre - clinical phase, involving laboratory studies ( in vitro ) and tests on animals, which has shown that the experimental drug is considered safe and effective. whilst a certain amount of testing can be carried out by means of computer modelling and by isolating cells and tissue, it becomes necessary at some point in time to test the drug on a living creature. animal testing is an obligatory stage in the process of obtaining regulatory approval for new drugs and medicines, and hence a legal requirement ( eu directive 2001 / 83 / ec relating to medicinal products for human use ). the necessity of carrying out prior testing on animals is also stated in the world medical association \u2019 s \u201c ethical principles for medical research involving human subjects. in order to protect the well - being of research animals, researchers are guided by three principles which are called the 3rs : reduce the number of animals used to a minimum refine the way that experiments are carried out so that the effect on the animal is minimised and animal welfare is improved replace animal experiments with alternative ( non - animal ) techniques wherever possible. in addition, most countries will have official regulatory bodies which control animal research. most animals involved in research are mice. however, no animal is sufficiently similar to humans ( even genetically modified ones ) to make human testing unnecessary. for this reason, the experimental drug must also be tested on humans. the main phases of clinical trials clinical trials on humans can be divided into three main phases ( literally, phase i, ii and iii ). each phase has specific objectives ( please see below ) and the number of people involved increases as the trial progresses from one phase to the next. phase i trials phase 1 trials are usually the first step in testing a new drug or treatment on humans after successful laboratory and animal testing. they are usually quite small scale and usually involve healthy subjects or sub - groups of patients who share a particular characteristic. the aims of these trials are : - to assess the safety of experimental", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5089246085479355, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:33.999125"} {"text": "new drug or treatment on humans after successful laboratory and animal testing. they are usually quite small scale and usually involve healthy subjects or sub - groups of patients who share a particular characteristic. the aims of these trials are : - to assess the safety of experimental drugs, - to evaluate any possible side effects, - to determine a safe dose range, - to see how the body reacts to the drug ( how it is absorbed, distributed and eliminated from the body, the effects that it has on the body and the effects it has on biomarkers ). dose ranging, sometimes called dose escalation, studies may be used as a means to determine the most appropriate dosage, but the doses administered to the subjects should only be a fraction of those which were found to cause harm to animals in the pre - clinical studies. the process of determining an optimal dose in phase i involves quite a high degree of risk because this is the first time that the experimental treatment or drug has been administered to humans. moreover, healthy people \u2019 s reactions to drugs may be different to those of the target patient group. for this reason, drugs which are considered to have a potentially high toxicity are usually tested on people from the target patient group. there are a few sequential approaches to phase i trials e. g. single ascending dose studies, multiple ascending dose studies and food effect. in single ascending dose studies ( sad ), a small group of subjects receive a very low dose of the experimental drug and are then observed in order to see whether that dose results in side effects. for this reason, trials are usually conducted in hospital settings. if no adverse side effects are observed, a second group of subjects are given a slightly higher dose of the same drug and also monitored for side - effects. this process is repeated until a dose is reached which results in intolerable side effects. this is defined as the maximum tolerated dose ( mtd ). multiple ascending dose studies ( mad ) are designed to test the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of multiple doses of the experimental drug. a group of subjects receives multiple doses of the drug, starting at the lowest dose and working up to a pre - determined level. at various times during the period of administration of the drug, and particularly whenever the dose is increased, samples of blood and other bodily fluids are taken. these samples are analysed in order to determine how the drug is processed within the body and how well it is tolerated by the body. food effect studies are investigations into the effect of food intake", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5168450033840781, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:34.000894"} {"text": ", samples of blood and other bodily fluids are taken. these samples are analysed in order to determine how the drug is processed within the body and how well it is tolerated by the body. food effect studies are investigations into the effect of food intake on the absorption of the drug into the body. this involves two groups of subjects being given the same dose of the experimental drug but for one of the groups when fasting and for the other after a meal. alternatively, this could be done in a cross - over design whereby both groups receive the experimental drug in both conditions in sequence ( e. g. when fasting and on another occasion after a meal ). food effect studies allow researchers to see whether eating before the drug is given has any effect on the absorption of the drug by the body. phase ii trials having demonstrated the initial safety of the drug ( often on a relatively small sample of healthy individuals ), phase ii clinical trials can begin. phase ii studies are designed to explore the therapeutic efficacy of a treatment or drug in people who have the condition that the drug is intended to treat. they are sometimes called therapeutic exploratory trials and tend to be larger scale than phase i trials. phase ii trials can be divided into phase iia and phase iib although sometimes they are combined. phase iia is designed to assess dosing requirements i. e. how much of the drug should patients receive and up to what dose is considered safe? the safety assessments carried out in phase i can be repeated on a larger subject group. as more subjects are involved, some may experience side effects which none of the subjects in the phase i experienced. the researchers aim to find out more about safety, side effects and how to manage them. phase iib studies focus on the efficacy of the drug i. e. how well it works at the prescribed doses. researchers may also be interested in finding out which types of a specific disease or condition would be most suitable for treatment. phase ii trials can be randomised clinical trials which involve one group of subjects being given the experimental drug and others receiving a placebo and / or standard treatment. alternatively, they may be case series which means that the drug \u2019 s safety and efficacy is tested in a selected group of patients. if the researchers have adequately demonstrated that the experimental drug ( or device ) is effective against the condition for which it is being tested, they can proceed to phase iii. phase iii trials phase iii trials are the last stage before clinical approval for a new drug or device. by this stage, there will", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5248181700801402, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:34.002000"} {"text": "2000 version of the helsinki declaration in which prudence was called for in the use of placebo in research trials and it was advised that placebo should only be used in cases where there was no proven therapy for the condition under investigation. a document clarifying the position of the wma regarding the use of placebo was issued by the wma in 2001 in which it was made clear that the use of placebo might be ethically acceptable even if proven therapy was available. the current version of this statement is article 32 of the 2008 revised helsinki declaration ( quoted in sub - section 7. 2. 1 ). the pcsbi ( 2011 ) highlight the importance of ensuring that the design of clinical trials enables the researchers to resolve controversy and uncertainty over the merits of the trial drug and whether the trial drug is better than an existing drug if there is one. they suggest that studies which cannot resolve such questions or uncertainty are likely to be ignored by the scientific community and this would be unethical as it would mean that people had been unnecessarily exposed to risk without there being any social benefit. reasons for participation people with dementia who take part in clinical trials may do so for a variety of reasons. one possible reason is that they hope to receive some form of treatment that will improve their condition or even result in a cure. this is sometimes called the \u201c therapeutic misconception \u201d. in such cases, clinical trials may seem unethical in that advantage is being taken of the vulnerability of some of the participants. on the other hand, the possibility of participating in such a trial may help foster hope which may even enable a person to maintain their morale. a review of 61 studies on attitudes to trials has shed some light on why people participate in clinical trials ( edwards, lilford and hewison, 1998 ). in this review, it was found that over 60 % of participants in seven studies stated that they did or would participate in clinical trials for altruistic reasons. however, in 4 studies, over 70 % of people stated that they participated out of self - interest and in two studies over 50 % of people stated that they would participate in such a study out of self - interest. as far as informed consent is concerned, in two studies ( which were also part of this review ) 47 % of responding doctors thought that few patients were actually aware that they were taking part in a clinical trial. on the other hand, an audit of four further studies revealed that at least 80 % of participants felt that they had made an autonomous decision.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_entanglement", "similarity_score": 0.5132811309661633, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 8, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:34.019714"} {"text": "contraindications avoided, which may necessitate \u201c de - blinding \u201d ( dubois, 2008 ). although many people would perhaps like to benefit from a new drug which is more effective than existing drugs, people have different ideas about what is an acceptable risk and different reasons for taking part in clinical trials. people who receive the placebo are not exposed to the same potential risks as those given the experimental drug. on the other hand, they have no possibility to benefit from the advantages the drug may offer. those receiving a drug commonly considered as the standard therapy are not necessarily better off than those receiving a placebo as some participants may already know that they do not respond well to the accepted treatment ( dubois, 2008 ). if people who participate in a clinical trial are not informed which arm of the trial they were in, valuable information is lost which might have otherwise contributed towards to treatment decisions made after the clinical trial. taylor and wainwright ( 2005 ) suggest that \u201c unblinding \u201d should occur at the end of all studies and so as not to interfere with the analysis of data, this could be done by a person who is totally independent of the analysis. this would, however, have implications for open label extended trials as in that case participants, whilst better equipped to give informed consent would have more information than the researchers and this might be conveyed to researchers in anad hocmanner. open label extension trails open label extension studies ( mentioned in sub - section 7. 1. 8 ) seem quite fair as they give each participant the opportunity to freely consent to continuing with the study in the full knowledge that s / he will receive the experimental drug. however, taylor and wainwright ( 2005 ) have highlighted a couple of ethical concerns linked to the consent process, the scientific value of such studies and issues linked to access to drugs at the end of the prior study. with regard to consent, they argue that people may have had a positive or negative experience of the trial but do not know whether this was due to the experimental drug, another drug or a placebo. they may nevertheless base their decision whether to continue on their experience so far. for those who were not taking the experimental drug, their experience in the follow - up trial may turn out to be very different. also, if they are told about the possibility of the open label extension trial when deciding whether or not to take part in the initial trial ( i. e. with the implication that whatever group they are ascribed to, in the follow - up study they will be guaranteed the experimental drug ),", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_entanglement", "similarity_score": 0.5070513473465585, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 10, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:34.024383"} {"text": "drug on compassionate grounds, which whilst laudable, should not be camouflaged as scientific research. rather governments should take responsibility and set up the appropriate legal mechanisms to make it possible for participants whose medical condition merits prolonged treatment with the experimental drug to have access to it. minimising pain and discomfort certain procedures to which people with dementia or their representatives consent may by burdensome or painful or simply worrying but in accordance with the principles of autonomy or justice / equity, people with dementia have the right to participate. the fact that they have made an informed decision to participate and are willing to tolerate such pain or burden does not release researchers from the obligation to try to minimise it. for example, if repeated blood samples are going to be necessary, an indwelling catheter could be inserted under local anaesthetic to make it easier or medical staff should provide reassurance about the use of various scanning equipment which might be worrying or enable the person \u2019 s carer to be present. in order to minimize fear, trained personnel are needed who have experience dealing with people with dementia. the advice of the carer, if there is one, could also be sought. drug trials in countries with less developed safeguards clinical trials are sometimes carried out in countries where safeguards are not well developed and where the participants and even the general population are likely to have less possibility to benefit from the results of successful trials. for example, some countries have not signed the convention for the protection of human rights and dignity of the human being with regard to the application of biology and medicine ( 1997 ) ( referred to in section 188. 8. 131. 52 ). the participants in those countries may be exposed to possible risks but have little chance of future medical benefit if the trial is successful. yet people in countries with stricter safeguards for participants ( which are often richer countries ) stand to benefit from their efforts and from the risks they take, as they are more likely to be able to afford the drugs once developed. this raises ethical issues linked to voluntariness because there may be, in addition to the less developed safeguards, factors which make participation in such trials more attractive to potential participants. such practices also represent a lack of equity in the distribution of risk, burden and possible benefit within society and could be interpreted as using people as a means to an end. parallels can also be drawn to the situation whereby people in countries where stem cell research is banned profit from the results of studies carried out in countries where it is permitted or to the results of studies carried out", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5208290857190558, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 12, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:34.030804"} {"text": "as using people as a means to an end. parallels can also be drawn to the situation whereby people in countries where stem cell research is banned profit from the results of studies carried out in countries where it is permitted or to the results of studies carried out in countries where research ethics are slack or inexistent. for a detailed discussion of the ethical issues linked to the involvement in research of people in other countries, particularly lower and middle income countries where standards of protection may by lower, please refer to the afore - mentioned report by the presidential commission for the study of bioethical issues. - researchers should consider including a placebo arm in clinical trials when there are compelling and sound methodological reasons for doing so. - researchers should ensure that patients are aware that the aim of a randomised controlled trial is to test a hypothesis and provide generalizable knowledge leading to the development of a medical drug or procedure. they should explain how this differs from medical treatment and care which are aimed at enhancing the health and wellbeing of individual patients and where there is a reasonable expectation that this will be successful. - researchers should ensure that potential participants understand that they may be allocated to the placebo group. - it should not be presumed that the treating doctor or contact person having proposed the participant for a trial has been successful in communicating the above information. - researchers conducting clinical trials may need training in how to ensure effective communication with people with dementia. - appropriate measures should be taken by researchers to minimize fear, pain and discomfort of participants. - all participants should, when possible, preferably have the option of receiving the experimental drug ( if proven safe ) after completion of the study. - pharmaceutical companies should not be discouraged from carrying out open - label extension studies but this should not be the sole possibility for participants to access the trial drug after the end of the study if it is proving beneficial to them. - in multi - centre clinical trials, where data is transferred to another country in which data protection laws are perhaps less severe, the data should be treated as stated in the consent form signed by the participant. last updated : jeudi 29 mars 2012", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_entanglement", "similarity_score": 0.5205225162751204, "token_count": 428, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 13, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:34.032274"} {"text": "our opinion on... - executive summary - necessity for a response - genetic testing - general principles - other considerations the present paper constitutes the input of alzheimer europe and its member organisations to the ongoing discussions within europe about genetic testing ( in the context of alzheimer ' s disease and other forms of dementia ). alzheimer europe would like to recall some general principles which guide this present response : - having a gene associated with alzheimer ' s disease or another form of dementia does not mean that a person has the disease. - people who have a gene linked to alzheimer ' s disease or another form of dementia have the same rights as anyone else. - genetic testing does not only affect the person taking the test. it may also reveal information about other relatives who might not want to know. - no genetic test is 100 % accurate. - the extent to which health cover is provided to citizens by the state social security system and / or privately contracted by individuals differs from one country to the next. on the basis of these principles, alzheimer europe has developed the following position with regard to genetic testing : - alzheimer europe firmly believes that the use and / or possession of genetic information by insurance companies should be prohibited. - alzheimer europe strongly supports research into the genetic factors linked to dementia which might further our understanding of the cause and development of the disease and possibly contribute to future treatment. - based on its current information, alzheimer europe does not encourage the use of any genetic test for dementia unless such test has a high and proven success rate either in assessing the risk of developing the disease ( or not as the case may be ) or in detecting the existence of it in a particular individual. - alzheimer europe requests further information on the accuracy, reliability and predictive value of any genetic tests for dementia. - genetic testing should always be accompanied by adequate pre - and post - test counselling. - anonymous testing should be possible so that individuals can ensure that such information does not remain in their medical files against their will. it is extremely important for people with dementia to be diagnosed as soon as possible. in the case of alzheimer \u2019 s disease, an early diagnosis may enable the person concerned to benefit from medication, which treats the global symptoms of the disease and is most effective in the early to mid stages of the disease. most forms of dementia involve the gradual deterioration of mental faculties ( e. g. memory, language and thinking etc. ) but in the early stages, it is still possible for the person affected to make decisions concerning his / her finances and care etc. \u2013 hence the importance of an early", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_entanglement", "similarity_score": 0.5166887531843976, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:34.101567"} {"text": "deterioration of mental faculties ( e. g. memory, language and thinking etc. ) but in the early stages, it is still possible for the person affected to make decisions concerning his / her finances and care etc. \u2013 hence the importance of an early diagnosis. if it were possible to detect dementia before the first symptoms became obvious, this would give people a greater opportunity to make informed decisions about their future lives. this is one of the potential benefits of genetic testing. on the other hand, such information could clearly be used in ways which would be contrary to their personal interests, perhaps resulting in employment discrimination, loss of opportunities, stigmatisation, increased health insurance costs or even loss of health insurance to name but a few examples. the present discussion paper outlines some of the recommendations of alzheimer europe and its member organisations and raises a few points which deserve further clarification and discussion. the necessity for a response by alzheimer europe in the last few years, the issue of genetic testing has been increasingly debated. in certain european countries there are already companies offering such tests. unfortunately, the general public do not always fully understand what the results of such tests imply and there are no regulations governing how they are carried out i. e. what kind of information people receive, how the results are presented, whether there is any kind of counselling afterwards and the issue of confidentiality etc. in order to provide information to people with dementia and other people interesting in knowing about their own state of health and in order to protect them from the unscrupulous use of the results of genetic tests, alzheimer europe has developed the present position paper. these general principles as well as the convention of human rights and biomedicine and the universal declaration on the human genome and human rights dictate alzheimer europe \u2019 s position with regard to genetic testing. alzheimer europe would like to draw a distinction between tests which detect existing alzheimer ' s disease and tests which assess the risk of developing dementia alzheimer ' s disease at some time in the future : - diagnostic testing : familial early onset alzheimer \u2019 s disease ( fad ) is associated with 3 genes. these are the amyloid precursor protein ( app ), presenilin - 1 and presenilin - 2. these genetic mutations can be detected by genetic testing. however, it is important to note that the test only relates to those people with fad ( i. e. about 1 % of all people with alzheimer \u2019 s disease ). in the extremely limited number of families with this dominant genetic disorder, family members", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5304429821376855, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:34.103755"} {"text": "remain confidential. we do not actually encourage the use of genetic testing for assessing the risk of developing alzheimer ' s disease. we feel that it is somewhat unethical as it does not entail any health benefit and the results cannot actually predict whether a person will develop dementia ( irrespective of the particular form of apoe s / he may have ). we are totally opposed to insurance companies having access to results from genetic tests for the following reasons : - this would be in clear opposition to the fundamental principle of insurance which is the mutualisation of risk through large numbers ( a kind of solidarity whereby the vast majority who have relatively good health share the cost with those who are less fortunate ). - failure to respect this principle would create an uninsurable underclass and lead to a genetically inferior group. - this in turn could entail the further stigmatisation of people with dementia and their carers. - in some countries, insurance companies manage to reach decisions on risk and coverage without access to genetic data. - we therefore urge governments and the relevant european bodies to take the necessary action to prohibit the use or possession of genetic data by insurance companies. alzheimer europe recognises the importance of research into the genetic determinants of alzheimer \u2019 s disease and other forms of dementia. consequently, - we support the use of genetic testing for the purposes of research provided that the person concerned has given informed consent and that the data is treated with utmost confidentiality ; and - we would also welcome further discussion about the problem of data management. in our opinion, any individual who wishes to take a genetic test should be able to choose to do so anonymously in order to ensure that such information does not remain in his / her medical file. at its annual general meeting in munich on 15 october 2000, alzheimer europe adopted recommendations on how to improve the legal rights and protection of adults with incapacity due to dementia. this included a section on bioethical issues. these recommendations obviously need to guide any response of the organisation regarding genetic testing for people who suspect or fear they may have dementia and also those who have taken the test and did develop dementia. - the adult with incapacity has the right to be informed about his / her state of health. - information should, where appropriate, cover the following : the diagnosis, the person ' s general state of health, treatment possibilities, potential risks and consequences of having or not having a particular treatment, side - effects, prognosis and alternative treatments. - such information should not be withheld solely on the grounds", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_entanglement", "similarity_score": 0.5008363879778331, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:34.122893"} {"text": "the scientific world is abuzz with news of the ratification of the existence of the subatomic particle called the higgs boson - or more colloquially, the ' god particle. ' this subatomic particle ' s existence - which was verified recently ( with virtually near certainty ) by experiments at the large hadron collider in switzerland - lends credence to several long - standing physical theories such as the so - called standard model and the big bang theory. the nickname god particle is ironic for two reasons. first, generally, the nuclear physicists who deal with these matters - postulating the fundamental physical laws of the universe and then setting about to either verify or refute them - tend not to be regular church - goers. while there are some highly prominent scientists who balance personal, religious beliefs with professional, scientific quests, most probably go along with the thoughts of the world - famous physicist, stephen hawking : i regard the brain as a computer which will stop working when its components fail. there is no heaven or afterlife for broken down computers ; that is a fairy story for people afraid of the dark. [ interview in the guardian, 7 / 9 / 12 ] spontaneous creation is the reason there is something rather than nothing, why the universe exists, why we exist. it is not necessary to invoke god... [ from his book ; the grand design, 2010 ] so it is a bit ironic that physics ' most famous quest has resulted in the discovery of the ' god particle. ' most physicists are quite comfortable having their names associated with famous - even if dead - humans like newton, einstein or the afore - mentioned hawking. one will find few, if any, attributions to deities in the objects that physicists discover and name or the theories they propose. second, and more importantly, the discovery that the god particle really exists does not - as the name suggests - imply that god played some role in the creation of the universe. in fact, quite the opposite. the matter is discussed at some length in the july 9 daily beast by lawrence kraus, a well - known physicist / cosmologist from arizona state university : this term [ god particle ] appeared first in the unfortunate title of a book written by physicist leon lederman two decades ago, and while to my knowledge it was never used by any scientist ( including lederman ) before or since, it has captured the media ' s imagination. what makes this term particularly unfortunate is that nothing could be further from the truth.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6262005725033799, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:34.178216"} {"text": "two decades ago, and while to my knowledge it was never used by any scientist ( including lederman ) before or since, it has captured the media ' s imagination. what makes this term particularly unfortunate is that nothing could be further from the truth. assuming the particle in question is indeed the higgs, it validates an unprecedented revolution in our understanding of fundamental physics and brings science closer to dispensing with the need for any supernatural shenanigans all the way back to the beginning of the universe... if these bold, some would say arrogant, notions derive support from the remarkable results at the large hadron collider, they may reinforce two potentially uncomfortable possibilities : first, that many features of our universe, including our existence, may be accidental consequences of conditions associated with the universe ' s birth ; and second, that creating \" stuff \" from \" no stuff \" seems to be no problem at all - everything we see could have emerged as a purposeless quantum burp in space or perhaps a quantum burp of space itself. humans, with their remarkable tools and their remarkable brains, may have just taken a giant step toward replacing metaphysical speculation with empirically verifiable knowledge. the higgs particle is now arguably more relevant than god. so the term god particle was first used by a scientist, but was picked up and popularized by the media. it ' s catchy and enhances interest in the subject among the public. but like so much else that the media promotes, it is misleading and inappropriate.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6303224006143893, "token_count": 308, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:34.179157"} {"text": "acrylic a synthetic fabric often used as a wool substitute. it is warm, soft, holds colors well and often is stain and wrinkle resistant. angora a soft fiber knit from fur of the angora rabbit. angora wool is often combined with cashmere or another fiber to strengthen the delicate structure. dry cleaning is reccommended for angora products. bedford a strong material that is a raised corded fabric ( similar to corduroy ). bedford fabric wears well and is usually washable. boucle a fabric made with boucle yarn ( s ) in wool, rayon and or cotton causing the surface of the fabric to appear looped. brocade an all - over floral, raised pattern produced in a similar fashion to embroidery. burnout process of printing a design on a fabric woven of paired yarns of different fibers. one kind of yarn is burned out or destroyed leaving the ground unharmed. cable knit patterns, typically used in sweaters, where flat knit columns otherwise known as cables are overlapped vertically. cashmere a soft, silky, lightweight wool spun from the kashmir goat. cashmere must be dry - cleaned due to its delicate fibers and is commonly used in sweaters, shawls, outerwear, gloves and scarves for its warmth and soft feel. chiffon a common evening wear fabric made from silk, cotton, rayon or nylon. it ' s delicate in nature and sheer. chintz a printed and glazed fabric made of cotton. chintz is known for its bright colors and bold patterns. corduroy cotton fibers twisted as they are woven to create long, parallel grooves, called wales, in the fabric. this is a very durable material and depending on the width of the wales, can be extremely soft. cotton a natural fiber that grows in the seed pod of the cotton plant. it is an inelastic fiber. cotton cashmere a blend of cotton and cashmere fibers, typically 85 % to 15 % respectively, this combination produces an extremely soft yarn with a matte finish. crepe used as a description of surfaces of fabrics. usually designates a fabris that is crimped or crinkled. crinoline a lightweight, plain weave, stiffened fabric with a low yarn count. used to create volume beneath evening or wedding dresses. crochet looping threads with a hooked needle that creates a wide, open knit. typically used on sweaters for warm seasons. denim cotton textile created with a twill weave to create a sturdy fabric.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5457278641135307, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:34.193253"} {"text": "volume beneath evening or wedding dresses. crochet looping threads with a hooked needle that creates a wide, open knit. typically used on sweaters for warm seasons. denim cotton textile created with a twill weave to create a sturdy fabric. used as the primary material of blue jeans. dobby woven fabric where the weave of the fabric actually produces the garment ' s design. embroidery detailed needlework, usually raised and created by yarn, silk, thread or embroidery floss. eyelet a form of lace in a thicker material that consists of cut - outs that are integrated and repeated into a pattern. usually applied to garments for warmer seasons. faille a textured fabric with faint ribbing. wears wonderfully for hours holding its shape due to the stiffness of the texture. used in wedding dresses and women ' s clothes. fil ' coupe a small jacquard pattern on a light weight fabric, usually silk, in which the threads connecting each design are cut, creating a frayed look. french terry a knit cloth that contains loops and piles of yarn. the material is very soft, absorbent and has stretch. gabardine a tightly woven twill fabric, made of different fibers such as wool, cotton and silk. georgette a crinkly crepe type material usually made out of silk that consists of tightly twisted threads. georgette is sheer and has a flowy feeling. gingham two different color stripes \" woven \" in pattern to appear checked. glen plaid design of woven, broken checks. a form of traditional plaid. guipure lace a lace without a mesh ground, the pattern in held in place by connecting threads. herringbone a pattern originating from masonry, consists of short rows of slanted parallel lines. the rows are formatted opposing each other to create the pattern. herringbone patterns are used in tweeds and twills. hopsack a material created from cotton or woolthat is loosely woven together to form a coarse fabric. houndstooth a classic design containing two colors in jagged / slanted checks. similar to glen plaid. jacquard a fabric of intricate varigated weave or pattern. typically shown on elegant and more expensive pieces. jersey a type of knit material usually made from cotton and known to be flexible, stretchy, soft and very warm. it is created using tight stitches. knit a knit fabric is made by interlocking loops of one or more yarns either by hand with knitting needles or by machine. linen an exquisite material created from the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5481760696054029, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:34.196620"} {"text": "commonly seen in the front of button - down shirts. also used to reinforce openings or slits in garments. piping binding a seam with decoration. piping is similar to tipping or edging where a decorative material is sewn into the seams. pointelle an open - work knitting pattern used on garments to add texture. typically a cooler and general knit sweater. polyester a fabric made from synthetic fibers. polyester is quick drying, easy to wash and holds its shape well. ponte a knit fabric where the fibers are looped in an interlock. the material is very strong and firm. poplin a strong woven fabric, heavier in weight, with ribbing. rayon a manufactured fiber developed originally as an alternative for silk. rayon drapes well and looks luxurious. sateen a cotton fabric with sheen that resembles satin. seersucker slack - tension weave where yarn is bunched together in certain areas and then pulled taught in others to create this summery mainstay. shirring similar to ruching, shirring gathers material to create folds. silk one of the most luxurious fabrics, silk is soft, warm and has shine. it is created from female silkworm ' s eggs. silk shantung a rough plain weave fabric made of uneven yarns to produce a textured effect, made of fibers such silk in which all knots and lumps are retained. space dyed technique of yarn dyeing to produce a multi - color effect on the yarn itself. also known as dip dyed yarn. spandex also known as lycra ( trademark symbol ), this material is able to expand 600 % and still snap back to its original shape and form. spandex fibers are woven with cotton and other materials to make fabrics stretch. tipping similar to edging, tipping includes embellishing a garment at the edges of the piece, hems, collars etc. tissue linen a type of linen that is specifically made for blouses or shirts due to its thinness and sheerness. tweed a loose weave of heavy wool makes up tweed which provides warmth and comfortability. twill a fabric woven in a diagonal weave. commonly used for chinos and denim. variegated multi - colored fabrics where colors are splotched or in patches. velour a stretchy knit fabric that looks similar to velvet. very soft to the touch. velvet a soft, silky woven fabric that is similar to velour. velvet is much more expensive than velour due to the amount of thread and steps it takes to", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5599139602403838, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:34.200070"} {"text": "injection molds. what assembly process is correct for a part? as stated earlier, ultrasonic, hot - plate, spin, thermal, vibration, and laser welding are the most common methods used in production today. each method has unique advantages. ultrasonic assembly is a fast, repeatable, and reliable process that allows for sophisticated process control. high - volume small parts that have very tight assembly tolerances lend themselves well to ultrasonic assembly. ultrasonic systems have the capability of exporting relevant assembly process data for spc documentation and fda validation. ultrasonic welding can be easily integrated into automated systems. hot - plate welding can accommodate a wide range of parts sizes and configurations. these machines offer high - reliability hermetic seals and strong mechanical bonds on complex part geometries. the process is fairly simple ; the two parts to be jointed are brought in close proximity to a heated platen until the joint area is in a molten state. the platen is removed and the parts are clamped together until the joint cools off and returns to a solid state. spin welding is a very cost - effective method for joining large, medium, or small circular parts such as washing machine tubs to agitator components. water purification filters, thermal mugs, and irrigation assemblies typically are joined using the spin welding process. careful attention to joint design is critical for parts that require flash - free appearance. assemblies that require inserts at multiple points on multiple planes, like computer or vacuum cleaner housings, typically benefit from thermal insertion / staking. thermal staking is ideal for attachment of non - plastic components to the plastic housing, such as circuit boards and metal brackets. dates coding, embossing, and degating are other uses for thermal presses. thermal welding can be a slower assembly process than ultrasonic, so, depending on the volumes of assemblies required, ultrasonic maybe a better choice. vibration welding physically moves one of the two parts horizontally under pressure to create heat through surface friction. compared to ultrasonic welding, vibration welding operates at much lower frequencies, much higher amplitude, and with greater clamping force. the limitation to vibration welding is simply that the joint must be in a single plane in at least one axis in order to allow the vibration motion. like hot - plate welding, vibration welding is a highly reliable process that can handle large parts in challenging materials or multiple parts per cycle with ease. chain saw housings, blower and pump assemblies, and large refrigerator bins are examples of potential vibration welding applications. cycle times for vibration", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5130523981447993, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:34.217353"} {"text": "welding is a highly reliable process that can handle large parts in challenging materials or multiple parts per cycle with ease. chain saw housings, blower and pump assemblies, and large refrigerator bins are examples of potential vibration welding applications. cycle times for vibration welds are very short, thus they are ideal for high volume and are easily automated. laser welding is the newest technology of the processes available today. one benefit of laser welding is that the weld joints produce no flash or particulate outside of the joint. assemblies that require absolutely no contamination for particulate, like medical filters, are good candidates. a second benefit is that the assembly is not exposed to heat or vibration. devices that have very sensitive electronic internal components that may be damaged from vibration can now be assembled effectively. laser welding requires the parts to be transmissive and absorbive, specifically how transparent the parts appear to the laser beam. one material transmits the coherent laser light and the other material absorbs the light and converts it to heat. parts that appear black to the human eye can be transparent or opaque at the wavelength of the laser light. clear - to - clear joints and joints that are optically transparent can be readily achieved by use of special coatings. depending on the part geometry, laser welding can be a slower process then vibration or ultrasonic welding. plastic appliance components are the direction of the future - they can be assembled economically and produce functional products. this information is provided by michael johnston, national sales and marketing manager, dukane charles, il, u. s. ).", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5685723778646012, "token_count": 316, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:34.218282"} {"text": "conventionally associated with plants. listeria is usually thought of as a pathogen of humans. we hadn \u2019 t really expected to see it behaving like a traditional, benign inhabitant of a green plant. \u201c it \u2019 s still a relatively new face for listeria, and requires a whole new way of thinking about it. \u201d in related work, gorski is homing in on genetic differences that may explain the widely varying ability of eight different listeria strains to successfully colonize root hairs of alfalfa sprouts \u2014 and to resist being washed off by water. in a 2004 article in the journal of food protection, gorski, palumbo, and former albany associate kimanh d. nguyen reported those differences. poorly attaching strains formed fewer than 10 listeria cells per sprout during the lab experiment, while the more adept colonizers formed more than 100, 000 cells per sprout. salmonella \u2019 s cling genes colleague jeri d. barak, a microbiologist at albany, led another sprout investigation, this time probing the ability of s. enterica to attach to alfalfa sprouts. from a pool of 6, 000 genetically different salmonella samples, barak, gorski, and coinvestigators found 20 that were unable to attach strongly to sprouts. scientists elsewhere had already identified some genes as necessary for salmonella to successfully invade and attach to the guts of animals such as cows and chickens. in the albany experiments, some of those same genes were disrupted in the salmonella specimens that couldn \u2019 t cling to alfalfa sprouts. their 2005 article in applied and environmental microbiology helped set the stage for followup studies to tease out other genes that salmonella uses when it is living on and in plants. a deeper understanding of those and other genes may lead to sophisticated defense strategies to protect tomorrow \u2019 s salad greens \u2014 and us. \u2014 by marcia wood, agricultural research service information staff. geneticist michael cooley collects a sediment sample to test for e. coli o157 : h7. the pathogen was found near fields implicated in the 2006 outbreak of e. coli o157 : h7 on baby spinach. environmental surveillance exposes a killer it started as a manhunt for a microbe, but it became one of the nation \u2019 s most intensive farmscape searches for the rogue pathogen e. coli o157 : h7. ars microbiologist robert e. mandrell and geneticist", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5270678602614444, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:34.256795"} {"text": "the cia, the nsa, the fbi and all other three - letter, intelligence - gathering, secret - keeping agencies mimic and are modeled after secret societies. they gather and filter information by compartmentalizing the organization in a pyramid - like hierarchical structure keeping everyone but the elite on a need - to - know basis. the cia was born from the wwii intelligence arm, the oss ( office of strategic services ), and was funded into permanence by the rockefeller and carnegie foundations, which donated $ 34 million 1945 - 48 alone. nearly every person instrumental in the creation of the cia was already a member of the cfr, including the rockefellers and dulles brothers. in 1945 when the cia was still the oss, they began operation paperclip which brought over 700 nazi scientists directly into the forming cia, nsa, and other high - level government organizations. since it was illegal to even allow these nazis into the us, let alone into top - secret government agencies, the cia convinced the vatican to issue american passports for these 700 + nazi scientists under the pretense that it was to keep them out of the hands of the russians. \u201c after wwii ended in 1945, victorious russian and american intelligence teams began a treasure hunt throughout occupied germany for military and scientific booty. they were looking for things like new rocket and aircraft designs, medicines, and electronics. but they were also hunting down the most precious \u2018 spoils \u2019 of all : the scientists whose work had nearly won the war for germany. the engineers and intelligence officers of the nazi war machine. following the discovery of flying discs ( foo - fighters ), particle / laser beam weaponry in german military bases, the war department decided that nasa and the cia must control this technology, and the nazi engineers that had worked on this technology. there was only one problem : it was illegal. u. s. law explicitly prohibited nazi officials from immigrating to america - - and as many as three - quarters of the scientists in question had been committed nazis. \u201d - operation paperclip casefile : new world order and nazi germany hundreds of nazi mind - control specialists and doctors who performed horrific experiments on prisoners instantly had their atrocious german histories erased and were promoted into high - level american jobs. kurt blome, for instance, was a high - ranking nazi scientist who experimented with plague vaccines on concentration camp prisoners. he was hired by the u. s. army chemical corps to work on chemical warfare projects. major general walter schreiber was a head doctor during nazi concentration", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5220805972830065, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:34.287486"} {"text": "deciphering the function and regulation of auts2 university of california, san francisco autism is a neurodevelopmental disorder with complex genetic and environmental causes. many gene mutations have been associated with autism ; however, they explain only a small part of the genetic cause for this disorder. 98 % of our genome does not encode for protein and is thus termed noncoding. in this noncoding space are gene regulatory sequences that tell genes when, where and at what amount to turn on or off. mutations in these gene regulatory elements could thus be an important cause of autism. despite the potential importance of these noncoding gene regulatory regions in autism susceptibility, very few studies have been performed trying to implicate them in this disorder. this pilot study focuses on a strong autism candidate gene, the autism susceptibility candidate 2 ( auts2 ) gene. mutations in its regulatory elements have been associated with autism and its function is not well known. using both zebrafish and mice as the model organisms, the project aims to identify noncoding gene regulatory sequences of auts2. the fellow will then look to see if any individuals with autism have mutations in the regulatory regions identified. they will also reduce the expression of this gene in zebrafish and look for abnormalities to further clarify its function. this study promises to further our understanding of how differences in the noncoding region of the genome can lead to autism. it also aims to advance our understanding of a gene of unknown function that has been implicated in autism.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5315420928038114, "token_count": 311, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:34.295715"} {"text": "a belt pack or radio wire creates many of the same problems inherent in hardwire systems, particularly tangled cords. moreover, belt packs generally have less than half the transmission range of self - contained systems worn on the head. does the system use dect or bluetooth technology? transmission technology can dramatically affect how well wireless systems perform in the field. systems that employ bluetooth technology generally have a limited range and are subject to radio frequency interference from nearby devices. look for systems that use digital enhanced cordless telecommunications technology. dect units generally offer up to 30 times more coverage and are less subject to interference than bluetooth. dect transmissions also have multipath capability, meaning the signal will bounce up, over and around objects in order to establish the best possible connection. dect signals are also digitally encoded to ensure privacy. is the system full - duplex or half - duplex? half - duplex systems allow communication in both directions, but only one direction at a time. that \u2019 s a walkie - talkie. on the other hand, full - duplex systems allow communication in both directions simultaneously. full - duplex capabilities are an important safety consideration because they allow the parties to speak and hear others at the same time. is the system radio - compatible? communication during pushback and towing is generally confined to the flight deck, wing walkers and tractor operator ; however, other ground support functions may benefit from the ability to communicate with remote users over a two - way radio. look for a system with maximum radio - interface flexibility.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5344225293073946, "token_count": 309, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:34.305007"} {"text": "the spikelet and not from a glum. remember that you can review grass flower terminology at http : / / www. backyardnature. net / fl _ grass. htm. the spikelets of most oat plants don ' t bear needlelike awns. you ' re likely to see both awned and awnless kinds growing as weeds in our area. when i first saw the awns i thought this might be one of the \" wild oat \" species, for several species reside in the oat genus avena, and one of those grows wild in the us southeast. however, florets of the other species bear long, brownish hairs, and you can see that ours are hairless, or \" glabrous. \" the other species ' awns also are twisted, but regular oat awns, when present, are rigid and straight. both oat species are native to eurasia. how did that oat plant make its way to the side of our isolated mississippi backroad? near where the grass grew there was a large game farm where exotic animals are kept so hunters can pay high fees to kill them. i ' m betting that the animals are fed oats. our plant was in an often - flooded spot downstream from the farm, so maybe an oat grain had washed there. that ' s a roadcut through a special kind of very fine - grained clay called loess. the word loess derives from the german lo\u00df. a deep mantel of loess was deposited here at the end of the last ice age about 10, 000 years ago. deep loess deposits occur in a narrow band of upland immediately east of the mississippi river over most of its entire course. the loess region sometimes is called the loess hills. loess profoundly affects the area ' s ecology. for one thing, the farther east you go from the mississippi river, the thinner the loess is, the poorer and more acidic the soil becomes, and the more pines you get instead of broadleaf deciduous trees. loess is so important here, and so interesting, that years ago i developed a web portal called \" loess hills of the lower mississippi valley, \" at http : / / www. backyardnature. net / loess / loess. html. i had hoped to engage local folks in an effort to recognize the loess hills as a very interesting, scenic and biologically important, distinct region with ecotourism potential, but nothing ever came from it. at that", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5043873388709339, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:34.323227"} {"text": "brookhaven national laboratory was established in 1947 on the eastern end of long island at the former site of the u. s. army \u2019 s camp upton. originally built out of a post - world war ii desire to explore the peaceful applications of atomic energy, the laboratory now has a broader mission : to perform basic and applied research at the frontiers of science, including nuclear and high - energy physics ; physics and chemistry of materials ; nanoscience ; energy and environmental research ; national security and nonproliferation ; neurosciences and medical imaging ; structural biology ; and computational sciences. over its history, brookhaven lab has housed three research reactors, numerous one - of - a - kind particle accelerators, and other cutting - edge research facilities responsible for discoveries leading to many advances for science and society as well as seven nobel prizes. brookhaven was originally conceived, in part, to establish a national laboratory in the northeastern united states to design, construct and operate large scientific machines that individual institutions could not afford to develop on their own. throughout the years, brookhaven \u2019 s scientists and visiting researchers have used these unique facilities to make discoveries in biology, physics, chemistry, geophysics, medicine, and materials science. since brookhaven opened its doors, countless innovations and inventions by staff and visiting scientists have contributed to research in many fields. discoveries made here have shaped our understanding of the atom and the universe, advanced medical imaging techniques, and created new technology and tools for studying microbiology, climate and pollutants, energy storage and more.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6052624714024077, "token_count": 306, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:34.372986"} {"text": "description : over the last thirty years, scholars have begun to explore the implications of an ancient jewish and christian tradition that referred to the \u201c minor prophets \u201d as \u201c the twelve, \u201d \u201c the twelve prophets, \u201d or the \u201c book of the twelve. \u201d scholarly work on the book of the twelve in the last quarter century has focused on two issues in particular : 1 ) developing models regarding how the book of the twelve came to be recorded on a single scroll, and 2 ) isolating unifying elements that transcend the individual writings and take on new significance when the book of the twelve becomes a single collection rather than twelve distinct writings. dr. nogalski \u2019 s comprehensive and accessible commentary offers an overview of the ancient traditions concerning the book of the twelve that lay the foundation for understanding these recent developments. subjects : bible, hebrew bible / old testament, prophetic literature, book of the twelve, literature, micah, nahum, habakkuk, zephaniah, haggai, zechariah, malachi review by lena - sofia tiemeyer read the review citation : lena - sofia tiemeyer, review of james d. nogalski, the book of the twelve, review of biblical literature [ http : / / www. bookreviews. org ] ( 2012 ). adobe acrobat reader all rbl reviews are published in pdf format. to view these reviews, you must have downloaded and installed the free version of adobe acrobat reader. if you do not have the reader or you have an older version of the reader, you can download the most recent version now.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5361997589053411, "token_count": 325, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:34.375877"} {"text": "the history of the british isles and its inhabitants, both human and canine, has long been entwined. breed reveals the enduring and affectionate relationship between the british people and their dogs and explores the very beginnings of pedigree dog breeding in britain. this is a \" self delivery \" pack which has been designed specifically for national science and engineering week 2013. the science behind fingeprints is well known! what is not so well known is the link between fingerprints and footprints. right angle events have launched a new education pack called \u2018 toes for turf \u2019 comprising at least 4 hours of fun teaching material linked to key stage 1 - 4 mathematics. we have designed a fantastic scheme especially for national science & engineering week called \" toes for turf \". the science behind fingerprints is well known. what is not so well known is the science behind footprints or \" feet prints \". this activity enables students to take, classify and \" lift \" both fingerprints and foot prints. as the research on footprints is meagre, this scheme will allow students to make some discoveries about the correlation or otherwise between fingerprints and feet prints. we will be running a science club for children from the junior school for 8 weeks before science week. children will be working on projects designed by local scientists and making posters to show what they ' ve done. a competition will be held and prizes will be given for the best posters and projects. during science week we ' ll have a science day for the whole school. local scientists will come to the school and we ' ll have science themed activities all day. imagine you are part of the team planning and designing the first manned mission to mars. your job is to investigate just one problem of the mission, and come up with an idea that might solve it. you \u2019 re asked to create a poster, no bigger than a1 - sized, to explain the problem and your idea. the idea can be anything you like, but it must be based on real - science. the competition is for years 7, 8, or 9. we can accept both individual and team entries. all posters must be received by us by 4pm 12th march 2013. you can hand your posters in through participating schools and stem clubs. primary school competition - teams of four to prepare a 5 minute demo and supporting display on the theme of inventions and discoveries. winning team from each school to compete at chipping campden school primary science conference on march 18th. an egg race type activity will also form part of the competition. a demo lecture will finish the proceedings.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5652466732907284, "token_count": 508, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:34.384994"} {"text": "transferable knowledge and a range of intellectual abilities drawn from different modes of inquiry across disciplines are essential components of any liberal education. these courses help students develop important academic capacities for use during their undergraduate career and in the rapidly - changing world they will enter after college. ( one writing - intensive w - 1 course in the fall of the first year ) students will develop writing, reading, speaking, listening, and information literacy skills necessary for collegiate - level academic work. students will develop capacities for independent academic work and become self - regulated learners. ( one course from the list of designated courses ) students will develop a unified understanding of scientific theory and practice in modern natural science. students will demonstrate an understanding of the development of science as an intellectual pursuit and of the ways in which scientific ideas are formulated, modified, and come to be accepted. students will demonstrate skill in the application of scientific techniques and methods, including the collection, analysis, and interpretation of data, and communication of results. ( one course from the list of designated courses ; not required for class of 2014 ) students will study language as a complex multifunctional phenomenon - as a system for communicating thought and information and as an essential element of human thought processes, perceptions, and self - expression - that allows students to understand different peoples and their communities. students will examine the world, their own culture, and their own language through the lens of a foreign language and culture. integrated perspectives course ( one team - taught interdisciplinary course taken during the sophomore year from the list of designated courses ; not required for class of 2014 ) students will recognize, construct, and evaluate connections among different intellectual methods, ways of learning, and bodies of knowledge.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5151907167179469, "token_count": 337, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:34.388185"} {"text": "heat a room from the floor up under - floor radiant heating involves underlaying the floor with a hot element or tubing that transfers heat into the room via infrared radiation and convection, making forced or blowing air unnecessary. according to the u. s. department of energy ' s energy savers website, radiant heating \" is more efficient than baseboard heating and usually more efficient than forced - air heating because no energy is lost through ducts. \" it is also flexible as it can run off electricity, gas, oil, wood, solar and other sources or combinations thereof can feed radiant systems. and radiant heating is a good choice for those with severe allergies as no potentially irritating particles get blown around the room. several aspects of radiant heating make it more energy efficient. for starters, the uniform heat distribution over the entire surface of a floor heats the lower half of the room, enveloping inhabitants in warmth at a lower overall temperature \u2014 in some cases up to five degrees fahrenheit cooler \u2014 than a conventional heating system. \" radiators and other forms of ' point ' heating circulate heat inefficiently and hence need to run for longer periods to obtain comfort levels, \" reports the residential energy services network ( resnet ). \" they draw cold air across the floor and send warm air up to the ceiling, where it then falls, heating the room from the top down, creating drafts and circulating dust and allergens. \" resnet adds that radiant systems transmit heat on average some 15 percent more efficiently than conventional radiators. the efficiency gains can be magnified significantly with good insulation and a well - designed system. while tearing out old heating systems and / or replacing decent existing flooring might be overkill for the sake of moving to radiant heat, you can certainly consider it if you are embarking on new building projects or contemplating major renovations. according to tlc network ' s green living guide, there are two main types of radiant heating, electric and hydronic. in the former, heated wires installed in the floor radiate heat upward. this type of radiant heat is most commonly used to retrofit a single room \u2014 especially a bathroom or kitchen \u2014 in an older house or building. meanwhile, hydronic radiant heating, whereby heated water is forced through tubes under the floor, is more often designed into a new structure from the get - go and is more energy efficient overall. tlc points out that while radiant heat is definitely more efficient in smaller, snug homes with lower roofs,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5685444851513997, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:34.421482"} {"text": ". q44, 1996 rosenberg reference encyclopedia of american religion and politics. paul a. djupe and laura r. olson. new york : facts on file, c2003. bl 2525. d58 2003 rosenberg reference. electronic reference sources from the ccsf ebooks collection for more information about ebooks go to : http : / / www. ccsf. edu / library / ebooks. html encyclopedia of religious rites, rituals, and festivals 2004 encyclopedia of new religious movements 2006 encyclopedia of women and religion in north america 2006 a popular dictionary of buddhism 1997 who ' s who in the old testament together with the apocrypha 2002 the quran : an encyclopedia 2006 for articles in periodical databases databases group together journal, magazine, and newspaper articles by subject. they also usually provide abstracts ( brief summaries ) and the full text of the articles. do you need help identifying the differences between scholarly journal v. popular magazine articles? databases are part of the private, passworded web, so you will need to have a current ccsf id card with a barcode to access those that ccsf subscribes to. all current ccsf student id cards should already have a barcode. more information about obtaining a library bar code. infotrac is a brand name for several databases with coverage from 1980 to the present. most relevant for religion topics is infotrac \u2019 s religion & philosophy database which covers topics in the areas of both religion and philosophy. infotrac \u2019 s expanded academic asap and onefile databases also have useful materials. these databases let you limit your results to articles only from scholarly journals by checking the box \" refereed titles. \" literature resource center literature resource center has traditional reference works, critical information on authors and their works, and current journal articles. it is valuable for biographical information on authors of works relating to religion, and for critical information on both an individual work and an author \u2019 s body of work cq provides lengthy research reports written by the editorial staff of the congressional quarterly co. there are many reports related to religion. some examples are religion in america, evolution versus creationism, prayer and healing, and religious persecution. there are also reports on related moral or ethical issues such as issues of reproductive ethics, teaching values, assisted suicide, designer humans, and the ethics of war. ethnic newswatch is comprised of newspapers, magazines and journals of the ethnic, minority and native press in america. search here for ethnic aspects of topics related to religion. below are some examples of academic / scholarly", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5328806214370692, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:34.431989"} {"text": "designer humans, and the ethics of war. ethnic newswatch is comprised of newspapers, magazines and journals of the ethnic, minority and native press in america. search here for ethnic aspects of topics related to religion. below are some examples of academic / scholarly web sites on religion. if you use a search engine, such as google, remember to evaluate the quality of the results. web resources for general reference virtual religion index an extensive and well organized index of web resources with useful annotations that speed the targeting and process of research. from rutgers university. voice of the shuttle \u2013 religious studies page links to resources including general studies, specific religions ( christianity, judaism, islam, buddhism, sikkism, etc. ), nonreligious views ( atheism, agnosticism ), issues of law and religion, society and religion, and religious studies courses and departments. from the university of california, santa barbara. encyclopedia of religion and society \u201c full text online of the encyclopedia, with table of contents, covering the spectrum of religions. \u201d the encyclopedia of religion and society is from the hartford institute for religious research, and its editorial board is comprised of a number of respected sociologists of religion. the internet sacred text archive \u201c a freely available archive of electronic texts about religion, mythology, legends and folklore, and occult and esoteric topics \u201d particular focus is on believers \u2019 ( defined very broadly ) sacred texts, including both primary and secondary materials. content evaluation guidelines advice from the medical library association webpages : techniques to apply and questions to ask a uc berkeley - teaching library internet workshops analyzing information sources developed by olin - kroch - uris libraries at cornell university. and citing source a quick and easy check list to use when determining the quality of web documents. prepared by librarians at ccsf. help you may contact the reference desk by phone at ( 415 ) 452 - 5543 or stop by the east and west reference desks at the rosenberg and citing information sources electronic reference service to ccsf students, faculty, staff and registered community users. use this service when you are not in a ccsf library. and web research workshops fifty minute workshops are given throughout the semester on effective methods in searching for books, articles and information on the several useful sources for evaluating the quality of web pages, how to prepare citations for a \" bibliography \" or \" works cited \" list, and how to avoid plagiarism. online writing lab one of the most thorough and easy to navigate writing labs avaialble! research and writing hosted", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5443756333309997, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:34.432944"} {"text": "study promoter activity using the living colors fluorescent timer, a fluorescent protein that shifts color from green to red over time ( 1 ). this color change provides a way to visualize the time frame of promoter activity, indicating where in an organism the promoter is active and also when it becomes inactive. easily detect the red and green emissions indicating promoter activity with fluorescence microscopy or flow cytometry. easily characterize promoter activity the fluorescent timer is a mutant form of the dsred fluorescent reporter, containing two amino acid substitutions which increase its fluorescence intensity and endow it with a distinct spectral property : as the fluorescent timer matures, it changes color \u2014 in a matter of hours, depending on the expression system used. shortly after its synthesis, the fluorescent timer begins emitting green fluorescence but as time passes, the fluorophore undergoes additional changes that shift its fluorescence to longer wavelengths. when fully matured the protein is bright red. the protein \u2019 s color shift can be used to follow the on and off phases of gene expression ( e. g., during embryogenesis and cell differentiation ). fluorescent timer under the control of the heat shock promoter hsp16 - 41 in a transgenic c. elegans embryo. the embryo was heat - shocked in a 33\u00b0c water bath. promoter activity was studied during the heat shock recovery period. green fluorescence was observed in the embryo as early as two hr into the recovery period. by 50 hr after heat shock, promoter activity had ceased, as indicated by the lack of green color. ptimer ( left ) is primarily intended to serve as a convenient source of the fluorescent timer cdna. use ptimer - 1 ( right ) to monitor transcription from different promoters and promoter / enhancer combinations inserted into the mcs located upstream of the fluorescent timer coding sequence. without the addition of a functional promoter, this vector will not express the fluorescent timer. detecting timer fluorescent protein you can detect the fluorescent timer with the dsred polyclonal antibody. you can use the dsred1 - c sequencing primer to sequence wild - type dsred1 c - terminal gene fusions, including timer fusions. terskikh, a., et al. ( 2000 ) science290 ( 5496 ) : 1585 \u2013 1588.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5347347262756026, "token_count": 466, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:34.469947"} {"text": "accreditation is a form of independent, professional certification that focuses on schools and programs in a particular field. accreditation of universities in the usa therefore assures you and your parents that the school adheres to high quality standards. which means the programs are delivered by qualified faculty and are constantly updated to follow the changes and meet the needs of the relevant industry or working world. attending an accredited school or program is often thought to make you more competitive on the job market. university accreditation in the usa takes place at different levels. at the highest level, governmental and other agencies govern and recognize the accrediting bodies. for instance, the us department of education, the council for higher education association ( chea ) and the association of specialized and professional accreditors ( aspa ) grant power to associations that oversee accreditation at the regional, institutional or program level. regional : the us department of education recognizes 6 distinct higher educational regions, each of which is overseen by a different accrediting body. this is the type of accreditation most commonly referred to and is for a university as a whole, not for individual programs. accreditation by these regional agencies isn ' t automatic : this is voluntary accreditation. institutional : depending on the kind of university or college it is ( e. g., private, public, christian, etc. ) it may also be accredited by institute - type specific agencies. america ' s universities are extremely different in character, size, location and in the programs they offer. therefore a school may be accredited by one or more organizations. specialized : specialized accreditation focuses on specific areas of study and individual university programs. this is sometimes called professional accreditation, because it means specific programs meet the national standards for that field of study. universities in the usa cover a huge range of programs, and each institution usually has a page on its website listing both institutional and individual program accreditation. when assessing quality, international students can also look at whether a school or program has any memberships in, or endorsements by, professional associations which reflect certain standards of quality, but this is not the same as official accreditation. for instance, the american association of state colleges and universities does not accredit programs, but is a national organization committed to maintaining and promoting the quality of america ' s higher education system. regional accrediting agencies for universities in the usa middle states association of colleges and schools, commission on higher education new england association of schools and colleges, commission on institutions of higher education north central association of colleges and schools, the higher learning commission northwest commission on colleges and universities southern association of", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5104030949510445, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:34.496769"} {"text": "in the american electoral system, a primary election is an election that determines the nominee for each political party, who then competes for the office in the general election. a presidential primary is a state election that picks the delegates committed to nominate particular candidates for president of the united states. a presidential caucus, as in iowa, requires voters to meet together for several hours in face - to - face meetings that select county delegates, who eventually pick the delegates to the national convention. no other country uses primaries ; they choose their candidates in party conventions. primaries were introduced in the progressive era in the early 20th century to weaken the power of bosses and make the system more democratic. in presidential elections, they became important starting in 1952, when the first - in - the - nation new hampshire primary helped give dwight d. eisenhower the republican nomination, and knocked harry s. truman out of the democratic race because of his poor showing. in 1964, lyndon b. johnson ended his reelection campaign after doing poorly in new hampshire. after 1968, both parties changed their rules to emphasize presidential primaries, although some states still use the caucus system. in recent decades, new hampshire holds the first primary a few days after iowa holds the first caucus. that gives these two states enormous leverage, as the candidates and the media focus there. new hampshire and iowa receive about half of all the media attention given all primaries. the primary allows voters to choose between different candidates of the some political parties, perhaps representing different wings of the party. for example, a republican primary may choose between a range of candidates from moderate to conservative. gallup ' s 2008 polling data indicated a trend in primary elections towards more conservative candidates, despite the more liberal result in the general election. in recent years the primary seasons has come earlier and earlier, as states move up to earlier dates in the hope it will give them more leverage. for example, barry goldwater won the 1964 nomination because he won the last primary in california. the logic is faulty - - in highly contested races the later primaries have more leverage. thus in 2008 california gave up its traditional last - in - the - nation role and joined 20 other states on super tuesday. neither the candidates not the voters paid it much attention. michigan and florida moved up their primaries in defiance of national democratic party rules and were penalized. the result is the primary season is extended, and is far more expensive, and no state gets an advantage - - except for iowa and new hampshire, which now have dates in early january. in late 2009 the two national parties are meeting to", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5198924732891532, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:34.504898"} {"text": "ctcomms sends on average 2 million emails monthly on behalf of over 125 different charities and not for profits. take the complexity of technology and stir in the complexity of the legal system and what do you get? software licenses! if you ' ve ever attempted to read one you know how true this is, but you have to know a little about software licensing even if you can ' t parse all of the fine print. by : chris peters march 10, 2009 a software license is an agreement between you and the owner of a program which lets you perform certain activities which would otherwise constitute an infringement under copyright law. the software license usually answers questions such as : the price of the software and the licensing fees, if any, are sometimes discussed in the licensing agreement, but usually it ' s described elsewhere. if you read the definitions below and you ' re still scratching your head, check out categories of free and non - free software which includes a helpful diagram. free vs proprietary : when you hear the phrase \" free software \" or \" free software license, \" \" free \" is referring to your rights and permissions ( \" free as in freedom \" or \" free as in free speech \" ). in other words, a free software license gives you more rights than a proprietary license. you can usually copy, modify, and redistribute free software without paying a fee or obtaining permission from the developers and distributors. in most cases \" free software \" won ' t cost you anything, but that ' s not always the case \u2013 in this instance the word free is making no assertion whatsoever about the price of the software. proprietary software puts more restrictions and limits on your legal permission to copy, modify, and distribute the program. free, open - source or foss? in everyday conversation, there ' s not much difference between \" free software, \" \" open source software, \" and \" foss ( free and open - source software ). \" in other words, you ' ll hear these terms used interchangeably, and the proponents of free software and the supporters of open - source software agree with one another on most issues. however, the official definition of free software differs somewhat from the official definition of open - source software, and the philosophies underlying those definitions differ as well. for a short description of the difference, read live and let license. for a longer discussion from the \" free software \" side, read why open source misses the point of free software. for the \" open - source \" perspective, read why free software is", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5318247672615658, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:34.581682"} {"text": "a user cal or a device cal ) in one of two licensing modes : per seat or per server. you make this decision when you ' re installing your windows server products, not when you acquire the cals. the cals themselves don ' t have any mode designation, so you can use either a user cal or a device cal in either mode. per seat mode is the default mode, and the one used most frequently. the description of user cals and device cals above describes the typical per seat mode. in \" per server \" mode, windows treats each license as a \" simultaneous connection. \" in other words, if you have 40 cals, windows will let 40 authenticated users have access. the 41st user will be denied access. however, in per server mode, each cal is tied to a particular instance of windows server, and you have to acquire a new set of licenses for each new server you build that runs windows. therefore, per server mode works for some small organisations with one or two servers and limited access requirements. you don ' t \" install \" client licenses the way you install software. there are ways to automate the tracking of software licenses indirectly, but the server software can ' t refuse access to a user or device on licensing grounds. the licenses don ' t leave any \" digital footprint \" that the server software can read. an exception to this occurs when you license windows server in per server mode. in this case, if you have 50 licenses, the 51st authenticated user will be denied access ( though anonymous users can still access services ). some key points to remember about client licensing : the licensing scenarios described in this section arise less frequently, and are too complex to cover completely in this article, so they ' re described briefly below along with more comprehensive resources. you don ' t need client licenses for anonymous, unauthenticated external users. in other words, if someone accesses your web site, and that site runs on internet information server ( iis ), microsoft ' s web serving software, you don ' t need a client license for any of those anonymous users. if you have any authenticated external users who access services on your windows - based servers, you can obtain cals to cover their licensing requirements. however, the external connector license ( ecl ) is a second option in this scenario. the ecl covers all use by authenticated external users, but it ' s a lot more expensive than a cal, so only get one if you ' ll have a lot of external users.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5306147761394835, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:34.586933"} {"text": "- our story - in memory vaccination and immunotherapy for alzheimer \u2019 s disease vaccination against amyloid is a promising approach for the development of alzheimer \u2019 s disease ( ad ) therapeutics. approximately half of the investigational new therapeutics in human clinical trials for ad are active or passive immunotherapeutics. active vaccination involves the injection of an antigen and relies on the production of antibodies in the vaccinated patient. four human clinical trials of active vaccination currently are under way. passive immunization is also a promising strategy that involves the production of antibodies outside of the patient and injection of these antibodies. there are currently 12 clinical trials of passive immunization. you can check for alzheimer therapeutics in human clinical trials by visiting www. clinicaltrials. gov and searching for key words \u201c alzheimer \u2019 s and immunotherapy. \u201d thinking out of the box the development of vaccinations as a strategy for treating or preventing alzheimer \u2019 s is an example of thinking out of the box. vaccinations commonly are associated with infectious diseases, like influenza, small pox and polio, which appear to have little in common with neurodegenerative diseases, like alzheimer \u2019 s. moreover, the brain is an immunoprivileged site with little access to antibodies, so it seems unlikely antibodies would be protective in the brain. researchers were pleasantly surprised when dale schenk and co - workers at elan inc. reported that vaccination of transgenic mouse models of ad against the amyloid a\u00df peptide prevented amyloid deposition in young animals and removed pre - existing amyloid deposits in older animals. subsequent work showed that immunization against a\u00df prevented or reversed many other pathological features and prevented cognitive dysfunction in transgenic mice and non - human primates. this vaccine ( elan an1792 ) was tested in human clinical trials, where it showed similar beneficial effects of removing amyloid deposits and slowing cognitive decline in patients with significant levels of anti - a\u00df antibodies, but the clinical trial was halted because 6 percent of the patients developed meningoencephalitis, an inflammatory side effect. second - generation vaccines and passive immunization to circumvent the unwanted inflammatory side effects, second - generation active vaccines have been developed and passive immunization strategies have been explored. the second - generation vaccines use small pieces of the amyloid a\u00df sequence to avoid activating the t - cells responsible for mening", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_entanglement", "similarity_score": 0.5344807980606514, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:34.595912"} {"text": "dr. glabe \u2019 s strategy relies on the fact that when the a\u00df peptide aggregates into \u00df - sheet oligomers, it creates new antibody recognition sites, known as epitopes, that are not found on native proteins. the surprising finding is that these oligomer - specific antibodies recognize amyloid oligomers from other diseases that involve amyloids formed from sequences unrelated to a\u00df. this means the same antibodies also may be effective for other amyloid - related neurodegenerative diseases, like parkinson \u2019 s disease. the explanation for why the antibodies are specific for amyloid oligomers that involve several individual peptide strands arranged in a sheet and yet recognize these sheets when they are formed from other amino acid sequences is simple and elegant ( figure 1 ). it is now known that most pathological amyloids aggregate into simple and very regular structures where the peptide strands are arranged in parallel and where the amino acid sequence is in exact register. this is like a sheet of paper upon which the same sentence is written on each line. the individual amino acids line up and down the sheet in homogeneous tracts, known as \u201c steric zippers. \u201d the steric zippers do not occur in normal protein structures and the oligomer - specific antibodies are thought to recognize these steric zipper patterns on the surface of the sheets. since all proteins are made up using the same 20 amino acids, any sequence in this parallel, in - register structure gives rise to the same steric zippers regardless of the linear sequence, which can explain why the antibodies recognize the oligomers formed by different proteins. dr. moir \u2019 s group is working on caps, where a\u00df is cross - linked by oxidation of a tyrosine residue at position 10 of the peptides \u2019 sequence. a\u00df is oxidized after it is produced from the amyloid precursor protein as a consequence of the abnormally high level of oxidative activity in a brain with ad and the peptides \u2019 propensity to bind redox active metals. excessive caps generation is associated with the disease state and is not a normal feature of a\u00df biology. the cross - linking at tyrosine 10 that gives rise to caps may serve to align the peptides in a parallel, in - register fashion and promote the generation of still - larger oligomeric aggregates that display steric zippers on their surface. dr. moir and dr. rudy tanzi \u2019 s labs found that natural antibodies to caps are reduced in the blood of patients with", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5405305815905954, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:34.597811"} {"text": "and promote the generation of still - larger oligomeric aggregates that display steric zippers on their surface. dr. moir and dr. rudy tanzi \u2019 s labs found that natural antibodies to caps are reduced in the blood of patients with ad. more recently, evidence published by tony weiss - coray \u2019 s group at stanford university supports the idea that antibodies that recognize steric zippers and caps may be important for protecting against alzheimer \u2019 s disease. the levels of these antibodies that target the zippers and caps were among the highest in young, normal humans ; levels dropped with aging and with ad. furthermore, the results of a recent study supported by baxter biosciences of patients that received human antibodies purified from normal individuals ( ivig ) reported that antibody treatment reduced the risk of being diagnosed with ad by 42 percent over the five - year study period. this is one of the most remarkable reports of prevention of ad by any therapy. although the normal human antibodies that target amyloid primarily recognize the steric zippers and caps, these antibodies are present at relatively low levels. it is reasonable to imagine that an even greater protective effect might be achieved by boosting the levels of these protective antibodies by either active vaccination or passive immunization. figure 1 shows how the same steric zipper patterns are formed on parallel, in - register oligomers from completely different sequences. a segment of the a\u00df sequences is shown in the upper left corner and a random sequence is shown in the upper right. each amino acid is designated by a capital letter. typical antibodies recognize the linear sequence ( from left to right ) indicated in the horizontal boxes, which is unique to each sequence. when the peptides aggregate to form pathological oligomers, they line up in a parallel, in - register fashion, shown below. this gives rise to steric zippers that run up and down the sheet perpendicular to the sequence, shown in vertical boxes. aggregation - dependent, disease - specific antibodies recognize the steric zippers from many different amyloid sequences. zippers from f and v amino acids are shown in boxes, but there are potentially 20 different zippers ; one for each of the 20 amino acids. the fact that a completely random sequence can form the same type of steric zipper as is found in a\u00df amyloid in alzheimer \u2019 s disease means we can use a non - human, random peptide sequence as a vaccine to produce a protective immune response that has a very low potential for autoimmune side effects. vaccines based", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5292450364504483, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:34.598726"} {"text": "in insects, mainly during metamorphosis. a series of long - chain alkanols ( more than 23 carbon atoms ) were identified in settling particles and surface sediments from japanese lakes and were shown to be produced by planktonic bacteria being thus useful molecular markers ( fukushima k et al., org geochem 2005, 36, 311 ). cutin and suberin contain as monomer saturated alcohols from c16 to c22 up to 8 % of the total polymers. c18 : 1 alcohol ( oleyl alcohol ) is also present. long - chain di - alcohols ( 1, 3 - alkanediols ) have been described in the waxes which impregnate the matrix covering all organs of plants ( vermeer cp et al., phytochemistry 2003, 62, 433 ). these compounds forming about 11 % of the leaf cuticular waxes of ricinus communis were identified as homologous unbranched alcohols ranging from c22 to c28 with hydroxyl group at the carbon atoms 1 and 3. in the leaf cuticular waxes of myricaria germanica ( tamaricaceae ) several alkanediols were identified ( jetter r, phytochemistry 2000, 55, 169 ). hentriacontanediol ( c31 ) with one hydroxyl group in the 12 - position and the second one in positions from 2 to 18 is the most abundant diol ( 9 % of the wax ). others were far less abundant : c30 - c34 alkanediols with one hydroxyl group on a primary and one on a secondary carbon atom, c25 - c43 b - diols and c39 - c43 g - diols. very - long - chain 1, 5 - alkanediols ranging from c28 to c38, with strong predominance of even carbon numbers, were identified in the cuticular wax of taxus baccata ( wen m et al., phytochemistry 2007, 68, 2563 ). the predominant diol had 32 carbon atoms ( 29 % of the total ). long - chain saturated c30 - c32 diols occur in most marine sediments and in a few instances, such as in black sea sediments, they can be the major lipids ( de leeuw jw et al., geochim cosmochim acta 1981, 45, 2281 ). a microalgal", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.503563973154451, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:34.632633"} {"text": "in a few instances, such as in black sea sediments, they can be the major lipids ( de leeuw jw et al., geochim cosmochim acta 1981, 45, 2281 ). a microalgal source for these compounds was discovered when volkman jk et al. ( org geochem 1992, 18, 131 ) identified c30 - c32 diols in marine eustigmatophytes from the genus nannochloropsis. two nonacosanetriols ( 7, 8, 11 - nonacosanetriol and 10, 12, 15 - nonacosanetriol ) have been isolated from the outer fleshy layer ( sarcotesta ) of the ginkgo biloba \" fruit \" ( zhou g et al., chem phys lipids 2012, 165, 731 ). they exhibited slight activity of antithrombin and moderate activities of platelet aggregation in vitro. the chief lipid fraction in the uropygial gland excretion of the domestic hen is a diester wax. the unsaponifiable fraction consists of a series of three homologous compounds, which have been named the uropygiols and identified as 2, 3 - alkanediols containing 22 - 24 carbon atoms. these fatty alcohols are esterified by saturated normal c22 - c24 fatty acids ( haahti e et al., j lipid res 1967, 8, 131 ). - unsaturated alcohols some fatty alcohols have one double bond ( monounsaturated ). their general formula is : the unique double bond may be found in different positions : at the c6 : i. e. cis - 6 - octadecen - 1 - ol ( petroselenyl alcohol ), c9 i. e cis - 9 - octadecen - 1 - ol ( oleyl alcohol ) and c11 i. e cis - 11 - octadecen - 1 - ol ( vaccenyl alcohol ). some of these alcohols have insect pheromone activity. as an example, 11 - eicosen - 1 - ol is a major component of the alarm pheromone secreted by the sting apparatus of the worker honeybee. in zooplankton, the cis - 11 - docosen - 1 - ol ( 22 : 1 ( n - 11 ) alcohol ) is not only present in high proportion in wax este", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.523928312848808, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:34.633397"} {"text": "by the sting apparatus of the worker honeybee. in zooplankton, the cis - 11 - docosen - 1 - ol ( 22 : 1 ( n - 11 ) alcohol ) is not only present in high proportion in wax esters ( 54 to 83 % ) but may be also predominant in free form ( 75 - 94 % of free alcohols ) in ctenophores ( graeve m et al., mar biol 2008, 153, 643 ). this presence is unexplained because pathways for conversion and catabolism of fatty alcohols in ctenophores are still unknown. some short - chain unsaturated alcohols are components of mushroom flavor, such as 1 - octen - 3 - ol, t2 - octen - 1 - ol, and c2 - octen - 1 - ol ( maga ja, j agric food chem 1981, 29, 1 ). an acetoxy derivative of a 16 - carbon alcohol with one double bond, gyptol ( 10 - acetoxy cis - 7 - hexadecen - 1 - ol ), was described to be a strong attractive substance secreted by a female moth ( porthetria dispar, \" gypsy moth \" ). a fatty alcohol with two double bonds, bombykol ( tr - 10, cis - 12 - hexadecadien - 1 - ol ), was also shown to be excreted as a very strong attractive substance by the female of silk - worm ( bombyx mori ). this first discovery of a pheromone was made by butenandt a et al. ( z naturforsch 1959, 14, 283 ) who was formerly nobel laureate ( in 1939 ) for his work in sex hormones. another pheromone, 8, 10 - dodecadienol ( codlemone ), is secreted by the codling moth cydia pomonella, has been used for monitoring and mating in apple and pear orchards in the usa and europe. this molecule was also used to monitor the population of the pea moth cydia nigricana. likewise, 7, 9 - dodecadienol, the female pheromone of the european grapewine moth lobesia botrana, was used to control this important pest in vineyards. a fatty triol with one double bond, avocadene ( 16 - heptadecene - 1, 2, 4 - triol ) is found in", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.518383933451221, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:34.634192"} {"text": "chem 2009, 57, 11030 ). experiments with human intestinal cells demonstrate that aliphatic c17 - polyacetylenes ( panaxydol, falcarinol, falcarindiol ) are potential anticancer principles of carrots and related vegetables ( parsley, celery, parsnip, fennel ) and that synergistic interaction between bioactive polyacetylenes may be important for their bioactivity ( purup s et al., j agric food chem 2009, 57, 8290 ). compounds very similar to falcarinol and extracted from panax japonicus are potent a - glucosidase inhibitors ( chan hh et al., phytochemistry 2010, 71, 1360 ). these inhibitors may potentially reduce the progression of diabetes by decreasing digestion and absorption of carbohydrates. the water dropwort ( oenanthe crocata ), which lives near streams in the northern hemisphere, contains a violent toxin, cicutoxin, resulting in convultions and respiratory paralysis ( uwai k et al., j med chem 2000, 43, 4508 ). the biochemistry and bioactivity of polyacetylenes are presented in a review ( christensen lp et al., j pharm biomed anal 2006, 41, 683 ) as well methods for the isolation and quantification of these compounds. many other polyacetylenic alcohols were found in primitive marine organisms, such as sponges and ascidians. these invertebrates have no physical defenses and thus they have developed efficient chemical mechanisms such as polyacetylenic metabolites to resist predators and bacteria. a c36 linear diacetylene alcohol named lembehyne was found in an indonesian marine sponge ( haliclona sp ) ( aoki s et al., tetrahedron 2000, 56, 9945 ) and was later able to induce neuronal differentiation in neuroblastoma cell ( aoki s et al., biochem biophys res comm 2001, 289, 558 ). several polyacetylenic alcohols with 22 carbon atoms were isolated and identified in lipid extract from a red sea sponge, callyspongia sp ( youssef dt et al., j nat prod 2003, 66, 679 ). their physical study revealed the presence of 4 triple bonds and one, two or three double bonds", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5168173606330169, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 10, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:34.637492"} {"text": "from a red sea sponge, callyspongia sp ( youssef dt et al., j nat prod 2003, 66, 679 ). their physical study revealed the presence of 4 triple bonds and one, two or three double bonds. the structure of one of these callyspongenols is given below. several di - and tri - acetylenic di - alcohols with a chain of 26 up to 31 carbon atoms, named strongylodiols, have been isolated from a petrosia okinawan marine sponge ( watanabe k et al., j nat prod 2005, 68, 1001 ). some of them have cytotoxic several polyacetylenic alcohols with 21 carbon atoms were isolated from a marine ascidian ( polyclinidae ) and were determined to have two triple bonds combined with a conjugated dienyne group ( gavagnin m et al., lipids 2004, 39, 681 ). some of them have an additional hydroxyl group or only three double bonds. the structure of one of these molecules is given below. several brominated polyacetylenic diols with cytotoxic properties were isolated from a philippines sponge diplastrella sp ( lerch ml et al., j nat prod 2003, 66, 667 ). one of these molecules is shown below. a comprehensive survey of acetylenic alcohols in plant and invertebrates with information on their anticancer activity has been released by dembitsky vm ( lipids 2006, 41, 883 ). - sulfated alcohols long - chain di - hydroxy alcohols in which both the primary and secondary hydroxyl groups are converted to sulfate esters and one to five chlorine atoms are introduced at various places have been discovered in the alga ochromonas danica ( chrysophyceae, chrysophyta ) where they constitute 15 % of the total lipids ( haines th, biochem j 1969, 113, 565 ). an example of these chlorosulfolipids is given below. there may be several types of chlorine addition : one at r4, two at r3 and r5 or r1 and r2, five at r1 to r5 and six at r1 to r6. similar molecules with a 24 carbon chain was also described in ochromonas malhamensis ( review in dembitsky vm et al.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5051529928279892, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 11, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:34.640355"} {"text": "their chain length covers the broad spectrum of compounds ranging from 6 up to 130 carbon atoms ( rezanka t et al., j chromatogr a 2001, 936, 95 ). - 4. dolichol types, the a terminal is saturated. most eukaryotic cells contain one type of polyisoprenoid alcohols with one a - saturated isoprenoid unit ( 2, 3 - dihydro polycis - prenols ) which have been called dolichol by pennock jf et al. ( nature 1960, 186, 470 ), a derivative of prenols. most of these carry two trans units at the w - end of the chain. dolichols ( fro the greek dolikos : long ) have the general structure : dolichols isolated from yeast or animal cells consist mainly of seven to eight compounds, those with 16, 18, or 19 isoprenoid units being the most abundant ( ragg ss, biochem biophys res comm 1998, 243, 1 ). dolichol amount was shown to be increased in the brain gray matter of elderly ( pullarkat rk et al., j biol chem 1982, 257, 5991 ). dolichols with 19, 22 and 23 isoprenoid units were described as early as 1972 in marine invertebrates ( walton mj et al., biochem j 1972, 127, 471 ). furthermore, the pattern of their distribution may be considered as a chemotaxonomic criterion. it has been reported that a high proportion of dolichols is esterified to fatty acids. as an example, 85 - 90 % of dolichols are esterified in mouse testis ( potter j et al., biochem biophys res comm 1983, 110, 512 ). in addition, dolichyl dolichoate has been found in bovine thyroid ( steen l. et al., biochim biophys acta, 1984, 796, 294 ). they are well known for their important role as glycosyl carrier in a phosphorylated form in the synthesis of polysaccharides and glycoproteins in yeast cells, and animals. dolichyl phosphate is an obligatory intermediate in the biosynthesis of n - glycosidically linked oligosaccharide chains. conversely, they have been identified as the predominant isoprenoid", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5124238553234433, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 16, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:34.646484"} {"text": "bryophyta ) after mechanical wounding ( croisier e et al., phytochemistry 2010, 71, 574 ). it was shown that they were produced by oxidative fragmentation of polyunsaturated fatty acids ( c18, c20 ). trans - 2 - nonenal is an unsaturated aldehyde with an unpleasant odor generated during the peroxidation of polyunsaturated fatty acids. it participates to body odor and is found mainly covalently bound to protein in vivo ( ishino k et al., j biol chem 2010, 285, 15302 ). fatty aldehydes may be determined easily by tlc or gas liquid chromatography ( follow that link ). the most common method for the determination of aldehydes involves derivatization with an acidic solution of 2, 4 - dinitrophenylhydrazine to form corresponding hydrazones followed by hplc separation and uv \u2013 vis detection. an optimized derivatization procedure for the determination of aliphatic c1 - c10 aldehydes has been described ( stafiej a et al., j biochem biophys meth 2006, 69, 15 ). other short - chain aldehydes ( octadienal, octatrienal, heptadienal ) are produced via a lipoxygenase - mediated pathway from polyunsaturated fatty acids esterifying glycolipids in marine diatoms ( d ' ippolito g et al., biochim biophys acta 2004, 1686, 100 ). heighteen species of diatoms have been shown to release unsaturated aldehydes ( c7 : 2, c8 : 2, c8 : 3, c10 : 2, and c10 : 3 ) upon cell disruption ( wichard t et al., j chem ecol 2005, 31, 949 ). several short - chain aldehydes were shown to induce deleterious effects on zooplankton crustaceans and thus limiting the water secondary production ( birth - control aldehydes ) ( d ' ippolito g et al., tetrahedron lett 2002, 43, 6133 ). in laboratory experiments, three decatrienal isomers produced by various diatoms were shown to arrest embryonic development in copepod and sea ur", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5140828625749647, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 20, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:34.650932"} {"text": ". long after the demonstration of the presence of iodinated lipids in thyroid ( besides iodinated aminoacids ), it was shown that the major iodinated lipid formed in thyroid when incubated in vitro with iodide was 2 - iodohexadecanal ( pereira a et al, j biol chem 1990, 265, 17018 ). in rat and dog thyroid, 2 - iodooctadecanal was determined to be more abundant that the 16 - carbon aldehyde. these compounds, which are thought to play a role in the regulation of thyroid function, were recently shown to be formed by the attack of reactive iodine on the vinyl ether group of pe plasmalogen. this attack generates an unstable iodinated derivative which breaks into lysophosphatidylethanolamine and 2 - iodo aldehydes ( panneels v et al, j biol chem 1996, 271, 23006 ). in some bacteria, aldehyde analogs of cyclopropane fatty acids were described. several fatty aldehydes are known to have pheromone functions. studies in african and asian countries have shown that the use of 10, 12 - hexadecadienal could be effective for control of the spiny bollworm earias insulana, a cotton pest. the sex pheromone of the navel orange worm, amyelois transitella, 11, 13 - hexadecadienal, is usually used in the control of this citric pest. a branched saturated aldehyde ( 3, 5, 9 - trimethyldodecenal, stylopsal ) has been identified as a female - produced sex pheromone in stylops ( strepsiptera ), an entomophagous endoparasitic insect ( cvacka j et al., j chem ecol 2012, 38, 1483 ). several isoprenoid aldehydes are important in insect biology as pheromones and in botany as volatile odorous substances. some examples are given below : these three terpenic aldehydes are produced in large amounts by the mandibular glands of ants and may function as defensive repellents ( regnier fe et al., j insect physiol 1968, 14, 955 ). in contrast, the same molecules have a role of recruiting pheromones in honey", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5260413020465435, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 22, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:34.652743"} {"text": "the immune system immune ; immunity ; disease ; bacteria ; viruses ; white ; cells ; lymph ; germs ; mucous ; mucus ; glands ; what is immunity? immunity ( say im - yoon - it - i ) means that you are protected against something. there are different kinds of immunity. this topic is about how different parts of our bodies work together to keep us from getting sick. immunity to some diseases is passed on from our mothers before we are born. immunisation ( having your ' shots ' ) helps our body ' s immune defence system protect us from diseases. body ' s immune system every body has an inbuilt immune system which protects it from diseases and germs. this system has a lot of different parts which work together to keep out any harmful germs, and attack and destroy any which manage to get inside your body - every day your body is exposed to millions of germs, and you do not get sick from them because of your immune system. - every time you do get sick because of a germ, your immune system works to get rid of it and then it remembers how to fight the infection if the same germ comes again. - usually the older you get, the more germs you become immune to. so, let ' s have a look at the immune system, starting from the outside of the body. the skin is the first line of defence in your immune system. you know how you put plastic wrap over leftovers to keep them fresh enough for later? well, your skin is like a plastic wrap to keep germs from getting into your body. - the epidermis ( outside layer of skin ) has special cells which warn the body about incoming germs. - glands in the skin also make substances that can kill some bacteria ( anti - bacterial chemicals ). this means you don ' t get infections on your skin unless your skin is damaged, such as by a cut or a graze. your nose, mouth and eyes are the next point of attack. - the mucous membranes which line the mouth, throat, lungs and bowel, act like a barrier to germs, just as the skin does. - saliva in the mouth and the tears which wash your eyes have special enzymes ( chemicals ) in them which break down the cell walls of many bacteria and viruses. - the mucous that is made in your nose, throat and lungs traps bacteria, viruses and dust. - acid in your stomach kills most germs", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5354698482211417, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:34.662864"} {"text": "special enzymes ( chemicals ) in them which break down the cell walls of many bacteria and viruses. - the mucous that is made in your nose, throat and lungs traps bacteria, viruses and dust. - acid in your stomach kills most germs, and starts to digest your food. - lymph ( limf ) is a clear fluid that is very similar to blood plasma, the clear liquid in blood, but it carries only white blood cells, not red blood cells. - the lymph flows through all the parts of the body picking up fluid around cells and carrying it back to large veins near the heart. it also carries white blood cells to the places that they are needed. - some bacteria or viruses that have entered the body are collected by the lymph and passed on to the lymph nodes where they are filtered out and destroyed. lymph nodes are sometimes called glands. your doctor can often tell if you have an infection by checking out the lymph nodes ( glands ) in your neck and under your arms to see if they ' re swollen. if they are, it shows that they are working to get rid of bacteria or viruses. in your blood you have red blood cells and white blood cells, and in lymph there are white blood cells. there are several different types of white cells which work together to seek out and destroy bacteria and viruses. all of them start off in the bone marrow, growing from ' stem cells '. the disease - fighting white blood cells are specialists. some of the white blood cells are : - neutrophils ( say new - tro - fills ), which move around the body in the blood and seek out foreign material ( things that don ' t belong in your body ). - macrophages ( say mak - row - far - jes ) are the biggest blood cells. some live in different parts of the body and help to keep it clean, eg. in the lungs. others swim around cleaning up other white blood cells that have been damaged while doing their jobs, eg. cleaning up pus that has been caused by neutrophils when they work to clear out bacteria from a wound. - lymphocytes ( say lim - fo - sites ) work on bacterial and viral infections there are two different types : - b cells produce antibodies. each cell watches out for a particular germ, and when that germ arrives, the cell starts to produce more antibodies which begin the process of killing that germ", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5184511023687723, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:34.664188"} {"text": "in digital imaging, there are 256 levels, or tonal values, ranging from black to white. black is level 0. white is level 255. of course, not all images ( e. g. extreme foggy, misty, atmospheric shots ) contain the full tonal range from black to white, but most do. the histogram ( levels ) is a graphical representation of the tonal values in an image. ideally, it should range from 0 to 255, with a good spread of tonal values throughout. if the histogram is bunched up towards the left, it indicates the image is under - exposed. note the crushed shadow detail. if bunched up towards the right, it ' s over exposed. note the blown - out highlights. if the black and white points are set incorrectly, the image will have a dull, flat, washed - out appearance. here they ' re wrongly set to 20 / 230. unless under instructions from a repro bureau or printer, you should not set the black / white points to anything other than 0 / 255. the printer may well adjust them later for technical reasons to do with repro, but don ' t try to guess what ' s required. it ' s true that some leeway is acceptable ( e. g. up to 5 % is usually ok ), but your images will lack visual impact if the black / white points are incorrect, so don ' t do this as a matter of course. in the vast majority of cases, it ' s best to set them to 0 / 255.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5248177777177708, "token_count": 316, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:34.674882"} {"text": "the environmental impact of electric vehicles has been in the media for some time. now comes news that electric vehicles can also impact running the home. an exhibit at the georgian college auto show, in barrie, ontario, demonstrates the integration of electric vehicles into the home by using the latest smart grid technologies. the display, which is run by nissan and powerstream, shows how an electric vehicle such as the nissan leaf can help power the home by converting energy stored in the car \u2019 s batteries to residential use through a system called vehicle to home ( v2h ). with energy stored in its 24kw lithium - ion battery, a fully charged nissan leaf can provide enough electricity to run a typical residential canadian home for a full day. the leaf to home electricity - supply system is gathering attention as a new form of infrastructure, as well as contributing factor to energy saving and alternative energy use. powerstream, ontario \u2019 s second - largest community - owned company, began working on the project after taking delivery of nissan \u2019 s fully - electric leaf vehicle. \u201c the powerstream / nissan display proves how smart connections between the grid, the home and the car can help us improve the way energy is managed, consumed \u2013 and conserved, \u201d said markham mayor frank scarpitti, who is chairman of the board at powerstream. \u201c the collaboration between nissan and powerstream illustrates the dramatic changes underway in technology and how two industry leaders can collaborate to benefit consumers. \u201d studies have shown that cutting off one household from the network when power demands are their highest can significantly contribute towards the stable supply of power throughout the grid. the nissan / powerstream v2h system demonstrates leading - edge technologies and the future capabilities of smart grid and the benefit to consumers. cnw group / nissan canada nissan canada and powerstream demonstrate the nissan \u2018 leaf to home \u2019 charging system for first time in canada at the georgian college auto show in barrie. earlier this week in japan, nissan introduced the ev power station, an electric - vehicle charging station developed by nichicon corporation. the ev power station can fully recharge the leaf \u2019 s high - capacity batteries in as little as four hours, approximately half the time required by conventional chargers. \u201c the public debut of v2h in canada today will drive new advancements and collaboration in the auto industry of tomorrow, \u201d said nissan canada president allen childs. \u201c v2h will foster literal connections, such as those between vehicles, infrastructure, the internet, and the nation \u2019 s electrical grid, and the connections and relationships between engineers who are", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5044022868472696, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:34.683192"} {"text": "when i was learning carpentry from a master carpenter, i tried to do something with a tool close at hand instead of going to get the correct tool for the job. of course, i butchered the piece of wood and eventually had to get the right tool, which got the job done in a fraction of the time that i wasted with the convenient - to - reach tool. the same lesson applies to power quality tools, which range from a simple screwdriver to a $ 24, 000, 32 - gigahertz ( ghz ) spectrum analyzer. not only can you waste time and not get the answer you are looking for, you might even be led to the wrong answer using the wrong tool for the task. before going into the variety of tools available, here \u2019 s a quick safety reminder. always assess the hazards and skills required for the task, and ensure you or whoever is doing it is a \u201c qualified person \u201d per the national electrical code definition. ensure all personnel within the possible hazard area wear the proper personal protective equipment per nfpa 70e and other local requirements. and wherever possible, make connections on de - energized circuits only. even something as simple as taking a panel cover off to tighten a screw can be disastrous. accidents don \u2019 t always happen to someone else. on the low end of the price range is an item in everyone \u2019 s tool kit : a digital multimeter ( dmm ). a dmm can measure a number of steady - state power quality phenomena, such as voltage imbalance. it can also be used to find voltage drops across contacts and other devices that should have very low drops. excessive neutral - to - ground voltage is often a steady - state condition. clamp - on power meters are slightly more expensive ( $ 300 \u2013 $ 3, 000 ) but used similarly. though only single - phase, they can be useful for current imbalance and power factor, and many have limited harmonic measuring capabilities. be wary of the 3 assumptions some meters make, which contend that all three phases are identical and, therefore, give you three - phase answers with a simple multiplication. also, most clamp - on meters use current transformers that cannot measure ( or tolerate ) direct current ( dc ). power loggers generally have capabilities similar to power meters but can take unattended readings for extended periods. they are useful for finding time - correlated problems, such as the voltage drops at a certain time each day. several manufacturers offer both single - and three - phase loggers ( $", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5267778147464074, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:34.767319"} {"text": "focus on economic data : consumer price index and inflation, october 19, 2011 glossary terms from : one of many choices or courses of action that might be taken in a given situation. any activity or organization that produces or exchanges goods or services for a profit. consumer price index ( cpi ) a price index that measures the cost of a fixed basket of consumer goods and services and compares the cost of this basket in one time period with its cost in some base period. changes in the cpi are used to measure inflation. people who use goods and services to satisfy their personal needs and not for resale or in the production of other goods and services. spending by households on goods and services. the process of buying and using goods and services. a sustained decrease in the average price level of all the goods and services produced in the economy. a severe, prolonged economic contraction. the central bank of the united states. its main function is controlling the money supply through monetary policy. the federal reserve system divides the country into 12 districts, each with its own federal reserve bank. each district bank is directed by its nine - person board of directors. the board of governors, which is made up of seven members appointed by the president and confirmed by the senate to 14 - year terms, directs the nation ' s monetary policy and the overall activities of the federal reserve. the federal open market committee is the official policy - making body ; it is made up of the members of the board of governors and five of the district bank presidents. something a person or organization plans to achieve in the future ; an aim or desired result. tangible objects that satisfy economic wants. spending by all levels of government on goods and services ; includes categories like military, schools and roads. individuals and family units that buy goods and services ( as consumers ) and sell or rent productive resources ( as resource owners ). payments earned by households for selling or renting their productive resources. may include salaries, wages, interest and dividends. a rise in the general or average price level of all the goods and services produced in an economy. can be caused by pressure from the demand side of the market ( demand - pull inflation ) or pressure from the supply side of the market ( cost - push inflation ). money paid regularly, at a particular rate, for the use of borrowed money. the quantity and quality of human effort available to produce goods and services. the amount of money that people pay when they buy a good or service ; the amount they receive when they sell a good or service. the weighted average of the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5718221660720967, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:34.776491"} {"text": "of borrowed money. the quantity and quality of human effort available to produce goods and services. the amount of money that people pay when they buy a good or service ; the amount they receive when they sell a good or service. the weighted average of the prices of all goods and services in an economy ; used to calculate inflation. people and firms that use resources to make goods and services. a good or service that can be used to satisfy a want. a process of manufacturing, growing, designing, or otherwise using productive resources to create goods or services used to to satisfy a want. goods, often supplied by the government, for which use by one person does not reduce the quantity of the good available for others to use, and for which consumption cannot be limited to those who pay for the good. the amount of goods and services that a monetary unit of income can buy. a decline in the rate of national economic activity, usually measured by a decline in real gdp for at least two consecutive quarters ( i. e., six months ). money set aside for a future use that is held in easily - accessed accounts, such as savings accounts and certificates of deposit ( cds ). activities performed by people, firms or government agencies to satisfy economic wants. use money now to buy goods and services. standard of living the level of subsistence of a nation, social class or individual with reference to the adequacy of necessities and comforts of daily life. compulsory payments to governments by households and businesses. an abstract measure of the satisfaction consumers derive from consuming goods and services. payments for labor services that are directly tied to time worked, or to the number of units of output produced. people employed to do work, producing goods and services.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5814275003660323, "token_count": 349, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:34.779374"} {"text": "twenty ideas for engaging projectsseptember 12, 2011 | suzie boss the start of the school year offers an ideal time to introduce students to project - based learning. by starting with engaging projects, you ' ll grab their interest while establishing a solid foundation of important skills, such as knowing how to conduct research, engage experts, and collaborate with peers. in honor of edutopia ' s 20th anniversary, here are 20 project ideas to get learning off to a good start. 1. flat stanley refresh : flat stanley literacy projects are perennial favorites for inspiring students to communicate and connect, often across great distances. now flat stanley has his own apps for iphone and ipad, along with new online resources. project founder dale hubert is recently retired from the classroom, but he ' s still generating fresh ideas to bring learning alive in the \" flatlands. \" 2. pbl is no accident : in west virginia, project - based learning has been adopted as a statewide strategy for improving teaching and learning. teachers don ' t have to look far to find good project ideas. in this cnn story about the state ' s educational approach, read about a project that grew out of a fender - bender in a school parking lot. when students were asked to come up with a better design for the lot, they applied their understanding of geometry, civics, law, engineering, and public speaking. find more good ideas in west virginia ' s teach21 project library. 3. defy gravity : give your students a chance to investigate what happens near zero gravity by challenging them to design an experiment for nasa to conduct at its 2. 2 second drop tower in brookpark, ohio. separate nasa programs are offered for middle school and high school. or, propose a project that may land you a seat on the ultimate roller coaster ( aka : the \" vomit comet \" ), nasa aircraft that produces periods of micro and hyper gravity ranging from 0 to 2 g ' s. proposal deadline is sept. 21, and flight week takes place in february 2012. 4. connect across disciplines : when students design and build kinetic sculptures, they expand their understanding of art, history, engineering, language arts, and technology. get some interdisciplinary project insights from the edutopia video, kinetic conundrum. click on the accompanying links for more tips about how you can do it, too. 5. honor home languages : english language learners can feel pressured to master english fast, with class time spent correcting errors instead of using language in meaningful ways. digital is, a site published by", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.512637656103335, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:34.798192"} {"text": "when service - learning principles are built into pbl. find more ideas for service - learning projects from the national youth leadership council. 11. locate experts : when students are learning through authentic projects, they often need to connect with experts from the world outside the classroom. find the knowledgeable experts you need for stem projects through the national lab network. it ' s an online network where k - 12 educators can locate experts from the fields of science, technology, engineering and mathematics. 12. build empathy : projects that help students see the world from another person ' s perspective build empathy along with academic outcomes. the edutopia video, \" give me shelter \", shows what compassionate learning looks like in action. click on the companion links for more suggestions about how you can do it, too. 13. investigate climate science : take students on an investigation of climate science by joining the newest collaborative project hosted by globe, global learning and observations to benefit the environment. the student climate research campaign includes three components : introductory activities to build a foundation of understanding, intensive observing periods when students around the world gather and report data, and research investigations that students design and conduct. climate project kicks off sept. 12. 14. problem - solvers unite : math fairs take mathematics out of the classroom and into the community, where everyone gets a chance to try their hand at problem solving. galileo educational network explains how to host a math fair. in a nutshell, students set up displays of their math problems but not the solutions. then they entice their parents and invited guests to work on solutions. make the event even more engaging by inviting mathematicians to respond to students ' problems. 15. harvest pennies : can small things really add up to big results? it seems so, based on results of the penny harvest. since the project started in new york in 1991, young philanthropists nationwide have raised and donated more than $ 8 million to charitable causes, all through penny drives. the project website explains how to organize students in philanthropy roundtables to study community issues and decide which causes they want to support. 16. gather stories : instead of teaching history from textbooks, put students in the role of historian and help them make sense of the past. learn more about how to plan oral history projects in the edutopia story, \" living legends. \" teach students about the value of listening by having them gather stories for storycorps. 17. angry bird physics : here ' s a driving question to kickstart a science project : \" what are the laws of physics", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5363761980039405, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:34.801413"} {"text": ", \" living legends. \" teach students about the value of listening by having them gather stories for storycorps. 17. angry bird physics : here ' s a driving question to kickstart a science project : \" what are the laws of physics in angry birds world? \" read how physics teachers like frank noschese and john burk are using the web version of the popular mobile game in their classrooms. 18. place - based projects : make local heritage, landscapes, and culture the jumping - off point for compelling projects. that ' s the idea behind place - based education, which encourages students to look closely at their communities. often, they wind up making significant contributions to their communities, as seen in the city of stories project. 19. news they can use : students don ' t have to wait until they ' re grown - ups to start publishing. student newspapers, radio stations, and other journalism projects give them real - life experiences now. award - winning journalism teacher esther wojcicki outlines the benefits this post on the new york times learning network. get more ideas about digital - age citizen journalism projects at mediashift idea lab. 20. the heroes they know : to get acquainted with students at the start of the year and also introduce students to pbl processes, high tech high teacher diana sanchez asked students to create a visual and textual representation of a hero in their own life. their black - and - white exhibits were a source of pride to students, as sanchez explains in her project reflection. get more ideas from the project gallery at high tech high, a network of 11 schools in san diego county that emphasize pbl. to learn more, watch this edutopia video interview with high tech high founding principal larry rosenstock. please tell us about the projects you are planning for this school year. questions about pbl? draw on the wisdom of your colleagues by starting discussions or asking for help in the pbl community.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5047600703966876, "token_count": 391, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:34.802493"} {"text": "moderate - intensity aerobic activity aerobic fitness means increasing how well the body uses oxygen, which depends on the condition of the heart, lungs, and muscles. experts tend to describe aerobic activity in three ways : light, moderate, and vigorous. when people do moderate - intensity activities, they notice a faster heartbeat. to get the benefits of moderate activity, a person can : the goal of aerobic fitness is to increase the amount of oxygen that goes to the heart and muscles, which allows them to work longer. any activities, including many kinds of daily activities, that raise the heart rate and keep it up for an extended period of time can improve aerobic fitness. if the activities are done regularly and long enough, they can help improve fitness. experts recommend that adults try to do moderate activity for at least 2\u00bd hours a week. or they can do vigorous activity for at least 1\u00bc hours a week. people can choose to do one or both types of activity. and it ' s fine to be active in blocks of 10 minutes or more throughout the day and week. teens and children ( starting at age 6 ) should do moderate to vigorous activity at least 1 hour every day. moderate activity is safe for most people, but it ' s always a good idea to talk to your doctor before starting an exercise program. emedicinehealth medical reference from healthwise to learn more visit healthwise. org find out what women really need. pill identifier on rxlist - quick, easy, find a local pharmacy - including 24 hour, pharmacies", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5084767436237789, "token_count": 317, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:34.867484"} {"text": "the energy [ r ] evolution the climate change imperative demands nothing short of an energy [ r ] evolution. the expert consensus is that this fundamental shift must begin immediately and be well underway within the next ten years in order to avert the worst impacts. what is needed is a complete transformation of the way we produce, consume and distribute energy, while at the same time maintaining economic growth. nothing short of such a revolution will enable us to limit global warming to less than a rise in temperature of 2\u00b0 celsius, above which the impacts become devastating. current electricity generation relies mainly on burning fossil fuels, with their associated co2 emissions, in very large power stations which waste much of their primary input energy. more energy is lost as the power is moved around the electricity grid network and converted from high transmission voltage down to a supply suitable for domestic or commercial consumers. the system is innately vulnerable to disruption : localised technical, weather - related or even deliberately caused faults can quickly cascade, resulting in widespread blackouts. whichever technology is used to generate electricity within this old fashioned configuration, it will inevitably be subject to some, or all, of these problems. at the core of the energy [ r ] evolution there therefore needs to be a change in the way that energy is both produced and distributed. 4. 1 key principles the energy [ r ] evolution can be achieved by adhering to five key principles : 1. respect natural limits \u2013 phase out fossil fuels by the end of this century we must learn to respect natural limits. there is only so much carbon that the atmosphere can absorb. each year humans emit over 25 billion tonnes of carbon equivalent ; we are literally filling up the sky. geological resources of coal could provide several hundred years of fuel, but we cannot burn them and keep within safe limits. oil and coal development must be ended. the global energy [ r ] evolution scenario has a target to reduce energy related co2 emissions to a maximum of 10 gigatonnes ( gt ) by 2050 and phase out fossil fuels by 2085. 2. equity and fairness as long as there are natural limits there needs to be a fair distribution of benefits and costs within societies, between nations and between present and future generations. at one extreme, a third of the world \u2019 s population has no access to electricity, whilst the most industrialised countries consume much more than their fair share. the effects of climate change on the poorest communities are exacerbated by massive global energy inequality. if we are to address climate change, one of the core principles", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5098834185474721, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:34.877040"} {"text": "electricity, whilst the most industrialised countries consume much more than their fair share. the effects of climate change on the poorest communities are exacerbated by massive global energy inequality. if we are to address climate change, one of the core principles must be equity and fairness, so that the benefits of energy services \u2013 such as light, heat, power and transport \u2013 are available for all : north and south, rich and poor. only in this way can we create true energy security, as well as the conditions for genuine human wellbeing. the advanced energy [ r ] evolution scenario has a target to achieve energy equity as soon as technically possible. by 2050 the average per capita emission should be between 1 and 2 tonnes of co2. 3. implement clean, renewable solutions and decentralise energy systems. there is no energy shortage. all we need to do is use existing technologies to harness energy effectively and efficiently. renewable energy and energy efficiency measures are ready, viable and increasingly competitive. wind, solar and other renewable energy technologies have experienced double digit market growth for the past decade. just as climate change is real, so is the renewable energy sector. sustainable decentralised energy systems produce less carbon emissions, are cheaper and involve less dependence on imported fuel. they create more jobs and empower local communities. decentralised systems are more secure and more efficient. this is what the energy [ r ] evolution must aim to create. to stop the earth \u2019 s climate spinning out of control, most of the world \u2019 s fossil fuel reserves \u2013 coal, oil and gas \u2013 must remain in the ground. our goal is for humans to live within the natural limits of our small planet. 4. decouple growth from fossil fuel use starting in the developed countries, economic growth must be fully decoupled from fossil fuel usage. it is a fallacy to suggest that economic growth must be predicated on their increased combustion. we need to use the energy we produce much more efficiently, and we need to make the transition to renewable energy and away from fossil fuels quickly in order to enable clean and sustainable growth. 5. phase out dirty, unsustainable energywe need to phase out coal and nuclear power. we cannot continue to build coal plants at a time when emissions pose a real and present danger to both ecosystems and people. and we cannot continue to fuel the myriad nuclear threats by pretending nuclear power can in any way help to combat climate change. there is no role for nuclear power in the energy [ r ] evolution.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.538095343123559, "token_count": 508, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:34.883552"} {"text": "hold the salt : ucla engineers develop revolutionary new desalination membrane process uses atmospheric pressure plasma to create filtering ' brush layer ' desalination can become more economical and used as a viable alternate water resource. by wileen wong kromhout originally published in ucla newsroom researchers from the ucla henry samueli school of engineering and applied science have unveiled a new class of reverse - osmosis membranes for desalination that resist the clogging which typically occurs when seawater, brackish water and waste water are purified. the highly permeable, surface - structured membrane can easily be incorporated into today ' s commercial production system, the researchers say, and could help to significantly reduce desalination operating costs. their findings appear in the current issue of the journal of materials chemistry. reverse - osmosis ( ro ) desalination uses high pressure to force polluted water through the pores of a membrane. while water molecules pass through the pores, mineral salt ions, bacteria and other impurities cannot. over time, these particles build up on the membrane ' s surface, leading to clogging and membrane damage. this scaling and fouling places higher energy demands on the pumping system and necessitates costly cleanup and membrane replacement. the new ucla membrane ' s novel surface topography and chemistry allow it to avoid such drawbacks. \" besides possessing high water permeability, the new membrane also shows high rejection characteristics and long - term stability, \" said nancy h. lin, a ucla engineering senior researcher and the study ' s lead author. \" structuring the membrane surface does not require a long reaction time, high reaction temperature or the use of a vacuum chamber. the anti - scaling property, which can increase membrane life and decrease operational costs, is superior to existing commercial membranes. \" the new membrane was synthesized through a three - step process. first, researchers synthesized a polyamide thin - film composite membrane using conventional interfacial polymerization. next, they activated the polyamide surface with atmospheric pressure plasma to create active sites on the surface. finally, these active sites were used to initiate a graft polymerization reaction with a monomer solution to create a polymer \" brush layer \" on the polyamide surface. this graft polymerization is carried out for a specific period of time at a specific temperature in order to control the brush layer thickness and topography. \" in the early years, surface plasma treatment could only be accomplished in a vacuum chamber, \" said yoram cohen, ucla professor of chemical", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5040148582234147, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:34.890979"} {"text": "out for a specific period of time at a specific temperature in order to control the brush layer thickness and topography. \" in the early years, surface plasma treatment could only be accomplished in a vacuum chamber, \" said yoram cohen, ucla professor of chemical and biomolecular engineering and a corresponding author of the study. \" it wasn ' t practical for large - scale commercialization because thousands of meters of membranes could not be synthesized in a vacuum chamber. it ' s too costly. but now, with the advent of atmospheric pressure plasma, we don ' t even need to initiate the reaction chemically. it ' s as simple as brushing the surface with plasma, and it can be done for almost any surface. \" in this new membrane, the polymer chains of the tethered brush layer are in constant motion. the chains are chemically anchored to the surface and are thus more thermally stable, relative to physically coated polymer films. water flow also adds to the brush layer ' s movement, making it extremely difficult for bacteria and other colloidal matter to anchor to the surface of the membrane. \" if you ' ve ever snorkeled, you ' ll know that sea kelp move back and forth with the current or water flow, \" cohen said. \" so imagine that you have this varied structure with continuous movement. protein or bacteria need to be able to anchor to multiple spots on the membrane to attach themselves to the surface \u2014 a task which is extremely difficult to attain due to the constant motion of the brush layer. the polymer chains protect and screen the membrane surface underneath. \" another factor in preventing adhesion is the surface charge of the membrane. cohen ' s team is able to choose the chemistry of the brush layer to impart the desired surface charge, enabling the membrane to repel molecules of an opposite charge. the team ' s next step is to expand the membrane synthesis into a much larger, continuous process and to optimize the new membrane ' s performance for different water sources. \" we want to be able to narrow down and create a membrane selection system for different water sources that have different fouling tendencies, \" lin said. \" with such knowledge, one can optimize the membrane surface properties with different polymer brush layers to delay or prevent the onset of membrane fouling and scaling. \" the cost of desalination will therefore decrease when we reduce the cost of chemicals [ used for membrane cleaning ], as well as process operation [ for membrane replacement ]. desalination can become more economical and used as a viable", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5049423584275833, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:34.891968"} {"text": "located above the surface of our planet is a complex mixture of gases and suspended liquid and solid particles known as the atmosphere. operating within the atmosphere is a variety of processes we call weather. some measurable variables associated with weather include air temperature, air pressure, humidity, wind, and precipitation. the atmosphere also contains organized phenomena that include things like tornadoes, thunderstorms, mid - latitude cyclones, hurricanes, and monsoons. climate refers to the general pattern of weather for a region over specific period of time. scientists have discovered that human activities can influence earth \u2019 s climate and weather producing problems like global warming, ozone depletion, and acid precipitation. widespread urban development alters weather patterns research focusing on the houston area suggests that widespread urban development alters weather patterns in a way that... laptev sealast updated on 2013 - 05 - 14 at 14 : 23 the laptev sea is a saline water body, lodged between the kara sea and east siberian sea. the chief land boundary of this marginal sea of the arctic ocean is the siberian... more \u00bb east siberian sealast updated on 2013 - 05 - 14 at 14 : 09 the east siberian sea is a saline marine body, which is a southern marginal sea of the arctic ocean. to the east is found the chukchi sea and to the west beyond the new... more \u00bb baffin baylast updated on 2013 - 05 - 14 at 12 : 11 baffin bay is a margibnal sea of the north atlantic ocean located between the canada ' s baffin, devon and ellesmere islands and greenland. to the south the davis strait... more \u00bb andaman sealast updated on 2013 - 05 - 13 at 23 : 06 the andaman sea is a body of marine water in the northeastern corner of the indian ocean that lies to the west of the malay peninsula, the north of sumatra, the east of the... more \u00bb molucca sealast updated on 2013 - 05 - 13 at 23 : 02 the molucca sea ( also molukka sea ) is a semi - enclosed sea, surrounded by a variety of islands belonging to indonesia, most significantly the island of sulawesi ( celebes )... more \u00bb levantine sealast updated on 2013 - 05 - 13 at 22 : 31 the levantine sea is most eastern unit of the mediterranean sea, and also the most saline portion of the mediterranean basin. the levantine sea, also known as the levant... more \u00bb", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5391112137819134, "token_count": 507, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:34.896246"} {"text": "university of michigan ( u - m ) scientists have made an important step toward what could become the first vaccine in the u. s. to prevent urinary tract infections, if the robust immunity achieved in mice can be reproduced in humans. the findings are published september 18 in the open - access journal plos pathogens. urinary tract infections ( utis ) affect 53 percent of women and 14 percent of men at least once in their lives. these infections lead to lost work time and 6. 8 million medical provider ' s office visits, 1. 3 million emergency room visits and 245, 000 hospitalizations a year, with an annual cost of $ 2. 4 billion in the united states. to help combat this common health issue, the u - m scientists used a novel systematic approach, combining bioinformatics, genomics and proteomics, to look for key parts of the bacterium, escherichia coli, that could be used in a vaccine to elicit an effective immune response. the team, led by dr. harry l. t. mobley, ph. d., screened 5, 379 possible bacterial proteins and identified three strong candidates to use in a vaccine to prime the body to fight e. coli, the cause of most uncomplicated urinary tract infections. the vaccine prevented infection and produced key types of immunity when tested in mice. scientists have attempted to develop a vaccine for utis over the past two decades. this latest potential vaccine has features that may better its chances of success. it alerts the immune system to iron receptors on the surface of bacteria that perform a critical function allowing infection to spread. administered in the nose, it induces an immune response in the body ' s mucosa, a first line of defense against invading pathogens. the response, also produced in mucosal tissue in the urinary tract, should help the body fight infection where it starts. mobley ' s team is currently testing more strains of e. coli obtained from women treated at u - m. most of the strains produce the same iron - related proteins that cthe vaccine targets, an encouraging sign that the vaccine could work against many urinary tract infections. mobley is seeking partners in clinical research to move the vaccine forward into a phase 1 trial in humans. if successful, this vaccine would take several more years to reach the market. financial disclosure : this work has been funded by public health service grant ai043363 from the national institutes of health. the funders had", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5179805810912517, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:34.902610"} {"text": "phase 1 trial in humans. if successful, this vaccine would take several more years to reach the market. financial disclosure : this work has been funded by public health service grant ai043363 from the national institutes of health. the funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript. competing interests : the authors have declared that no competing interests exist. please add this link to the published article in online versions of your report : http : / / dx. plos. org / 10. 1371 / journal. ppat. 1000586 ( link will go live upon embargo lift ) citation : alteri cj, hagan ec, sivick ke, smith sn, mobley hlt ( 2009 ) mucosal immunization with iron receptor antigens protects against urinary tract infection. plos pathog 5 ( 9 ) : e1000586. doi : 10. 1371 / journal. ppat. 1000586 anne rueter, firstname. lastname @ example. org nicole fawcett, email @ example. com this press release refers to an upcoming article in plos pathogens. the release is provided by the article authors and their institution. any opinions expressed in these releases or articles are the personal views of the journal staff and / or article contributors, and do not necessarily represent the views or policies of plos. plos expressly disclaims any and all warranties and liability in connection with the information found in the releases and articles and your use of such information. about plos pathogens plos pathogens ( www. plospathogens. org ) publishes outstanding original articles that significantly advance the understanding of pathogens and how they interact with their host organisms. all works published in plos pathogens are open access. everything is immediately available subject only to the condition that the original authorship and source are properly attributed. copyright is retained by the authors. the public library of science uses the creative commons attribution license. about the public library of science the public library of science ( plos ) is a non - profit organization of scientists and physicians committed to making the world ' s scientific and medical literature a freely available public resource. for more information, visit http : / / www. plos. org. aaas and eurekalert! are not responsible for the accuracy of news releases posted to eurekalert! by contributing institutions or for the use of any information through the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5237294707152746, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:34.903561"} {"text": "let \u2019 s start with the understanding that the federal trade commission states that if scrap generated in the manufacturing process is reused for manufacturing new product, it can not be calculated as post - industrial recycled content, as this reuse of scrap is a part of the typical manufacturing process. so your first question when receiving post - industrial recycled content data should be, \u201c how did you make this calculation, and where did the recycled waste come from? \u201d stakeholder demand for recycled content in building products has been largely driven by the leed\u00ae rating system, and the points gained by contributing to the recycled content credit. now, since scrap reused in the manufacturing process can not be calculated, many manufactures play a form of the \u201c shell game \u201d. if a manufacturer has multiple facilities making products that generate scrap which can be reused in all the manufacturing processes then, to calculate post - industrial recycled content, the scrap is just moved between facilities. now the scrap is claimed to be diverted from landfill and calculated as recycled content. please understand that for a recycling program to work, a manufacturer needs a continuous feedstock of waste material, so some of this moving around of scrap is legitimate. if the manufacturer is playing the shell game just \u201c for the points, \u201d then all that is being done is increased energy use and co2 emissions... how sustainable is that?", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5076334867324113, "token_count": 270, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:34.960058"} {"text": "notion of virginity in the early church. \" christian spirituality : origins to the 12th c. editor : bernard mcginn and john meyendorff. new york : crossroad ( 1985 ) : 427 - 43. grundler, otto. \" devotio moderna. \" christian spirituality : high middle ages and reformation. editor : jill raitt. new york : crossroad ( 1987 ) : 176 - 93. knowles, david. christian monasticism. new york : mcgraw - hill, 1969. leclercq, jean. monks and love in 12th - c. france. oxford : clarendon, 1979. novak, michael. \" the free churches and the roman church. \" journal of ecumenical studies, 2 ( 1965 ) : 426 - 47. rousseau, phillip. ascetics, authority, and the church in the age of jerome and cassian. new york ; oxford, 1980. workman, herbert b. the evolution of the monastic ideal from the earliest times to the coming of the friars. 2nd edition. london, 1927, reprinted with introduction by david knowles. boston : beacon, 1962. adapted by permission of herald press, harrisonburg, virginia, and waterloo, ontario, from mennonite encyclopedia, vol. 5, pp. 601 - 602. all rights reserved. for information on ordering the encyclopedia visit the herald press website. \u00a91996 - 2013 by the global anabaptist mennonite encyclopedia online. all rights reserved. mla style : martin, dennis d. \" monasticism. \" global anabaptist mennonite encyclopedia online. 1987. web. 18 may 2013. http : / / www. gameo. org / encyclopedia / contents / m653. html. apa style : martin, dennis d. ( 1987 ). monasticism. global anabaptist mennonite encyclopedia online. retrieved 18 may 2013, from http : / / www. gameo. org / encyclopedia / contents / m653. html.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5015531810485014, "token_count": 411, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:34.985111"} {"text": "a genome - wide association study appearing in plos genetics that involved thousands of individuals of european ancestry identified five genetic loci that appear to be associated with facial features. among them : variants in and around genes implicated in prior studies of conditions that are characterized by face and / or skull malformations. the researchers behind the study, members of the international visible trait genetics, or visigen, consortium, argue that the new findings could contribute to what ' s known about facial evolution and development in humans, while at once laying the foundation for forensic tools for predicting facial features based on dna alone. for more on this study, see this story from our sister publication genomeweb daily news. investigators from the cleveland clinic and elsewhere used post - mortem brain samples to look at the epigenetic and transcriptional profiles associated with autism spectrum disorder. as they reported in plos one, the researchers relied on arrays and bisulfite sequencing to assess genome - wide gene expression and dna methylation profiles in two brain regions \u2014 the cerebellar hemisphere cortex and the brodmann area 19 occipital cortex \u2014 in samples from nine males with idiopathic cases of autism spectrum disorder and nine unaffected male controls in the same age range. overall brain expression patterns varied from one individual with asd to the next. but the team did uncover some shared features within the asd samples, including lower - than - usual expression of genes in mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation and protein production pathways in the brain samples from individuals with autism and shifts in the expression of certain brain - related genes. a plos pathogens study of dengue virus by french researchers explores the basis for the pronounced conservation that ' s been noted in nucleotides found at the ends of the virus ' rna - based genome. using chemical synthesis experiments, assays, and other analyses, the group determined that the virus, a representative of the flavivirus genus, relies on an rna end - repair process that involves the rna - dependent rna polymerase produced by a dengue virus gene called ns5. \" our findings provide a direct demonstration of the implication of a viral rna polymerase in the conservation and repair of genome ends, \" the study ' s authors wrote. \" other polymerases from other rna virus families are likely to employ similar mechanisms. \"", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5377928897119835, "token_count": 470, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:34.999041"} {"text": "us 4884575 a a cardiac pacemaker pulse generator is adapted to. generate electrical stimuli at a first pacing rate, and to selectively increase the rate to a second higher pacing rate. a timer triggers the rate increase to establish the higher rate as an exercise rate folloing the passage of a preset period of time after the timer is enabled. an external magnet controlled by the patient activates a reed switch to enable the timer to commence timing. the pulse generator is further adapted to respond to a second pass of the magnet over the reed switch after enabling of the timer to thereupon disable the timer before the preset period of time has expired. if the second pass of the magnet occurs after the exercise rate has begun, the element for increasing the rate is disabled to return the pulse generator to the lower pacing rate. the change in pacing rates is made in steps. 1. in combination with an implantable cardiac pacemaker for delivering electrical stimuli to the heart of a patient to pace the heart rate, said pacemaker comprising : pulse generator means for selectively producing said electrical stimuli at a fixed resting rate and at a higher exercise rate, lead means associated with said pulse generator for delivering said stimuli to a selected chamber of the heart, and timer means for stepping - up said pulse generator means from said resting rate to said exercise rate after an adjustable preset delay following activation of said timer means, said preset delay being of a duration perceptible by the patient ; and external control means for patient initiation of a first command to said pacemaker to activate said timer means. 2. in combination with an implantable cardiac pacemaker for delivering electrical stimuli to the heart of a patient to pace the heart rate, said pacemaker comprising : pulse generator means for selectively producing said electrical stimuli at a fixed resting rate and a higher exercise rate, lead means associated with said pulse generator for delivering said stimuli to a selected chamber of the heart, and delay means for stepping - up said pulse generator means from said resting rate to said exercise rate after an adjustable preset delay following activation of said delay means, means associated with said pulse generator means and said delay means for maintaining said exercise rate for a predetermined time interval following said preset delay and then returning said pulse generator means to said resting rate ; and an external control means for patient - initiation of a command to said pacemaker to activate said delay means. 3. the combination according to claim 2, wherein said delay means is responsive to a second command initiated by the patient from", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5284527651254038, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:35.020909"} {"text": "said resting rate ; and an external control means for patient - initiation of a command to said pacemaker to activate said delay means. 3. the combination according to claim 2, wherein said delay means is responsive to a second command initiated by the patient from said external control means at any time after receipt of the first said command and before the expiration of said predetermined time interval, to cancel the activation of said delay means. 4. the combination according to claim 3, wherein the stepping up and returning of said rates at which said stimuli are produced by said pulse generator means is effected gradually. 5. an implantable pulse generator unit for a cardiac pacemaker for use with an external magnet to permit patient - initiated adjustment of pacing rate from a resting rate to an exercise rate and vice versa, said unit comprising : generator means for generating electrical stimuli at said resting rate, control means associated with said generator means responsive, when enabled, for controllably increasing the rate at which electrical stimuli are generated from said generator means from said resting rate to said exercise rate, and timer means responsive to positioning of said external magnet in proximity to said pulse generator unit for enabling said control means an adjustable preset delay period after said positioning, said preset delay period being of a duration perceptible to the patient. 6. an implantable pulse generator unit for a cardiac pacemaker for use with an external magnet to permit patient - initiated adjustment of pacing rate from a resting rate to an exercise rate and vice versa, said unit comprising : generator means for generating electrical stimuli at said resting rate, control means associated with said generator means responsive, when enabled, for controllably increasing the rate at which electrical stimuli are generated by said generator means from said resting rate to said exercise rate, said control means including timing means for maintaining the rate at which electrical stimuli are generated by said generator means at said exercise rate for a predetermined time interval ; and delay means responsive to positioning of said external magnet in proximity to said pulse generator unit for enabling said control means an adjustable preset delay period thereafter. 7. the pulse generator unit of claim 6, wherein said control means automatically returns said generator means to said resting rate following the expiration of said predetermined time interval. 8. the pulse generator unit of claim 7, wherein said control means gradually increases the rate at which electrical stimuli are generated by said generator means from said resting rate to said exercise rate, and gradually returns said generator means to said resting rate following the expiration of said predetermined", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_entanglement", "similarity_score": 0.531120631174009, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:35.021998"} {"text": "claim 7, wherein said control means gradually increases the rate at which electrical stimuli are generated by said generator means from said resting rate to said exercise rate, and gradually returns said generator means to said resting rate following the expiration of said predetermined time interval. 9. the pulse generator unit of claim 6, wherein said delay means is responsive to a repositioning of said external magnet in proximity to said pulse generator unit after said control means has been enabled, for disabling said control means. 10. a cardiac pacemaker pulse generator for generating electrical stimuli to be delivered to the heart of a patient to pace the heart rate, said generator comprising : means for generating said electrical stimuli at a first pacing rate, means electrically connected to said stimuli generating means for selectively increasing the rate at which said stimuli are generated to a second higher pacing rate, timing means for triggering said rate increasing means to increase said first pacing rate to a second higher pacing rate upon passage of an adjustable preselected period of time after said timing means is enabled, said preselected period of time being of a duration perceptible by the patient, means responsive to a command signal from a patient - activated external device for enabling said timing means to commence timing. 11. the pulse generator according to claim 10, wherein said enabling means is further responsive to a second command signal after said timing means is enabled, to disable said timing means prior to passage of said preselected period of time. 12. the pulse generator according to claim 10, further including means responsive to a second command signal while said stimuli are being generated at said second higher pacing rate, for disabling said rate increasing means and thereby returning the rate at which said stimuli are generated by said stimuli generating means to said first pacing rate. 13. the pulse generator according to claim 12, wherein said rate increasing means is responsive, when disabled, to decrementally reduce the rate at which said stimuli are generated by said stimuli generating means. 14. the pulse generator according to claim 10, wherein said rate increasing means is responsive to said timing means reaching preset time intervals toward passage of said preselected period of time, for incrementally increasing the rate at which said stimuli are generated by said stimuli generating means in steps as each preset time interval is reached. 15. the method of pacing a pacemaker patient ' s heart rate using a magnet - controlled implantable pulse generator to adjust the stimulation rate from a resting rate to an exercise rate and vice versa, comprising", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5240262606057411, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:35.022990"} {"text": "as each preset time interval is reached. 15. the method of pacing a pacemaker patient ' s heart rate using a magnet - controlled implantable pulse generator to adjust the stimulation rate from a resting rate to an exercise rate and vice versa, comprising the steps of maintaining the stimulation rate of said pulse generator at said resting rate, initiating a command signal to reset the stimulation rate of said pulse generator to said exercise rate after an adjustable programmed delay period following said command signal, and returning the stimulation rate of said pulse generator to said resting rate in increments following a predetermined interval of time at said exercise rate. the present invention relates generally to medical devices, and more particularly to implantable artificial cardiac pacemakers adapted to provide patient - variable stimulation rates appropriate to a condition of exercise by the patient. the resting heart rate of sinus rhythm, that is, the rate determined by the spontaneously rhythmic electrophysiologic property of the heart ' s natural pacemaker, the sinus node, is typically in the range from about 65 to about 85 beats per minute ( bpm ) for adults. disruption of the natural cardiac pacing and propagation system may occur with advanced age and / or cardiac disease, and is often treated by implanting an artificial cardiac pacemaker in the patient to restore and maintain the resting heart rate to the proper range. in its simplest form, an implantable pacemaker for treatment of bradycardia ( abnormally low resting rate, typically below 60 beats per minute ( bpm ) ) includes an electrical pulse generator powered by a self - contained battery pack, and a catheter lead including at the distal end a stimulating cathodic electrode electrically coupled to the pulse generator. the lead is implanted intravenously to position the cathodic electrode in stimulating relation to excitable myocardial tissue in the selected chamber on the right side of the patient ' s heart. the pulse generator unit is surgically implanted in a subcutaneous pouch in the patient ' s chest, and has an integral electrical connector to receive a mating connector at the proximal end of the lead. in operation of the pacemaker, the electrical pulses are delivered ( typically, on demand ) via the lead / electrode system, including an anodic electrode such as a ring behind the tip for bipolar stimulation or a portion of the pulse generator case for unipolar stimulation, and the body tissue and fluid, to stimulate the excitable myocardial tissue. pacemakers may operate in different response modes, such as asynch", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.52157333019217, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:35.024012"} {"text": "tip for bipolar stimulation or a portion of the pulse generator case for unipolar stimulation, and the body tissue and fluid, to stimulate the excitable myocardial tissue. pacemakers may operate in different response modes, such as asynchronous ( fixed rate ), inhibited ( stimulus generated in absence of specified cardiac activity ), or triggered ( stimulus delivered in presence of specified cardiac activity ). further, present - day pacers range from the simple fixed rate device that offers pacing with no sensing ( of cardiac activity ) function, to fully automatic dual chamber pacing and sensing functions ( so - called ddd pacemakers ) which may provide a degree of physiologic pacing by at least a slight adjustment of heart rate according to varying metabolic conditions in a manner akin to the natural pacing of the heart. thus, some ddd pacemaker patients experience an increased pacing rate with physical exertion, with concomitantly higher cardiac output, and thereby, an ability to handle low levels of exercise. unfortunately, a significant percentage of the pacemaker patient population, who suffer from atrial flutter, atrial fibrillation or sick - sinus syndrome, for example, cannot obtain the benefit of exercise - responsive pacing with conventional atrial - triggered pacemakers. moreover, the ddd - type pacemakers are complex and costly to manufacture, which is reflected in a higher price to the patient. it is a principal object of the present invention to provide a relatively simple and inexpensive pacemaker which provides pacing at a desired resting rate, and which is subject to limited control by the patient to provide a desired exercise rate for a preset period of time following which the pacemaker returns to the resting rate. various types of rate responsive pacemakers have been proposed which would sense a physiological parameter that varies as a consequence of physical stress, such as respiration, blood oxygen saturation or blood temperature, or merely detect physical movement, and correspondingly adjust the pacing rate. many of these rate responsive pacemakers may also be relatively complex, and therefore expensive to the patient. the present invention is directed toward a low cost pacemaker which can be adjusted at will by the patient, subject to the limited amount of control programmed into the device by the physician for that patient. according to the invention, patient control is manifested by bringing an external magnet into proximity with an implanted reed switch associated with the pacemaker. of course, limited magnet control has been afforded to the patient in the past for some purposes, such as to enable transtelephon", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5488516140533415, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:35.025029"} {"text": "patient control is manifested by bringing an external magnet into proximity with an implanted reed switch associated with the pacemaker. of course, limited magnet control has been afforded to the patient in the past for some purposes, such as to enable transtelephonic monitoring of the pacemaker functions. also, techniques are presently available which permit external adjustment of the stimulation rate of the pacemaker after implantation, as by means of a programming unit available to the physician. for obvious reasons, it is undesirable to give the patient the same latitude to control his pacemaker. in u. s. pat. no. 3, 623, 486, berkovits disclosed a pacemaker adapted to operate at either of two stimulation rates, and switchable from one to the other by the physician using an external magnet. in this manner, the physician would be able to control the pacer mode and rate according to the needs of the particular patient. the purpose, in part, was to provide a pacemaker which had some adaptability to the patient ' s requirements. however, once set by the physician, the selected resting rate was maintained for that patient by the implanted pacer. another technique for external adjustment of pacing rate by the physician is found in the disclosures of u. s. pat. no. 3, 198. 195 to chardack, and u. s. pat. no. 3, 738, 369 to adams et al. in each, rate control is exercised by inserting a needle through a pacemaker aperture beneath the patient ' s skin to adjust a mechanism. in the adams et al. disclosure, the needle is used to change the position of a magnet within the paper to actuate a rate - controlling reed switch. in u. s. pat. no. 3, 766, 928, goldberg et al. describe an arrangement for continuous adjustment of rate by a physician using an external magnet that cooperates with a magnet attached to the shaft of a rate potentiometer in the implanted pacemaker, to provide the initial setting of pacing rate desirable for the particular patient. more recent proposals offer the patient limited control over the pacing rate. in u. s. pat. no. 4, 365, 633, loughman et al. disclose a pacemaker programmer which is conditioned by the physician to give the patient the capability to select any of three distinct rates : for sleep, for an awake resting state, and for exercise. the programmer generates a pulsating electromagnetic field,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5115896834306997, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:35.025966"} {"text": "al. disclose a pacemaker programmer which is conditioned by the physician to give the patient the capability to select any of three distinct rates : for sleep, for an awake resting state, and for exercise. the programmer generates a pulsating electromagnetic field, and allows the patient to select any of those three modes with an abrupt change in rate when the coil pod of the programmer is positioned over the implanted pacemaker. it is, of course, necessary to have the programmer at hand in order to change the stimulation rate, and the use of the device in public can be a source of extreme embarassment to the patient. in u. s. pat. no. 4, 545, 380, schroeppel describes a technique for manual adjustment of rate control contrasted with the activity sensing, automatic rate control disclosed by dahl in u. s. pat. no. 4, 140, 132. according to the schroeppel patent, a piezoelectric sensor and associated circuitry are combined with the implanted pulse generator of the pacemaker to allow the patient to change from a resting rate to a higher rate by sharp taps on his chest near the site of the piezoelectric sensor. such an arrangement requires that the sensor be sufficiently sensitive to respond to the patient ' s sharp taps, and yet be insensitive to the everyday occurrences the patient encounters while undergoing normal activities and which could otherwise result in false triggerings. these include presence in the vicinity of loud noise such as is generated by street traffic, being jostled in a crowd, experiencing bumps and vibrations while riding in a vehicle, and the like. further, even when controlled in the manner described, this type of switching results in an abrupt, non - physiological change of rate. accordingly, it is another object of the present invention to provide a pacemaker which is capable of being controlled externally by the patient to assume exercise and non - exercise rate modes, in a manner that allows discreet and yet reliable control. yet another object of the invention is to provide a cardiac pacemaker whose stimulation rate is controllable by and according to a schedule selected by the patient. briefly, according to the present invention a cardiac pacemaker is manually controllable by the patient to preset time intervals of operation at a relatively high ( exercise ) rate and lower ( resting ) rate according to the patient ' s own predetermined schedule of exercise and rest. an important aspect of the invention is that the pulse generator may be implemented to undergo an adjustment of stimulation rate from", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5789424647099601, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:35.027044"} {"text": "high ( exercise ) rate and lower ( resting ) rate according to the patient ' s own predetermined schedule of exercise and rest. an important aspect of the invention is that the pulse generator may be implemented to undergo an adjustment of stimulation rate from a fixed resting rate of, say, 75 bpm, to a preselected exercise rate of, say, 120 bpm, following a predetermined period of time after activation by the patient using an external magnet, that is, after a predetermined delay following a patient - initiated command signal, and to remain at the higher rate for a preselected time interval. thus, the patient may effectively \" set a clock \" in his pacemaker to elevate his heart rate at the time and for the duration of a scheduled exercise session, such as a game of tennis. moreover, he may activate the pacemaker in this manner in the privacy of his own home well in advance of the exercise session. according to another aspect of the invention, the pulse generator is implemented to return automatically to the resting rate at the expiration of the preselected exercise rate time interval. hence, the patient need not carry his magnet with him to readjust the pacer to the resting rate at the completion of the scheduled exercise session. according to this aspect, after operating at the elevated stimulation rate for a time interval preselected to be suitable for the exercise session, say, one hour, the generator resets itself to return to the initial resting rate. according to another feature of the invention, the rate is incremented and decremented in steps from one rate setting to the other to avoid abrupt changes, and therefore to provide a more physiological rate control than has heretofore been available in manually controlled pacemakers. a further feature of the invention is that the pulse generator may be activated to disable the exercise rate command at any time after it has been given, including that to produce an early conclusion to an already - commenced exercise session. for example, if a scheduled tennis game or bicycling run is called off by the patient ' s partner after the patient has programmed in the higher rate, he need merely apply the magnet in proximity to the implanted pulse generator again to cancel the previous command and maintain the fixed resting rate. similarly, if the exercise session is shortened, the rate may be returned to the resting rate by simply applying the magnet over the pulse generator. the above and still further objects, aspects, features and attendant advantages of", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5458492699288835, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 7, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:35.029337"} {"text": "command and maintain the fixed resting rate. similarly, if the exercise session is shortened, the rate may be returned to the resting rate by simply applying the magnet over the pulse generator. the above and still further objects, aspects, features and attendant advantages of the present invention will become apparent to those of ordinary skill in the field to which the invention applies from a consideration of the following detailed description of a preferred embodiment thereof, taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawing, in which : fig. 1 is a block circuit diagram of a pulse generator unit of a cardiac pacemaker according to a preferred embodiment of the invention. referring now to fig. 1, an implantable pulse generator unit 10 includes a pulse generator 12 and batteries 15 housed in a biocompatible metal case 17. pulse generator 12 is implemented to be rate limited to generate output pulses at rates up to either of two low / high limit rates - - for example, 75 pulses per minute ( ppm ) and 120 ppm, respectively - - and to be incremented from the lower rate to the higher rate and decremented from the higher rate to the lower rate under the control of an up / down counter 18 associated with the pulse generator 12 in unit 10. counter 18 may be set by application of a voltage level to its \" up \" input to commence counting toward the higher rate, and thereby to incrementally step the pulse repetition frequency up to that rate, and may be reset by application of a voltage level to its \" down \" input to commence counting toward the lower rate, and thereby decrementally step the pulse repetition frequency down to that rate. this is accomplished under the control of set and reset output voltage levels generated by a flip - flop circuit 21 also housed in case 17. the pulse generator unit 10 also includes a reed switch 25 which is actuable by placement of a magnet 27, external to the skin of the patient in whom the unit 10 is implanted, in proximity to case 17. reed switch 25, when actuated, serves to enable a delay timer 29 in unit 10. the delay timer responds to the enabling input to commence timing of its preset time delay interval. at the end of the delay interval, delay timer 29 produces a pulse for application to the flip - flop 21. subsequent actuation of the reed switch before the timer 29 has timed out serves to disable the timer and reset it in preparation for a subsequent enabling signal from the reed switch. if timer 29 has already timed out before the reed switch is", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5640990587072021, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 8, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:35.030665"} {"text": "flop 21. subsequent actuation of the reed switch before the timer 29 has timed out serves to disable the timer and reset it in preparation for a subsequent enabling signal from the reed switch. if timer 29 has already timed out before the reed switch is again actuated, the timer will respond to the disabling input, when the reed switch is actuated, to produce another pulse for application to the flip - flop 21. the flip - flop is thereupon reset and produces its reset output voltage level. the set and reset output voltage levels of flip - flop 21 are also applied respectively to \" set \" and \" reset \" inputs of an interval timer 30. upon being set, the interval timer commences timing out a predetermined time interval, and, at the expiration of that interval, generates a pulse for application to flip - flop 21. upon being reset, the interval timer 30 is returned to the start of the predetermined time interval in preparation for initiating the timing of that interval on receipt at its \" set \" input of the next set output voltage level from the flip - flop. the preset time period of delay timer 29 and the predetermined time interval of interval timer 30 are programmable by the physician according to the desires and needs of the particular patient. if, for example, the patient has a regularly scheduled early morning brisk walking session of one hour with friends, and resides near the starting point of the walk, the time period of the delay timer 29 may be programmed to be fifteen minutes. the time interval of the interval timer 30 is programmed to be one hour in length. in operation, the pulse generator produces output pulses at the resting rate prescribed ( and programmed ) by the physician for the particular patient - - in this exemplary embodiment, a resting rate of 75 bpm. the pulses are delivered to the stimulating cathodic electrode 35 in the right ventricle of the heart 40 via a lead 42, the reference electrode ( anode ) and the body tissue and fluids, according to the mode in which the pacemaker is designed to operate. in the preferred embodiment, the pacemaker continues to operate at that rate unless and until the patient elects to initiate the exercise rate cycle. to do so, the patient places the magnet 27 in proximity to the implanted pulse generator unit 10 at about fifteen minutes prior to the appointed time for the exercise session, as a command to actuate reed switch 25. the patient may then choose to leave the magnet at home or take it", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5303132145331444, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 9, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:35.031817"} {"text": "magnet 27 in proximity to the implanted pulse generator unit 10 at about fifteen minutes prior to the appointed time for the exercise session, as a command to actuate reed switch 25. the patient may then choose to leave the magnet at home or take it along in the glove compartment of his car, since actuation of the reed switch has enabled the delay timer 29 and nothing more need be done by the patient to enable the pacemaker to commence the exercise rate at the expiration of the preset delay period. before the end of that period the patient has arrived at the starting point for the exercise session, and at the end of the delay period, the delay timer applies a pulse to flip - flop 21 which responds by generating a set output voltage level. the set voltage is applied to both the \" up \" input of counter 18 and the \" set \" input of interval timer 30. accordingly, the counter commences its count, preferably at a relatively slow rate of, say, ten counts per minute, and correspondingly incrementally steps the pulse generator 12 output rate up to the upper rate limit of 120 ppm, and thereby gradually increases the patient ' s heart rate from 75 bpm to 120 bpm as the patient commences to exercise. hence, the patient ' s heart rate and cardiac output are now at levels adequate for the patient to carry out the exercise session. the pulse generator continues to supply pulses at the upper rate limit until interval timer 30, which commenced its predetermined time interval with the application of the set input voltage, times out, whereupon the interval timer produces an output pulse which is applied to flip - flop 21 to reset the latter. the flip - flop responds by providing a reset output voltage level for application to the \" down \" input of counter 18 and the \" reset \" input of the interval timer. accordingly, the counter decrementally steps the pulse repetition frequency of the pulse generator down, preferably at the ten pulses per minute rate, to the lower rate limit of 75 ppm corresponding to a heart rate of 75 bpm. in this manner, the patient ' s heart rate is reduced gradually from the exercise rate to the resting rate at a time commensurate with the end of the exercise session. also, the resetting of the interval timer by the set output voltage level of the flip - flop assures that the timer is ready to commence timing its predetermined interval on receipt of the next \" set \" input. in the event that the exercise session is called off", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5356598744966387, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 10, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:35.032876"} {"text": "the interval timer by the set output voltage level of the flip - flop assures that the timer is ready to commence timing its predetermined interval on receipt of the next \" set \" input. in the event that the exercise session is called off at any time after the delay timer 29 has been enabled and before the interval timer has timed out, the patient need merely place the magnet 27 once again in proximity to the implanted pulse generator unit. if the delay timer has not yet timed out, it is disabled by the actuation of the reed switch, and hence, flip - flop 21 remains reset, interval timer 30 remains reset, counter 18 is at its low count, and pulse generator 12 is at its lower rate limit. if the delay timer has timed out, it produces an output pulse in reponse to the disabling input from the reed switch, thereby resetting the flip - flop, resetting the interval timer, returning counter 18 toward its low count and pulse generator 12 toward its lower rate limit. to that end, delay timer 29 is provided with an internal clock such that, once enabled to time out the delay interval, it cannot be again enabled to do so until the passage of a preselected time interval, which is one hour and fifteen minutes in the present example, unless it has first been disabled during that overall interval. of course, to cancel the exercise rate, the patient must have the magnet available to issue the second command but, as previously noted, once the delay timer is enabled through actuation of the reed switch the magnet may be kept in a convenient location, such as the glove compartment of the patient ' s car, to allow cancellation of the exercise rate in private. although a presently preferred embodiment has been described herein, it will be evident to those skilled in the art that variations and modifications of the preferred embodiment may be carried out without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention. accordingly, it is intended that the present invention shall be limited only to the extent required by the appended claims and the applicable rules of law.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_entanglement", "similarity_score": 0.5741779626094383, "token_count": 423, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 11, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:35.033741"} {"text": "us 5459828 a a method of producing a raster font from a contour font entailing the steps of deriving font metrics and character metrics of font characters in terms of arbitrary font units ; scaling the font characters to a selected size and output resolution ( pixels per unit length ) ; altering the thickness of vertical and horizontal strokes of each character to a desired thickness, from the measured font metrics and character metrics, and including a difference applied to the thickness of the strokes by the printer process, to cause the strokes to be close to an integer number of pixels and thickness and to compensate for thinning and thickening which the printing engine might produce ; bringing the leading and trailing edges of the characters to integer pixel locations, where such locations are based on and scaling the character between the leading and trailing edges proportionally therebetween, and producing a rasterized font from the altered contour font character. 1. a printer processor implemented method for producing a raster font from a contour font defined by a list of points connected by curves, said raster font suitable for printing on a selected printer having known reproduction characteristics, including the steps of : a ) deriving for a contour font a set of font metrics and character metrics of a character in the font defined in terms of arbitrary font units ; b ) scaling a character contour defined in arbitrary font units to a selected size in units of pixels ; c ) altering thickness of character strokes by adjusting vertical and horizontal coordinates of each point defining the character contour in directions defined by a vector normal to the character contour at each point, by an amount required to obtain a desired thickness from the measured font metrics and character metrics, and an amount required to add to difference thickness thereto in accordance with the selected printer reproduction characteristics, said alteration amounts together causing the vertical and horizontal strokes to be sufficiently close to an integer number of pixels or half pixels so as to cause subsequent numerical rounding to produce uniform results across the font ; d ) grid aligning the contour of each character so that leading and trailing edges, and top and bottom edges of the contour of each character fall on whole or half pixel positions ; and e ) applying a rasterization function to the contour to convert each contour font character to a bitmap. 2. the method as defined in claim 1 wherein in said grid alignment step, after aligning said leading and top edges of said contours of each character on a whole pixel position, the length of any", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5400391198353609, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:35.051389"} {"text": "font character to a bitmap. 2. the method as defined in claim 1 wherein in said grid alignment step, after aligning said leading and top edges of said contours of each character on a whole pixel position, the length of any lines joining leading and trailing edges, and lines joining top and bottom edges, are rounded to an integer number of whole or half pixels, and the trailing edge and bottom edges are aligned at whole pixel positions. 3. in a printing system for printing on a selected printer having reproduction characteristics known and available as contour font correction data, wherein a font to be printed has a set of predefined font metrics and character metrics for each character in the font defined in terms of arbitrary font units, the method of preparing a contour font defined by a list of points connected by curves, for printing on the selected printer including the ordered steps of : a ) scaling each character in the contour font to a selected print resolution in pixels per unit length ; b ) altering thickness of character strokes by adjusting vertical and horizontal coordinates of each point defining the contour of each character to a desired thickness in directions defined by a vector, normal to the character contour at each point, by an amount required to obtain a desired thickness from the measured font metrics and character metrics, and an amount required to add a difference thickness thereto in accordance with the contour font correction data for a particular printer, to cause the vertical and horizontal stroke thickness to approximate an integer number of pixels so as to cause subsequent numerical rounding to produce uniform results across the font ; c ) grid aligning the contour of each character so that leading and trailing edges, and top and bottom edges of the contour of each character fall on whole pixel positions ; and d ) applying a rasterization function to the contour convert each contour font character to a bitmap. 4. the method as defined in claim 3 wherein in said grid alignment step, after aligning said leading and top edges of said contours of each character on a whole pixel position, the length of any lines joining leading and trailing edges, and lines joining top and bottom edges, are rounded to an integer number of pixels or half pixels, and the trailing edge and bottom edges are aligned at whole pixel positions. a microfiche appendix, having 5 fiche and 398 frames, is included herewith. the present invention relates generally to the production of raster fonts from contour fonts, and more particularly, to a method of", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5630564773659748, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:35.052367"} {"text": "pixel positions. a microfiche appendix, having 5 fiche and 398 frames, is included herewith. the present invention relates generally to the production of raster fonts from contour fonts, and more particularly, to a method of producing raster fonts from contour fonts taking into account characteristics of the contour font and the printer system which will ultimately print the font. a portion of the disclosure of this patent document contains material which is subject to copyright protection. the copyright owner has no objection to the facsimile reproduction by anyone of the patent document or the patent disclosure, as it appears in the patent and trademark office files or records, but otherwise reserves all rights whatsoever. cross reference is made to u. s. patent application ser. no. 07 / 416, 211 by s. marshall, entitled \" rapid halfbitting stepper \", and assigned to the same assignee as the present invention. u. s. pat. no. 4, 675, 830 to hawkins is incorporated herein by reference for the purposes of background information on contour fonts. u. s. patent application ser. no. 07 / 416, 211 by s. marshall, entitled \" rapid halfbitting stepper \", and assigned to the same assignee as the present invention, is incorporated by reference herein for the purposes of teaching rasterization. \" contour fonts \" is a term that refers to the use of outlines or contours to describe the shapes of characters used in electronic printing. in a contour font, each character shape is represented by one or more closed curves or paths that traces the boundary of the character. the contour is specified by a series of mathematical equations, which may be in any of several forms, the most common being circular arcs, straight lines, and polynomial expressions. the shape of the contour font is that of the ideal design of the character and, generally, does not depend on parameters associated with any printer. contour fonts are ideal for use as master representations of typefaces. bitmap fonts or raster fonts are composed of the actual characters images that will be printed on a page, and are made by scaling contours to the appropriate size, quantizing or sampling them at the resolution of the printer, and filling the interiors of the characters with black bits or pixels. achieving high quality in this process is difficult, except at very high resolutions, and requires knowledge of both the marking technology and typo", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5480914098103083, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:35.053252"} {"text": "the invention, there is provided a method for conversion of contour fonts to bitmap fonts with automatic thickening and thinning of strokes, and snapping of character edges to pixel or half pixel boundaries. in accordance with the invention, there is provided a method of producing a raster font from a contour font entailing the steps of : first, deriving font metrics and character metrics of font characters in terms of arbitrary font units ; scaling the font characters to a selected size and output resolution ( pixels per unit length ) ; altering the thickness of vertical and horizontal strokes of each character to a desired thickness, from the measured font metrics and character metrics, and including a difference applied to the thickness of the strokes by the printer process, to cause the strokes to be close to an integer number of pixels and thickness and to compensate for thing and thickening which the printing engine might produce ; bringing the leading and trailing edges of the characters to integer pixel locations, where such locations are based on and scaling the character between the leading and trailing edges proportionally therebetween, and producing a rasterized font from the altered contour font character. these and other aspects of the invention will become apparent from the following description used to illustrate a preferred embodiment of the invention in conjunction with the accompanying drawings in which : fig. 1 shows a block diagram of the inventive optimized scaler rasterizer system. figs. 2a - 2e illustrate the development of a raster font from a contour font, using the system described in fig. 1. with reference to the drawing, where the showing is for the purpose of illustrating an embodiment of the invention and not for the purpose of limiting same, the figure shows a block diagram of the present invention which will be referred to and described hereinafter. fig. 1 shows a block diagram of the contour rasterization process of the present invention. beginning with a contour font 10, and with a character \" h \" shown in contour for illustration purposes at fig. 2a the contour font is analyzed initially at hint generation step 20. at the hint generation, the parameters defining the font are determined, including measurement of the following metrics and character hints : table 1 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ font metric comments _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5552645018350976, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:35.055244"} {"text": "_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ font metric comments _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ cap - height height of the h, i or similar letterx - height height of the lower case xascender height of the lower case k, b, or similar letterdescender position of the bottom of the lower case p or qthickness of upper vertical stroke thicknesscase stems on upper case h or kthickness of upper horizontal stroke oncase cross - strokes upper case e or fthickness of lower vertical stroke thicknesscase stems on lower case k or lthickness of lower case horizontal strokecross - strokes thickness on the fthickness of auxiliarycharacter stemsthickness of auxiliarycharacter cross - strokeshairline thickness thickness of the cross bar on the e or the thin part of the o _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ( see, appendix, page 13, icffontiodefs. mesa ) character hints are generated for each character and include the following : table 2 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ character metric comments _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ position of all horizontal left sides of strokes areedges and indications of leading edges and rightwhether each edge is a sides or strokes areleading or trailing edge. trailing edges. position of all verticaledges and indication ofwhether each edge is aleading or trailing edge. direction of the normalvector ( perpendicular ) to the contour at eachcontrol point in thecontour, pointingtoward the whiteregion. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ at hint generation 20, the font", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5121529724111801, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:35.056082"} {"text": "which will be obtained after rasterization. this rounding is performed to the nearest whole pixel if half bitting is not enabled and to the nearest half pixel, if half bitting is enabled. there are separate values for horizontal or vertical directions and for upper case, lower case and auxiliary characters. the third component of thickening and thinning applies only to very small characters, and prevents drop - outs of fine lines. this amount is equal to the difference between the calculated scaled thickness of the hairlines, after thickening by the font thickening steps, and the minimum stroke thickness specified in the printer profile. when applied, this thickening brings fine lines up to the value of the minimum stroke thickness. the value is zero if the hairline is already greater than the minimum stroke thickness. ( this process, referred to as \" adaptive thickening, \" is not disclosed in the source code in the appendix. ) the actual thickening or thinning applied is equal to the sum of these three components. each component has an independent value in the x and y directions. the direction to move each contour control point is specified by its normal vector. the thickened character h is shown at fig. c. at step 60, the snap function or grid alignment function is applied. the coordinate system of the character is varied in the horizontal direction to move vertical and horizontal edges to positions where pixel boundaries will be after rasterization, i. e., to a whole pixel position. this is to assure uniform stroke thickness in the rasterized character images. the process is to piecewise stretch or shrink the character to force edges to align the pixel boundaries. on the left hand sides of the characters, the left edge of each stroke is moved to the closest pixel boundary, while the right edge of the stroke is moved to the pixel boundary specified by rounding the stroke thickness. this process gives priority to maintaining uniform stroke thickness over absolute stroke position. that is to say, that after the left edge of the character has been moved to a whole pixel position, the thickness of the stroke, or portion of the character, is examined to determine its thickness. the thickness has already been adjusted in the thickness of thinning step, so that it is close to a whole pixel width. accordingly, the right edge of the character is then moved to the nearest whole pixel, based on rounding the thickness of the pixel, as opposed to moving the right hand side to the nearest pixel. on the right hand sides of characters, the rolls of left and right edges of strokes are", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5065262667817908, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 9, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:35.060016"} {"text": "character is then moved to the nearest whole pixel, based on rounding the thickness of the pixel, as opposed to moving the right hand side to the nearest pixel. on the right hand sides of characters, the rolls of left and right edges of strokes are reversed. right edges of strokes are anchored, while left edges are rounded relatively to corresponding right edges. ( see, appendix, page 355, snap. c ). in one variant of this scheme, the positions of left and right index points or width points, which are those points which determine character spacing and are made to coincide in constructing words, are snapped before the vertical edges. in the vertical direction, snapping is performed to piecewise stretch characters so that positions of baseline, cap - height, x - height, and descender fall on pixel boundaries. baseline and descender position are treated as bottoms of strokes, that is, anchored, while cap - height and x - height are treated as tops of strokes, computed relative to the baseline. all characters are snapped to all of these positions, ensuring uniform character alignment. after these font metric positions are snapped, horizontal edges are snapped in the same manner as vertical edges, with lower edges of strokes anchored and upper edges snapped relative to the lower edges in the lower half of the character and upper edges of strokes anchored and lower edges snapped relative to the upper edges in the upper half of the character. in both horizontal and vertical directions, snapping is performed one edge at a time. that is, the first edge is snapped, stretching the coordinate system of the character slightly on one side of the snapped edge and shrinking it slightly on the other side. the second edge is then snapped, with its pre - snapping position perhaps already modified slightly by the first snap. this sequential snapping helps preserve local character features better than simultaneous snapping of all edges does. when the second edge is snapped, its area of influence on the coordinate grid extends only up to the first snapped edge, which stays in place. this process is then repeated for the remainder of the edges. the snapped character h is shown at fig. 2d. once each character in the adjusted contour font has been placed in the grid and appropriately thickened and thinned, the final step is to sample the adjusted contour on discrete grid. this step 70 can optionally produce half bitted output images, as controlled by the printer profile. light half bitting produces half bitting on curves and diagonals, while heavy half bitting will also produce half bitted vertical and horizontal edges. rasterization in a", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5031270959087871, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 10, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:35.063960"} {"text": "- held devices to determine the nature of the source. after the latest round of gao criticism of the dhs technology vetting process, homeland security officials suggested the asp detectors would first be deployed in secondary locations and testing would continue before replacing the plastic scintillators. while belgian port officials have no plans to shift the asp to a primary detection deployment - they say they have the plastic scintillators and might as well use them - the new technology is perfect for secondary screening, they say. \" for the second phase, it makes a lot of sense to use the asp, \" fias told global security newswire, calling the technology currently \" the best on the market. \" without the asp detectors, custom officials must use a small, hand - held scanner to assess the entire shipping container. that is a small scanner and a large box, a combination that has led to complaints from customs officials at the port, fias said. by contrast, the asp scanners are \" basically a very, very big detector that can scan the whole of the container, \" he said. replacing primary scanners with the new technology requires any new device to be at least a sensitive as the plastic scintillators, fias notes, a more challenging bar to meet. the goal with these detector upgrades, both domestically and abroad, is not necessarily increasing the level or radiation detection at ports, but rather smoothing the flow of commerce and making sure current detection regime is not disruptive. u. s. officials have repeatedly said the goal is to lower the number of false alarms at large ports such as los angeles / long beach. that port, the nation ' s busiest, has about 500 radiation alerts a day, and dhs officials suggest the new technology could plunge that number to less than 30. \" we want to have a low economic impact. time is money, certainly in a port, \" fias said of antwerp. \" only 1 in 10, 000 containers are delayed for more than a few hours or days. \" he expects the asps, to be used in conjunction with x - ray scanning, to be rolled out in antwerp by the end of next year.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.508746328239624, "token_count": 442, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:35.080723"} {"text": "schopf, j. william adult nonfiction qh325. s384 1999 summary : one of the greatest mysteries in reconstructing the history of life on earth has been the apparent absence of fossils dating back more than 550 million years. we have long known that fossils of sophisticated marine life - forms existed at the dawn of the cambrian period, but until recently scientists had found no traces of precambrian fossils. the quest to find such traces began in earnest in the mid - 1960s and culminated in one dramatic moment in 1993 when william schopf identified fossilized microorganisms three and a half \" billion years old. this startling find opened up a vast period of time - - some eighty - five percent of earth ' s history - - to new research and new ideas about life ' s beginnings. in this book, william schopf, a pioneer of modern paleobiology, tells for the first time the exciting and fascinating story of the origins and earliest evolution of life and how that story has been unearthed. gracefully blending his personal story of discovery with the basics needed to understand the astonishing science he describes, schopf has produced an introduction to paleobiology for the interested reader as well as a primer for beginning s question about returns, requests or other account details? add a comment", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5478776418320559, "token_count": 264, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:35.136248"} {"text": "learning is the means whereby we acquire new working knowledge about the world. memory is the means whereby we retain that knowledge over time. our abilities to learn and remember are essential to our sense of self and our ability to function effectively in daily life. memory is the glue that holds our mental life together. as a result, we are who we are in large part because of what we have learned and what we remember from past experience. but what is memory? how does the brain capture and sustain it? why does memory sometimes fail us? those simple questions, of course, have exceedingly complex answers, and many biological details about the process of memory in humans and other animals remain unknown. hhmi investigator eric r. kandel of columbia university, however, has provided a good start. his studies of the molecular basis of learning and memory underpin much of what we know about how events are recorded by the brain, processed by individual nerve cells, and etched in gray matter. for his work on learning and memory, kandel was awarded a share of the 2000 nobel prize in physiology or medicine. in the 1960s, kandel began his studies of learning and memory by focusing on the behavior of the sea slug aplysia, which he found to be a marvelously tractable system in which to study the cellular basis of these abilities. with only about 20, 000 nerve cells \u2014 compared with the roughly thousand billion in humans \u2014 and a well - delineated neural circuitry, it proved possible to zero in on a biologically interesting reflex pathway. like humans and other animals, aplysia is capable of learning to modify this reflex, and this learning involves making memories. kandel found that the cellular basis for memory depends on persistent changes in synapses, the connections between nerve cells. the differences in the strength of these connections come about through learning. kandel found that when, in the simple withdrawal reflex, the gill reacts to touch, the connection between the sensory nerve cell and motor nerve cell of the reflex are activated. when the sea slug was taught to ignore a harmless touch, the connections between the sensory nerve cell and motor cell weakened. when the same light touch was coupled to an unpleasant fearful stimulus the animal became sensitized. it would now react strongly to the light touch because the same set of connections had strengthened. kandel later discovered that short - term memory is kindled by the modulation of synapses and that long - term memory is sustained by the activation of genes. the formation of memories, kandel determined, is a", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.582892971443287, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:35.169424"} {"text": "set of connections had strengthened. kandel later discovered that short - term memory is kindled by the modulation of synapses and that long - term memory is sustained by the activation of genes. the formation of memories, kandel determined, is a function of biochemical changes that occur at the synapse. to make short - term memories, the proteins involved in a chain of events at the nexus of nerve cells are chemically altered by the addition of phosphate groups. to cement a memory for the long haul, proteins are added at the synapse to make new connections with sensitization and lose connections with habituation. in the 1990s, he turned from studying simple forms of learning to more complex forms using genetically modified mice and showed that similar principles for short and long term memory were at work here as well. by laying a foundation for understanding the events that shape our ability to learn and remember, kandel ' s work has helped us understand not only the cellular processes that occur during the acts of learning and remembering, but also - through his work on mice - where things can go wrong when dementia and other illnesses that affect memory arise. the cellular processes revealed by kandel are among the targets of drugs used to alleviate these disorders of memory. pinpointing the activity of individual nerve cells engaged in the process of learning and memory may help in the development of new, more effective agents to treat diseases that affect the brain. photo : matthew septimus", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5747537926359085, "token_count": 292, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:35.170605"} {"text": "how to get shading right recent improvements to window technology make substantial air conditioning energy savings possible. however, shading remains a time - tested method to accomplish the same end. architectural and site shading can have an even greater impact on reducing daily cooling use than upgrading windows. using both a prototype building and modeling simulations, a study by our team at the national renewable energy laboratory ( nrel ) evaluated the relative impacts of different solar load control strategies. the study points the way toward optimizing the interaction of various methods for reducing solar heat gain. this is helpful, as the wide variety of shading options currently available can make choosing an effective solar load control strategy confusing ( see snapshots of shading options, he sept / oct ' 00, p. 20 ). the prototype house was built in 1998 in tucson, arizona, as part of the department of energy ' s building america program. its integrated package of energy - saving features includes structural insulated panels ( sips ) for the wall and roof construction, white coating on the roof, spectrally selective windows, architectural shading, an interior location for the air handler and ducts, highefficiency air conditioning equipment, and solar water heating. building america ( see clean breathing in tract homes, p. 29 ) works with five building industry teams to produce advanced residential buildings on a community scale. systems incorporated into these houses are evaluated by conducting successive design, test, redesign, and retest iterations until cost and performance trade - offs yield innovations that can be cost effectively implemented in production - scale housing. rgc courthomes, inc., built the prototype, with input from the ibacos building america consortium. building performance was modeled using a detailed hourly energy simulation tool and was measured while the building was unoccupied for a period of 12 days. model inputs included direct measurements of the net air exchange rate, surface reflectance, and window transmittance. model results, after calibration, showed good agreement with the direct measurements of cooling loads and air conditioning energy use. analyzing the interactions between building performance and solar load control strategies in a prototype house can facilitate the optimization of cost and performance trade - offs in large - scale production. typical new productionscale houses in the tucson market are framed on a slabon - grade foundation with stucco exterior finish and a sloped concrete tile or flat built - up bituminous roof. these standard - practice houses are built using standard construction materials and techniques, including nominal 2 x 4 wood framing, fiberglass batt insulation", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5477620043748275, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:35.377464"} {"text": "- grade foundation with stucco exterior finish and a sloped concrete tile or flat built - up bituminous roof. these standard - practice houses are built using standard construction materials and techniques, including nominal 2 x 4 wood framing, fiberglass batt insulation, 1 - inch polystyrene sheathing, and double - pane, clear - glass, aluminum frame windows. the slab foundation has no insulation, and the attic is usually vented. a forcedair distribution system provides space heating and cooling, with the air handler located in the garage and the flex duct in the attic. this system is typically supplied by a 10 - seer air conditioner and an 80 % annual fuel utilization efficiency ( afue ) gas furnace. the prototype house differs from these houses in several respects. it has a well - insulated airtight envelope, with minimized air distribution losses. the house ' s energy - saving features, plus the large ratio of window to floor area in the design, render window contributions more important than they are in conventional housing, particularly in the tucson climate. the prototype incorporates several reengineered features into its structural and mechanical equipment systems ( see table 1 ). envelope changes include a sealed, insulated, and conditioned crawlspace foundation ( a shallow basement ) and sips ( see sips face the skeptics, he, mar / apr ' 98 ). the foundation stem walls are 6 - inchthick reinforced concrete, insulated on the interior with a 2 - inch - thick rigid foam board ( r - 10 ) that serves as the concrete form. each wall and roof panel consists of a polyurethane foam core sandwiched between 7 / 16 - inch thick oriented strand board ( osb ) sheathing. sips 41 / 2 - inches thick are used for the walls, and sips 61 / 2 - inches thick form the flat lowslope ceiling / roof assembly. the walls are finished with synthetic stucco on the exterior. the roof panels are finished with a white singleply rubberized fabric coating on the exterior ( the inside is cathedralized, with no attic space ). the windows have vinyl frames with a thermal break, double panes, and spectrally selective coatings on the inside of the outer pane ( surface two ) of the tinted glazing. mechanical system features include putting the air handler in an interior chase, locating all ductwork within the conditioned space, and installing a 12 - seer ( seasonal energy efficiency ratio ) air conditioner. a batch - type solar water heater", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5386848432133445, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:35.380371"} {"text": "overhangs or by the adjacent houses. the simulation model was imported into a three - dimensional graphic representation program that has rotational view capabilities to check building geometry. figure 1 shows the location of exterior walls, windows, doors, and overhangs. crawlspace walls are evident in this view. shading from adjacent houses is significant at this site. the geometry of houses and fences to the east and west are modeled as measured at the site ; these shading surfaces are also shown in the figure. how the shading options added up for the determination of annual heating and cooling energy, occupied building operation is simulated. the simulation of occupied conditions in this building for a full year predicts that 3, 285 kwh of cooling energy and 71 therms of space - heating energy are required per year. heat gain through the windows is the largest component of envelope load, and it constitutes more than 30 % of the total cooling energy load ( see figures 2 and 3 ). figure 4 presents the daily load profiles of air conditioning electricity use on a typical cooling day for four combinations of glazing and shading. in this case, the shading includes both the architectural overhangs and the site shading from adjacent buildings. standard glazing without shading represents the worst case, and spectrally selective glazing with shading ( the existing building ) represents the best case. the combination of high - performance glazing and shading achieves a 0. 4 kw ( 14 % ) reduction in afternoon peak electricity demand and a 12. 4 kwh ( 30 % ) reduction in daily total electricity used for air conditioning. architectural and site shading reduces daily cooling use more than upgrading the windows does. the shading combination reduces daily cooling energy use by 9. 4 kwh ( 22 % ), as compared to 4. 4 kwh ( 11 % ) for just upgrading the windows. architectural shading is clearly very important in reducing cooling loads. it reduces the annual cooling requirement by approximately 23 %, whether one starts with standard double - pane glazing or with spectrally selective glazing. in both cases, the heating load increases as the solar gain is reduced, but thanks to the combination of the tucson climate and the wellinsulated tight building shell, this has little impact. even in the worst case scenario, less than 80 therms per year of space heating is required. in this housing development, site shading plays an important role in reducing morning and evening direct solar gain. the test house is shaded to", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.554345050974032, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:35.383718"} {"text": "impact. even in the worst case scenario, less than 80 therms per year of space heating is required. in this housing development, site shading plays an important role in reducing morning and evening direct solar gain. the test house is shaded to the east and west by adjacent, two - story houses. this site shading not only reduces the solar gain through the windows, but effectively shades much of the exterior wall area, reducing overall conductive gains as well. annual energy costs the cooling and heating loads are combined into a single value by converting the energy requirements to costs. the study assumed that electricity costs 10. 5\u00a2 / kwh, and natural gas costs 79\u00a2 / therm for the first 20 therms a month and 75\u00a2 / therm above that. figure 5 shows annual cooling and heating costs as a function of glazing type, two types of shading, and the orientation of the front of the house. using the data from this figure and referencing a base case building with standard windows with no overhangs but with adjacent building shading, table 2 presents the reduction in cooling and heating costs for a subset of combinations. the existing building has a south orientation, and the combined features lead to a 26 % reduction in cooling and heating costs. the total cost of cooling and heating is reduced by more than 10 % by adding the presence of the adjacent houses. as expected, the maximum effect from architectural shading occurs if the front of the house faces west, which orients most of the window area to the south. the maximum effect of site shading occurs if the front of the house faces north, which orients most of the window area to the west. with the front facing east, the majority of windows are on the north side, and neither architectural nor site shading has much effect on cooling and heating costs. - first page - previous page enter your comments in the box below : ( please note that all comments are subject to review prior to posting. )", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5247552301069437, "token_count": 402, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:35.384965"} {"text": "salt reduction strategies tasting success with cutting salt twenty - five science based strategies & culinary insights department of nutrition, harvard school of public health & the culinary institute of america table of contents what portion size, produce, fresh foods, and healthy fats have to do with sodium reduction why a stealth health approach can help everyone cut back on salt which foods are highest in sodium, and how to make lower sodium choices from the farm to the table, there are many ways to boost flavor that are light on salt future research can guide the way to compelling reduced sodium flavors download a pdf of read more about the creation of the institute of medicine \u2019 s newly released report, strategies to reduce sodium intake in the united states, focuses on big - picture strategies for reining in america \u2019 s salt habit. ( 1 ) although the report \u2019 s recommendations represent an essential step forward, there are many things that individuals, chefs, and organizations can do right now to reduce sodium. consumers can use these tips when they cook at home, shop in the supermarket, or choose a meal at their favorite restaurant. chefs and product developers can tap these ideas in the professional kitchen. media representatives, healthcare professionals, and food marketers can mine this list for ways to promote positive and delicious nutrition messages about cutting salt. many of these guidelines offer a \u201c stealth health \u201d approach to sodium reduction \u2014 ways that sodium can be reduced with no change or minimal change to consumer food experiences or choices. others suggest ways to rebalance and re - imagine food choices as well as introduce new foods that can easily translate into satisfying meals. these culinary insights are in addition to valuable food science research already underway on the role of salt in foods and salt substitutes. the good news is that most of these guidelines support broader diet recommendations for good health. no sodium reduction effort will succeed if it undermines the flavor of our foods and the role that food plays in our lives. that \u2019 s why we urge a wide - ranging, innovative approach to sodium reduction on the part of all stakeholders, one that puts as much emphasis on culinary insight, taste, and flavor as on the scientific and public health imperatives. 1. downsize your portions : you \u2019 ll scale back the sodium ( and the calories ). a good rule of thumb is that the more calories a meal has, the more sodium it has. two out of three americans need to lose weight. so skip the supersize. share a dish when dining out. you can cut your salt \u2014 and trim your waist. our bodies need more potassium than sodium", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.511739462989955, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:35.414659"} {"text": "as important as the thought itself. he knew how to make the sound suit the thought, as in \" the raven \" and \" the bells. \" one who understands no english can grasp the meaning of the different sections from the mere sound, so clearly distinguishable are the clashing of the brass and the tolling of the iron bells. if we return to our definition of poetry as an expression of the heart of a man, we shall find the explanation of these peculiarities : poe was a man of moods and possessed the ability to express these moods in appropriate the contrast between the emotion of poe and the calm spirit of the man who followed him is very great. in henry wadsworth longfellow american poetry reached high - water mark. lacadio hearn in his \" interpretations of literature \" says : \" really i believe that it is a very good test of any englishman ' s ability to feel poetry, simply to ask him, ` did you like longfellow when you were a boy? ' if he says ` no, ' then it is no use to talk to him on the subject of poetry at all, however much he might be able to tell you about quantities and metres. \" no american has in equal degree won the name of \" household poet. \" if this term is correctly understood, it sums up his merits more succinctly than can any other longfellow dealt largely with men and women and the emotions common to us all. hiawatha conquering the deer and bison, and hunting in despair for food where only snow and ice abound ; evangeline faithful to her father and her lover, and relieving suffering in the rude hospitals of a new world ; john alden fighting the battle between love and duty ; robert of sicily learning the lesson of humility ; sir federigo offering his last possession to the woman he loved ; paul revere serving his country in time of need ; the monk proving that only a sense of duty done can bring happiness : all these and more express the emotions which we know are true in our own lives. in his longer narrative poems he makes the legends of puritan life real to us ; he takes english folk - lore and makes us see othere talking to arthur, and the viking stealing his bride. his short poems are even better known than his longer narratives. in them he expressed his gentle, sincere love of the young, the suffering, and the sorrowful. in the sonnets he showed ; that deep appreciation of european literature which made noteworthy his teaching", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5113073490935471, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:35.434265"} {"text": "gay and lesbian issues the adolescent years are full of challenges, many related to sex and sexual identity. these issues can be especially difficult for teens who are ( or think they may be ) homosexual. homosexual teens deserve the same understanding and respect as heterosexual teens, and it is important for everyone to know the facts about homosexuality. here are the basics. each of us has a biological sex ( we have a male or female body ), a gender identity ( we feel like a male or female ), and a sexual orientation ( we are attracted to males or females ). homosexuality refers to a person ' s sexual orientation ; homosexual teen - agers have strong romantic or sexual feelings for a person of the same sex. heterosexual teen - agers are attracted to people of the opposite sex, and bisexual teens are attracted to people of both sexes. the word \" gay \" is used to describe both men and women who are homosexual, with the word \" lesbian \" specifically referring to a homosexual woman. it is estimated that 10 percent of the population in the united states and throughout the world is lesbian or gay. although scientists don ' t know why some people are homosexual and others are not, most believe that homosexuality is a normal variation of sexual orientation. it may be genetic, result from natural substances ( hormones ) in the body, be influenced by the environment before or after birth, or, most likely, several of these things working in combination. homosexual teens are found in all types of families. homosexuality is not caused by \" bad parenting. \" if your teen is gay, it is not because of anything you or anyone else did. homosexuality also is not something a person chooses, nor is it an illness that can be cured. according to the american psychiatric association, so - called therapies such as \" reparative therapy \" and \" transformational ministry \" don ' t work and actually can be harmful, causing guilt and anxiety in homosexual teens. not all teen - agers who are attracted to members of the same sex are homosexual. many teens experiment with their sexuality during adolescence, in much the same way that they experiment with clothing, body art or music. this brief sexual experimentation is thought to be a normal part of sexual development. for homosexual teens, the attraction to people of the same sex is stronger and longer lasting. back to top every family is different. while one parent may find out by chance that a teen is homosexual, others may hear directly from their teen in person, in a letter or by a phone call. when a teen tells other people that", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5363723124187092, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:35.465415"} {"text": "| | | what your doctor is saying | | | what are the odds? understanding risk last reviewed on september 12, 2012 by robert h. shmerling, m. d. beth israel deaconess medical center \" if you take this medication, you will reduce your risk of disease by 20 %, and 98 % of people taking it have no serious side effects. \" sounds good, right? perhaps not. what if your chance of getting the disease is only one in 1, 000 but two people out of every 100 experience a deadly side effect? talk about risk doctors, nurses, reporters and drug advertisers often talk about risk, though they may not call it that. in fact, they often use other terms that sound logical and understandable such as \" chance \" or \" likelihood \" ( as in \" if you smoke, you will increase your chances of having lung disease \" ). alternatively, they may couch the terms in personal experience ( as in \" i think this medicine will help you ; it works for most of my patients \" ). or, the message may be even more vague : when a doctor says \" i think this therapy will help and i doubt it will cause you any problems, \" the doctor is really saying he or she hopes it helps because it usually does, but that there is a risk that the medication will cause side effects and / or that it will not work. whether or not the word is used, these are all examples of risk, the notion that something might or might not happen and that the likelihood is not zero or 100 %. i was taught in medical school to \" never say never and never say always, \" because absolute certainty is so rare. back to top risk is not simple risk is a trickier concept than many people think. it may seem like something to avoid at all costs, but the fact is that while you may be able to choose one risk over another, you cannot always avoid risk altogether. avoiding one risk may pose other risks. for example, if you have high blood pressure and a doctor prescribes a medication to lower it, there is a risk of side effects from the medication ; but by avoiding the risk of having a side effect, you increase the risk that you will have a stroke due to untreated high blood pressure. many people view any risk at all as a terrible thing, but it is important to realize that it represents a chance that something will happen, not a certainty. even when talking about bad outcomes ( such as the risk of surgery or the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.505694591989196, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:35.472722"} {"text": "blood pressure. many people view any risk at all as a terrible thing, but it is important to realize that it represents a chance that something will happen, not a certainty. even when talking about bad outcomes ( such as the risk of surgery or the risk of medication side effects ), there is often an excellent chance that nothing bad will happen. consider this example. for a person suffering chronic arthritis and terrible joint pain for the last two years, symptoms probably will continue unless something changes ( such as starting an effective treatment ). the risk of side effects from any medication is clearly important, but it must be weighed against the high risk that joint pain will continue. if three out of 100 people taking a high - dose anti - inflammatory medication ( such as ibuprofen ) develop a stomach ulcer each year ( that is, if the yearly risk is 3 % ), it is important to weigh that against the risk of ongoing pain ( which is much higher ). and it also means that 97 out of 100 people will not suffer an ulcer as they enjoy the benefits of the medication. back to top the confusing ways to describe risk the other reason risk is confusing is that there are many ways it can be described. people may choose one way to describe risk to emphasize how high it is, while others use another way to express the same risk to downplay it. remarkably, the same risk can seem quite different depending on how it is expressed. one of the most common areas of confusion comes with the difference between absolute risk and relative risk. imagine that you are offered a choice of two medications to reduce your risk of a heart attack : - medication a will decrease your risk of heart attack by 20 %. - medication b reduces your risk from 5 % to 4 %. if you think that medication a sounds better, you are not alone. relative risk is described, by comparing the new risk with the risk before treatment. although vitally important, the actual risk with and without the medicine is not mentioned for medication a. if you thought medication b sounds less impressive, perhaps it ' s because knowing that the starting and ending risks are similar that is, knowing the actual, or absolute, risks makes the change seem less dramatic. this is particularly true when overall risk is very low or very high in the first place. although they provide a more accurate assessment of risk, expressions of absolute risk are often missing from news or ads. most of us would think that medication a is better. but as described, medication a and b could be the same drug.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5034001055061945, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:35.473733"} {"text": "the satellite images displayed are infrared ( ir ) images. warmest ( lowest ) clouds are shown in white ; coldest ( highest ) clouds are displayed in shades of yellow, red, and purple. imagery is obtained from the goes and meteosat geostationary satellites, and the two us polar orbiter ( poes ) satellites. poes satellites orbit the earth 14 times each day at an altitude of approximately 520 miles ( 870 km ). as each orbit is made the satellite can view a 1, 600 mile ( 2, 700 km ) wide area of the earth. due to the rotation of the earth the satellite is able to view every spot on earth twice each day. data from multiple orbits are mosaicked together to provide wide scale global and full earth views in a single image. occasional dark triangular areas that occur on poes images are a result of gaps in data transmitted from the orbiters. a weather satellite is a type of satellite that is primarily used to monitor the weather of the earth. these meteorological satellites, however, see more than clouds and cloud systems. city lights, fires, effects of pollution, auroras, sand and dust storms, snow cover, ice mapping, boundaries of ocean currents, energy flows, etc., are other types of environmental information collected using weather satellites. weather satellite images helped in monitoring the volcanic ash cloud from mount st. helens and activity from other volcanoes such as mount etna. smoke from fires in the western united states such as colorado and utah have also been monitored. other environmental satellites can detect changes in the earth ' s vegetation, sea color, and ice fields. for example, the 2002 oil spill off the northwest coast of spain was watched carefully by the european envisat, which, though not a weather satellite, flies an instrument ( asar ) which can see changes in the sea surface el nino and its effects on weather are monitored daily from satellite images. the antarctic ozone hole is mapped from weather satellite data. collectively, weather satellites flown by the u. s., europe, india, china, russia, and japan provide nearly continuous observations for a global weather", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5144946826395784, "token_count": 426, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:35.477842"} {"text": "kate wiley ( 202 ) 633 - 3129 smithsonian \u2019 s lemelson center spotlights hollywood \u2019 s history of innovation \u201c places of invention \u201d exhibition to feature development of technicolor the academy awards would be much less colorful without the innovations in 1930s and \u2019 40s hollywood filmmaking that the smithsonian \u2019 s lemelson center for the study of invention and innovation will showcase in its upcoming \u201c places of invention \u201d exhibition, set to open in 2015. initiative and creativity drove hollywood \u2019 s \u201c golden age \u201d \u2014 a time of great technological change in the motion picture industry, moving from silent and black - and - white to sound and color. \u201c places of invention \u201d will highlight the invention and adoption of technicolor, detailing the three - strip process used in the wizard of oz and gone with the wind and reveal the people behind its success, inventors herbert kalmus, daniel comstock and w. burton westcott, who set up shop in hollywood in 1923. also integral to its success was natalie kalmus, a consultant for technicolor on many classic films who, in making decisions about makeup, costumes and lighting, controlled the aura of technicolor. \u201c our take on the hollywood story goes behind the camera to examine the inventions that significantly changed both the way movies were made and the complexity and popularity of movies themselves, \u201d said art molella, director of the center. \u201c the hollywood and technicolor stories exemplify the outcomes possible when creativity and collaboration are allowed to thrive. \u201d the invention and evolution of technicolor made possible such awards as best visual effects while transforming hollywood into a hot spot of innovation \u2014 a place where a critical mass of inventive people, networks, institutions and funding come together and creativity flourishes. this year alone, six of the nine nominees for best picture implemented various technicolor technologies in their films. overall, 19 films nominated for oscars employed technicolor \u2019 s various offerings in their respective films. \u201c places of invention \u201d \u2014 made possible by a $ 2. 6 million grant from the national science foundation \u2014 will feature a selection of hot spots of invention and innovation. the planned 3, 500 - square - foot exhibition will focus on the mid - 19th century to the present and will feature hands - on experiences based on inventive skill - building and illustrating the ways that places and social collaboration shape the inventive process. for more on the exhibition, visit http : / / invention. smithsonian. org / places. the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5092000814872099, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:35.483321"} {"text": "to make this sentence true i have to put <, >, or = in between ( ) the given fractions or decimals? 7 / 20 ( ) 2 / 5 0. 15 ( ) 1 / 8 please explain? given a rectangular prism with dimensions w = 3, l = 4, and h = 6. if you created a second rectangular prism with the length doubled but the height halved ( and the width stays the same ), which would be the relation of the second volume to the first volume? 740 mm hg how would you calculate the concentration of an aqueous solution of ca ( oh2 ) that has a ph of 12. 57. poetry, part 1 which one of the following lines best illustrates personification? a. a narrow wind complains all day. b. the fog comes on little cat feet. c. she floated graceful as a dove. d. spring is a dream unsung. wilma ' s arm is broken when paula knocks her down during an agrument. if wilma sues paula for battery, what damages is wilma likely to receive? well i saying both. i have describe two cultrals and their views on health. i shows african and caucaisians american. i know that african american an excessive impact on minority populations is chronic diseases. chronic diseases that are consider in african american are aids,... i need some help with what are some of the implications to health care providers in african american and caucasian? considering cultural views on the health as organic, health as harmony and disease as a curse or stigma i need some help with listing at two pros and cons for each of the given patient and caregiver roles as a - mechanics and machines - parents and children - spiritualists and believers - providers and consumers - partners this is so i can right my paper for further reading", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5948874516437311, "token_count": 378, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:35.517169"} {"text": "acrylic a synthetic fabric often used as a wool substitute. it is warm, soft, holds colors well and often is stain and wrinkle resistant. angora rabbit hair a soft fiber knit from fur of the angora rabbit. angora wool is often combined with cashmere or another fiber to strengthen the delicate structure. dry cleaning is recommended for angora products. bedford a strong material that is a raised corded fabric ( similar to corduroy ). bedford fabric wears well and is usually washable. boot footwear which covers the entire foot and extends to the height of the anklebone or up to the thigh. bootie a shoe that resembles a boot in style but is not as high. brocade an all - over floral, raised pattern produced in a similar fashion to embroidery. cable knit patterns, typically used in sweaters, where flat knit columns otherwise known as cables are overlapped vertically. cashmere a soft, strong and silky, lightweight wool spun from the kashmir goat. cashmere is commonly used in sweaters, shawls, outerwear, gloves and scarves for its warmth and soft feel. chiffon a common evening wear fabric made from silk, cotton, rayon or nylon. it ' s delicate in nature and sheer. chintz a printed and glazed fabric made of cotton. chintz is known for its bright colors and bold patterns. circumference the measurement around the shaft of a boot taken at the widest part. corduroy cotton blend fibers twisted as they are woven to create long, parallel grooves, called wales, in the fabric. this is a very durable material and depending on the width of the wales, can be extremely soft. cotton a natural fiber that grows in the seed pod of the cotton plant. it is an inelastic fiber. crepe used as a description of surfaces of fabrics. usually designates a fabric that is crimped or crinkled. crinoline a lightweight, plain weave, stiffened fabric with a low yarn count. used to create volume beneath evening or wedding dresses. crochet looping threads with a hooked needle that creates a wide, open lace. typically used on sweaters for warm seasons. cushioning padding on the sole of a shoe for added comfort and stabilization. denimcotton blend fabric created with a twill weave to create a sturdy fabric. used as the primary material of blue jeans. dobbywoven fabric where the weave of the fabric actually produces the garment ' s design. embroidery detailed needlework,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5451205120303176, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:35.523738"} {"text": ". jacquard a fabric of intricate variegated weave or pattern. typically shown on elegant and more expensive pieces. jersey a type of knit material known to be flexible, stretchy, soft and very warm. it is created using tight stitches. knit a knit fabric is made by interlocking loops of one or more yarns either by hand with knitting needles or by machine. linenan exquisite material created from the fibers of the flax plant. some linen contain slubs or small knots on the fabric. the material is a light fabric perfect for warm weather. liningthe leather, fabric or synthetic material used on the inside of a shoe. lame a metallic or plastic fiber woven into material to give the garment shine. lycra \u00aetmspandex fibers add stretch to fabric when the fibers are woven with other fiber blends. these materials are lightweight, comfortabletm and breathable, and the stretch will not wear away. madras originating from madras, india, this fabric is a lightweight, cotton material used for summer clothing. madras usually has a checked pattern but also comes in plaid or with stripes. typically made from 100 % cotton. marled typically found in sweaters, marled yarn occurs when two colored yards are twisted together. matte a matte finish has a lusterless surface. merino wool wool sheered from the merino sheep and spun into yarn that is fine but strong. modal a type of rayon that is made from natural fibers but goes through a chemical treatment to ensure it has a high threshold of breakage. modal is soft and breathable which is why it ' s used as a cotton replacement. non - iron a treated cotton that allows our easy care shirts to stay crisp throughout the day and does not need ironing after washing / drying. nylon a synthetic fiber that is versatile, fast drying and strong. it has a high resistance to damage. ombre a color technique that shades a color from light to dark. paisley a pattern that consists of crooked teardrop designs in a repetitive manner. patent leather leather made from cattle hide that has been varnished to give a hard and glossy finish. placket the piece of fabric or cloth that is used as a concealing flap to cover buttons, fasteners or attachments. most commonly seen in the front of button - down shirts. also used to reinforce openings or slits in garments. piping binding a seam with decoration. piping is similar to tipping or edging where a decorative material is sewn into the seams", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5397911082970677, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:35.525686"} {"text": "most commonly seen in the front of button - down shirts. also used to reinforce openings or slits in garments. piping binding a seam with decoration. piping is similar to tipping or edging where a decorative material is sewn into the seams. pointelle an open - work knitting pattern used on garments to add texture. typically a cooler and general knit sweater. polyester a fabric made from synthetic fibers. polyester is quick drying, easy to wash and holds its shape well. ponte a knit fabric where the fibers are looped in an interlock. the material is very strong and firm. poplin a strong woven fabric, heavier in weight, with ribbing. pump classically a high, medium, or low heeled, totally enclosed shoe. variations include an open toe or ornament. rayon a manufactured fiber developed originally as an alternative for silk. rayon drapes well and looks luxurious. sateen a fabric woven with sheen that resembles satin. seersucker slack - tension weave where yarn is bunched together in certain areas and then pulled taught in others to create this summery mainstay. shaft height measurement of the shaft of the boot, which is from the top of the boot to the inside seam where the instep and the sole meet. shirring similar to ruching, shirring gathers material to create folds. silk one of the most luxurious fibers, silk is soft, warm and has shine. it is obtained from the cocoons of the silkworm ' s larvae. sole the outsole, or bottom part of a shoe. space dyed technique of yarn dyeing to produce a multi - color effect on the yarn itself. also known as dip dyed yarn. spandexelastomeric fiber, this material is able to expand 600 % and still snap back to its original shape and form. spandex fibers are woven with cotton and other fibers to make fabrics stretch. stacked heel a heel made of leather or leawood covering that gives the appearance of wood. synthetic materials man - made materials designed to look or function like leather. tipping similar to edging, tipping includes embellishing a garment at the edges of the piece, hems, collars etc. tissue linen a type of linen, which is specifically made for blouses or shirts due to its thinness and sheerness. tweed a loose weave of heavy wool makes up tweed, which provides warmth and comfort. twill a fabric woven in a diagonal weave. commonly used for chinos and denim. variegated multi -", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5626486522410135, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:35.526584"} {"text": "due to its thinness and sheerness. tweed a loose weave of heavy wool makes up tweed, which provides warmth and comfort. twill a fabric woven in a diagonal weave. commonly used for chinos and denim. variegated multi - colored fabrics where colors are splotched or in patches. velour a stretchy knit fabric, typically made from cotton or polyester. it has a similar soft hand to velvet. velveta pile fabric in which the cut threads are very evenly distributed, with a short dense pile, giving it a distinct feel. velveteen a more modern adaptation of velvet, velveteen is made from cotton and has a little give. also known as imitation velvet. viscosea cellulosic man - made fibers, viscose is soft and supple but can wrinkle easily. wale only found in woven fabrics like corduroy, wale is the long grooves that give the garment its texture. wedge heel a heel that lies flat to the ground and extends from the shank to the back of the shoe. windowpane dark stripes run horizontal and vertical across a light background to mimic a window pane. woven a woven fabric is formed by interlacing threads, yarns, strands, or strips of some material.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5251013785666755, "token_count": 259, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:35.527049"} {"text": "bootie a shoe that resembles a boot in style but is not as high. brocade an all - over floral, raised pattern produced in a similar fashion to embroidery. circumference the measurement around the shaft of a boot taken at the widest part. cotton a natural fiber that grows in the seed pod of the cotton plant. it is an inelastic fiber. cushioning padding on the sole of a shoe for added comfort and stabilization. dobbywoven fabric where the weave of the fabric actually produces the garment ' s design. embroidery detailed needlework, usually raised and created by yarn, thread or embroidery floss. faille a slightly ribbed, woven fabric of silk, cotton, or rayon. houndstooth a classic design containing two colors in jagged / slanted checks. similar to glen plaid. liningthe leather, fabric or synthetic material used on the inside of a shoe. lame a metallic or plastic fiber woven into material to give the garment shine. marled typically found in sweaters, marled yarn occurs when two colored yards are twisted together. matte a matte finish has a lusterless surface. merino wool wool sheered from the merino sheep and spun into yarn that is fine but strong. ombre a color technique that shades a color from light to dark. paisley a pattern that consists of crooked teardrop designs in a repetitive manner. poplin a strong woven fabric, heavier in weight, with ribbing. sateen a fabric woven with sheen that resembles satin. shirring similar to ruching, shirring gathers material to create folds. sole the outsole, or bottom part of a shoe. stacked heel a heel made of leather or leawood covering that gives the appearance of wood. synthetic materials man - made materials designed to look or function like leather. tweed a loose weave of heavy wool makes up tweed, which provides warmth and comfort. twill a fabric woven in a diagonal weave. commonly used for chinos and denim. variegated multi - colored fabrics where colors are splotched or in patches. viscosea cellulosic man - made fibers, viscose is soft and supple but can wrinkle easily. wedge heel a heel that lies flat to the ground and extends from the shank to the back of the shoe. woven a woven fabric is formed by interlacing threads, yarns, strands, or strips of some material.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5703768940572365, "token_count": 491, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:35.530057"} {"text": "\u2014 nor, in most modern jurisdictions, a legal one. technology met the need by providing methods to determine the sex of a fetus. from the mid - 1970s to the early 1980s, amniocentesis was used for this purpose. then high - quality second trimester ultrasound became widely available and took over the business of fetal sex determination. it caught on very fast all over east and south asia, allowing women to abort female fetuses. the consequences showed up in last year ' s chinese census, whose results are just now being published. they show an srb of 118 males per 100 females. these unbalanced sex ratios and their social and demographic consequences form the subject matter of mara hvistendahl ' s book unnatural selection. an experienced journalist who has lived for many years in china, ms. hvistendahl covers the history, sociology, and science of sex - selective population control very comprehensively. she has organized each of her book ' s fifteen chapters around the experience of some significant individual : \" the bachelor, \" \" the parent, \" \" the economist, \" and so on. her book ' s scope is by no means restricted to china : \" the student \" of chapter 6 is an indian who commenced his medical training at a big hospital in delhi in 1978, when sex - selective abortion was just taking off in india. we get a side trip to albania, whose srb is treated as a state secret, but seems to be at least 110. we also learn that sex - selective abortion is common among couples of chinese, korean, and indian descent in the u. s. a. the subjects here are not just newly arrived immigrants, either. a research team from columbia university found that : if anything, mothers who were u. s. citizens were slightly more likely to have sons. sex selection, in other words, is not a tradition from the old country that easily dies out. south korea makes a particularly interesting study. that country ' s governments were more foresighted than most in spotting the problems that might arise from sex - selective abortion. they outlawed the procedure in 1987, and followed up with rigorous enforcement. south korea ' s srb is now at the natural level. there is more here than meets the eye, though, as ms. hvistendahl uncovers. as elsewhere, sex selection was mainly resorted to for second or subsequent births. the srb for first births is essentially normal worldwide. and first births is wellnigh all the births there are now", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5114290740217722, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:35.540319"} {"text": "source : steven maxwell, 785 - 532 - 5740, firstname. lastname @ example. org. note to editor : this is the first in a series of news releases about the color purple in honor of kansas state university ' s founding on feb. 16, 1863. news release prepared by : greg tammen, 785 - 532 - 2535, email @ example. com monday, feb. 7, 2011 the power of purple : rock music ' s roots run deep with purple, professor says manhattan - - ask steven maxwell what the color purple means and his answer is simple : turn the volume to 11 and open your mind, because purple is rock and roll in its prime. \" artistically purple is a descriptive word, and i think that ' s why it ' s been adopted by some successful acts in the music world, \" said maxwell, assistant professor of music at kansas state university. in 2008 maxwell created a class about the history of rock and roll, where he teaches about the genre ' s evolution and its relationship to history. \" the really cool thing about rock and roll is that it ties into the american culture and really reflects what ' s going on in the country, \" maxwell said. \" it serves as the voice of the common person and has been associated with some important historical moments in the u. s. it was a part of that voice in the civil rights movement in the ' 60s and used in protest of the vietnam war in the ' 70s. \" rock music ' s history runs purple, with the color being adopted by some of the most influential musicians. \" think of the deeper concept of what a song like ' purple haze ' means, especially when it first came out, \" maxwell said. \" the late ' 60s was all about looking at things differently. jimi hendrix perfectly captured that psychedelic era in the country, that time of opening the doors of perception in one ' s mind and really looking at something on a deeper level. \" he said the \" purple \" hendrix is referring to is that new, unknown, almost analogous way of thinking. \" metaphorically, purple was a blend between the standardized ' primary colors ' introduced by mainstream society in the 1950s and mid - 1960s, \" maxwell said. other artists, such as deep purple and prince, adopted the color because of its ambiguity in the musical soundscape and pop culture. deep purple was one of the pioneers of hard rock and heavy metal, maxwell said. the group was the first rock band to record with a full concerto orchestra, as well", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5316859526602609, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:35.552281"} {"text": "information contained on this page is provided by an independent third - party content provider. worldnow and this station make no warranties or representations in connection therewith. if you have any questions or comments about this page please contact email @ example. com. source ford motor company dearborn, mich., march 22, 2013 / prnewswire / - - ford reduced the average amount of water used to make each vehicle by 8. 5 percent between 2011 and 2012 \u2013 putting the company more than halfway toward its current goal of using an average of just 4 cubic meters per vehicle globally by 2015. since 2000, ford has reduced the amount of water it uses in everything from cooling towers to parts washing and paint operations by 10. 6 billion gallons, or 62 percent. that ' s equal to the amount of water used by nearly 99, 000 u. s. residences annually, or enough to fill 16, 000 olympic - size pools. ford ' s reduced consumption rates mean even more to regions around the world struggling with water - related issues like drought and extensive population growth. ford ' s water reduction success is a result of the company ' s commitment to reduce the amount of water it uses by aggressively monitoring and managing just about every drop of water going into and out of its facilities and properties, says andy hobbs, director, environmental quality office. since 2000, ford decreased the total amount of water used around the world annually from 64 million cubic meters to 24 million cubic meters. \" that ' s about 10. 6 billion gallons of water that was conserved and went to use somewhere else, \" says hobbs. ford voluntarily launched its global water management initiative in 2000, putting in place ways to manage water conservation, quality and reuse of storm and process water. ford ' s water strategy complements the company ' s overall code of human rights, basic working conditions and corporate responsibilities. \" ford recognizes the critical importance of water, and is committed to conserving water and using it responsibly, \" says robert brown, vice president, sustainability, environment and safety engineering. \" many vehicle manufacturing processes require water and the resource is used at every point in our supply chain. \" ford aims to use an average of 1, 056 gallons of water to make each vehicle globally \u2013 consistent with its overall goal of a 30 percent reduction in the amount of water used per vehicle between 2009 and 2015. that is slightly more than the 1, 000 gallons fire engine tankers in the u. s. are required to contain in their tanks. one cubic meter of water", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.511389180162363, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:35.571487"} {"text": "posted : oct 9, 2012 3 : 00 pm by robert preidt tuesday, oct. 9 ( healthday news ) - - a gene test that can identify people at risk for mouth cancer has been developed by british researchers. the test detects precancerous cells in patients with benign - looking mouth lesions and could lead to earlier treatment for at - risk patients and improve their chances of survival, according to the team at queen mary, university of london. they used the quantitative malignancy index diagnostic system test - - which measures the level of 16 genes - - on more than 350 head and neck tissue specimens from nearly 300 patients and found that it had a cancer detection rate between 91 percent and 94 percent. the study was published oct. 4 in the international journal of cancer. mouth cancer affects more than half a million people worldwide each year, and that number is expected to rise above 1 million by 2030, according to world health organization figures. most cases of mouth cancer are caused by either smoking or chewing tobacco, or drinking alcohol. mouth lesions are common, but only 5 percent to 30 percent may turn into cancers. until now, no test has been able to accurately detect which lesions will become cancerous. many mouth cancers are diagnosed at later stages, when the chances of survival are greatly reduced. \" a sensitive test capable of quantifying a patient ' s cancer risk is needed to avoid the adoption of a ' wait - and - see ' intervention, \" study lead investigator and test inventor dr. muy - teck teh said in a university news release. \" detecting cancer early, coupled with appropriate treatment, can significantly improve patient outcomes, reduce mortality and alleviate long - term public health care costs. \" although this study shows that the test is effective for early cancer detection, further clinical trials are needed to evaluate its long - term clinical benefits. the u. s. national cancer institute has more about mouth and other types of oral cancer. source : queen mary, university of london, news release, oct. 4, 2012 copyright ( c ) 2012 healthday. all rights reserved.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5188404668468207, "token_count": 423, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:35.604983"} {"text": "professors : batsell, boatwright, erdi, gregg ( chair ), hostetter, tan psychology, broadly defined, is the study of animal and human behavior as well as human experience. the discipline involves the use of scientific methods in the discovery of facts and confirmation of theory as well as applications to problems. the major, therefore, includes a focus on the understanding and use of research skills and techniques. psychology is a diverse field with important connections to biology, education, philosophy, and sociology. increasingly, psychologists may be found in business, industry, education, government, and medicine, as well as in the more traditional areas of research and mental health. given its diversity and connections to other disciplines, psychology is a reasonable choice of major for students who seek a broad liberal arts undergraduate education. psychology is also a practical major for those who seek careers immediately after graduation in fields where interacting with other people is primary \u2014 management, criminal justice, or human services, for example. students interested in careers in such applied fields, however, may find the human development and social relations ( hdsr ) major a better choice. psychology majors may choose to pursue advanced degrees in three general directions : one, as scientists, leading to careers in higher education or research settings ; two, as practitioners, leading to roles as clinicians, school psychologists, industrial psychologists, and health psychologists ; and three, as professionals in other fields such as law, medicine, and business administration.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5456748109528259, "token_count": 292, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:35.611095"} {"text": "one which goes beyond each person, family, and settlement. the identity of the sem terra [ landless ], and the capital letters without a hyphen, like a proper name that identifies those who are no longer individuals who lack something have no land ( land - less ) but are individuals with a choice that of fighting for more social justice and dignity for all. this places each member of sem terra, through his / her participation in the mst, in a movement that is related to the re - encounter of humanity with itself. the third dimension is building the educational project of different generations of the sem terra family, one that combines schooling with broader concerns of human development and the training of militants. viewing the history of the mst in this perspective, we encounter some pedagogical lessons, or how the proponents of a social struggle and a collectivity in movement deal with, and are concerned with, education. these lessons can help us reflect on each of our own educational practices, including those that we undertake in the schools. reflecting on these lessons, we may begin to understand something even more profound : the mst has a pedagogy, that is, it has a praxis ( combined theory and practice ) of how people are educated, of how human beings develop. the pedagogy of the sem terra movement is the way through which the movement has historically developed the social individual of the name sem terra, and has daily educated the people who are part of it. and the main educational principle of this pedagogy is the movement itself, a movement that unites diverse pedagogies, and in a special way unites the pedagogy of social struggle with the pedagogy of the land and the pedagogy of history, each one helping to make an imprint on our identity, mistica, project. sem terra is the name of one who fights for the people who have roots in the land the land that is won, tilled, cared for and in the movement this is the main discussion we have today in the mst with our educators : how to make of the pedagogy of the movement a reference for our practice and our thought. to be an educator in the mst is to succeed in understanding the educational dimension of the movementis actions, making them a mirror for its educational practices. it is a reference viewpoint to aid in discerning the limits and challenges of these practices. a mirror also educates our viewpoint to see", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5659174520586704, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:35.631275"} {"text": "to succeed in understanding the educational dimension of the movementis actions, making them a mirror for its educational practices. it is a reference viewpoint to aid in discerning the limits and challenges of these practices. a mirror also educates our viewpoint to see beyond the mst, beyond the sem terra. the pedagogy of the movement takes shape in a dialogue with other educators, other students, and other pedagogical movements. it was precisely in the interaction with people and works concerned with human development that we managed to think about the mst as a pedagogical subject. from this new synthesis, we continue our dialogue with theories and practices of human development, along with specific thinking on the educational environment of our schools. from this dialogue with the movementis practices and the thinking on human development throughout the history of humanity, an initial result regards the very concept of education. when we discuss practices of humanizing the field - workers as a product of education, we are in fact recovering an essential link to the work in education : to educate is to humanize, to cultivate learning to be a the mst works all the time at the limit between humanization and dehumanization ; its struggle is that of life or death for thousands of people, who make their participation in the movement a tool for re - learning to be human. this is the day - to - day task of the education of the sem terra in each march, each camp, each settlement and it is this same day - to - day practice that shows that the task is necessary and possible ; that the adultsi and the agedis nearly lost humanity can be recovered through learning, and that it is even more necessary and possible to help in this learning from childhood. from this conception of education, there are pedagogical lessons we have managed to derive in this reflective counterpoint among the daily life of the mst, the diverse theories and practices on human development, and the concerns with how to educate the sem terra. these are lessons that also help us think and rethink the curriculum and the educational environment of our schools. 1. people are the greatest value produced and cultivated by the mst the movement is the way that people collectively produce the sem terra identity and carry out the struggle for agrarian reform that is the root and strength of this identity. at times of the most acute social conflict, such as those we live through today, this is even more visible : it is on the people, on each one of them, that resistance", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5102973167257581, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:35.632233"} {"text": "wherever they are, with or against whomever they are. this returns us to the notion that this is an essential human task of learning : to look in the mirror of what we are and want to be, to take on personal and collective identities, to be proud of them, at the same time we are challenged with the movement of our permanent self - construction. to educate is to help build and strengthen identities, to draw faces, to form subjects. and this has everything to do with values, way of life, memory, culture. 3. people are educated in the actions they perform and the works they produce the mst forms the sem terra by putting them in a movement, which means in permanent action, action with the dynamic of a social struggle : occupations, encampments, marches, demonstrations of solidarity, the building of a new kind of life in the settlements, schools, activities of development. it is through such action that they learn that nothing is impossible to change, not even people, their propensities, their positions, their ways of life, their values. people are educated in action because it is the movement of action that molds the way to becoming human. actions produce and are produced through social relations : that is, they set in motion another fundamental pedagogical element, which is the interaction between people, how they behave among each other, which is measured by the tools inherited from those who have produced other tools before ( culture ). in these relations, people show who they are, and at the same time they construct and revise their identities, their way of being. we are speaking of any action, or of acting for actingis sake, without any intentionality. we are speaking of action that produces works ( material or not ) that become the mirror in which people can see what they are or even want to be ; and we are speaking mainly of work and the material production of our existence. there is no true education without action, without work, and without collective works. and, as the children remind us, there is also no education without games and play, which can also be thought of as collective action producing works. 4. people are educated by producing and reproducing culture the actions of the sem terra are loaded with cultural meanings that they learn to produce and express. in an occupation, on a march, or in the organization of a settlement, there appears not only what these families of workers are today, or at this particular moment. every action brings together with it the way of", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.544539049032664, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:35.634221"} {"text": "they learn to produce and express. in an occupation, on a march, or in the organization of a settlement, there appears not only what these families of workers are today, or at this particular moment. every action brings together with it the way of being human that these people bear, the developing weight of the objective circumstances of their whole previous existence and the type of education they have received or lived. at the same time, their collective action is also usually the negation of certain traditions that have marked their lives up to now, and the projection of values they learn or re - learn in the pedagogical process of the movement. the mstis expressions, symbols, art, way of struggle, embody a cultural moment that neither begins nor ends at the moment of action. each landless person who enters the mst also enters a world already productive of symbols, expressions, human examples, values, which, with each action, s / he learns to signify and resignify. one of the great pedagogical challenges of the mst with its social base has been precisely to help people make a new cultural synthesis, one that joins their past, present, and future in a new, rooted collective and personal identity. to live as if one struggles, to struggle as if one lives this is a coherent position that has been seen as necessary to the movementis aims of social transformation, as well as in its permanent conflicts and challenges. memory, mistica, discussion of values, criticism and self - criticism, the study of history, these are some cultural tools that the movement has been using in this construction. we can reflect then that to educate is to also to share meanings and tools of culture ( jerome bruneris expression, in arroyo 2000 ). it is to help people in the learning of signfying and resignifying their actions, in such a way that they may transform them into values, behavior, convictions, customs, expressions, symbols, art, that is, into a way of life chosen and reflected by the collectivity of which they form a part. this means, among other things, that to educate people is help to cultivate their memory ; it is to become acquainted and reacquainted with their symbols, expressions, words ; it is to situate them in a wider cultural and historical universe ; it is to work with different languages, organize different moments and modes so that people may think about their practices, their roots, their plans, their lives 5. people are educated by living values values are a fundamental", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5068629654331736, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:35.635164"} {"text": "in a wider cultural and historical universe ; it is to work with different languages, organize different moments and modes so that people may think about their practices, their roots, their plans, their lives 5. people are educated by living values values are a fundamental dimension of culture ; they are the principles of life, that for which we consider it worth living. values are what move our practices, our life, our being human. values are what produce in people the need to live for the sake of freedom and justice. values are what move the striving of the sem terra to make their settlements utopian communities, consistent with the struggle that won them over. the mst has been very concerned with the cultivation of values, because it knows that it is the values, translated into culture, that it will leave as a heritage to its descendants and the new generations of those who fight for the people. and values only exist through people, their experiences, positions, convictions. and they are not born with each one : they are learned, cultivated through the collective processes of development, of education. for the mst, this has not been an easy battle : to recover and cultivate human values like solidarity, loyalty, the spirit of sacrifice for the collective well - being, companionship, seriousness, discipline, indignation in the face of injustices, the valuing of the sem terra identity, humility - in a society that day by day degenerates with the counter - values of individualism, consumerism, social apathy, lack of commitment to life, the exclusion of those who take part in social struggles but it is only by taking on the job of educating and re - educating people in its values that the mst can realize the project of 6. people are educated by learning how to solve problems in the actions of a social struggle knowledge is acquired and produced, and it is a very important dimension of the strategy for the humanization of the people. but one of the pedagogical lessons we have gleaned from the day - to - day life of the movement is that the process of producing knowledge that effectively aids in the development of the person is that which is connected to the large and small questions of life. when a sem terra needs to know how to calculate an area in order to measure the land where his agro - villa will be settled, or when he needs to study geography to best choose the place for an occupation, this knowledge will certainly have more human and social density for him. when a", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5011432739781172, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:35.636098"} {"text": "calculate an area in order to measure the land where his agro - villa will be settled, or when he needs to study geography to best choose the place for an occupation, this knowledge will certainly have more human and social density for him. when a sem terra child learns how to measure the materials that she needs to begin building her playground, or learns to write letters to people she likes, the same thing occurs. the expression \" to know is to solve, \" from the cuban educator jose marti, brings us to an even more radical question : it suggests to us that there is no true knowledge outside of concrete situations, or the solution to problems of \" real \" life. and it really seems to be so, especially when this question is put into the context of pedagogical processes. to educate is to socialize knowledge and is also the tool for producing knowledge that affects peopleis lives in their various dimensions of identity and universality. to learn in order to solve problems means to understand knowledge as a comprehension of reality in order to transform it, comprehension of the human condition in order to make it fuller, which is a very old lesson that the pedagogy of the movement is merely recovering. 7. people are educated by learning from the past to plan for the future it was in this way that the movement made itself as it is : learning from those who had struggled before, cultivating the memory of their own path. history is made in this way : planning for the future beginning with the lessons of the past cultivated in the present. dthe land holds the rootsi, says one of the mstis songs. education also must hold the roots, helping to cultivate the memory of the people and in the development of historical consciousness. educators have a very specific task for this : their meetings with their learners can be a privileged time for learning to cultivate the collective memory, and for the study of a broader history. to know that this can make a difference : the memory of the debts to the people that were not paid, the wounds that were not healed, is not erased. it is necessary to educate every sem terra family so that their rural roots, their culture, and how these roots take part in the formation of the brazilian people, are not forgotten, so that all the sem terra may learn how they came to the condition of being rural landless workers, and how they have many other brothers all over the world in a similar condition, who are also carrying on a struggle for the land and for agrarian reform", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5276265662701072, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 7, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:35.637021"} {"text": "educational references people like paulo freire and che guevara. they were not educators only for what they said or wrote, but through the testimony of the consistency between what they thought, said, and effectively did and were, as persons and as militants in the causes of the people. to be an educator is, therefore, a way of being, a way of being with the people that is a living message of values, convictions, feelings, of a conscience that moves us and that we claim to defend in our organization. it is to have a complete committment, which is not easy. only a collective can help us in the process of criticism and self - criticism, in the calls and in the affections that show us when we are vacillating and also show us the right path so that we may return individuals are not only formed in school. there are other experiences that produce even stronger learning. the pedagogy of the movement is not contained by the school, because neither the movement nor human development is contained by it. but the school is a part of the movement and its pedagogy, so much so that historically the mst has tenaciously fought so that all the sem terra may have access to schools. the school that is a part of the pedagogy of the movement is the one that returns to its original task : taking part in human to think of the school as a workshop of human development means to think of it as a place where the educational process or the process of human development occurs in an intentionally planned way, conducted and thought about for this purpose, a process that is guided by a project for society and the human being, and is sustained by the presence of people with specific knowledge for the work of education, by the sincere co - operation of everyone who is there to learn and to teach, and by the permanent link with other social practices that have begun and continue this work. the expression also helps us to rethink the pedagogical logic, or the pedagogical method of the school. we claim that the school is not only a place for teaching, and that a method of education is not the same as a method of teaching. it is necessary to plan various pedagogical strategies in view of the different kinds of learning that make up the complex process of human development. in a school conceived as a workshop of human development, educators are architects, organizers, and stimulators of the educational environment. this demands great sensitivity and mastery of the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5257070355307772, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 9, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:35.638883"} {"text": "the different kinds of learning that make up the complex process of human development. in a school conceived as a workshop of human development, educators are architects, organizers, and stimulators of the educational environment. this demands great sensitivity and mastery of the arts of pedagogy to form the schools from a clear perception of how the educational process is developing in each student and in the collectivity as a whole ; to perceive the contradictions and not be overwhelmed by them, but to work with them pedagogically ; to be aware of what dimensions need to be emphasized at one moment or another, what type of actions need to be performed and with what contents, what relations need to be worked on and at what time. it is a very important kind of learning : one needs to be humble enough to place oneself always in the situation of an apprentice of the process, as apprentices that we all are, of this complex art of building humanity, of which the mst also has a part, albeit but a small one. arroyo, m. g. oficio de mestre. petropolis : vozes, 2000. caldart, r. s. pedagogia do movimento sem terra. petropolis : caldart, r. s. a pedagogia da luta pela terra : o movimento social como principio educativo, trabalho solicitado pela 23a reuniao anual da anped, trabalho movimentos sociais e educacao, 2000. freire, p. pedagogia da indignacao. sao paulo : editora da unesp, 2000. marti, j. ideario pedagogico. havana : imprensa nacional de cuba, 1961. stedile, j. p. e fernandes, b. m. brava gente : a trajetoria do mst e a luta pela terra no brasil. sao paulo : fundacao perseu abramo, 1999.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5099355426413026, "token_count": 430, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 10, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:35.639539"} {"text": "session 5guided channel - talklife posting dogs and cats are great examples of animals whose diversity is the result of artificial selection. the variation that is evident among breeds has been purposefully developed by breeders. in your channel - talklife posting for this session, describe how you could develop a unit on the fundamentals of evolution ( e. g., variation, adaptation, natural selection ) using these animals. be sure to discuss how you would tailor the concepts addressed during this session to the grade level you teach. breeders for thousands of years have bred dogs for particular purpose. in ancient china the chow was admired for its loyalty to owner and its ability to withstand harsh temperatures. the poodle swims very well and is very intelligent. the terrier breed is known for its tenacity and for catching rats. in third grade i would ask each student to chose a breed of dog or cat and then research the characteristics of that breed in regard to physical traits. i would then ask the students to share with the class how the breed differs from others and why breeders have selected those qualities. i would then discuss how it is that breeders can purposefully bred dogs that have puppies with those desirable characteristics. session 6 guided channel - talklife posting both the national science education standards and benchmarks for scientific literacy propose standards or goals for understanding big ideas in evolution starting in the elementary grades. of the ideas addressed in session 5 ( variation, genes, mutation, adaptation, natural selection, artificial selection ) and session 6 species, evolution of new species, relatedness, common ancestry, tree of life ), which do you consider appropriate introduce at the grade level you teach? why? discuss this with your colleagues in your channel - talklife posting for this session. be sure to share any experiences you ' ve had. in third grade appropriate concepts to introduce are : variation adaptation, genes, natural selection, artificial selection, species, evolution of new species, tree of life and common ancestry. i think that if conversations develop within the classroom at an early age that teachers should have the knowledge and background in science to explain these concepts in an age appropriate way. i think that it would be unprofessional to teach the vocabulary only and not provide hands - on activities for younger children to be able to begin making connections with these concepts. i have taught some evolutionary concepts when our classroom conversations went in that direction, but evolution is not part of the third grade curriculum. channel - talklife mailing list received on sun oct 9 20 : 28 : 07 2005", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5433762953858274, "token_count": 510, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:35.648835"} {"text": "wen and the leaders of brazil, india, and south africa. 6 it was largely these five major economies that would go on to produce the accord, which calls for any global temperature increase to be limited to two degrees celsius. 7 however the parties to the convention \u2019 s kyoto protocol ( the \u201c protocol \u201d ), the first commitment period of which ends in 2012, were unable to agree to its extension. the lack of consensus leaves in suspension the status of the protocol \u2019 s clean development mechanism ( cdm ) and the value of the certified emissions reductions ( cers ) generated by thousands of projects thereunder. the international emissions trading association ( ieta ), which held a parallel conference, nevertheless remains optimistic : \u201c an international injection of increased demand remains a strong possibility over investment timescales but still has to be treated as an upside rather than a given. \u201d 8 back on the home front as mentioned above, canada \u2019 s climate change policy is explicitly tied to that of the united states. 2009 saw in the u. s. the passage in the house of representatives of the american clean energy and security act ( \u201c waxman - markey \u201d ). waxman - markey calls for a 17 % reduction of emissions below 2005 levels by 2020 and provides for the trading of allowances. 9 debate in the u. s. senate of the similar kerry - boxer bill is nominally scheduled for debate this spring, though it may be 2011 before it comes to a floor vote. tri - partisan senators john kerry ( d ), lindsey graham ( r ) and joe lieberman ( i ) have taken it upon themselves to ensure passage of a climate ( or \u201c energy independence \u201d ) bill. for many u. s. senators, any climate legislation must be accompanied by developing country emissions reductions and the international verification thereof. as china and others are less keen on international monitoring, reporting and verification ( mrv ), the accord features compromise language. countries will communicate their actions \u201c with provisions for international consultations and analysis under clearly defined guidelines that will ensure national sovereignty is respected. \u201d 10 in any case, with more than two thirds of americans supporting the regulation of ghg emissions, 11 the passage of legislation through congress and, consequently, canadian federal regulation, may be on the horizon. international climate change negotiations will occur in a number of fora this year. while the sixteenth conference of the parties will occur in december in cancun, one might now wonder how much can be expected of 192 - party negotiations. in june, canada will host the g", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5176573966407151, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:35.653655"} {"text": "positive chronicles - east of eden by dr kailash vajpeyi \" man is no longer to be the measure of all things, the center of the universe. he has been measured and found to be an undistinguished bit of matter, different in no essential way from bacteria, stones and trees. his goals and purposes, his egocentric notions of past, present and future ; his faith in his power to predict and through prediction to control his destiny \u2014 all these are called into question, considered irrelevant, or deemed trivial. \" when leonard b. meyer yanked man down from the exalted status assigned him by the judeo - christian tradition, in his 1963 book, the end of renaissance?, he triggered off a radical shift in the relationship between man and nature. today, that understanding goes variously by the name of gaia or deep ecology. the gaia hypothesis postulates that planet earth is a living organism that adjusts and regulates itself like any other organism and that for 3. 5 billion years, microbes, plants and animals have co - evolved with the environment as one globally integrated superorganism. in much the same vein, deep ecology believes in the essential ecological equality of all species, man and mouse, elephant and earthworm. in an interconnected, indivisible ecosystem, each part is as crucial as the next. here, t. s. eliot may have been tempted to comment on the return of things to their point of beginning. for interconnection was the fundamental premise of the relationship between all traditional civilizations and nature. unlike the western equation of conqueror and conquered, traditional people related to nature much as an offspring to a benevolent mother, or a devotee to a deity. most eastern religions such as vedic hinduism, jainism and buddhism, include within nature not only all forms of life but also that which is inanimate and invisible. vedic texts uphold the doctrine called madhu vidya, or interdependence between man and nature. the vedic worldview is beautifully expressed in that famous injunction, vasudhaiva kutumbakam ( the world is one family ). in the vedas, natural elements play a pivotal role. but the interrelationship of creation was always within the context of its relationship with the creator. the vedic sages believed that everything in this world stems from divine knowledge ( the word ) which was first revealed to a group of seers, who then passed on this knowledge to successive generations of vedic seers. and thus, sarasw", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5500965717434859, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:35.661974"} {"text": "creator. the vedic sages believed that everything in this world stems from divine knowledge ( the word ) which was first revealed to a group of seers, who then passed on this knowledge to successive generations of vedic seers. and thus, saraswati, the goddess of divine speech, holds a special place among hindu deities. may the divine speech, saraswati, the fountainhead of all faculties ( mental and spiritual ), the purifier and bestower of true vision, the recompenser of worship : be the source of inspiration and accomplishments for all our benevolent acts ( rig veda 1 - 3 - 10 ) thus, speech, or vak, has a preeminent role in the indian tradition. water, it is believed was literally produced by vak. in turn, if we accept the theory that the theory that the hydrogen molecule is the basis of all life, water could be said to have created the rest of life. of the five basic elements that make up life \u2014 earth, space, wind fire and water \u2014 the last, in the vedic view, is the primal element. no wonder there are dozens of vedic verses in praise of water : o water source of happiness, we pray, please give us vigor so that we may contemplate the great delight hail to you divine, unfathomable all purifying waters you are the foundation of all this universe the consciousness of being composed of the same elements was one more proof of the unity of all creation. the elements, both separately and jointly as life forms, were, at one and the same time, objects of reverence and intimately related to us. we hardly realize that there are cosmic forces which are working in cyclical patterns, and that the most fundamental pattern which governs our life is the movement of he earth on its axis. one shudders to think what would happen to life as we know it if the earth stopped spinning on its axis or the sun failed to rise in the morning. we are creatures of the planet but the earth is not a geographical entity, it is us. the earth is not simply dust but a reservoir of all energy. it has given birth to four types of creatures : swedaj, udbhij, andaj and pindaj ( aquarian, flora and fauna, avian and mammalian ). to the vedic seers, the idea of subjugating or exploiting the earth was incomprehensible. to them it was an object of worship and not of exploitation. its conquest", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5494317049502544, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:35.662916"} {"text": ", flora and fauna, avian and mammalian ). to the vedic seers, the idea of subjugating or exploiting the earth was incomprehensible. to them it was an object of worship and not of exploitation. its conquest was tantamount to dissecting a mother ' s body to study her heartbeat or chopping her breasts to isolate the gland producing milk. but times have changed. today, man has no qualms about expropriating the earth ' s wealth for his own benefit. this has resulted in the creation of a new fifth species, the yantraj \u2014 the technetronic being. according to daniel j. boorstin, the author of cleopatra ' s nose : \" when the machine kingdom arrived on the scene, it entirely changed the fixedness of the idea of change. a natural species reacts to its environment and learns to adapt to it. but the technetronic species creates its own environment. \" for instance, media technology tends to create what can be termed asdiplopia or double image, where it is hard to distinguish reality from illusion. television, for example, has the capacity to convert an event into virtual reality, what is there is also here at the same time or what is here can also be there if it has been filmed. for the vedic man, the earth was the bestower of blessings, she was the protector of life. all descriptions of ramrajya, ( the reign of lord rama, the hero of the indian epic ramayana ) portrayed the earth as abundant and giving. the mahabharata eulogized yudhisthira ' s reign thus : \" earth yielded abundant crops and all precious things. she had become the provider of all goodness. like kamdhenu, the celestial cow, the earth offered thousands of luxuries in a continuous stream. \" in bhumi sukta we come across verses such as : o purifying earth, i you invoke o, patient earth by sacred word enhanced bearer of nourishment and strength of food and butter, o, earth we would approach you with due praise influenced by this holistic vision, the indian way of life was integral, its purpose the well - being of creation. even in the matter of eating, our ancestors emphasized the importance of feeding others before themselves. a householder could eat only after propitiating the ancestors, the devas representing different aspects of nature, the bhutas representing all created beings, guests, members of", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5460974586757876, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:35.663810"} {"text": "the matter of eating, our ancestors emphasized the importance of feeding others before themselves. a householder could eat only after propitiating the ancestors, the devas representing different aspects of nature, the bhutas representing all created beings, guests, members of the household and servants. the practice of agriculture was deeply influenced by this sacred vision of interconnection. according to the activist vandana shiva ' s book, the seedkeeper, new seeds were first worshipped before being consumed. new crop was worshipped before being consumed. for the farmer, field is the mother : worshipping the field is a sign of gratitude towards the earth, who as mother, feeds the millions of life forms who are her children. \" in the place of chemical manures and pesticides, the traditional farmer used nature ' s own checks and balances to nurture fertility and keep pests at bay. a typical rice field supported and in some places continues to do so 800 species of \" friendly insects \" \u2014 spiders, wasps, ants and pathogens that controlled 95 per cent of insect pests. these practices are still a living presence among india ' s tribal societies, for instance, the warlis, a community near mumbai, worship nature as hirva ( green ) and consider all produce to be gifts of hirva, rather the fruits of their own labor. conservation of plants and animals was an innate aspect of their culture, illustrated in the concept of the sacred grooves : mangroves, marshlands and other tracts of land supposedly inhabited by spirits, where killing of plants and animals is taboo. the bishnois of rajasthan, too, will rather die than let a single tree be felled. the concept of coexistence took many forms. before felling a tree to construct a temple, the carpenter traditionally sought the permission of the tree. and in emperor asoka ' s time, veterinary hospitals were state institutions. among the five vital elements which sustain life on earth, the wind in the rig veda is called vata. though the wind is connected with the primordial waters, its origin is not known. vedas also address it as the spirit : may the wind breathe upon us prolong our lifespan and fill our hearts with comfort responding to the current environmental crisis, susan griffin in her book women & nature writes : \" we live as if nature is only need to provide extras : paper, recreation, specialty foods, a job to provide money. \" unlimited desire and man ' s greed has devastated this planet to such an extent that by the time you finish", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5386422998645639, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:35.664770"} {"text": "writes : \" we live as if nature is only need to provide extras : paper, recreation, specialty foods, a job to provide money. \" unlimited desire and man ' s greed has devastated this planet to such an extent that by the time you finish reading this article, at least 10 species of birds would be extinct forever. in contrast, personal fulfillment in buddhism is sought through independence. here the self is temporary and nonessential rather than the center of the universe. writes kerry brown, co - author of buddhism and ecology, about the buddhist philosophy : \" where infinite spiritual development is possible within a physical existence that is understood and accepted as infinite. \" buddha attained enlightenment under a banyan tree, j. krishnamurti had the same kind of realization under a pepper vine. no wonder the author of bhamini vilas called the tree guru. \" o tree! you bear fruits, leaves and flowers and protect people from the scorching sun. whoever come to you in scorching heat, you take away their suffering and give them coolness. this way you surrender yourself for others. that is why you are a guru of all kind people. \" anekantavada, the jain concept that professes multiple views of reality, goes even deeper. its verdict on the unmindful endeavors of mankind would be damning. the bacterial organism, as understood in modern science, can be compared with what is called nigodiya life in jainism. and ahimsa or nonviolence, which is fundamental to jain philosophy, teaches not harming even the basic forms of life. jainism and other indian religions advocate that compassion must be the foundation for any truly civilized community. lawrence joseph, the author of gaia, has obviously been deeply influenced by all systems of indian philosophy which adhere to the universal law of interdependence. lynn margulis, co - author of the gaia theory along with james lovelock, believes strongly that the biological microcosm provides a key controlling influence in the global environment and argues that the role of these tiny organisms has been underestimated because they are invisible. with the convergence of the most recent scientific understanding and the most recent ancient wisdom, there is hope yet for the survival of the earth and, in turn, life on it. there can be no better sign of it than nasa circulating, all over the usa, a photograph of the earth with the caption : love your mother. | home | subscribe | wallpapers | advertising | policy | practitioners |", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5312897091547738, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:35.665711"} {"text": "network with other children ' s program providers and discuss strategies for bringing space science to children on this board. share successful programming ideas or models to help inspire others! i have been able to develop a partnership with the meigs county schools. we will present a weekly afterschool program at each of our county ' s elementary schools for ten weeks beginning october 5th for 3rd, 4th and 5th grade students. the middle school and high school science clubs will provide student volunteers to help me with the program. the local energy cooperative has donated $ 1000 to be used for purchasing materials to be used in the program. several astronomy outreach programs have agreed to send presenters, including a solar astronomy outreach program ( www. charliebates. org ) from atlanta. they will be bringing 9 solar telescopes to the school for us on october 12th. we are all excited about starting this in meigs county. i hope everyone else from the workshop has great success establishing an \" explore \" program in their communities. meigs county - decatur public library that sounds like so much fun, judi! what a great network you ' ve created from the schools, students, outreach programs, and the energy cooperative. good luck and let us know how it goes! 3 posts \u2022 page 1 of 1 who is online users browsing this forum : no registered users and 1 guest", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.539562495854863, "token_count": 267, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:35.692295"} {"text": "when you work on introducing a new technology to a population and region, you discover lots of intriguing impediments to that introduction that you \u2019 d never have imagined. yesterday ( october 11, 2012 ) the maine fuel board voted to allow maine energy systems to engage in an \u201c emerging technologies \u201d project with them that might lead to elimination of one of those impediments for the pellet central heating industry in the state of maine. maine is unique in its licensure of technicians for \u201c solid fuels. \u201d in maine a person installing a boiler must have \u201c solid fuel \u201d authority on his license to legally install a \u201c solid fuel \u201d boiler in someone else \u2019 s building. ( it \u2019 s a bit more complicated than that, but let \u2019 s avoid the levels of license detail. ) the need for this rule apparently arose from three potential hazards associated with \u201c solid fuel \u201d boilers : the possibility for a thermal run - away during a power outage as combustion continues on a load of fuel while circulation fails due to lack of power, high chimney temperatures, and high boiler surface temperatures. as highly sophisticated automatic pellet boilers made their way into the american market, they were defined in maine as \u201c solid fuel \u201d appliances because pellets are solid. while that seems innocent and logical enough, the categorization has one substantial flaw and it creates one significant impediment to product growth in the marketplace. state - of - the - art pellet boilers display none of the attributes that led to the perceived need for \u201c solid fuel \u201d rules in maine. the rules were devised for cordwood boilers and coal stoker boilers that can hold a significant charge of fuel at any given time. the combustion of that fuel is relatively uncontrolled. pellet boilers burn a very small quantity of fuel at any given time, and the combustion of that fuel is highly controlled. combustion stops almost immediately if the power goes out, hence, no excessive heat can be produced during a power outage. cordwood boilers and coal stoker boilers can produce very high stack temperatures. the exhaust gas temperatures from state - of - the - art pellet boilers are very much like those of modern oil boilers. in fact these boilers are so efficient, the stack gas temperature is often quite cool, 250f, or so, but it never exceeds 400f. therefore, high chimney temperatures never occur. old cordwood and coal stoker boilers could develop high surface temperatures making installed distance from combustible surfaces important. the surface temperature of these state - of - the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5124558273276086, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:35.699424"} {"text": "able to tolerate changes / disturbance or those able to seek refuge will thrive. the biotope is characterized by primary producers. rocky shore communities are highly productive and are an important source of food and nutrients for neighbouring terrestrial and marine ecosystems ( hill et al., 1998 ). macroalgae exude considerable amounts of dissolved organic carbon which is taken up readily by bacteria and may even be taken up directly by some larger invertebrates. dissolved organic carbon, algal fragments and microbial film organisms are continually removed by the sea. this may enter the food chain of local, subtidal ecosystems, or be exported further offshore. rocky shores make a contribution to the food of many marine species through the production of planktonic larvae and propagules which contribute to pelagic food chains. the life histories of common algae on the shore are generally complex and varied, but follow a basic pattern, whereby there is an alternation of a haploid, gamete - producing phase ( gametophyte - producing eggs and sperm ) and a diploid spore - producing ( sporophyte ) phase. all have dispersive phases which are circulated around in the water column before settling on the rock and growing into a germling ( hawkins & jones, 1992 ). ulva intestinalis is generally considered to be an opportunistic species, with an ' r - type ' strategy for survival. the r - strategists have a high growth rate and high reproductive rate. for instance, the thalli of ulva intestinalis, which arise from spores and zygotes, grow within a few weeks into thalli that reproduce again, and the majority of the cell contents are converted into reproductive cells. the species is also capable of dispersal over a considerable distance. for instance, amsler & searles ( 1980 ) showed that ' swarmers ' of a coastal population of ulva reached exposed artificial substrata on a submarine plateau 35 km away. the life cycle of porphyra involves a heteromorphic ( of different form ) alternation of generations, that are either blade shaped or filamentous. two kinds of reproductive bodies ( male and female ( carpogonium ) ) are found on the blade shaped frond of porphyra that is abundant during winter. on release these fuse and thereafter, division of the fertilized carpogonium is mitotic, and packets of diploid carpospores are formed. the released carpospores develop into the ' conchocelis", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5094928440897882, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:35.706357"} {"text": "abundant during winter. on release these fuse and thereafter, division of the fertilized carpogonium is mitotic, and packets of diploid carpospores are formed. the released carpospores develop into the ' conchocelis ' phase ( the diploid sporophyte consisting of microscopic filaments ), which bore into shells ( and probably the chalk rock ) and grow vegetatively. the conchocelis filaments reproduce asexually. in the presence of decreasing day length and falling temperatures, terminal cells of the conchocelis phase produce conchospores inside conchosporangia. meiosis occurs during the germination of the conchospore and produces the macroscopic gametophyte ( blade shaped phase ) and the cycle is repeated ( cole & conway, 1980 ). time for community to reach maturity disturbance is an important factor structuring the biotope, consequently the biotope is characterized by ephemeral algae able to rapidly exploit newly available substrata and that are tolerant of changes in the prevailing conditions, e. g. temperature, salinity and desiccation. for instance, following the torrey canyon tanker oil spill in mid march 1967, which bleached filamentous algae such as ulva and adhered to the thin fronds of porphyra, which after a few weeks became brittle and were washed away, regeneration of porphyra and ulva was noted by the end of april at marazion, cornwall. similarly, at sennen cove where rocks had completely lost their cover of porphyra and ulva during april, by mid - may had occasional blade - shaped fronds of porphyra sp. up to 15 cm long. these had either regenerated from basal parts of the ' porphyra ' phase or from the ' conchocelis ' phase on the rocks ( see recruitment processes ). by mid - august these regenerated specimens were common and well grown but darkly pigmented and reproductively immature. besides the porphyra, a very thick coating of ulva ( as enteromorpha ) was recorded in mid - august ( smith 1968 ). such evidence suggests that the community would reach maturity relatively rapidly and probably be considered mature in terms of the species present and ability to reproduce well within six months. no text entered. this review can be cited as follows : ulva spp. on freshwater - influenced or unstable upper eulittoral rock. marine", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5003749897933041, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:35.707268"} {"text": "the nidcd award will provide $ 300, 000 over the next three years to fund the project, titled \u201c auditory masking effects on speech fluency in aphasia and apraxia of speech. \u201d in many adults who survive stroke, damage to speech regions of the brain results in a distorted, effortful, and halting pattern of speech, a condition called apraxia of speech. although they know what they want to say and have intact muscle strength, they have difficulty programming the movements for speech. they are able to hear their speech errors, and the typical treatment program focuses on identifying these errors and correcting them. for most people, focusing on these mistakes results in little improvement in their speech. in contrast to conventional treatment approaches, dr. jacks and his colleagues ( katarina haley, phd, dahs, dshs ; heidi roth, md, department of neurology ) are studying the effects of preventing the person with apraxia of speech from hearing the errors in their speech, by playing loud noise through earphones. this approach is based on the premise that people with this speech disorder are overly - attuned to speech errors, which prevents them from speaking fluently. the same phenomenon has been known for decades to help people who stutter to speak fluently, as demonstrated in the popular film the king ' s speech. in the proposed research, dr. jacks and his colleagues seek to identify stroke survivors who respond positively to listening to noise by increasing speech rate and decreasing the occurrence of speech disfluencies ( pauses, filler words, repetitions ). since not all people are expected to show a change in speech while listening to noise, the team also will study individual characteristics to determine what differentiates those who improve from those who do not. in particular, behavioral profiles ( type of speech and language impairment ) and location and size of brain lesion will be compared between positive responders and non - responders to determine whether a positive response can be predicted from routine clinical data. in preliminary work, over half of the participants tested spoke more quickly and with fewer disfluencies while listening to noise. although this is a temporary effect and does not persist after the noise is turned off, the moments of speech fluency experienced may cause the person ' s brain to activate in a different way than it does when he or she is speaking disfluently. if the preliminary results are borne out in the completed study, dr. jacks and his team believe that the procedure may be further developed into", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.53828299118554, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:35.711244"} {"text": "increasing local contrast the previous section showed adjustments to the brightness and contrast of the entire image. the adjustment changes every pixel of original brightness value a to the same final brightness value b, regardless of the pixel \u2019 s neighbors. another class of operations increases the visibility of local differences between pixels, by suppressing the longer - range variations. these neighborhood functions use a moving neighborhood, usually a small circle, that compares or combines the central pixel and the neighbors to produce a new value that is assigned to the central pixel to construct a new image. then the neighborhood shifts to the next pixel and the process is repeated. these calculations are applied to the pixel brightness values in a color coordinate system such as hsi or lab that leaves the color values unchanged. for instance, local equalization functions just like the histogram equalization procedure, except that it takes place within a moving circular neighborhood and assigns a new value only to the central pixel. the result makes a pixel that is slightly brighter than its surroundings brighter still, and vice - versa, enhancing local contrast. the result is usually added back in some proportion to the original image to produce a more visually pleasing result, as shown in the local equalization interactive java tutorial. sharpening of images to increase local contrast is almost universally applied by publishers to counter the visual blurring effect of halftoning images in the printing process. this is usually done by a convolution using a kernel of weights, just as the gaussian smoothing function shown above. but in this application, some of those weights will have negative values. for instance, the laplacian sharpening filter in table 1 combines each pixel with its eight adjacent neighbors as shown in the laplacian sharpening interactive java tutorial. a more flexible extension of this basic idea is the widely used ( and as often misused ) unsharp mask. the name derives from a century - old darkroom procedure that required printing the original image at 1 : 1 magnification but out of focus onto another piece of film ( this was the unsharp mask ), and then placing the two films together to print the final result. where the original negative was dense, the mask was not ( and vice versa ) so that little light was transmitted, except near detail and edges where the mask was out of focus. the same effect can be produced in the computer by applying a gaussian blur to a duplicate of the original and then subtracting it from the original. the difference between the two images is just the detail and edges removed by", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5538671877903525, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:35.738700"} {"text": "out of focus. the same effect can be produced in the computer by applying a gaussian blur to a duplicate of the original and then subtracting it from the original. the difference between the two images is just the detail and edges removed by the blurring. the original image is then added back to the difference to increase the visibility of the details while suppressing the overall image contrast. in the unsharp masking interactive java tutorial, the result image is automatically scaled to the range of the display so that negative values that can result from the calculation are not lost. one of the characteristics of the unsharp mask is the formation of bright and dark \u201c haloes \u201d adjacent to the dark and bright borders ( respectively ) of structure in the image. this increases their visibility, but can hide other nearby information. a related approach using neighborhood ranking rather than gaussian blurring alleviates this problem. the method applies a median filter to remove fine detail, subtracts this from the original to isolate the detail, and then adds the original image back to enhance the visibility as shown in the rank masking interactive java tutorial. this method is called a rank mask, but is sometimes ( incorrectly ) referred to as a top hat filter ( the real top hat is shown below ). note that all of these local enhancement methods are very noise sensitive, because both random speckle and shot noise produce pixels that are different from their local neighborhood. image noise must be removed before enhancement is attempted, or the visibility of the noise will be increased as shown in the comparison of local contrast enhancement methods interactive java tutorial. the top hat filter is also a based on neighborhood ranking, but unlike the procedure above it uses the ranked value from two different size regions. the brightest value in a circular interior region is compared to the brightest value in a surrounding annular region. if the brightness difference exceeds a threshold level, it is kept ( otherwise it is erased ). the top hat filter interactive java tutorial shows the filter \u2019 s operation. if the interior and annular regions are drawn as shown in the diagram in figure 1, the reason for the filter name becomes apparent. the interior region is the crown and the threshold is its height, while the surrounding annulus is the brim of the hat. this operation is particularly well suited for finding the spikes in fourier transform power spectra, as illustrated previously. the top hat is also good for locating any features of a known size by adjusting the radius of the crown. objects too large to fit into the crown", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.561650696980273, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:35.739660"} {"text": "this operation is particularly well suited for finding the spikes in fourier transform power spectra, as illustrated previously. the top hat is also good for locating any features of a known size by adjusting the radius of the crown. objects too large to fit into the crown of the hat are selectively removed. reversing the logic to use the darkest values in both regions enables the same procedure to isolate dust or other dark features. by replacing the interior value by the mean of the surroundings, the dust can be selectively removed. in this application, shown in the rolling ball filter interactive java tutorial, the method is called a rolling ball filter. john c. russ - materials science and engineering dept., north carolina state university, raleigh, north carolina, 27695. matthew parry - hill and michael w. davidson - national high magnetic field laboratory, 1800 east paul dirac dr., the florida state university, tallahassee, florida, 32310. questions or comments? send us an email. \u00a9 1998 - 2009 by michael w. davidson, john russ, olympus america inc., and the florida state university. all rights reserved. no images, graphics, scripts, or applets may be reproduced or used in any manner without permission from the copyright holders. use of this website means you agree to all of the legal terms and conditions set forth by the owners. this website is maintained by our", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.6055316920800564, "token_count": 280, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:35.740161"} {"text": "| about the presenter : patricia m. roberts, ph. d., ccc - slp, slp ( c ), currently associate professor in speech language pathology at the university of ottawa, in canada ' s capital. she holds degrees from queen ' s university ( kingston, canada ) and florida state university and obtained her ph. d. from the universite de montreal. in her first career as a clinical slp, she worked with many bilingual clients and was privileged to have the late marie poulos as colleague and mentor. she is spending much of her 2nd career as a professor and researcher trying to understand the many unsolved puzzles of bilingual stuttering. | in this presentation, i will focus on four mysteries ( things we do not yet know ) about stuttering in bilingual children and adults and some of the myths associated with these gaps in our current knowledge. to make this essay easier to read, i won ' t say \" bilingual or multilingual \" each time the word \" bilingual \" comes up but in most places, what applies to bilinguals also applies to multilingual speakers - as far as we know - so far. mystery 1 : how many bilingual people are there? it is sometimes confusing to even try to discuss bilingualism because the word bilingual means different things to different people. for some people, bilinguals are people who speak two ( or more - for multilinguals ) languages equally and perfectly. people who speak two languages in their daily lives, and can do most things such as talking to people at work, reading the newspaper, understanding conversations with friends sometimes say \" oh yes, i can do all that. but i am not bilingual \". other people describe themselves as bilingual if they can communicate basic ideas, even if they make many errors in grammar and pronunciation and have a very small vocabulary in one language. in research, both these kinds of people are seen as having different levels of bilingualism. ratings from 1 to 7 or 1 to 9 are often used to estimate where each person falls along the continuous line that goes from \" i really only know one language \" to \" i am one of those rare people who feels equally at home in two languages, no matter what the task or topic \". for speaking, hearing, reading, and writing, most of us are at slightly different levels of ability, in each of the languages we know. for this essay - and the discussions i hope it will spark - let ' s think of bilingualism as being a continuum. we don ' t divide the world", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5183873257287651, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:35.758545"} {"text": "of us are at slightly different levels of ability, in each of the languages we know. for this essay - and the discussions i hope it will spark - let ' s think of bilingualism as being a continuum. we don ' t divide the world into tall people and short people. there is no rational cut - off to separate \" tall \" from \" short \". same thing for \" bilingual \" and \" unilingual \". everyone is at some point along the line that goes from strongly unilingual to very, very bilingual. with a broad definition of bilingualism, some authors estimate that there are at least as many people in the world who need to use two or more languages in their daily lives as there are people who can only function in one language ( see, for example, bhatia & ritchie, 2006 ). we cannot make precise estimates unless we first define what levels of bilingualism are included or excluded from the count ( and where to divide dialects from languages ). mystery 2 : is the incidence of stuttering the same in different languages? there are studies of the incidence of stuttering in different countries. some authors use these studies to say things like \" the incidence of stuttering is higher in country x than in country y \". but, if each study used different ways of sampling and different ways of determining who stutters, it is not valid to compare across studies. for example, from one study to the next, different methods were used in deciding who is stuttering : parent reports? teachers in schools or day care centres? parents remembering what the child was like 5 or 10 years ago? there are also differences in what counts as stuttering : only for a few months at age 3? only people who stuttered for more than a year? only those who reach a given level of severity? when people see these reports, they often speculate about why the incidence figures seem to be different ( ignoring the differences in how the estimates were reached ), often using their favourite aspect of stuttering as the explanation. thus, we see explanations like : 1 ) \" there is more stuttering in country x than in country y because the grammar of the language spoken in country x makes greater demands on memory.... \" the complexity of a language might be relevant, in some subtle ways including the location of moments of stuttering within a sentence. concluding that the language itself influences the number of people who stutter requires a huge, dangerous leap of logic. there are other possible explanations that have to be ruled out before we", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5406738894871392, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:35.759510"} {"text": ". however, bilingualism is seen as something very positive by most people who do research on it, and most studies are designed to detect advantages and not problems associated with bilingualism. also, this research is based on children with no speech or language problems. in children with a genetic vulnerability to stuttering, is learning two sets of words and grammar rules, and two sets of speech sounds harder than it is for children without this vulnerability? if learning two languages as a child is much harder than learning one, is it all potentially bilingual children or only a sub - group of those who might be at risk for stuttering? how should we interpret the recent and somewhat controversial study by howell, davis and williams ( 2009 ) that found a higher incidence of stuttering in children if they began learning english ( the language of their new country? before age 5? were there other reasons for the finding that children who learned english before starting school were more likely to stutter than those who reportedly began learning english when they began school in london, england? ( see packman, et al, 2009 letter to the editor and howell et al. ' s reply. ) there are four other, older studies that have led some people to conclude that bilingualism is too great a strain for children who stutter. in each case, these studies have serious flaws that make it impossible to draw any conclusions from them. travis, johnson and shover ( 1937 ) asked people with no training in communication disorders ( such as priests and steel company personnel directors ) to talk to young children and classify them as stuttering or not stuttering based on one interview. stern ( 1948 ) interviewed children if their parents reported that they stuttered. in both these studies, we have little information about the type of speech sample obtained, how long it was or how the disfluencies were counted. applying current standards to these studies, they would not be accepted for publication. dale ( 1977 ) reported that four cuban - american teenagers reported feeling that being made to speak their weaker language made them more disfluent. most bilinguals have a stronger and a weaker language. for these teens, their first language - spanish - was their weaker language, since so much of their lives at school and with friends took place in english, their second language. this study \" blames \" bilingualism. but we have no information about real disfluency rates across different situations, and dale does not distinguish between normal disfluencies and tense, stuttered disfluencies. there are studies showing that", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5170348637551467, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:35.762753"} {"text": "study \" blames \" bilingualism. but we have no information about real disfluency rates across different situations, and dale does not distinguish between normal disfluencies and tense, stuttered disfluencies. there are studies showing that, in adults, the memory load of speaking in their weaker language may lead to a higher number of normal disfluencies ( ums, uh ' s, revisions ) in the weaker language than in the preferred language ( e. g., fehringer & fry, 2007 ). perhaps that is all that was happening in this study. dale offers no data to support the notion that any of the four adolescents, in fact, stuttered. karniol ( 1992 ) described how stuttering appeared to increase and decrease in a young boy whose environment included exposure to various levels of english, hebrew, and hungarian during an extremely tense time that included a war going on around him. with the information provided, we cannot tell what his real level of exposure to each language was ( siblings, friends, parents etc. ) and whether his parents ' attempts to expose him to only hebrew had any impact on what is described as a recovery from stuttering. the parents ' diaries cover a period of approximately one year ( age 2 to age 3 ) when the boy was in the age group where the chances of spontaneous recovery from stuttering are very, very high. there is ( still ) no clinical research to support the strategy of removing one language from a child ' s environment. recent reviews of the literature do not find support for doing this routinely for all children ( e. g., bernstein ratner, 2004 ; roberts & shenker, 2007 ; van borsel, maes & foulon, 2001 ). some clinicians do this, however, if they work in a demands and capacities framework or if the child also has delayed language and / or problems learning the speech sounds of his / her language. until there is solid evidence on the impact of bilingualism in young children ( i. e. a series of studies, done by different authors, ideally on different types of speakers and different pairs of languages ), each clinician is left to try a particular strategy and assess its impact on a case by case basis. mystery 4 : do some bilingual people stutter in only one language? as of 2010, i am still not aware of any documented case of this occurring. like the loch ness monster, there are reported sightings from time to time, but no real proof that this is possible.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5043607165569716, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:35.763681"} {"text": "k., & ritchie, w. c. ( 2006 ). introduction. in t. k. bhatia & w. c. ritchie ( eds. ) the handbook of bilingualism ( pp. 1 - 2 ), oxford : blackwell publishing. dale, p. ( 1977 ). factors relating to disfluent speech in bilingual cuban - american adolescents. journal of fluency disorders, 2, 311 - 314. fehringer, c., & fry, c. ( 2007 ). hesitation phenomena in the language production of bilingual speakers. folia linguistica, 41, 37 - 72. howell, p., davis, s. williams, r. ( 2009 ). the effects of bilingualism on stuttering during late childhood. archives of disease in childhood, 94, 42 - 46 karniol, r. ( 1992 ). stuttering out of bilingualism. first language, 12, 255 - 283. packman, a., onslow, m., reilly, s. et al. ( 2009 ). stuttering and bilingualism. archives of disease in childhood, 94, 248. ( a letter to the editor re the howell, davis and williams study ) roberts, p. m. & shenker, r. c. ( 2007 ). assessment and treatment of stuttering in bilingual speakers. in r. f. curlee & e. g. conture ( eds ). stuttering and related disorders of fluency 3rd edition ( pp. 183 - 209 ). new york : thieme medical publishers. stern, e. ( 1948 ). a preliminary study of bilingualism and stuttering in four johannesburg schools. journal of logopedics, 1, 15 - 25. travis, l. e., johnson, w., & shover, j. ( 1937 ). the relation of bilingualism to stuttering : a survey in the east chicago, indiana, schools. journal of speech disorders, 12, 185 - 189. van borsel, j. maes, e., & foulon, s. ( 2001 ). stuttering and bilingualism : a review. journal of fluency disorders, 26, 179 - 205.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5061136304188067, "token_count": 449, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:35.765392"} {"text": "memory loss ( amnesia ) is unusual forgetfulness. you may not be able to remember new events, recall one or more memories of the past, or both. forgetfulness ; amnesia ; impaired memory ; loss of memory ; amnestic syndrome normal aging may cause some forgetfullness. it ' s normal to have some trouble learning new material, or needing more time to remember it. however, normal aging does not lead to dramatic memory loss. such memory loss is due to other diseases. sometimes, memory loss may be seen with depression. it can be hard to tell the difference between memory loss and confusion due to depression. some types of memory loss may cause you to forget recent or new events, past or remote events, or both. you may forget memories from a single event, or all events. memory loss may cause you to have trouble learning new information or forming new memories. the memory loss may be temporary ( transient ), or permanent. memory loss can be caused by many different things. to determine a cause, your doctor or nurse will ask if the problem came on suddenly or slowly. many areas of the brain help you create and retrieve memories. a problem in any of these areas can lead to memory loss. causes of memory loss include : alcohol or use of illicit drugs not enough oxygen to the brain ( heart stopped, stopped breathing, complications from anesthesia ) brain growths ( caused by tumors or infection ) brain infections such as lyme disease, syphilis, or hiv / aids a person with memory loss needs a lot of support. it helps to show them familiar objects, music, or photos. write down when the person should take any medication or complete any other important tasks. it is important to write it down. if a person needs help with everyday tasks, or safety or nutrition is a concern, you may want to consider extended care facilities, such as a nursing home. what to expect at your health care provider ' s office the doctor or nurse will perform a physical exam and ask questions about the person ' s medical history and symptoms. this will almost always include asking questions of family members and friends. they should come to the appointment. medical history questions may include : can the person remember recent events ( is there impaired short - term memory )? can the person remember events from further in the past ( is there impaired long - term memory )? is there a loss of memory about events that occurred before a specific experience ( anterograde amnesia )? is there a loss of memory about events that occurred soon after a specific", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.511364675814886, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:35.774490"} {"text": "this approach, specially trained student mediators work with their peers to resolve conflicts. mediation programs reduce the use of traditional disciplinary actions such as suspension, detention, and expulsion ; encourage effective problem solving ; decrease the need for teacher involvement in student conflicts ; and improve school climate. an example of a peer mediation program is we can work it out, developed by the national institute for citizenship education in the law and the national crime prevention council. the program promotes mediation, negotiation, or other non - litigating methods as strategies to settle unresolved confrontations and fighting. one albuquerque elementary school principal reported, \" we were having 100 to 150 fights every month on the playground before we started the new mexico center for dispute resolution ' s mediation in the schools program. by the end of the school year, we were having maybe 10 ( fights ). \" other elementary schools using the same peer mediation approach to conflict resolution education reported that playground fighting had been reduced to such an extent that peer mediators found themselves out of a job. process curriculum approach teachers who devote a specific time - - a separate course, a distinct curriculum, or a daily lesson - - to the principles, foundation abilities, and problem - solving processes of conflict resolution are implementing the process curriculum approach. the program for young negotiators, based on the harvard negotiation project, is representative of this approach. participating students, teachers, and administrators are taught how to use principled negotiation to achieve goals and resolve disputes. this type of negotiation helps disputants envision scenarios and generate options for achieving results that satisfy both sides. in a north carolina middle school with more than 700 students, conflict resolution education was initiated. the school used the peace foundation ' s fighting fair curriculum and a combination of components from various conflict resolution projects. after a school year, in - school suspensions decreased from 52 to 30 incidents ( a 42 - percent decrease ), and out - of - school suspensions decreased from 40 incidents to 1 ( a 97 - percent decrease ). peaceable classroom approach the peaceable classroom approach integrates conflict resolution into the curriculum and daily management of the classroom. it uses the instructional methods of cooperative learning and \" academic controversy. \" the educators for social responsibility curriculum, making choices about conflict, security, and peacemaking, is a peaceable classroom approach to conflict resolution. the program shows teachers how to integrate conflict resolution into the curriculum, classroom management, and discipline practices. it emphasizes opportunities to practice cooperation, appreciation of diversity, and caring and effective communication. generally, peaceable classrooms are", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5010019565580286, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:35.801697"} {"text": "detriment of the king ' s person or the constitutional monarchy then in power. the circular also stated that action would be taken against any professor who so indulges in such political or religious meditations - - i. e., expulsion from the university. the minister ' s recommendations were no mere recommendations. the result of all this was the removal of several professors from their faculty chairs. among them was the future founder of the institute, francisco giner de los rios. for not adhering to the state ' s demands, he was arrested in march 1875, at 4 : 00 in the morning, and spent four months confinement until he was finally expelled from the university. the principle in question was clearly one of academic freedom. the state, however, saw the \" university question \" ( \" cuestion universitaria \" ) from another angle : that is, the university and its faculties were no more than instruments of the government ' s policies and, therefore, were obligated to conform to the state ' s instructions and directives. the professors were, in effect, civil servants ( and still are today ). this, then, is the historical and educational background to the founding of the institucion libre de ensenanza, the institute, in 1876. the institucion libre de ensenanza perhaps the most significant point to be made about the institute ' s existence is the profound and far - reaching, if diffuse, influence of its founder, francisco giner de los rios, a professor of philosophy of law at the university of madrid. it was largely don francisco ' s attractive and vibrant personality which held the institute together and proved to be the prime mover of the school. all the accounts of don francisco by friends, former students, disciplines, and fellow professors stress the very personal and individual effect of the man. this is not to deny the cogency of his ideas and methods of teaching but simply to make clear that, with don francisco, abstractions were made concrete in his very person ; that is, through him and his relations with men and women, he incarnated his own beliefs. one friend had this to say about him as a teacher at the time of his death in 1915 : what was the secret of his teaching? did he reveal anything new? or was it that everything was transformed at the touch of his powerful creative imagination? the secret lay as much in the form as in the substance. as a teacher, he brought us something that was the complete opposite of the old methods ;", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5002670167529863, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:35.839020"} {"text": "do more than mention here the historic interdependence of church and state in spain. the credo of the institute, which appeared regularly on the masthead of its publication, the bulletin of the free institute of education ( el boletin de la institucion libre de ensenanza ) was as follows : the free institute of education is completely opposed to religious, philosophical and political sectarianism, proclaiming only the principle of liberty and the inviolability of science and the concomitant independence of scientific research and explanation, with regard to any other authority than that of the conscience itself of the professor, who is alone responsible for his ideas. ( cited by a. jimenez - landi, \" don francisco giner de los rios y la institucion libre de ensenanza, \" revista hispanica moderna, v. 25, nos. 1, 2, 1959, p. 16 ). because spain ' s educational history had been one of bickering and divisiveness between the demands of the state and the private sector, and conflict between the precepts of the church and needs of science, with religion usually dominating over science, don francisco abhorred dogmatic, closed positions. he fervently believed in tolerance. it was not, however, mere intellectual benevolence which motivated don francisco. rather, it was an ethical, moral stance, a way of life, which he wanted to instill in his pupils, the \" institutionists. \" a follower of giner de los rios, jose castillejo, has written that, for don francisco, \" the two greatest forces in education are : the personality of the teacher and the social atmosphere and surroundings of the school \" ( wars of ideas in spain, london, 1937, p. 97 ). we have already seen in the magnetic power of don francisco ' s teaching itself the importance of the teacher ' s personality. what about the ambience of the school? here, one sees right away to what extent don francisco and his disciples felt compelled to move away from the current, i. e., antiquated and rigid teaching methods and atmosphere of both public and private schools in spain. first, the classroom should be informal, akin to familial surroundings. the teacher should not merely dictate or lecture, but rather converse, using whatever approach or combination of approaches worked best, starting with the socratic dialogue. no one method was to be used, to the exclusion of", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5343539229009864, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 8, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:35.841797"} {"text": "familial surroundings. the teacher should not merely dictate or lecture, but rather converse, using whatever approach or combination of approaches worked best, starting with the socratic dialogue. no one method was to be used, to the exclusion of all others. the teacher was a guide, the pupils a family. a small family. classes were to be kept small. and coeducational ( primary and secondary education in spain today is not coeducational. ) cordiality and the spirit of discovery were the key words at the institute. don francisco aimed at dispelling not only the fear and horror of school, such as we have seen in pereda ' s reminiscences, but the passivity with which most students received their education. the original intent of the institute was to create an alternative to the higher education of official spain, but the desire was not to be met. it was quickly found to be beyond the resources of the institute which suffered from chronic insufficiency of funds from its inception. instead, the school evolved into an institution of primary and secondary education. since most students entering a spanish university were ill - prepared to meet its demands, the \" institutionists \" felt that a solid intellectual, moral, physical and spiritual background given in the primary and secondary levels of education was an a priori necessity. what was taught at the institute besides the traditional subjects required by the state _ _ _ curriculum included anthropology, technology, social sciences, economics, art, drawing, singing, and handwork. most of these subjects were generally neglected in state and church - run schools of the period. most remembered and most significant are the innovations carried out in the arts and in physical education, and the frequent excursions. first, art. \" institutionists, \" for the most part, tried to avoid systematic and highly structured courses in art and art history. instead, they emphasized such activities as excursions to historical monuments and places and visits to museums. such an unorthodox procedure was unheard - of in nineteenth - century spain. rather than mere lessons, the institute stressed the actual, vivid experiencing of art as much as possible. like the literary generation of 1898, they also, in a sense, rediscovered spain ' s cultural heritage, by extolling the value of spanish folklore, architecture and painting. it was, for example, a disciple of don francisco, manuel de cossio, who rediscovered the forgotten and neglected el greco for spaniards and the rest of the world. one of the most", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5315796280706593, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 9, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:35.842764"} {"text": "whole of the institute ' s education, the entire atmosphere of the institute, was permeated with this spiritualization of man and the universe. it does not take too much imagination to see that the institute would not be without enemies. the ideological dichotomy between left and right, progressive and traditionalist, in spain immediately polarized the significance of the institute. it was the product of the devil for some ; the only hope and salvation in spain for others. the institute itself fell, one more victim, to the ravages of spain ' s civil war in 1936. yet, looked at dispassionately, the institute ' s openness to ideas and influences from the rest of europe, its undogmatic approach to education and to life itself, could not help but bring a breath of fresh air to the closed and narrow society of nineteenth - century spain. if it perhaps erred too much in the direction of intellectual anarchy and placed too much confidence in the innate goodness of man, the institute ' s efforts at raising the moral and intellectual level of spaniards became an all - pervasive influence in many institutions, both public and private, in government circles, in business. the institute was \" much more than a school. \" it was an atmosphere of intellectual and moral enlightenment ; and a belief in the regeneration of spain.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5283492686732534, "token_count": 270, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 14, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:35.848443"} {"text": "below are the first 10 and last 10 pages of uncorrected machine - read text ( when available ) of this chapter, followed by the top 30 algorithmically extracted key phrases from the chapter as a whole. intended to provide our own search engines and external engines with highly rich, chapter - representative searchable text on the opening pages of each chapter. because it is uncorrected material, please consider the following text as a useful but insufficient proxy for the authoritative book pages. do not use for reproduction, copying, pasting, or reading ; exclusively for search engines. ocr for page 1 summary a new perspective hazards of modern life surround us and so, too, does commu - nication about the risks of those hazards. news reports describe such hazards as pollutants in the air and in drinking water, pes - ticide residues in food, threats from radiation and toxic chemicals, and atds. government and industry also send out messages about hazards and their risks, sometimes directly to the populace but more often through intermediaries, such as the print and broadcast media. risk messages are difficult to formulate in ways that are accurate, clear, and not rn ~ steading. one reads, for example, that \" radon risk can equal or exceed the 2 % o risk of death in an auto accident,... for anyone who lives 20 years at levels exceeding about 25 picocuries per liter \" ( kerr, 1988 ~. this statement places an unfamiliar risk ( radon exposure in homes ) in juxtaposition to a more familiar risk ( death in an auto accident ), which may help people understand the magnitude of this unfamiliar risk. but this simple comparison may be misleading because it does not specify the respective levels of exposure, leaves out potentially relevant nonlethal consequences, and uses language ( picocuries per liter ) unfamiliar to most people. this report addresses these and other problems confronting risk communication. 1 ocr for page 2 2 improving risk communication risk messages can be controversial for many reasons. the haz - ards they describe are often themselves centers of controversy. fre - quently, there is enough uncertainty in the underlying knowledge to allow different experts to draw contradictory conclusions. experts are frequently accused of hiding their subjective preferences behind technical jargon and complex, so - called objective analyses. often a message that is precise and accurate must be so complex that only an expert can understand it. messages that nonexperts can under - stand necessarily present selected information and are thus subject to challenge", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5522058794771676, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:35.869222"} {"text": ". common misconceptions about rise communication several important misconceptions need to be dispelled before the real problems of risk communication can be addressed. con - trary to what some think, there is no single overriding problem and thus no simple way of making risk communication easy. risk mes - sages necessarily compress technical information, which can lead to misunderstanding, confusion, and distrust. many people including some scientists, decision makers, and members of the public - have unrealistic expectations about what can be accomplished by risk communication. for example, it is mistaken to expect improved risk communication to always reduce conflict and smooth risk management. risk management decisions that benefit some citizens can harm others. in addition, people do not all share common interests and values, so better understanding may not lead to consensus about controversial issues or to uniform personal behavior. but even though good risk communication cannot always be expected to improve a situation, poor risk communication will nearly always make it worse. it is also mistaken to think, as some do, that if people understood and used risk comparisons it would be easy for them to make decisions. comparing risks can help people comprehend the unfamiliar magnitudes associated with risks, but risk comparison alone cannot establish levels of acceptable risk or ensure systematic minimization of risk. factors other than the level of risk - such as the voluntariness of exposure to the hazard and the degree of dread associated with the consequences must be considered in determining the acceptability of risk associated with a particular activity or phenomenon. some risk communication problems derive from mistaken beliefs about scientific research on the nature of how risks are assessed and managed and on risk communication itself. scientific information, for example, cannot be expected to resolve all important risk issues. all too often research that would answer the question has not been done or the results are disputed. although a great deal of research has been done on the dissemination and preparation of risk messages, ocr for page 4 4 improving risk communication there has been much less attention devoted to the risk communication process. in addition, even when valid scientific data are available, experts are unlikely to agree completely about the meaning of these data for risk management decisions. finally, it is unrealistic to expect easy identification and understanding of the values, preferences, and information needs of the intended recipients of risk messages. other misconceptions involve stereotypes about the way inter - mediaries and recipients react to risk messages. it is mistaken, for example, to view journalists and the media always as significant, independent causes of problems in risk communication.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5238143231304766, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:35.871350"} {"text": "of risk messages. other misconceptions involve stereotypes about the way inter - mediaries and recipients react to risk messages. it is mistaken, for example, to view journalists and the media always as significant, independent causes of problems in risk communication. rather, the problem is often at the interface between science and journalism. both sides need to better understand the pressures and constraints of the other instead of complaining about the sometimes disappointing results. scientists and risk managers should recognize the importance of the part journalists play in identifying disputes and maintaining the flow of information during resolution of conflicts ; journalists need to understand how to frame the technical and social dimensions of risk issues. it is also important to recognize the differences between the broadcast ant! the print media and between the national and the regional or local press corps. finally, even though most people prefer simplicity to complex - ity, it is mistaken to expect the public to want simple, cut - and - dried answers as to what to do in every case. the public is not homoge - neous. people diner in the degree to which they exercise control over exposure to hazards or remediation of undesirable consequences, the importance they attach to various consequences, and their tendency to be risk averse or risk seeking. often at least part of the public seeks considerable information about the risks they face. problems of risk communication we distinguish two major types of problems in risk communica - tion. problems deriving from institutional and political systems are problems for which little can be done beyond trying to understand them by those involved in risk communication. nevertheless, these problems can have a considerable impact on actions and events. problems of risk communicators and recipients can be addressed more directly and are therefore more amenable to improvement or solution. ocr for page 5 summary 5 problems deriving mom the institutional and political systems several kinds of legal considerations, including statutory man - dates, liability, and informed consent and \" right - to - know \" require - ments, influence the options available to risk managers and thus the content of their risk messages. these considerations generally either limit the possible responses to the risk in question or require that certain actions be taken in given circumstances. for example, some - times statutes require consideration of certain factors ( the federal insecticide, fungicide, and rodenticide act explicitly includes con - sideration of economic benefits ) or the exclusion of others ( the clean water act specifies that the best available technology should be used regardless of the financial burden imposed ). although not necessar - il", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5359898231332698, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:35.872368"} {"text": ", and rodenticide act explicitly includes con - sideration of economic benefits ) or the exclusion of others ( the clean water act specifies that the best available technology should be used regardless of the financial burden imposed ). although not necessar - ily problems as such, these considerations often constitute important influences on risk messages and risk communication processes. it is often difficult to understand why risk messages appear as they do without consideration of these factors. communicating with citizens about risks can increase their desire to participate in or otherwise influence decisions about the control of those risks, thereby making risk management even more cumber - some. the interests of citizens and their motivation to participate in the political process can introduce difficult challenges when the implementation of risk control measures is necessarily decentralized and local preferences ( generally to avoid exposure to a particular risk ) preclude solutions in the broader interest. many hazardous waste facilities operate under these pressures. divided authority, not only among congress, the executive branch, and the courts at the federal level but also among federal, state, and local or regional jurisdictions, creates incentives for each actor to gain as much leverage as possible from the limited portion he or she controls. such fragmentation makes communicating about risks harder because it makes government regulation and risk reduc - tion programs more complex and makes it more difficult to determine who is responsible for the eventual outcomes. government and industry spend large amounts of money on research, and thus their concerns are usually well reflected in the information developed by that research. individuals and citizens ' groups do not usually have the financial resources to fund research and thus do not enjoy this sort of access to information and influence over its generation. if a group of people that a risk corr ~ municator is trying to reach feels that the system for generating information relied ocr for page 6 6 improving risk communication upon by that source does not consider the group ' s concerns, it may reject the information from that source as a basis for decisions about risks. it is reasonable to speculate that this may, in part, explain why it is so difficult to affect young people ' s attitudes and behavior about drugs and the aids epidemic the information presented is based on facts that they do not consider very important in the face of their immediate concerns of peer pressure and personal image. there also may be systematic biases in the provision of informa - tion. those most strongly motivated to communicate about risk are often also those with the ' strongest interest in the decision. when - ever a personal or social decision affects interested groups or organi - zations", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5160279009447579, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:35.873409"} {"text": "biases in the provision of informa - tion. those most strongly motivated to communicate about risk are often also those with the ' strongest interest in the decision. when - ever a personal or social decision affects interested groups or organi - zations, conflicting messages reflecting the interests of those groups or organizations may be expected. the u. s. environmental protec - tion agency administrator ' s statement in 1984 that edb ( ethylene dibromide ) ' contamination was a tong - term health problem being ade - quately handled by tolerance guidelines, for example, was in the news at about the same time that public health officials in massachusetts and florida were removing grain products with edb contamination from grocery store shelves. experts from the food industry joined in, downplaying the risks, while scientists from environmental groups criticized the government ' s inaction. the beliefs, predispositions, and interests of risk communicators and the groups they represent create incentives to slant, or even distort or misrepresent, informa - tion. this can skew messages in many different directions on the same issue. problems of risk communicators and recipients the problems encountered by the sources and recipients of risk messages center on the following topics : establishing and recognizing credibility, making the messages understandable, preparing messages in an emergency, capturing and focusing attention, and getting in - formation. lack of credibility alters the communication process by adding distrust and acrimony. the most important factors affecting the credibility of a source and its messages relate to the accuracy of the messages and the legitimacy of the process by which the contents were determined, as perceived by the recipients. recipients ' views about the accuracy of a message are adversely affected by ( 1 ) real or perceived advocacy by the source of a position in the message that is not consistent with a careful assessment of the facts ; ( 2 ) ocr for page 7 summary 7 a reputation for deceit, misrepresentation, or coercion on the part, ~. positions taken by the source that do not support the current message ; ( 4 ) self - serving framing of information in the message ; ( 5 ) contradictory messages from other credible sources ; and ( 6 ) actual or perceived professional incompetence or impropriety on the part of the source. the perceived legitimacy of the process by which the contents of a message were determined depends on ( 1 ) the legal standing of the source with respect to the risks addressed ; ( 2 ) the justification provided for", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5161178377989003, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:35.874349"} {"text": "impropriety on the part of the source. the perceived legitimacy of the process by which the contents of a message were determined depends on ( 1 ) the legal standing of the source with respect to the risks addressed ; ( 2 ) the justification provided for the communication program ; ( 3 ) the access afforded affected parties to the decision - making process ; and ( 4 ) the degree to which conflicting claims are given fair and balanced review. ideally, risk information should use language and concepts re - cipients already understand. it is difficult to present scientific and technical information that uses everyday language and magnitudes common in ordinary experience and that is sensitive to such psycho - togical needs on the part of recipients as the desire for clear, decisive answers or the fear of the unfamiliar and unknown. sometimes risk communicators must disseminate messages when there are not enough relevant data to allow them to draw satisfactory conclusions and there is no time to obtain better information. this usually occurs when an emergency requires that action be taken im - mediately or not at all or when events lead to requests for information prior to the completion of study or analysis. many things compete with risk messages for attention, and it is often difficult to get the intended recipients to attend to the issues the risk communicator thinks are important. from the risk com - municator ' s standpoint, there are two aspects of this : stimulating the attention of the ultimate recipient and interacting with the news media and other intermediaries. there are, of course, several differ - ent ways that messages can reach the final recipients : face - to - face ( physician to patient, friend to friend, within the family ), in groups ( work sites, ciassrooms ), through professional or volunteer organi - zations ( american medical association, red cross ), through the mass media ( radio, television, magazines, newspapers, direct mail, billboards ), and through community service agencies ( at libraries, hospitals, mails, fairs ). recipients of risk messages may have difficulty deciding which issues to attend to or what to do because they cannot get information from officials and other message sources that satisfactorily answers their questions. this can happen when authorities do not listen of the source ; t3 ) previous statements or ocr for page 8 8 improving risk co ~ unication and therefore do not provide what the recipient considers relevant information or because the individual is unable to find a trusted source or interpreter of already available information. conclusions and recommendations in formulating recommendations we focused", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.529588092336208, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:35.875294"} {"text": "ocr for page 8 8 improving risk co ~ unication and therefore do not provide what the recipient considers relevant information or because the individual is unable to find a trusted source or interpreter of already available information. conclusions and recommendations in formulating recommendations we focused on the preparation and dissemination of formal risk messages to audiences that include nonexperts and on only two of the many types of risk - managing organizations : government agencies and large private corporations. nevertheless, our recommendations are intended to attack the prob - lems of recipients of risk messages as well. the goal cannot be only to make those who disseminate formal risk messages more effective by improving their credibility, understandability, and so on. such an approach might serve their interests, but it could well degrade the overall quality of risk communication if it merely meant that they could advance their viewpoints with greater influence. risk commu - nication can be improved only if recipients are also helped to solve their problems at the same time. the risk communication process usually with many messages from many sources - can be considered successful only to the extent that it, first, improves or increases the base of accurate information that decision makers use, be they government officials, industry man - agers, or individual citizens, and, second, satisfies those involved that they are adequately informed within the limits of available knowi - edge. this does not always result in the responses a particular source might wish, nor does it always lead to consensus about controver - sial issues or to uniform personal behavior. people do not all share common interests and values, and so better understanding will not necessarily lead them all to the same conclusion. improving risk communication is therefore more than merely crafting \" better messages. \" risk communication procedures as well as risk message content must be improved. because risk communi - cation is so tightly linked to the management of risks, solutions to the problems of risk communication often entail changes in risk man - agement and risk analysis. once the constraints, limitations, and incentives affecting the preparation and dissemination of messages - as well as how these factors become manifest in what we call the risk communication process - are understood, improvements can be implemented. ocr for page 9 summary. \",. \u00b7. 9 this is not to imply, however, that there is a single shortcut to improving the nation ' s risk communication efforts. the needed improvement can come only incrementally and only from careful attention to many details. risk managers need to consider risk com - munication as", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5516583712386056, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 7, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:35.876409"} {"text": "however, that there is a single shortcut to improving the nation ' s risk communication efforts. the needed improvement can come only incrementally and only from careful attention to many details. risk managers need to consider risk com - munication as an important and integral aspect of risk management. four sets of recommendations are presented : ( 1 ) recommenda - tions that pertain to the processes that source organizations use to generate decisions, knowledge, and risk messages ; ( 2 ) recommenda - tions that pertain to the content of individual risk messages ; ( 3 ) a call for a \" consumer ' s guide \" that will enhance the ability of other groups or individuals to understand and participate in risk manage - ment activities ; and ( 4 ) a brief summary of research needs. two broad themes run through the process and content recom - mendations. the first is the recognition that risk communication efforts should be more systematically oriented to the intended au - diences. the most effective risk messages are those that quite self - consciously address the audiences ' perspectives and concerns. the second is that openness is the surest policy. a central premise of democratic government the existence of an informed electorate - implies a free flow of information. suppression of relevant infor - mation is not only wrong but also, over the longer term, usually ineffective.. management of the process we identified four process objectives that are key elements in improving risk communication : ( 1 ) goal setting, ( 2 ) openness, ( 3 ) balance, and ( 4 ) competence. setting realistic goals risk communication activities ought to be matters of conscious design. practical goals should be established that explicitly accom - modate the political / legal mandates and constraints bounding the process and the roles of the potential recipients of the organization ' s risk messages, on the one hand, and clearly show the contribution to improved understanding of issues and actions on the other. ex - plicit consideration of such factors encourages realistic expectations, clarification of motives and objectives ( both within the source orga - nization and among outside groups and individuals ), and evaluation of performance. ocr for page 10 10 safeguarding openness improving risk communication risk communication should be a two - way street. organizations that communicate about risks should ensure effective dialogue with potentially affected outsiders. this two - way process should exhibit ( 1 ) a spirit of open exchange in a common undertaking rather than a series of \" canned \" briefings restricted to technical \" nonemotional \" issues and ( 2 ) early and", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5216263542786761, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 8, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:35.880292"} {"text": "dialogue with potentially affected outsiders. this two - way process should exhibit ( 1 ) a spirit of open exchange in a common undertaking rather than a series of \" canned \" briefings restricted to technical \" nonemotional \" issues and ( 2 ) early and sustained interchange that includes the media and other message intermediaries. openness does not ordinarily, however ' imply empowerment to determine the host organization ' s risk management decisions. to avoid misunderstanding, the limits of participation should be made clear from the outset. safeguarding balance and accuracy in risk messages in order to help ensure that risk messages are not distorted and do not appear to be distorted, those who manage the generation of risk assessments and risk messages should ( 1 ) hold the preparers of messages accountable for detecting and reducing distortion ; ( 2 ) consider review by recognized independent experts of the underly - ing assessment and, when feasible, the message ; ( 3 ) subject draft messages, if possible, to outside preview to determine if audiences detect any overlooked distortions ; and ( 4 ) prepare and release for comment a \" white paper \" on the risk assessment and risk reduction assessment. fostering competence risk managers need to use procedures that incorporate two dis - tinct types of expertise : on the risk subject matter ( e. g., carcinogenic risk, occupational safety ) and on risk communication. organizations that communicate about risk should take steps to ensure that the preparation of risk messages becomes a deliberate, specialized under - taking, taking care that in the process they do not sacrifice scientific quality. such steps include ( 1 ) deliberately considering the makeup of the intended audience and demonstrating how the choice of me - dia and message reflects an understanding of the audience and its concerns ; ( 2 ) attracting appropriate communications specialists and training technical staff in communications ; ( 3 ) requiring systematic assurance that substantive risk experts within the organization have ocr for page 11 summary 11 a voice in producing accurate assessments and the derivative risk message ; ( 4 ) establishing a thoughtful program of evaluating the past performance of risk communication efforts ; and ( 5 ) ensuring that their organizations improve their understanding of the roles of intermediaries, particularly media reporters and editors, including an understanding of the factors that make a risk story newsworthy, of the practical time and space constraints, and of the limited technical background of most media personnel. risk communication in crisis conditions the process for risk communication in crisis conditions requires special care. risk managers should ensure that ( l ) where there is a foreseeable potential for emergency, advance plans for communica - tion", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5226313802679732, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 9, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:35.881327"} {"text": "of most media personnel. risk communication in crisis conditions the process for risk communication in crisis conditions requires special care. risk managers should ensure that ( l ) where there is a foreseeable potential for emergency, advance plans for communica - tion are drafted, and ( 2 ) there is provision for coordinating among the various authorities that might be involved and, to the extent feasible, a single place where the public and the media can obtain authoritative and current information. content of risk messages we identified four generic issues that have been the source of difficulty in the past over a broad range of risk communication efforts : ( 1 ) audience orientation, ( 2 ) uncertainty, ( 3 ) risk comparisons, and ( 4 ) completeness. relating the message to the audiences ' perspectives 7 risk messages should closely reflect the perspectives ' technical capacity, and concerns of the target audiences. a message should ( 1 ) emphasize information relevant to any practical actions that in - dividuals can take ; ( 2 ) be couched in clear and plain language ; ( 3 ) respect the audience and its concerns ; and ( 4 ) seek to inform the recipient, unless conditions clearly warrant the use of influencing techniques. one of the most difficult issues in risk communication in a democratic society is the extent to which public officials should attempt to influence individuals that is, to go beyond merely in - form ~ ng them concerning risks and such risk - reducing actions as quitting smoking. ocr for page 12 12 handling uncertainty improving risk communication risk messages and supporting materials should not minimize the existence of uncertainty. data gaps and areas of significant disagreement among experts should be disclosed. some indication of the level of confidence of estimates and the significance of scientific uncertainty should be conveyed. comparing risks risk comparisons can be helpful, but they should be presented with caution. comparison must be seen as only one of several inputs to risk decisions, not as the primary determinant. there are proven pitfalls when risks of diverse character are compared, especially when the intent of the comparison can be seen as that of rn ~ nimizing a risk ( by equating it to a seemingly trivial one ). more useful are comparisons of risks that help convey the magnitude of a particular risk estimate, that occur in the same decision context ( e. g., risks from flying and driving to a given destination ), and that have a similar outcome. multiple comparisons may avoid some of the worst pitfalls. more work needs to be done to develop constructive and helpful forms of risk comparison. ensuring completeness a complete information base would contain", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5104474009444486, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 10, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:35.882399"} {"text": "driving to a given destination ), and that have a similar outcome. multiple comparisons may avoid some of the worst pitfalls. more work needs to be done to develop constructive and helpful forms of risk comparison. ensuring completeness a complete information base would contain five types of infor - mation : ( 1 ) on the nature of the risk, ( 2 ) on the nature of the benefits that might be changed if risk were reduced, ( 3 ) on the avail - able alternatives, ( 4 ) on uncertainty in knowledge about risks and benefits, and ( 5 ) on management issues. there are major advantages in putting the information base into written form as an adjunct to the risk message. a consumer ' s guide to risk and risk commnnication major government and private organizations that sustain risk communication efforts should jointly fund the development of a con - sumer ' s guide to risk and risk communication. the purpose of this guide would be to articulate key terms, concepts, and trade - offs in risk communication and risk management for the lay audience, to ocr for page 13 summary 13 help audiences discern rn ~ sleading and incomplete information, and to facilitate the needed general participation in risk issues. such a guide should ( 1 ) involve support from, but not control by, the fed - eral government and other sources of risk messages ; ( 2 ) be under the editorial control of a group that is clearly oriented toward the recipients of risk messages and under administrative management by an organization that is known for its independence and familiarity with lay perspectives and that can undertake the needed outreach and public information effort ; and ( 3 ) cover subjects such as the nature of risk communication, concepts of zero risk and comparative risk, evaluation of risk messages, and others designated by project participants. research needs as a result of our cleliberations, we have identified nine research topics for attention : ( 1 ) risk comparison, ( 2 ) risk characterization, ( 3 ) role of message intermediaries, ( 4 ) pertinency and sufficiency of risk information, ( 5 ) psychological stress, ( 6 ) the \" mental models \" of recipients, ( 7 ) risk literacy, ( 8 ) retrospective case studies of risk communication, and ( 9 ) contemporaneous assessment of risk man - agement and risk communication. two criteria guided their selection : ( 1 ) that additional knowledge would lead to material improvement in risk communication practices and ( 2 ) that creation of such knowi - edge is likely given past results and current research methods. we have not assigned", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5247184699948746, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 11, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:35.883428"} {"text": "did you ever stop to consider just how a volcano works? of course it is only theory for no one has as yet dissected a volcano while it was active to observe and tabulate the reactions of its inner self. rainier is a volcanic cone and no doubt it came into being in this manner. first at a depth below the surface of the earth in some long, forgotten time the magma or molten rock presed toward the surface possibly throuhg some fracture in the outer crust. with these rising lavas there was also much gas that advanced ahead of the lava and thus both the gas and the lava pressed toward the surface gradually accumulating force and power under the pressure as its advance was hindered by the solid material above. and then finally this flow of motlen rock and gases achieved enogh power to burst through the surface. first, possibly, there was an explosive action as the gases burst upward and this was followed by more quiet flows of the lavas that welled out over the surface and inundated, in succeeding eruptions and lava flows, over 100 square miles of surrounding country which is the area of \" the mountain ' s \" great base. and in that manner eruptions followed one another when the pressure within the throat of this fire mountain achieved enough power to burst through the \" plug \" of hardened lavas which solidified after each flow. rainier hasn ' t been active for several thousands of years and there is apparently little chance of its becoming active again but it stands today - a magnificent volcanic shaft, its flanks glistening with the greatest glacial system in continentaly united states, - a monument to nature ' s power in its wildest moods. | < < < previous | | > cover < |", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5122978711920426, "token_count": 349, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:36.018181"} {"text": "; wing designs ; nasa ; naca ; aeronautical development ; aviation organization ; president woodrow wilson ; pioneer flight achievments ; lab ; variable density tunnel ; high altitude flying ; air pressure ; wind tunnel ; aerodynamics ; jet powered aircraft ; popularity ( downloads ) : 2381 | nasascifiles - the case of the challenging flight nasa sci files video containing the following twelve segments. nasa sci files segment describing how engineers negotiate the natural factors that affect airplane flight. nasa sci files segment describing how... keywords : bob star ; electronic classroom ; dryden flight research center ; weight ; center of gravity ; wing ; tail ; pitch ; yaw ; f 104 starfighter ; lift ; x29 ; burt rutan ; boomerang ; proteus ; voyager ; imagination ; wing span ; thrust ; dr. textbook ; birds ; icarus ; davinci ; popularity ( downloads ) : 2795 | nasa connect - problem solving - the wright math nasa connect video containing five segments as described below. nasa connect segment featuring the website of the u. s. centennial flight commission. the website consists of activities for students and teachers... keywords : nasa connect ; centennial of flight ; wright brothers ; congress ; united states ; web activity ; astronautics ; aeronautics ; flight simulator ; axis ; first flying machine ; glider ; kitty hawk ; engineering method ; pitch ; roll ; yaw ; wind tunnel ; elevator control ; wing warp ; rudder ; propellor ; wing ; lift ; drag ; student activity ; kite ; sail area ; base ; height ; trapezoidal ; aspect ratio ; span ; first flight ; wilbur wright ; orville wright ; flying machine ; inventor ; process of invention ; aircraft design ; computer simulation ; biology ; force ; pressure ; relationship ; design process ; metamorphosis ; morphing ; technology ; control devices ; smart matierals ; adaptive structure ; aerodynamics ; air flow ; micro - flow control ; biomimetics ; nature ; fish fins ; popularity ( downloads ) : 2241 | nasascifiles - the case of the zany animal antics nasa sci files video containing four segments as described below. in the first segment of the case of the zany animal antics, the tree house detectives learn about the animal... keywords : nasa scifiles ; the zany animal antics ; animal kingdom ; kingdom ; phylum ; class ; order ; family ; genus ; species ; classification ; dichotomous key ; bioluminescent ; endoskel", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5596330884015506, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:36.051374"} {"text": "july 24, 2009 mark s. blumberg is professor and starch faculty fellow at the university of iowa. his books include the oxford handbook of developmental behavioral neuroscience, body heat : temperature and life on earth, and basic instinct : the genesis of behavior. he is editor - in - chief of the journal behavioral neuroscience, and president of the international society for developmental psychobiology. his newest book is freaks of nature : what anomalies tell us about development and evolution. in this conversation with d. j. grothe, mark blumberg describes how he became interested in \" freaks of nature \" as a way to question prevailing concepts within biology regarding genes, instincts, and pre - formed abilities. he talks about why he sees genetic determinism as \" action at a distance thinking, \" and why he thinks it is similar to creationist views, and describes both as \" magical ways of thinking about nature. \" he explains epigenetics. he describes how certain non - genetic factors that shape behavior may be inherited from one generation to the next. he discusses \" sexual freaks \" and sexual ambiguity in nature, and shows how in many ways, it is the norm in nature. he predicts the extinction of creationist thinking, and talks about how freaks of nature are a missed opportunity for those science advocates battling intelligent design and creationism, even as he also criticizes belief in \" evolution ' s design \" and \" magical genes. \" he contrasts his views with those of evolutionary psychology as regards brain development. and he responds to notable critics of his views, such as jerry coyne. books mentioned in this episode : basic instinct : the genesis of behavior mark s. blumberg february 27, 2009", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5520779229754107, "token_count": 342, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:36.108044"} {"text": "nov. 27, 2009 physicists from the japanese - led multi - national t2k neutrino collaboration have just announced that over the weekend they detected the first neutrino events generated by their newly built neutrino beam at the j - parc ( japan proton accelerator research complex ) accelerator laboratory in tokai, japan. protons from the 30 - gev main ring synchrotron were directed onto a carbon target, where their collisions produced charged particles called pions. these pions travelled through a helium - filled volume where they decayed to produce a beam of the elusive particles called neutrinos. these neutrinos then flew 200 metres through the earth to a sophisticated detector system capable of making detailed measurements of their energy, direction, and type. the data from the complex detector system is still being analysed, but the physicists have seen at least 3 neutrino events, in line with the expectation based on the current beam and detector performance. this detection therefore marks the beginning of the operational phase of the t2k experiment, a 474 - physicist, 13 - nation collaboration to measure new properties of the ghostly neutrino. neutrinos interact only weakly with matter, and thus pass effortlessly through the earth ( and mostly through the detectors! ). neutrinos exist in three types, called electron, muon, and tau ; linked by particle interactions to their more familiar charged cousins like the electron. measurements over the last few decades, notably by the super kamiokande and kamland neutrino experiments in western japan, have shown that neutrinos possess the strange property of neutrino oscillations, whereby one type of neutrino will turn into another as they propagate through space. neutrino oscillations, which require neutrinos to have mass and therefore were not allowed in our previous theoretical understanding of particle physics, probe new physical laws and are thus of great interest in the study of the fundamental constituents of matter. they may even be related to the mystery of why there is more matter than anti - matter in the universe, and thus are the focus of intense study worldwide. precision measurements of neutrino oscillations can be made using artificial neutrino beams, as pioneered by the k2k neutrino experiment where neutrinos from the kek laboratory were detected using the vast super kamiokande neutrino detector near toyama. t2k is a more powerful and sophisticated version of", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6281490996152591, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:36.159713"} {"text": "as pioneered by the k2k neutrino experiment where neutrinos from the kek laboratory were detected using the vast super kamiokande neutrino detector near toyama. t2k is a more powerful and sophisticated version of the k2k experiment, with a more intense neutrino beam derived from the newly - built main ring synchrotron at the j - parc accelerator laboratory. the beam was built by physicists from kek in cooperation with other japanese institutions and with assistance from the us, canadian, uk and french t2k institutes. prof. chang kee jung of stony brook university, stony brook, new york, leader of the us t2k project, said \" i am somewhat stunned by this seemingly effortless achievement considering the complexity of the machinery, the operation and international nature of the project. this is a result of a strong support from the japanese government for basic science, which i hope will continue, and hard work and ingenuity of all involved. i am excited about more ground breaking findings from this experiment in the near future. \" the beam is aimed once again at super - kamiokande, which has been upgraded for this experiment with new electronics and software. before the neutrinos leave the j - parc facility their properties are determined by a sophisticated \" near \" detector, partly based on a huge magnet donated from cern where it had earlier been used for neutrino experiments ( and for the ua1 experiment, which won the nobel prize for the discovery of the w and z bosons which are the basis of neutrino interactions ), and it is this detector which caught the first events. the first neutrino events were detected in a specialize detector, called the ingrid, whose purpose is to determine the neutrino beam ' s direction and profile. further tests of the t2k neutrino beam are scheduled for december, and the experiment plans to begin production running in mid - january. another major milestone should be observed soon after - - the first observation of a neutrino event from the t2k beam in the super - kamiokande experiment. running will continue until the summer, by which time the experiment hopes to have made the most sensitive search yet achieved for a so - far unobserved critical neutrino oscillation mode dominated by oscillations between all three types of neutrinos. in the coming years this search will be improved even further, with the hope that the 3 - mode osci", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_entanglement", "similarity_score": 0.5616706625021552, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:36.160667"} {"text": "the word vivisection was first coined in the 1800s to denote the experimental dissection of live animals - or humans. it was created by activists who opposed the practice of experimenting on animals. the roman physician celsus claimed that in alexandria in the 3rd century bce physicians had performed vivisections on sentenced criminals, but vivisection on humans was generally outlawed. experimenters frequently used living animals. most early modern researchers considered this practice acceptable, believing that animals felt no pain. even those who opposed vivisection in the early modern period did not usually do so out of consideration for the animals, but because they thought that this practice would coarsen the experimenter, or because they were concerned that animals stressed under experimental conditions did not represent the normal state of the body. prompted by the rise of experimental physiology and the increasing use of animals, an anti - vivisection movement started in the 1860s. its driving force, the british journalist frances power cobbe ( 1822 - 1904 ), founded the british victoria street society in 1875, which gave rise to the british government ' s cruelty to animals act of 1876. this law regulated the use of live animals for experimental purposes. r a kopaladze, ' ivan p. pavlov ' s view on vivisection ', integr. physiol. behav. sci., 4 ( 2000 ), pp 266 - 271 c lansbury, the old brown dog : women, workers, and vivisection in edwardian england ( madison : university of wisconsin press, 1985 ) p mason, the brown dog affair : the story of a monument that divided the nation ( london : two stevens, 1997 ) n a rupke, ( ed. ) vivisection in historical perspective ( london : crooms helm, 1987 ) the science of the functioning of living organisms and their component parts.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5253928638045529, "token_count": 379, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:36.167296"} {"text": "by i. peterson unlike an ordinary, incandescent bulb, a laser produces light of a single wavelength. moreover, the emitted light waves are coherent, meaning that all of the energy peaks and troughs are precisely in step. now, a team at the massachusetts institute of technology has demonstrated experimentally that a cloud consisting of millions of atoms can also be made coherent. instead of flying about and colliding randomly, the atoms display coordinated behavior, acting as if the entire assemblage were a single entity. according to quantum mechanics, atoms can behave like waves. thus, two overlapping clouds made up of atoms in coherent states should produce a zebra - striped interference pattern of dark and light fringes, just like those generated when two beams of ordinary laser light overlap. by detecting such a pattern, the researchers proved that the clouds ' atoms are coherent and constitute an \" atom laser, \" says physicist wolfgang ketterle, who heads the mit group. these matter waves, in principle, can be focused just like light. ketterle and his coworkers describe their observations in the jan. 31 science. the demonstration of coherence involving large numbers of atoms is the latest step in a series of studies of a remarkable state of matter called a bose - einstein condensate. chilled to temperatures barely above absolute zero, theory predicted, the atoms would collectively enter the same quantum state and behave like a single unit, or superparticle, with a specific wavelength. first created in the laboratory in 1995 by eric a. cornell and his collaborators at the university of colorado and the national institute of standards and technology, both in boulder, bose - einstein condensates have been the subject of intense investigation ever since ( sn : 7 / 15 / 95, p. 36 ; 5 / 25 / 96, p. 327 ). at mit, ketterle and his colleagues cool sodium atoms to temperatures below 2 microkelvins. the frigid atoms are then confined in a special magnetic trap inside a vacuum chamber. to determine whether the atoms in the resulting condensate are indeed as coherent as photons in a laser beam, the researchers developed a novel method of extracting a clump of atoms from the trap. in effect, they manipulate the magnetic states of the atoms to expel an adjustable fraction of the original cloud ; under the influence of gravity, the released clump falls. the method can produce a sequence of descending clumps, with each containing 100, 000 to several million coherent atoms. the apparatus acts like", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.7053978930299496, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:36.170415"} {"text": "expel an adjustable fraction of the original cloud ; under the influence of gravity, the released clump falls. the method can produce a sequence of descending clumps, with each containing 100, 000 to several million coherent atoms. the apparatus acts like a dripping faucet, ketterle says. he and his colleagues describe the technique in the jan. 27 physical review letters. to demonstrate interference, the mit group created a double magnetic trap so that two pulses of coherent atoms could be released at the same time. as the two clumps fell, they started to spread and overlap. the researchers could then observe interference between the atomic waves of the droplets. \" the signal was almost too good to be true, \" ketterle says. \" we saw a high - contrast, very regular pattern. \" \" it ' s a beautiful result, \" cornell remarks. \" this work really shows that bose - einstein condensation is an atom laser. \" from the pattern, the mit researchers deduced that the condensate of sodium atoms has a wavelength of about 30 micrometers, considerably longer than the 0. 04 - nanometer wavelength typical of individual atoms at room temperature. ketterle and his colleagues are already planning several improvements to their primitive atom laser, including getting more atoms into the emitted pulses and going from pulses to a continuous beam. practical use of an atom laser for improving the precision of atomic clocks and for manipulating atoms is still distant, however, cornell notes.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.6382897997347623, "token_count": 299, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:36.171198"} {"text": "scientists collect samples of the natural world to try to answer questions about our environment. so many questions and so much we still don ' t know. the samples collected each represent a particular time and place in our environment. think about your home. if a scientist had collected the plants and insects from your land 50 years ago, would they be the same or different than ones you would find today? the collected samples are the basic tool for the scientist ' s research and discovery. a museum specimen is made from the collected sample. we prepare them for study and add them to the research collections. then they are ready to be used by scientists, not only this year, but for years, even generations to come. teachers and museum docents use specimens in our collections to bring the facts and concepts of science to life. anyway, you get the idea. specimens and objects in the museum ' s nature to you loan program are particularly helpful for the kindergarten through high school ages. the research collections are used by college professors to help their students with the more advanced concepts. have you ever used a field guide to identify that bird you saw in your backyard? or that little squirrel - like mammal that just scooted off through the rocks? or that flower you saw in the park? artists rely heavily on collections of specimens when they create the illustrations for field guides. they need to see details to make accurate paintings. different coloration and shapes help you see the differences between the chipmunk and the ground squirrel - - or the coyote and the neighbor ' s scrawny dog. have you seen dioramas at a museum? paintings in the background of exhibits are based on specimens. you ' ve used specimens if you have... specimens are a fantastic tool - - a resource that helps you discover the secrets of the world around you. specimens form the core of a museum ' s philosophy. they are critical for research, for teaching, for our enjoyment of nature through art. specimens at the san diego natural history museum support our mission to understand the natural world of southern california and the baja california peninsula. we want you to enjoy and benefit from the specimens we collect - - but we also want your grandchildren to have those same experiences with specimens. for your grandchildren to be able to learn from the specimens, we need to prevent damage to the specimens.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5237218298869721, "token_count": 466, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:36.181112"} {"text": "gaia theory is a class of scientific models of the geo - biosphere in which life as a whole fosters and maintains suitable conditions for itself by helping to create an environment on earth suitable for its continuity. the first such theory was created by the atmospheric scientist and chemist, sir james lovelock, who developed his hypotheses in the 1960s before formally publishing the concept, first in the new scientist ( february 13, 1975 ) and then in the 1979 book \" quest for gaia \". he hypothesized that the living matter of the planet functioned like a single organism and named this self - regulating living system after the greek goddess, gaia, using a suggestion of novelist william golding. gaia \" theories \" have non - technical predecessors in the ideas of several cultures. today, \" gaia theory \" is sometimes used among non - scientists to refer to hypotheses of a self - regulating earth that are non - technical but take inspiration from scientific models. among some scientists, \" gaia \" carries connotations of lack of scientific rigor, quasi - mystical thinking about the planet arth, and therefore lovelock ' s hypothesis was received initially with much antagonism by much of the scientific community. no controversy exists, however, that life and the physical environment significantly influence one another. gaia theory today is a spectrum of hypotheses, ranging from the undeniable ( weak gaia ) to the radical ( strong gaia ). at one end of this spectrum is the undeniable statement that the organisms on the earth have radically altered its composition. a stronger position is that the earth ' s biosphere effectively acts as if it is a self - organizing system, which works in such a way as to keep its systems in some kind of meta - equilibrium that is broadly conducive to life. the history of evolution, ecology and climate show that the exact characteristics of this equilibrium intermittently have undergone rapid changes, which are believed to have caused extinctions and felled civilisations. biologists and earth scientists usually view the factors that stabilize the characteristics of a period as an undirected emergent property or entelechy of the system ; as each individual species pursues its own self - interest, for example, their combined actions tend to have counterbalancing effects on environmental change. opponents of this view sometimes point to examples of life ' s actions that have resulted in dramatic change rather than stable equilibrium, such as the conversion of the earth ' s atmosphere from a", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5929212035749124, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:36.192123"} {"text": "combined actions tend to have counterbalancing effects on environmental change. opponents of this view sometimes point to examples of life ' s actions that have resulted in dramatic change rather than stable equilibrium, such as the conversion of the earth ' s atmosphere from a reducing environment to an oxygen - rich one. however, proponents will point out that those atmospheric composition changes created an environment even more suitable to life. some go a step further and hypothesize that all lifeforms are part of a single living planetary being called gaia. in this view, the atmosphere, the seas and the terrestrial crust would be results of interventions carried out by gaia through the coevolving diversity of living organisms. while it is arguable that the earth as a unit does not match the generally accepted biological criteria for life itself ( gaia has not yet reproduced, for instance ), many scientists would be comfortable characterising the earth as a single \" system \". the most extreme form of gaia theory is that the entire earth is a single unified organism ; in this view the earth ' s biosphere is consciously manipulating the climate in order to make conditions more conducive to life. scientists contend that there is no evidence at all to support this last point of view, and it has come about because many people do not understand the concept of homeostasis. many non - scientists instinctively see homeostasis as an activity that requires conscious control, although this is not so. much more speculative versions of gaia theory, including all versions in which it is held that the earth is actually conscious or part of some universe - wide evolution, are currently held to be outside the bounds of science. this article is licensed under the gnu free documentation license. it uses material from the wikipedia article \" gaia \".", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5762069324909399, "token_count": 360, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:36.192868"} {"text": "smoke detectors, carbon monoxide detectors, gas detectors smoke detector information : most people are aware of the danger of fire but are unaware of the fatality of smoke. more people die from breathing smoke than by burns. in fact, deaths from smoke inhalation outnumber deaths by burning by 2 : 1. in a hostile fire, smoke and deadly gases tend to spread farther and faster than heat from flames. moreover, when people are asleep, deadly fumes can send them deeper into unconsciousness. smoke detectors and carbon monoxide detectors are a powerful and effective fire safety technology. they are the first lines of defense against smoke and fire. they may awaken those who would otherwise have been overcome by smoke and toxic gases in their sleep. and most importantly, they provide an early warning alerting individuals of a fire, allowing them precious time to escape. according to the national fire protection association ( nfpa ), 75 to 80 % of all deaths by fire happen in the home. more than half of these deaths occurred in buildings without smoke detectors. by installing a smoke detector, individuals can reduce the risk of dying by almost 50 %. ionization smoke detectors monitor ' ions, ' or electrically charged particles in the air. air molecules in a sample chamber of ionization smoke detectors, are ' ionized ' by a radioactive source. this allows a small electrical current flow. smoke particles entering the sensing chamber change the electrical balance of the air. the greater the amount of smoke, the higher the electrical imbalance. when combustion particles enter the smoke detector, they obstruct the flow of the current. an alarm is pre - programmed to sound when the current gets too low. ionization smoke detectors respond first to fast flaming fires. a flaming fire devours combustibles extremely fast, spreads rapidly and generates considerable heat with little smoke. ionization alarms are best suited for rooms, which contain highly combustible material. these types of material include : 1. cooking fat / grease 2. flammable liquids 3. newspaper 4. paint 5. cleaning solutions smoke alarms with ionization technology are the most popular types sold in the united states. the nfpa recommends smoke alarms be installed in every room and area of your home or bulding for complete protection. for maximum protection, install at least one ionization and one photoelectronic smoke alarm on each level of your home. all smoke alarms should be replaced after 10 years of operation. ten years is a smoke alarm ' s useful lifetime and for continued, reliable safety", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5012103267796464, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:36.239748"} {"text": "labdien [ hello ]! my name is hannah rosenthal, and i am the special envoy to monitor and combat anti - semitism at the u. s. department of state. in latvian, envoy means \u201c ipasa sutne \u201d. thank you for inviting me here today to speak to you about the importance of diversity and respect for others. i am always eager to speak to young students because so much of my work depends on your help. as the special envoy, it is my job to monitor anti - semitic incidents and combat such intolerance. \u201c anti - semitism \u201d simply means hatred for jewish people. i monitor anti - semitic incidents such as vandalism of religious places, anti - semitic speech, and even violence against jews. but the truth is, i am in the relationship - building business. i am here today to tell you that young people and students can have an impact and do what i do. we must all share and strive for the same mission : to combat hate and intolerance to create a more peaceful and just world. in order to fight hatred, we must begin with respecting the dignity of every individual, regardless of his or her beliefs. in fact, our differences make us human. you may have heard about the concept of the \u201c other, \u201d or in latvian, \u201c svesinieks \u201d. there are individuals in this world who would like us to view some people as outside the larger human family. the desire to stamp out or suppress or ostracize certain individuals because of who they are, how they worship, or who they love is an obstacle for all members of society. intolerance prevents us from creating a just and peaceful society. meanwhile, we, as society, must not stand by idly. when we stand by passively, we also pay a price. terrible things can happen when intolerance and racism take hold in a society, across a continent. hitler \u2019 s nazi ideology called for racial purity and targeted the jews as an other that needed to be exterminated. some of you may know that yesterday communities around the world observed yom hashoah, or holocaust remembrance day. yom hashoah is a day to remember the victims of the holocaust and to commemorate the individuals \u2013 including some latvians - - who risked their lives to save the jews. i understand latvia has its own official holocaust remembrance day on july 4. while we officially commemorate the holocaust on these days, we must carry their lessons with us every day. we must stand against", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5201320733849382, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:36.300770"} {"text": "crime and personality : personality theory and criminality examined keywords : criminality personality theory criminal personality crime and personality criminology psychopathy the search for the criminal personality or super trait has captured both the minds and imaginations of academics and the wider community ( caspi et al., 1994 ). partly, this is due to a stubborn aversion to the notion that normal, regular people rape, murder, or molest children ( barlow, 1990 ). secondly, there is a desire for simple, straightforward answers ( bartol, 1991 ). generally, personality theorists endeavor to put together the puzzle of the human personality. temperament is the term used for the childhood counterpart to personality ( farrington & jolliffe, 2004 ). facets of personality or temperament, traits, are combined together into super traits or broad dimension of personality. personality traits are persisting underlying tendencies to act in certain ways in particular situations ( farrington & jolliffe, 2004 ). traits shape the emotional and experiential spheres of life, defining how people perceive their world and predict physical and psychological outcomes ( roberts, 2009 ). various structured models of personality exist, each with a set of traits and super traits ( miller & lynam, 2001 ). personality and crime have been linked in two general ways. first, in \u201c personality - trait psychology \u201d ( akers & sellers, 2009, p. 74 ) certain traits or super traits within a structured model of personality may be linked to antisocial behavior ( asb ). 1 as reviewed by miller and lynam ( 2001 ), four structured models of personality theory were found to be widely used in criminological research and are considered reliable : the five - factor model ( ffm ; mccrae & costa, 1990 ), the pen model ( eysenck, 1977 ), tellegen \u2019 s three - factor model ( 1985 ), and cloninger \u2019 s temperament and character model ( cloninger, dragan, svraki, & przybeck, 1993 ). in table 1, the traits of these models are listed and defined. eysenck hypothesized specific associations between the pen model and asb, proposing that the typical criminal would possess high levels of all three of his proposed personality dimensions. cloninger hypothesized a link between asb and personality dimensions from his model, stating that asb would be linked to high novelty seeking, low harm avoidance, and low reward dependence ( see table 1 )", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5510003421737757, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:36.332779"} {"text": "his proposed personality dimensions. cloninger hypothesized a link between asb and personality dimensions from his model, stating that asb would be linked to high novelty seeking, low harm avoidance, and low reward dependence ( see table 1 ). the second way that personality theorists have linked personality to crime is through \u201c personality - type psychology \u201d ( akers & sellers, 2009, p. 74 ) or by asserting that certain deviant, abnormal individuals possess a criminal personality, labeled psychopathic, sociopathic, or antisocial. the complex and twisting history of the term and concept of psychopathy can be traced back to the early 1800s ( feeney, 2003 ), contributing to its common misuse by both academics and nonacademics. 2 hare ( 1993, 1996 ) set forth a psychological schematic of persistent offenders who possess certain dysfunctional interpersonal, affective, and behavioral qualities and make up about one percentage of the population. the distinguishing interpersonal and affective characteristic of psychopaths is the dual possession of absolute self - centeredness, grandiosity, callousness, and lack of remorse or empathy for others coupled with a charismatic, charming, and manipulative superficiality ( hare, 1993 ). the defining behavioral characteristics of psychopaths are impulsivity, irresponsibility, risk taking, and antisocial behavior ( hare, 1993 ). table 2 displays the emotional, interpersonal, and acts of social deviance hypothesized to indicate psychopathy. the term antisocial, not psychopath or sociopath, is now used by the american psychological association in the latest diagnostic and statistical manual ( dsm - iv - tr, 2000 ). this disorder manifests itself as a persistent disregard for and violation of the rights of others, beginning at an early age and persisting into adulthood. the dsm - iv - tr ( 2000 ) outlines the antisocial personality disorder as a broader clinical disorder than psychopathy, a diagnosis that could easily be applied to many who engage in criminal behavior ( see table 2 ). concerns related to theoretical propositions and policy implications certain personality theorists such as eysenck ( 1977 ) postulated that personality traits stem from biological causes. for example, eysenck noted that arousal levels are directly associated with the personality trait of extraversion ( eysenck, 1977 ) and testosterone levels are linked to levels of psychotocism ( eysenck, 1997 ). the biologically deterministic premise postulated", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5323640230871589, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:36.334684"} {"text": "arousal levels are directly associated with the personality trait of extraversion ( eysenck, 1977 ) and testosterone levels are linked to levels of psychotocism ( eysenck, 1997 ). the biologically deterministic premise postulated within segments of personality theory sparked an intense debate in criminology ( andrews & wormith, 1989 ; gibbons, 1989 ), which provides just a glimpse into a chasm in the field of criminology that has been rupturing for decades. criticisms against deterministic thought can best be understood within the historical context ( hirschi & hindelang, 1977 ; laub & sampson, 1991 ; rafter, 2006 ). criminology is a field full of deep schisms and sharp debates, a sort of \u201c hybrid \u201d discipline ( gibbons, 1989 ), with even the historical accounts of criminology being disputed ( brown, 2006 ; forsythe, 1995 ; garland, 1997 ; jones, 2008 ; rafter, 2004 ). yet, it is generally agreed that the foundations for understanding criminal behavior, even the justification for the existence of the discipline of criminology, is rooted in psychobiological perspectives ( brown, 2006 ; garland, 1997 ; glicksohn, 2002 ; jones, 2008 ). many of those considered to be the founders of criminology collaborated with psychiatrists focusing on the rehabilitation and medical or psychological treatment of criminal deviance, viewing such behavior as a disease of the mind or intellect rather than holding to the more primitive explanations that attributed crime to manifestations of evil spirits or sinfulness ( herve, 2007 ; jones, 2008 ; rafter, 2004 ). with the dawning of the ideals of the enlightenment, interest grew in the notion that just as there are natural laws that act upon the physical world, there may be underlying forces that propel individuals or groups to react in certain ways ( jones, 2008 ). two distinct schools of positivism arose during this period, those who assumed that these underlying forces were societal and those who assumed that the forces propelling criminal behavior were individualistic or psychological. one faction of nineteenth century positivists, with researchers such as guerry and quetelet, focused primarily on societal forces and emphasized geographical differences in crime rates, especially the effects of urbanization ( jones, 2008 ; quetelet, 2003 ). at the core of this work was the idea that individuals do not have free will to act upon their societal environment, but rather are being acted upon by social forces ; \u201c society", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6009632242208003, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:36.336703"} {"text": "of urbanization ( jones, 2008 ; quetelet, 2003 ). at the core of this work was the idea that individuals do not have free will to act upon their societal environment, but rather are being acted upon by social forces ; \u201c society prepares crime and the criminal is only the instrument that executes them \u201d ( quetelet, physique sociale, quoted in jones, 2008, p. 8 ). however, the name most associated with nineteenth century positivism is cesare lombroso. lombroso considered criminal behavior as indicative of degeneration to a lower level of functioning caused by brain damage or from certain genetic impacts ( such as birth defects passed to children born of diseased or alcoholic parents ), which impeded natural development ( glicksohn, 2002 ; jones, 2008 ). jones ( 2008 ) notes that lombroso \u2019 antagonists recount his professed allegiance to the use of the scientific method, yet they also detail how he would elaborate wildly, speculating far beyond the bounds of his empirical observations. occasionally, lombroso \u2019 s work is completely omitted from texts advocating individualistic or psychological approaches to criminal behavior, as lombroso \u2019 s work is seen as an embarrassment and deemed a precursor to the nazi ideology of the ayran race ( jones, 2008 ; rafter, 2006 ). against this blemished backdrop of nazi ideologies of racial hygiene, labeled biological determinism, sociologically inclined theories flourished within criminology and individualistic explanations for criminality were deserted as taboo and unmentionable ( andrews & wormith, 1989 ; glicksohn, 2002 ; hirschi & hindelang, 1977 ; laub & sampson, 1991 ). concerns about policy implications within such a historical context, ethical and moral concerns were raised regarding personality theory leading to inequitable or brutish policies ( rafter, 2006 ). fears of policy recommendations forcing medical procedures, drug treatment, or excessively restrictive practices were common concerns levied against highly deterministic psychological theories ( bartol & bartol, 2004 ; gibbons, 1986 ; jones, 2008 ). labeling or stigmatizing persons as psychopaths, sociopaths, or antisocial, raised concerns that such labels might lead to unmerited, harsh sentences, as such individuals would be deemed as incorrigible ( andrews & wormith, 1989 ). conversely, there were concerns that labeling offenders with personality disorders could result in doubts about their culp", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.542216547688787, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:36.338268"} {"text": "posted by admin on august 21st, 2008 maximum transmission unit ( mtu ) the size ( in bytes ) of the largest packet or frame that a given layer of a communications protocol can pass onwards. the mtu may be fixed by standards ( as is the case with ethernet ) or decided at connect time. a higher mtu brings higher bandwidth efficiency. however, large packets can block up a slow interface for some time, increasing the lag for further packets. the mtu for ethernet is 1500 bytes, 1492 for pppoe and 576 for dialup. in very rare occasions, you may need to change the mtu size due to connectivity issues with your isps or in a vpn environment on your opensuse. the following procedure should help to change the maximum transmission unit ( mtu ) in opensuse. in network manager if you are using network - manager to control the network settings in your opensuse then 1. from the menu, click computer \u2013 yast. 2. click network devices in the leftpane and click network settings 3. select the network adapter and click edit. 4. under general tab, select from the default \u201c mtu \u201d values or enter your own required value. please be aware of what you are doing as an incorrect mtu size setting can cause connectivity and performance issues. click next and finish to complete the settings wizard. this will set the mtu value and restart the network service. in traditional network configuration if you are not using the network manager and use the traditional method of controlling network settings using ifcfg scripts then 1. using a terminal window, change directory to / etc / sysconfig / network / opensuse : ~ # cd / etc / sysconfig / network 2. in / etc / sysconfig / network directory, you have a config file for each of your network interface card. for instance, on my laptop, i have ifcfg - eth0 ( ethernet ) and ifcfg - wlan0 ( wireless ). these hold configurations for the respective network cards. edit the interface file and enter the line as following opensuse : / etc / sysconfig / network # vi ifcfg - eth0 and add a line like so it looks something like this opensuse11 : / etc / sysconfig / network # cat ifcfg - eth0 3. restart the network service or reboot your computer for the changes to take", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5095867527312499, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:36.343607"} {"text": "this series enables children to use the computer for independent research into a range of curriculum related topics. they read the information from talking books and then link to writing grids so they can write about what they have read. high quality real speech gives added support on both the reading and writing activities. perfect for the reading strand throughout the literacy curriculum! this resource lets you find out about the different parts of a plant. learn about plant habitats and some of the ways that plants are used by people. use the information about growth and reproduction to write about pollination, fertilization, and seed dispersal. \" find out \" information is presented in three levels of difficulty, designed to meet the needs of children with a wide range of abilities. - book one / level one - the information is presented in short sentences. the associated writing grids enable children to work with sentence beginnings and endings to recreate the sentences from each information page. - book two / level two - the information pages contain flowing text, and the writing grids offer a wider choice of words. this enables students to construct their own sentences. - book three / level three - this level includes more in - depth information. the writing grids offer sentence starters and word banks than enable students to write an extended piece of text. students use the keyboard as well as the grid as they interpret and respond to the text. find out and write about series packed with rich multimedia content that is perfect for both literacy and subject teaching the unique find out and write about series for clicker provides a range of multimedia cds ideal for literacy teaching. early readers of all ages can research the non - fiction material and then use the associated writing grids to write about what they have learnt. a find out and write about cd - rom contains an interactive talking book of non - fiction text. children can read the text or click the ` listen ` button to hear it spoken. children can also click on a word with the right - hand mouse button to hear it. each page of the book contains a link to a clicker writing grid that relates directly to that page, so children can write about the information they have just learned. children write by clicking on a word with the left - hand mouse button. words are colour - coded to help writers compose sentences successfully. emergent, struggling and fluent readers can all use the resources, as the information is provided at three differentiated levels. at level 1 for example, students are given short sentences, which they can choose to have read to them. the writing grids, relating directly", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5065073330032627, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:36.347387"} {"text": "waking the giant bill mcguire while we transmit more than two million tweets a day and nearly one hundred trillion emails each year, we ' re also emitting record amounts of carbon dioxide ( co2 ). bill mcguire, professor of geophysical and climate hazards at university college london, expects our continued rise in greenhouse gas emissions to awaken a slumbering giant : the earth ' s crust. in waking the giant : how a changing climate triggers earthquakes, tsunamis and volcanoes ( oxford university press ), he explains that when the earth ' s crust ( or geosphere ) becomes disrupted from rising temperatures and a c [ o. sub. 2 ] - rich atmosphere, natural disasters strike more frequently and with catastrophic force. applying a \" straightforward presentation of what we know about how climate and the geosphere interact, \" the book links previous warming periods 20, 000 to 5, 000 years ago with a greater abundance of tsunamis, landslides, seismic activity and volcanic eruptions. mcguire urgently warns of the \" tempestuous future of our own making \" as we progressively inch toward a similar climate. despite his scientific testimony to congress stating \" what is going on in the arctic now is the biggest and fastest thing that nature has ever done \" and the \" incontrovertible \" data that the earth ' s climate draws lively response from the geosphere, brutal weather events are still not widely seen as being connected to human influence. is our global population sleepwalking toward imminent destruction, he asks, until \" it is obvious, even to the most entrenched denier, that our climate is being transformed? \"", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5028362291082252, "token_count": 324, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:36.371306"} {"text": "from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia preventive medicine or preventive care refers to measures taken to prevent diseases, ( or injuries ) rather than curing them or treating their symptoms. the term contrasts in method with curative and palliative medicine, and in scope with public health methods ( which work at the level of population health rather than individual health ). this takes place at primary, secondary and tertiary prevention levels. - primary prevention avoids the development of a disease. most population - based health promotion activities are primary preventive measures. - secondary prevention activities are aimed at early disease detection, thereby increasing opportunities for interventions to prevent progression of the disease and emergence of symptoms. - tertiary prevention reduces the negative impact of an already established disease by restoring function and reducing disease - related complications. - quaternary prevention is the set of health activities that mitigate or avoid the consequences of unnecessary or excessive interventions in the health system. simple examples of preventive medicine include hand washing and immunizations. preventive care may include examinations and screening tests tailored to an individual ' s age, health, and family history. for example, a person with a family history of certain cancers or other diseases would begin screening at an earlier age and / or more frequently than those with no family history. on the other side of preventive medicine, some non - profit organizations, such as the northern california cancer center, apply epidemiological research towards finding ways to prevent diseases. universal, selective, and indicated gordon ( 1987 ) in the area of disease prevention, and later kumpfer and baxley in the area of substance use proposed a three - tiered preventive intervention classification system : universal, selective, and indicated prevention. amongst others, this typology has gained favour and is used by the u. s. institute of medicine, the nida and the european monitoring centre for drugs and drug addiction. - universal prevention addresses the entire population ( national, local community, school, district ) and aim to prevent or delay the abuse of alcohol, tobacco, and other drugs. all individuals, without screening, are provided with information and skills necessary to prevent the problem. - selective prevention focuses on groups whose risk of developing problems of alcohol abuse or dependence is above average. the subgroups may be distinguished by characteristics such as age, gender, family history, or economic status. for example, drug campaigns in recreational settings. - indicated prevention involves a screening process, and aims to identify individuals who exhibit early signs of substance abuse and other problem behaviours. identifiers may include falling", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5425847243146652, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:36.379884"} {"text": "gender, family history, or economic status. for example, drug campaigns in recreational settings. - indicated prevention involves a screening process, and aims to identify individuals who exhibit early signs of substance abuse and other problem behaviours. identifiers may include falling grades among students, known problem consumption or conduct disorders, alienation from parents, school, and positive peer groups etc. outside the scope of this three - tier model is environmental prevention. environmental prevention approaches are typically managed at the regulatory or community level, and focus on interventions to deter drug consumption. prohibition and bans ( e. g. smoking workplace bans, alcohol advertising bans ) may be viewed as the ultimate environmental restriction. however, in practice environmental preventions programmes embrace various initiatives at the macro and micro level, from government monopolies for alcohol sales, through roadside sobriety or drug tests, worker / pupil / student drug testing, increased policing in sensitive settings ( near schools, at rock festivals ), and legislative guidelines aimed at precipitating punishments ( warnings, penalties, fines ). professionals involved in the public health aspect of this practice may be involved in entomology, pest control, and public health inspections. public health inspections can include recreational waters, pools, beaches, food preparation and serving, and industrial hygiene inspections and surveys. in the united states, preventive medicine is a medical specialty, one of the 24 recognized by the american board of medical specialties ( abms ). it encompasses three areas of specialization : - general preventive medicine and public health - aerospace medicine - occupational medicine in order to become board - certified in one of the preventive medicine areas of specialization, a licensed u. s. physician ( m. d. or d. o. ) must successfully complete a preventive medicine medical residency program following a one - year internship. following that, the physician must complete a year of practice in that special area and pass the preventive medicine board examination. the residency program is at least two years in length and includes completion of a master ' s degree in public health ( mph ) or equivalent. the board exam takes an entire day : the morning session concentrates on general preventive medicine questions, while the afternoon session concentrates on the one of the three areas of specialization that the applicant has studied. in addition, there are two subspecialty areas of certification : these certifications require sitting for an examination following successful completion of an mt or uhb fellowship and prior board certification in one of the 24 abms - recognized specialties. prophylaxis", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5149431061124563, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:36.380801"} {"text": ", there are two subspecialty areas of certification : these certifications require sitting for an examination following successful completion of an mt or uhb fellowship and prior board certification in one of the 24 abms - recognized specialties. prophylaxis ( greek \" \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c6\u03c5\u03bb\u03b1\u03c3\u03c3\u03c9 \" to guard or prevent beforehand ) is any medical or public health procedure whose purpose is to prevent, rather than treat or cure a disease. in general terms, prophylactic measures are divided between primary prophylaxis ( to prevent the development of a disease ) and secondary prophylaxis ( whereby the disease has already developed and the patient is protected against worsening of this process ). some specific examples of prophylaxis include : - influenza vaccines are prophylactic. - antibiotics are sometimes used prophylactically : for example, during the 2001 anthrax attacks scare in the united states, patients believed to be exposed were given ciprofloxacin. in similar manner, the use of antibiotic ointments on burns and other wounds is prophylactic. antibiotics are also given prophylactically just before some medical procedures such as pacemaker insertion. - tricyclic antidepressants ( tcas ) may, with caution, be an example of a chronic migraine preventative ( see amitriptyline and migraines ' prevention by medicine ). - antimalarials such as chloroquine are used both in treatment and as prophylaxis by visitors to countries where malaria is endemic to prevent the development of the parasitic plasmodium, which cause malaria. - condoms are sometimes referred to as \" prophylactics \" because of their use to prevent the transmission of sexually transmitted infections. - low - molecular - weight heparin is used as a prophylaxis in hospital patients, as they are at risk for several forms of thrombosis due to their immobilisation. - professional cleaning of the teeth is dental prophylaxis. - risk reducing or prophylactic mastectomies may be carried out for carriers of the brca mutation gene to minimise the risk of developing breast cancer - daily and moderate physical exercise in various forms can be called prophylactic because it can maintain or improve one ' s health. cycling for transport appears to very significantly improve health by reducing risk of heart diseases, various cancers, muscular - and skeletal diseases, and overall mortality. - prophylaxis may be administered as vaccine. prop", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5622612229837437, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:36.381628"} {"text": "can maintain or improve one ' s health. cycling for transport appears to very significantly improve health by reducing risk of heart diseases, various cancers, muscular - and skeletal diseases, and overall mortality. - prophylaxis may be administered as vaccine. prophylactic vaccines include : pep, npep, prep, or nprep. pep stands for post - exposure prophylaxis used in an occupational setting. npep is non - occupational post - exposure prophylaxis. npep may be used in a recreational setting ; for example, during intercourse, if the condom breaks and one partner is hiv - positive, npep will help to decrease the probability of spread of infection of hiv. prep is often used in occupational settings, e. g., in hospital staff to prevent the spread of hiv or hepatitis c from patient to staff. nprep is a measure taken before exposure but in a non - occupational setting ( non - occupational pre - exposure prophylaxis ) ; for example, injection drug users may seek nprep vaccinations. leading cause of preventable death leading causes of preventable death worldwide as of the year 2001. leading causes of preventable deaths in the united states in the year 2000. - ^ mesh preventive + medicine - ^ mesh primary + prevention - ^ mesh secondary + prevention - ^ mesh tertiary + prevention - ^ gordon, r. ( 1987 ), \u2018 an operational classification of disease prevention \u2019, in steinberg, j. a. and silverman, m. m. ( eds. ), preventing mental disorders, rockville, md : u. s. department of health and human services, 1987. - ^ kumpfer, k. l., and baxley, g. b. ( 1997 ), ' drug abuse prevention : what works? ', national institute on drug abuse, rockville. - ^ how should influenza prophylaxis be implemented? - ^ de oliveira jc, martinelli m, d ' orio nishioka sa, et al. ( 2009 ). \" efficacy of antibiotic prophylaxis prior to the implantation of pacemakers and cardioverter - defibrillators : results of a large, prospective, randomized, double - blinded, placebo - controlled trial \". circ arrhythmia electrophysiol 2 : 29 \u2013 34. doi : 10. 1161 / circep. 108. 795906. - ^ lars bo andersen et al. ( june 2000 ). \" all", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5545634828326707, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:36.382408"} {"text": "circ arrhythmia electrophysiol 2 : 29 \u2013 34. doi : 10. 1161 / circep. 108. 795906. - ^ lars bo andersen et al. ( june 2000 ). \" all - cause mortality associated with physical activity during leisure time, work, sports, and cycling to work. \". arch intern med. 160 ( 11 ) : 1621 \u2013 8. doi : 10. 1001 / archinte. 160. 11. 1621. pmid 10847255. - ^ lopez ad, mathers cd, ezzati m, jamison dt, murray cj ( may 2006 ). \" global and regional burden of disease and risk factors, 2001 : systematic analysis of population health data \". lancet 367 ( 9524 ) : 1747 \u2013 57. doi : 10. 1016 / s0140 - 6736 ( 06 ) 68770 - 9. pmid 16731270. - ^ mokdad ah, marks js, stroup df, gerberding jl ( march 2004 ). \" actual causes of death in the united states, 2000 \". jama 291 ( 10 ) : 1238 \u2013 45. doi : 10. 1001 / jama. 291. 10. 1238. pmid 15010446. http : / / www. csdp. org / research / 1238. pdf. - sackett dl. the arrogance of preventive medicine. cmaj. 2004 ; 167 : 363 - 4. - gervas j, perez fernandez m. los limites de la prevencion clinica. amf. 2007 ; 3 ( 6 ) : 352 - 60. - gervas j, perez fernandez m, gonzalez de dios j. problemas practicos y eticos de la prevencion secundaria. a proposito de dos ejemplos de pediatria. rev esp salud publica. 2007 ; 81 : 345 - 52. - starfield b, hyde j, gervas j, heath i. the concept of prevention : a good idea gone astray? j epidemiol community health. 2008 ; 62 ( 7 ) : 580 - 3. - gervas j, starfield b, heath i. is clinical prevention better than cure? lancet. 2008 ; 372 : 1997 - 9. - gervas j, perez fernandez m. los danos provocados por la preven", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5102666600884391, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:36.383185"} {"text": "hvac career information t he world outdoors is often an uncomfortable place. weather changes can bring precipitation, blustery winds, and extreme temperatures. that ' s why we turn to the shelter of indoor spaces. we rely on climate - controlled environments to carry out our lives comfortably and effectively. but it takes much more than just a few walls, a roof, and insulation to make it all happen. so, what is hvac? what is hvac and hvac / r? hvac stands for heating, ventilation, and air conditioning. the hvac systems in our homes, offices, shopping malls, and other buildings allow us to live inside without too much concern for what ' s happening outside. but hvac goes beyond the regulation of indoor temperatures. when such systems are properly installed and maintained, they contribute to better airflow and healthier indoor air quality, which is especially important for people with allergies, asthma, or other medical issues. in addition to heating, ventilation, and air conditioning, there is another type of climate - control technology that is crucial to modern life. the \" r \" in hvac / r stands for refrigeration. the storage and transport of perishable foods, medicines, and other items we may take for granted is made possible by today ' s commercial refrigeration systems. ( side note : don ' t be confused by the different ways in which the \" r \" is added to hvac. the subtle variations you might encounter \u2014 hvac & r, hvac / r, hvacr, hvac - r, or hvac r \u2014 all mean the same thing. ) advances in hvac technology are making the heating and cooling of new and retrofitted buildings more and more energy efficient. refrigerants are being developed and used that are more environmentally friendly. and technologies such as hydronics ( water - based heating ), geothermal, and solar - powered heating and cooling are turning the hvac profession into one with a growing number of \" green \" jobs. hvac systems are installed and serviced by hvac technicians ( who are sometimes known as hvac mechanics or hvac installers ). what does an hvac technician do? the work of an hvac technician can be rather varied. from installation to routine maintenance to repair, the many duties of a professional in the heating, ventilation, and air conditioning industry often add up to working days full of diverse activities. however, a lot depends on whether or not an hvac technician chooses to specialize", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.53378777622004, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:36.419640"} {"text": "can mean you ' re not able to spend as much quality time with those you care about. on the other hand, slow weeks are also inevitable, so you have to know how to account for the ups and downs in your personal finances. - irritable customers \u2014 since many service calls happen when customers are in distress over failing heating or cooling equipment during extreme weather, hvac technicians sometimes must deal directly with people who are cranky and impatient. tempers are heightened when a problem can ' t be fixed right away because a part needs to be ordered. - delayed gratification \u2014 it takes time \u2014 usually at least five years \u2014 to develop the skills that enable you to begin making what are considered good wages in the hvac industry. as a new technician, you should expect the starting pay to be lower than what you might be hoping for. you have to be willing to stick it out and learn everything you can in the meantime. what are the good things about working in hvac? the downsides of being an hvac technician are balanced \u2014 and some might even say overcome \u2014 by the many positive attributes of the hvac trade. here are a few of them : - a sense of accomplishment \u2014 it can be intensely rewarding to fix problematic equipment or install new systems since it means that your hard work directly impacts the ability of people to feel comfortable in their environments. you have the chance to make someone ' s day if they were freezing ( or sweating ) prior to your arrival. plus, looking back on a job well done often leads to a great feeling of personal satisfaction, regardless of how difficult it might have been. - built - in exercise for mind and body \u2014 despite the occupational hazards, being an hvac technician can help you stay in shape \u2014 physically and mentally. - variety \u2014 every day is bound to be somewhat different. you won ' t be stuck in an office. instead, you ' ll get to solve a variety of problems and meet new people. and the fast pace of busy times helps the work days pass quickly. - pride \u2014 because hvac technicians can impact the well - being of people and the environment, they often feel a great sense of personal responsibility and pride of purpose. - stimulation \u2014 opportunities for learning something new happen on a frequent basis, which means boredom is rare. as the hvac industry moves closer and closer toward full computer automation for heating, ventilation, and air conditioning systems, the chance to develop advanced skills and knowledge also increases. - long - term stability \u2014 once you ' ve established yourself in", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5515054104532517, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:36.423381"} {"text": "now a team of university of washington and battelle scientists have identified metabolites in urine that could potentially predict young children at risk of developing autism. the varying degrees and manifestations of this developmental brain condition are collectively called autistic spectrum disorder. asd is characterized by impaired social interactions, difficulty in communicating, and repetitive behaviors. many other symptoms also can be present, including anxiety, depression, learning disabilities, sleep disorders, and gastrointestinal problems. currently, diagnosing a child with asd requires a thorough evaluation by a team of health professionals from a wide range of specialties. early intervention often can reduce or prevent the more severe symptoms and disabilities associated with asd. autism specialists and many other people look forward to a day when a test for a biological marker might detect autism risk in young children. to this end, seattle researchers evaluated porphyrins in the urine of children to determine if the levels of these metabolites could predict asd. the research team included james woods, professor of environmental and occupational health sciences at the uw school of public health, and nicholas heyer and diana echeverria, senior scientists at battelle centers for public health research and evaluation while porphyrins are found in everyone \u2019 s urine, the research team observed that certain kinds of these metabolic byproducts are much higher in the urine of some children with autism, compared with typically developing, non - autisitic children of the same age. additionally, when children with autism were randomly compared with typically developing children or children with other developmental disorders, the porphyrin biomarkers correctly identified more than thirty percent of autistic children without incorrectly identifying a single non - autistic child. the ability to detect porphyrins in a urine sample opens new clinical possibilities. simple urine tests, if they prove effective, could become a rapid, low - cost, widely available way to screen young children for this type of autism risk. \u201c the significance of this biomarker is not only that it may facilitate earlier detection of autism risk, \u201d said woods, \u201c but also that it might help identify those asd children whose symptoms are specifically associated with altered porphyrin metabolism. \u201d he added, \u201c when validated in a larger study, this biomarker could help to identify a specific subset of asd kids and improve the search for more focused treatment options for these children. \u201d the findings were published in this month \u2019 s edition of autism research to coincide with autism awareness month. the paper can", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5332375689913461, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:36.446789"} {"text": "1 october 2009 a picnic basket linked to agatha christie, soil samples collected before the channel tunnel was built and a radioactive rock used in a nobel prize - winning experiment feature in a provocative new exhibition at ucl. disposal?, which opens on monday 19 october 2009, invites you to comment on the most challenging question faced by museums today : what should we collect and hold on to and what should we get rid of? the exhibition includes objects which would not normally be on display, such as a crusher which can apply the weight of 150 hippos, a collection of plastic dinosaurs and slides containing microscopic fossils. among these are five objects earmarked for disposal that the public can vote on. this is one of several ways in which people can contribute their views on the collections : on what they think is important, what should be collected and what they feel would be better off elsewhere. featured pieces will include : - a picnic basket belonging to agatha christie \u2019 s husband \u2019 s second wife barbara parker. the husband, max mallowan, was a famous archaeologist. parker donated the hamper and its contents to ucl. the contents included minoan pottery, a key, a doorknob, beads and a copy of the times. - soil samples collected before the building of the channel tunnel. archaeologists take such samples to see if a site contains archaeological material. these samples were stored at ucl soon after they were taken, but have never been analysed. - a radioactive mineral sample which emits alpha particles, but which is historically important. william ramsay ( 1852 \u2013 1916 ), a former head of ucl chemistry, used it to discover helium in one of a series of nobel prize - winning experiments. the exhibition will also host two events : - \u2018 fight at the museum : rescue my object! \u2019 on tuesday 20 october, 6. 30pm \u2013 9pm, will see experts battle to convince an audience to save their favourite object housed in different collections at ucl. - \u2018 treasured? hunt \u2019 on wednesday 28 october, 6pm \u2013 9pm, will invite people to seek out intriguing objects and specimens in store and decide for themselves just how treasured objects should be. disposing of objects by museums is controversial, conjuring up emotive images of collections thrown into skips or valuable artworks lost to the nation through private sales. with ever - decreasing resources and ever - expanding collections, museums are under serious pressure. collections are fast becoming unsustainable \u2013 ethical but tough decision - making is essential to museums", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5142710385980376, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:36.454774"} {"text": "want to stay on top of all the space news? follow @ universetoday on twitter sidereal time is the time is takes for celestial bodies to ascend and descend in the night sky. we know that celestial bodies are in reality, fixed in their positions. the reason for their dramatic movement in the night is because of the rotation of the earth. this is the same reason why the sun and the moon seem to rise and set. for the longest time, this motion caused many philosophers and astronomers to assume that the earth was the center of the universe. fortunately later astronomers like copernicus were able to discern the true movements of the earth, moon, and sun helping to explain their movements. the time that it takes for a star, planet or other fixed celestial body to ascend and descend in the night sky is also called sidereal period. coincidentally this time corresponds to the time it takes for the earth to rotate one revolution which is just under 24 hours. sidereal time is not like solar time which is measured by the movement of the sun. or the lunar cycles which take about 28 days. it is the relative angle of a celestial object to the prime meridian of the vernal equinox of the earth. if these terms are confusing, here is what they mean. in cartography, the earth is bisected by two major lines of longitude and latitude. these lines are the 0 degree points on the globe. the 0 degree point for the latitude is the equator the point where the earth is perfectly bisected. it cut through south america and africa. the 0 degree point for the longitude is the prime meridian. it exact location is greenwich, uk. the equinoxes are essentially the times of the year when the sun rise and sets at the exact same point of the horizon at the equator. this means that these are the only times the solar day is equally divided into 12 hours of day and 12 hours of night. the hour angle for a celestial object relative to this meridian is what we call sidereal time. this angle changes with the rotation of the earth creating a pattern of ascension and descent for celestial bodies in the earth \u2019 s sky. with the knowledge of sidereal time astronomers can predict the positions of stars. the values for the sidereal time of celestial objects is compile in a table or start chart called an ephemeris. with this guide to sidereal time astronomers can find a celestial object regardless of the change in their position over the year. there are also some great resources on the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5139506150219009, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:36.472657"} {"text": "tell me about the international dark - sky association \u2014 how did it start, what ' s the mission? ida \u2019 s mission is to preserve and protect the nighttime environment and our heritage of dark skies through environmentally responsible outdoor lighting. ida was founded in 1988 by a professional astronomer working at the kitt peak observatory in tucson, arizona and an amateur astronomer who noticed that the increasing sky glow over tucson was interfering with nighttime observations. their message is simple, clear, and effective, and their efforts were fundamental in getting light pollution recognized around the world as an unwelcome and detrimental environmental condition. what are some of the effects of light pollution on animals? on humans? tell me about some of the science that supports this. there are four main types of light pollution : sky glow ( that strange orange dome over urban areas ), glare ( overly bright, unshielded points of light ), light trespass ( unwanted light intruding onto private property ), and clutter ( groupings of light sources ). animals and even plants are affected by sky glow and light trespass due to their extreme photosensitivity. because seasonal temperatures can vary from year to year, many species rely on light cues to tell them when to shed leaves, mate, and reproduce. when outdoor lighting artificially prolongs the day, the instinctive rhythms of many species are affected. many species behave unnaturally in the presence of artificial light \u2014 for example, light at night decreases a firefly \u2019 s ability to be seen, thereby hindering its ability to attract a mate. sea turtles and migratory birds use starlight to orient themselves, so light pollution has devastated their internal navigation systems. some birds will crash into tall buildings, or fixate on a light source, circling around it until they are exhausted and unable to fly. glare from unshielded light sources presents the largest problem to humans. effects of glare from poor outdoor lighting are a primary reason that the american medical association unanimously adopted resolution 516 to support light pollution and glare reduction efforts last june. depending on the severity, glare can cause discomfort or temporary night blindness. on the roadway, glares can interfere with visibility, presenting a hazard to both drivers and pedestrians. the problem gets worse as people age and gradually lose their ability to adjust to changing light levels. exposure to excessive light at night has been found to alter the circadian rhythm, interfere with sleep patterns, and suppress the sleep hormone melatonin. the amount of light needed to affect sleep patterns is not known, but sleeping in total", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5192452528048033, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:36.484234"} {"text": "light levels. exposure to excessive light at night has been found to alter the circadian rhythm, interfere with sleep patterns, and suppress the sleep hormone melatonin. the amount of light needed to affect sleep patterns is not known, but sleeping in total darkness is recommended by both the cdc and the nih as a way to promote a regular circadian rhythm. what is international dark - sky association doing to combat light pollution? how are you measuring the effectiveness of these campaigns? as an environmental educational 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit, ida has enacted dynamic programs in the areas of technology, conservation, and public awareness. ida \u2019 s fixture seal of approval program directly attacks sky glow by establishing \u201c dark sky - friendly \u201d criteria for outdoor light fixtures. currently in the spotlight is our international dark sky places ( idsplaces ) program, a conservation curriculum established to protect urban and rural starscapes. the ids communities and dark sky developments of distinction designations recognize outstanding dark sky preservation efforts in municipalities and planned communities. all designated idsplaces have met stringent lighting requirements through retrofits and legislation and have undertaken outreach efforts to educate the public about the importance of natural night. many designees are successfully incorporating astronomy and stargazing into their local attractions, hosting festivals or sky watching events known as \u201c star parties. \u201d in house, ida collects, creates, and distributes information relating to light pollution, much of which is available for free on the ida website. we also participate in industry meetings and technology expos, and actively collaborate with non - profit interest groups. do you see differences regionally? how bad is the east coast in terms of light pollution? several new england states have taken great strides to protect their skies. the east coast has more light on the whole simply because it is more densely populated, not because the lighting is necessarily worse. we don \u2019 t see a huge difference regionally so much as from city to city. rural and urban areas across the world have enacted dark sky ordinances or are undertaking retrofits in public lighting ( usually as part of an energy saving endeavor ) and their lighting is much more thoughtful, more aesthetically pleasing, and more efficient than cities or townships that have not. what can you tell me about any legislation concerning light pollution, particularly on the east coast? in new york? ida \u2019 s newly opened public policy office in washington, dc is creating a lot of opportunities for collaboration with other non - governmental organizations ( ngos ) and some significant inroads with energy agencies and", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5112728904236724, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:36.486208"} {"text": "a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z a modem self - test in which data from the keyboard or an internal test pattern is sent to the modem ' s transmitter, turned into analog form, looped back to the receiver, and converted back into digital form. a variety of signals and wavelengths that can be transmitted over communications lines such as the sound of a voice over the phone line. the mode used by your modem when answering an incoming call from an originating modem. the transmit / receive frequencies are the reverse of the originating modem, which is in originate mode. a computer program designed to perform a specific task or set of tasks. examples include word processing and spreadsheet applications. automatic repeat request. a function that allows your modem to detect flawed data and request that it be retransmitted. see mnp and v. 42. american standard code for information interchange. a code used to represent letters, numbers, and special characters such as $,!, and /. data transmission in which the length of time between transmitted characters may vary. because characters may not be transmitted at set intervals, start / stop bits are used to mark the beginning and end of each character. sets the modem to pick up the phone line when it detects a certain number of rings. see s - register s0 in the technical reference section of this guide. a process where your modem dials a call for you. the dialing process is initiated by sending an atdt ( dial tone ) or atdp ( dial pulse ) command followed by the telephone number. auto - dial is used to dial voice numbers. see basic data command dn in the technical reference section of this guide. a term used to measure the speed of an analog transmission from one point to another. although not technically accurate, baud rate is commonly used to mean bit rate. a 0 or 1, reflecting the use of the binary numbering system. used because the computer recognizes either of two states, off or on. shortened form of binary digit is bit. also referred to as transmission rate. the number of binary digits, or bits, transmitted per second ( bps ). communications channels using analog modems are established at set bit rates, commonly 2400, 4800, 9600, 14, 400, 28, 800, 33, 600, and higher. bits per second ( bps ) the bits ( binary digits ) per second rate. thousands", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6599095422557396, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:36.511046"} {"text": "are established at set bit rates, commonly 2400, 4800, 9600, 14, 400, 28, 800, 33, 600, and higher. bits per second ( bps ) the bits ( binary digits ) per second rate. thousands of bits per second are expressed as kilobits per second ( kbps ). a temporary memory area used as storage during input and output operations. an example is the modem ' s command buffer. a group of binary digits stored and operated upon as a unit. most often the term refers to 8 - bit units or characters. one kilobyte ( kb ) is equal to 1, 024 bytes or characters ; 640 kb is equal to 655, 360 bytes or characters. the basic signal altered or modulated by the modem in order to carry information. a representation, coded in binary digits, of a letter, number, or other symbol. characters per second ( cps ) a data transfer rate generally estimated from the bit rate and the character length. for example, at 2400 bps, 8 - bit characters with start / stop bits ( for a total of ten bits per character ) will be transmitted at a rate of approximately 240 characters per second ( cps ). some protocols, such as error - control protocols, employ advanced techniques such as longer transmission frames and data compression to increase cps. class 1 and 2. 0 international standards used by fax application programs and faxmodems for sending and receiving faxes. cyclic redundancy checking ( crc ) an error - detection technique consisting of a test performed on each block or frame of data by both sending and receiving modems. the sending modem inserts the results of its tests in each data block in the form of a crc code. the receiving modem compares its results with the received crc code and responds with either a positive or negative acknowledgment. the transmission or sharing of data between computers via an electronic medium. data compression table a table containing values assigned for each character during a call under mnp5 data compression. default values in the table are continually altered and built during each call : the longer the table, the more efficient throughput gained. mode used by a modem when sending and receiving data files. data communications ( or circuit - terminating ) equipment, such as dial - up modems that establish and control the data link via the telephone network. any setting assumed, at startup or reset, by the computer ' s software and attached devices.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.6363994975646461, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:36.514297"} {"text": "files. data communications ( or circuit - terminating ) equipment, such as dial - up modems that establish and control the data link via the telephone network. any setting assumed, at startup or reset, by the computer ' s software and attached devices. the computer or software will use these settings until changed by the user or other software. a test that checks the modem ' s rs - 232 interface and the cable that connects the terminal or computer and the modem. the modem receives data ( in the form of digital signals ) from the computer or terminal and immediately returns the data to the screen for verification. discrete, uniform signals. in this guide, the term refers to the binary digits 0 and 1. data terminal ( or terminating ) equipment. a computer that generates or is the final destination of data. indicates a communications channel capable of carrying signals in both directions. see half - duplex, full - duplex. electronic industries association ( eia ) group which defines electronic standards in the u. s. various techniques that check the reliability of characters ( parity ) or blocks of data. v. 42 and mnp error - control protocols use error detection ( crc ) and retransmission of flawed frames ( arq ). a method for transmitting the image on a page from one point to another. commonly referred to as fax. the mode used by a modem to send and receive data in facsimile format. see definitions for v. 17, v. 27 ter, v. 29. a mechanism that compensates for differences in the flow of data into and out of a modem or other device. see extended data commands & hn, & in, & rn in the technical reference section of this guide. a data communications term for a block of data with header and trailer information attached. the added information usually includes a frame number, block size data, error - check codes, and start / end indicators. signals can flow in both directions at the same time over one line. in microcomputer communications, this may refer to the suppression of the online local echo. signals can flow in both directions, but only one way at a time. in microcomputer communications, may refer to activation of the online local echo, which causes the modem to send a copy of the transmitted data to the screen of the sending computer. hertz, a frequency measurement unit used internationally to indicate cycles per second. an electronic communications network that connects computer networks and organizational computer facilities around the world. internet service", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_entanglement", "similarity_score": 0.619639635294498, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:36.515266"} {"text": "next higher speed. the mode used by your modem when initiating an outgoing call to a destination modem. the transmit / receive frequencies are the reverse of the called modem, which is in answer mode. a simple error - detection method that checks the validity of a transmitted character. character checking has been surpassed by more reliable and efficient forms of error checking, including v. 42 and mnp 2 - 4 protocols. either the same type of parity must be used by two communicating computers, or both may omit parity. a system of rules and procedures governing communications between two or more devices. protocols vary, but communicating devices must follow the same protocol in order to exchange data. the format of the data, readiness to receive or send, error detection and error correction are some of the operations that may be defined in protocols. random access memory. memory that is available for use when the modem is turned on, but that clears of all information when the power is turned off. the modem ' s ram holds the current operational settings, a flow control buffer, and a command buffer. remote digital loopback a test that checks the phone link and a remote modem ' s transmitter and receiver. a copy of the data received by the remote system, returned to the sending system, and displayed on the screen. remote echoing is a function of the remote system. read only memory. permanent memory, not user - programmable. the consecutive flow of data in a single channel. compare to parallel transmissions where data flows simultaneously in multiple channels. the signaling bits attached to a character before and after the character is transmitted during asynchronous transmission. a device whose keyboard and display are used for sending and receiving data over a communications link. differs from a microcomputer or a mainframe in that it has little or no internal processing capabilities. software mode that allows direct communication with the modem. also known as command mode. the amount of actual user data transmitted per second without the overhead of protocol information such as start / stop bits or frame headers and trailers. compare with characters per second. the itu - t standard specification that covers the initial handshaking process. an itu - t standard for making facsimile connections at 14, 400 bps, 12, 000 bps, 9, 600 bps, and 7, 200 bps. an itu - t standard for modems operating in asynchronous mode at speeds up to 300 bps, full - duplex, on public switched telephone", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.6436691834267654, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:36.517118"} {"text": "bps, 9, 600 bps, and 7, 200 bps. an itu - t standard for modems operating in asynchronous mode at speeds up to 300 bps, full - duplex, on public switched telephone networks. an itu - t standard for modem communications at 1, 200 bps, compatible with the bell 212a standard observed in the u. s. and canada. an itu - t standard for modem communications at 2, 400 bps. the standard includes an automatic link negotiation fallback to 1, 200 bps and compatibility with bell 212a / v. 22 modems. an itu - t standard for facsimile operations that specifies modulation at 4, 800 bps, with fallback to 2, 400 bps. an itu - t standard for facsimile operations that specifies modulation at 9, 600 bps, with fallback to 7, 200 bps. an itu - t standard for modem communications at 9, 600 bps and 4, 800 bps. v. 32 modems fall back to 4, 800 bps when line quality is impaired. an itu - t standard that extends the v. 32 connection range : 4, 800, 7, 200, 9, 600, 12, 000, and 14, 400 bps. v. 32 bis modems fall back to the next lower speed when line quality is impaired, fall back further as necessary, and also fall forward ( switch backup ) when line conditions improve ( see online fall back / fall forward ). an itu - t standard that currently allows data rates as high as 28, 800 bps. an enhancement to v. 34 that enables data transfer rates as high as 33, 600 bps. an itu - t standard for modem communications that defines a two - stage process of detection and negotiation for lapm error control. an extension of itu - t v. 42 that defines a specific data compression scheme for use during v. 42 connections. an itu - t standard for modem data compression. it provides for a 6 : 1 compression ratio. the itu - t standard for 56 kbps modem communications. this technology uses the digital telephone network to increase the bit rate of the receive channel by eliminating the analog to digital conversion commonly found in modem connections. v. 90 connections require a modem with v. 90 or x2 technology calling a digitally connected internet service provider or corporate host site compatible with v. 90", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5447069038361624, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:36.517945"} {"text": "of the receive channel by eliminating the analog to digital conversion commonly found in modem connections. v. 90 connections require a modem with v. 90 or x2 technology calling a digitally connected internet service provider or corporate host site compatible with v. 90 or x2 technology. the itu - t standard for advanced 56 kbps modem communications. this technology offers three new features to enhance the v. 90 standard. the first feature is v. pcm - upstream, which allows a modem ' s upstream communication to reach speeds of 48, 000 bps. the second feature provides quicker connection times by allowing the modem to remember the line conditions of a v. 92 supported service provider. the third feature is the modem on hold technology, which allows your internet connection to be suspended when there is an inbound telephone call, then return to the connection when the call is completed without losing the connection. the v. 92 technology can only be utilized if a v. 92 modem is dialing into an internet service provider that supports and provides a digital v. 92 signal. world wide web ( www ) a part of the internet designed to allow easier navigation of the network through the use of graphical user interfaces and hypertext links between different addresses. usrobotics ' s trademark for its proprietary technology that uses the digital telephone network to increase the bit rate of the receive channel by eliminating the analog - to - digital conversion commonly found in modem connections. x2 connections require a modem with x2 technology calling a digitally connected internet service provider or corporate host site compatible with x2 technology. standard ascii control characters used to tell an intelligent device to stop / resume transmitting data.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5650291198832615, "token_count": 341, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:36.518554"} {"text": "outcome thinking with socrates purpose : to provide an easy - to - remember summary of the key criteria and questions to help you develop a really \u201c well - formed outcome \u201d. using this model will significantly increase personal achievement over time and can also increase the immediate effectiveness of all your activities, for example, in meetings, negotiations and personal coaching sessions. | s | | specify your goal | | what is the specific goal you really want to achieve? is it stated in positive language? if \u201c moving away from \u201d the present state, what do you want instead of the problem? | o | | own it | | is it within your control to make happen? if not, what can you bring within control? | c | | check your evidence for having achieved it | | step into it \u2013 \u2018 as if \u2019 it is already achieved. allow it to become fully associated in your mind : what are you seeing? what are you hearing? what are you feeling? what are you thinking? | r | | remember how you \u2019 ve achieved this particular goal | | looking back, how have you done this? what skills and resources have you used? | a | | add in your higher level \u2018 interests \u2019 | | what does achieving this do for you? | what does it mean to you? what else is important to you about this? | t | | test against the needs of others most closely affected | | how does your achievement \u2018 dovetail \u2019 with the needs of others affected by it? | is this acceptable to you? what do they need at the same time? | e | | ecology and other effects | | looking at the bigger systems that may be affected : | what is the impact of this achievement? what are the further consequences? what other ripples can you identify? | s | | step out and start | | looking back, what were your first steps? dissociate \u2013 is the image truly compelling? test commitment ( a score out of 10 ) 10 = committed 8 - 9 ask what has to be true to make it 10? 7 or less? \u2013 check for any hidden positive by - products of the present state and incorporate them. or, change the goal!", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5224895927163229, "token_count": 442, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:36.520507"} {"text": "this story is from the category embodiment date posted : 17 / 11 / 2011 if you tell yourself that someone who ' s being mean is just having a bad day - - it ' s not about you - - you may actually be able to stave off bad feelings, according to a new study which will be published in an upcoming issue of psychological science, a journal of the association for psychological science. having someone angry at you isn ' t pleasant. a strategy commonly suggested in cognitive - behavioral psychotherapy is to find another way to look at the angry person. for example, you might tell yourself that they ' ve probably just lost their dog or gotten a cancer diagnosis and are taking it out on you. stanford researchers jens blechert, gal sheppes, carolina di tella, hants williams, and james j. gross wanted to study the efficiency and the speed of the process of reappraising emotions. \" you can see this as a kind of race between the emotional information and the reappraisal information in the brain : emotional processing proceeds from the back to the front of the brain, and the reappraisal is generated in the front of the brain and proceeds toward the back of the brain where it modifies emotional processing, \" blechert says. blechert and his colleagues came up with two experiments to study this process. participants were shown several series of faces and tested on their reactions. for example, in one set, they were told to consider that the people they ' d seen had had a bad day, but it ' s nothing to do you with you. \" so we trained the participants a little bit, not to take this emotion personally, but directed at someone else, \" blechert says. they found that, once people had adjusted their attitude toward someone, they weren ' t disturbed by that person ' s angry face the next time it appeared. on the other hand, when participants were told to just feel the emotions brought on by an angry face, they continued to be upset by that face. in a second study, the researchers recorded electrical brain activity from the scalp and found that reappraising wiped out the signals of the negative emotions people felt when they just looked at the faces. psychologists used to think that people had to feel the negative emotion, and then get rid of it ; this research suggests that, if people are prepared, it ' s actually a much faster and deeper process. \" if you ' re trained with reappraisal, and", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5120886584162443, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:36.524236"} {"text": "there was a rapid rise of sea level ( about 120m between 20, 000 and 6000 years ago ). vast quantities of sediment were carried by rivers to the sea during this period, eventually forming the pre - cursor to our present coastlines as the rate of sea level rise rapidly reduced about 6000 years ago. much of our beaches today are composed of the remnants of these sediments, composed predominantly of sand and gravel. these sources of beach material have subsequently been supplemented by coastal erosion of soft cliffs and the reduced but continuing supply of sediments from rivers. material has also been derived from offshore banks left behind by relatively rapid rises of sea level after cold episodes in the earth \u2019 s climate. sediment classification and properties | all pictures : \u00a9 a. j. chadwick | traditionally sand and gravel sizes have been classified according to the wentworth scale. this defines sand as being of diameter between 0. 0625mm to 2mm. material sizes larger than this are classified as gravel, subdivided into granular ( 2mm to 4 mm ), pebble ( 4mm to 64 mm ), cobble ( 64mm to 256 mm ) and boulder ( > 256 mm ). rounded gravel, typical of a significant number of uk beaches, is referred to as shingle. there are several physical properties of sand and gravel beaches which are important in the study of coastal sediment transport. the first is the sediment density ( \u03c1s ), typically 2650 kg / m\u00b3 for quartz. the rest are required in recognition of the fact that a beach comprises a mixture of the beach material, interspersed with voids which may be filled with air or water. thus the bulk density ( \u03c1b ) is defined as the in situ mass of the mixture / volume of the mixture, the porosity ( ps ) as the volume of air or water / volume of the mixture, typically between 0. 25 to 0. 4 for a gravel beach, the voids ratio ( e ) as the volume of air or water / volume of the grains, typically between 0. 33 to 0. 66 for a gravel beach, and finally the angle of repose ( \u03c6 ), which is the limiting slope angle at which the grains begin to roll, typically about 35\u00b0 in air. in water this reduces to about 30\u00b0. the material sizes on any particular beach will normally comprise a range of grain sizes, thus it is standard practice to measure the grain size distribution by a sieve analysis from which the percentage by weight of material passing through a range of sieve sizes is plotted against particle size", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5203284571162488, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:36.568668"} {"text": "common geomorphological feature across the world, many of which are composed of gravel. their essential features comprise a narrow, elongated ridge of sand or gravel existing slightly above the high tide level. the ridge generally extends parallel to the shore, but is separated from it by a wetland, lagoon or a tidal flat. barrier beaches act as natural means of coast protection. in addition, wetlands and lagoons formed behind barrier beaches provide shelter for many coastal habitats and are therefore of considerable environmental significance. one explanation of their formation is that they have been formed by landward migration of submerged sand / shingle banks with rising sea levels since the last ice age. barrier beaches are constantly evolving in response to short and long term processes. short term changes in barrier beaches are related to local wave and current climate, tidal variations, frequency and magnitude of storm events, barrier geometry and type of beach sediment and permeability. over longer terms, the primary factors for change and modification of barrier beaches are sea level rise, longshore sediment transport and changes in sediment sources and / or sinks according to orford et al. ( 1995 ). a barrier beach can respond to these factors by landward or seaward migration, reshaping and re - alignment and crest breakdown or build - up. the episodic processes of over - washing, over - topping and associated breaching are the primary phenomena behind long term evolution. understanding the processes of sediment transport on gravel beaches is important for beach management which requires some quantification of shoreline evolution. the vast majority of coastal engineering projects still rely on one - line models since, as yet, 3d morphodynamic models are restricted to short - and medium - term predictions and none have been validated against coarse - grained field data. most one - line models make use of empirical total longshore transport equations. hence, the formulation of a reliable estimate of longshore sediment transport rate remains of considerable practical importance in coastal engineering applications such as feasibility studies of port extensions, derivation of sediment budgets for coastal areas and the appraisal of long term beach stability. to some extent, the mechanisms associated with the longshore transport of gravel may be differentiated from that of sand. generally, for a sand seabed the oscillatory force due to the passage of a ( breaking ) wave will tend to stir the sediment into motion. the bed shear due to the longshore current can then transport the sand. on gravel beaches the sediment normally moves as bedload and is largely confined to the swash zone. as the flow", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5153116234155408, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:36.571532"} {"text": "equation, other than via the coefficient, k. it should be noted that for random waves, the choice of wave height used in the cerc equation ( significant wave height, hs or root mean square wave height, hrms ) must be correlated with the k value. much confusion can arise, as some authors have used hs and others hrms without explicitly stating which one. for rayleigh distributed waves, the k value using hrms is twice that using hs. a suggested value for k using hrms is 0. 77 for sand sized sediments. for gravel beaches, chadwick \u2019 s ( 1989 ) data suggested a k value of 7 % of that for sand ( k = 0. 053 ). this was later found to work well at another beach site, slapton sands, devon, uk ( see alegria - arzaburu & masselink ( 2010 ) ). chadwick ( 1991 ) also developed a numerical model to predict longshore transport on gravel beaches. the hydrodynamic module uses the non - linear shallow water wave equations, which predict the instantaneous water levels and velocities throughout the surf and swash zones. these are combined with a sediment transport module based on bagnold ' s stream power concept. instantaneous transport rates across the surf and swash zones are subsequently summed in space and time to determine the total longshore transport rate. thus, this model specifically includes a sediment threshold term and transport in the swash zone, both of which are of importance on shingle beaches. the model required calibration of only the friction coefficient, which was determined from field data. subsequently, an algebraic formula ( the chadwick - van wellen formula ) was derived from the numerical model results given by : this equation was specifically designed for application to gravel beaches but has only been calibrated to the data from one field site. for further details of this and other longshore transport equations, applicable to gravel beaches, see van wellen et al ( 2000 ). large scale experimental studies | \u00a9 a. j. chadwick | more recent work on coarse grained beaches was undertaken by the eu project \u201c large scale modelling of coarse grained beaches \u201d which was undertaken between march - may 2002. the experiment was conducted at full scale, thus avoiding the sediment scaling issues inherent in small scale models. the measurements included not only the wave field and resultant equilibrium profile development, but also detailed measurements of pore water pressures under the swash face. the experimental results of this work may be found in", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5313861749790219, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 7, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:36.573401"} {"text": "avoiding the sediment scaling issues inherent in small scale models. the measurements included not only the wave field and resultant equilibrium profile development, but also detailed measurements of pore water pressures under the swash face. the experimental results of this work may be found in lopez de san roman - blanco et al ( 2006 ). this experiment was used to develop the cross shore profile model of pedrozo et al ( 2006 ), described in more detail in this article. subsequently another large scale experimental study of gravel barrier beaches was undertaken in bardex ( barrier dynamics experiment ) in the delta wave flume, the netherlands, during june and july 2008. one unique aspect of this work was the inclusion of the effects of a back barrier lagoon in conjunction with a varying tidal level. a special edition of coastal engineering has been devoted to papers resulting from this work ( see turner and masselink ( 2012 ) ). these include details of the observations, the effect of the lagoon water level on the beach profile, new measurements of and prediction techniques for wave friction factors, new predictive techniques for assessing barrier overwashing and overtopping and an assessment of the xbeach model used to predict beach profile evolution and the morphological effect of washover. parametric models for equilibrium profiles the prediction of the expected profile for a gravel beach is very different from the concepts used for equilibrium profiles on a sand beach. the problem was first comprehensively addressed by van der meer ( 1988 ) and powell ( 1990 ), based on extensive scaled laboratory flume tests ( small scale with anthracite in powell \u2019 s case and large and small scale with gravel in van der meer \u2019 s case ). powell \u2019 s work resulted in the development of a parametric profile model, which described the profile as a set of three curves : from the crest to the still water level, from the still water level to a transition point and from the transition point to the base of the profile. this was found to work well using the data from the gwk experiment ). parametric models for barrier stability bradbury ( 2000 ) carried out a series of 3 - d mobile bed laboratory tests on barrier crest response to hydrodynamic conditions and initial barrier geometry. based on the model investigations, several categories of barrier response to hydrodynamic conditions were identified and underlying characteristics were qualitatively defined. these included crest raised by overtopping, crest lowered due to undermining of crest but with no overtopping, crest raised by over - washing with roll - back, crest lowered by", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5299262601511239, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 8, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:36.574367"} {"text": "identified and underlying characteristics were qualitatively defined. these included crest raised by overtopping, crest lowered due to undermining of crest but with no overtopping, crest raised by over - washing with roll - back, crest lowered by over - washing with roll - back and finally, no change to the crest elevation with profile contained to seaward of the barrier crest. he developed an expression for an over - washing threshold of barrier crests, based on regression analysis. it is a function of wave steepness ( hs / lm ), barrier free board ( rc ) and barrier cross - sectional area ba ( above the still water line ), given by : the expression was validated against field data gathered at hurst spit, uk and found to be consistent with the field data. in addition, a conceptual model for barrier over - washing was formulated. according to his model, the beach will initially attempt to reach a dynamic equilibrium ; if the critical barrier inertia is exceeded then the crest will be lowered by over - washing. modelling cross shore profile development | picture courtesy of a. pedrozo - acuna | the first of several recent deterministic process based models for predicting the profile response of coarse grained beaches was developed by lawrence, chadwick and fleming ( 2001 ). it was shown that boussinesq equations coupled with a bed load sediment transport formulation were a useful approach for process - based modelling of gravel beach profile evolution. this model was subsequently extended to model the sediment transport of grain size fractions and thus to predict sediment sorting across the beach face. however, it was found that this numerical model scheme was not stable on steep beaches. subsequently, using a newer boussinesq model, pedrozo et al ( 2006 ) demonstrated that the two principle sediment parameters of friction ( f ) and sediment transport efficiency ( c ) were controlling the shape of the gravel beach profile. with f and c as constant values, accurate prediction of the profile evolution was not possible. the use of bigger friction factors in the uprush slightly improved the prediction. when larger values of the sediment transport efficiency ( c - value ) were used in the uprush compared to the backwash, better predictions of the beach profile resulted. the physical processes which dictate the differences between the predicted and measured profiles were hypothesised as being related to infiltration effects on the flow above the beach face and more accelerated flow in the uprush. further developments coupling the effects of infiltration / exfiltration with sediment movement were still required at that", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5219911855302108, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 9, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:36.575469"} {"text": "predicted and measured profiles were hypothesised as being related to infiltration effects on the flow above the beach face and more accelerated flow in the uprush. further developments coupling the effects of infiltration / exfiltration with sediment movement were still required at that time. the more recent results reported by jamal et al ( 2010 ) and williams et al ( 2012 ) indicate that including this process leads to significant improvements in prediction. pedrozo et al ( 2010 ) have also highlighted the importance of the impulsive pressures induced by plunging breakers on gravel beach sediment transport. suggestions for further research for all budding researchers in coastal research, the further study of gravel and mixed beaches offers much opportunity to enhance our knowledge. longshore transport prediction is still imprecise and cross shore processes very complex and not completely understood. current parametric design methods leave much to be desired. further field and large scale experimental studies remain a primary tool for advancing our understanding of long and cross shore processes. these will need to stand on the heads of the previously mentioned studies. numerical modelling tools can still benefit greatly from improved process representation, including infiltration / exfiltration, interactions with groundwater flows, impulsive pressure forces, the incorporation of grain size fractions and the prediction of sediment sorting across the beach face. example barrier beaches chesil beach, dorset uk, is a world famous gravel barrier beach. it is approximately 28 kilometres long and, on average, 160 metres wide. the height of the beach is typically 11 metres above mean sea level. the beach stabilised close to its present position around 5000 years ago. a rent research paper concerning the internal structure of chesil beach ( bennett et al ( 2009 ) ) also contains a good summary of the extensive historical literature on this beach. there is an informative web site at www. chesilbeach. org. a comprehensive assessment of the historical development and contemporary processes affecting a significant gravel barrier beach system in the uk ( slapton sands, south devon uk ) may be found in chadwick et al ( 2005 ) and a short summary of these studies is presented elsewhere in the coastal wiki ( slapton barrier beach case study, uk ). the paper includes assessment of the effects of sea level rise on barrier migration and its susceptibility to over - washing and overtopping, inter alia. it was found that the processes at work on the slapton shoreline included : | \u00a9 a. j. chadwick | - short - term changes in beach profile due to storms, acting over a period of several days. these storms cause cut", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5034383992497411, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 10, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:36.576462"} {"text": "347. - \u2191 ian l. turner, gerd masselink ( 2012 ). coastal gravel barrier hydrology \u2014 observations from a prototype - scale laboratory experiment ( bardex ). coastal engineering, 63, 13 - 22 - \u2191 van der meer j. ( 1988 ) rock slopes and gravel beaches under wave attack. delft hydraulics publications n 396. - \u2191 bradbury, a. p. ( 2000 ), predicting breaching of shingle barrier beaches - recent advances to aid beach management, 35th maff ( defra ) conf of river and coastal engineers. - \u2191 lawrence, j, chadwick, a j and fleming, c a. ( 2001 ). a phase resolving model of sediment transport on coarse grained beaches. in : billy l edge ( ed ) coastal engineering 2000, 624 - 636. american society of civil engineers : reston, virginia. - \u2191 lawrence, j, karunarathna, h, chadwick, a j and fleming, c a. ( 2003 ). cross - shore sediment transport on mixed coarse grain sized beaches : modelling and measurements. proceedings of the international conference on coastal engineering 2002 - \u2191 jamal, m. h., simmonds, d. j., magar, v., pan, s., ( 2010 ). modelling infiltration on gravel beaches with an xbeach variant. proc. 32nd conf. on coastal eng., shanghai, china, 2010, sediment, p. 41 http : / / journals. tdl. org / icce / issue / view / 154 / showtoc. - \u2191 jon j. williams, amaia ruiz de alegria - arzaburu, robert t. mccall, ap van dongeren ( 2012 ). modelling gravel barrier profile response to combined waves and tides using xbeach : laboratory and field results. coastal engineering, 63, 62 - 80 - \u2191 pedrozo - acuna, a., torres - freyermuth, a., zou, q., hsu, t. - j., reeve, d. e. ( 2010 ). diagnostic modelling of impulsive pressures induced by plunging breakers. coastal engineering 57 ( 3 ), 252 \u2013 266. - \u2191 bennett m. r., cassidy n. j., pile j. ( 2009 ). internal structure of a barrier beach as revealed by ground penetrating radar ( grp ) chesil beach, uk. geomorphology 104, 218 - 229.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5119847796547374, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 14, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:36.581356"} {"text": "rhythm, originating from above the ventricles. psvt begins and ends suddenly. there are two main types : accessory path tachycardias and av nodal reentrant tachycardias ( see below ). accessory pathway tachycardias. a rapid heart rate due to an extra abnormal pathway or connection between the atria and the ventricles. the impulses travel through the extra pathways as well as through the usual route. this allows the impulses to travel around the heart very quickly, causing the heart to beat unusually fast. av nodal reentrant tachycardia. a rapid heart rate due to more than one pathway through the av node. it can cause heart palpitations, fainting, or heart failure. in some cases, it can be terminated using simple maneuvers, such as breathing in and bearing down. some drugs can also stop this heart rhythm. ventricular tachycardia ( v - tach ). a rapid heart rhythm originating from the lower chambers ( or ventricles ) of the heart. the rapid rate prevents the heart from filling adequately with blood. this can be a serious arrhythmia, especially in people with heart disease, and may be associated with more symptoms. ventricular fibrillation. an erratic, disorganized firing of impulses from the ventricles. the ventricles quiver and are unable to contract or pump blood to the body. this is a medical emergency that must be treated with cardiopulmonary resuscitation ( cpr ) and defibrillation as soon as possible. long qt syndrome. the qt interval is the area on the electrocardiogram that represents the time it takes for the heart muscle to contract and then recover, or for the electrical impulse to fire impulses and then recharge. when the qt interval is longer than normal, it increases the risk of a life - threatening form of ventricular tachycardia. long qt syndrome is an inherited condition that can cause sudden death in young people. it can be treated with antiarrhythmic drugs, pacemaker, electrical cardioversion, defibrillation, implanted cardioverter / defibrillator, or ablation therapy. bradyarrhythmias. these are slow heart rhythms, which may arise from disease in the heart ' s electrical conduction system. examples include sinus node dysfunction and heart block. sinus node dysfunction. a slow heart", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5573717483309595, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:36.602524"} {"text": "electrical needs of the facility, \" said puri. \" along with that, we ' ve spent a lot of effort here to design our facilities to be as energy efficient as possible. we ' ve installed increased insulation in many areas ; the glazing material that we selected helps insulate the greenhouse ; and we ' ve deployed heat curtains and heat blankets in the winter to reduce space in the greenhouse that needs to be conditioned. \" additionally, a sophisticated computer control system ensures that climate - control equipment operates efficiently to reduce resource consumption. perhaps the most significant saving in terms of resources is that of fossil fuels, as the distance from farm to consumer is considerably shorter. \" of course, we sharply reduce the transportation of our product and the associated carbon emissions that are caused because of that, \" puri added. all nutrition and pest control is done naturally and sustainably, which was also one of the goals for gotham greens. \" we utilize mineral salts that we dissolve in the water, \" puri said. \" these contain minerals such as nitrogen, magnesium and potassium, along with micronutrients like selenium. in controlling pests, we mostly rely on beneficial insects ; there ' s a whole program in integrated pest management for which a fair bit of monitoring goes on. if we do find a pest in here, we will introduce its natural predator - for instance, we have ladybugs and lacewings to control aphids. \" it ' s in the taste like many others concentrating on great flavor, puri and his team have found that truly caring for the plants will result in the superiority they seek. \" the biggest thing in obtaining that flavor is really taking care of our crops - making sure they have ideal growing conditions in climate, humidity, temperature, and so forth. we ' re also making sure they ' re getting all the nutrients that they need, along with the right amount of irrigation, the right amount of dissolved oxygen. the foremost belief is that healthy plants are going to make for tastier plants. \" and then because we are so close to our customers, we never have to harvest anything before it ' s completely ready. many conventionally grown crops have to be refrigerated and transported long distances, so they are picked early and then artificially ripened. we don ' t have to do anything like that ; we can harvest crops when they are at their optimal freshness, size, flavor, profile and color. we can harvest any item in the morning and have it to a supermarket or a", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.509321986783112, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:36.615963"} {"text": "( 1 ) the section of a pedestal between base and surbase. ( 2 ) the lower portion of the wall of a room, decorated diffrently from the upper section. the dance of death, a favorite late medieval picture subject. it generally shows skeletons forcing the living to dance with them, usually in matching pairs, e. g. a live priest dancing with a skeleton priest. holbein ' s woodcut series the dance of death is one of the most famous. refers to a style of painting that developed in regensburg, germany, and elsewhere along the danube river during the renaissance and reformation. it is characterized by a renewed interest in medieval piety, an expressive use of nature, the relationship of the human figure and events to nature, and the introduction of landscape as a primary theme in art. the term was coined by theodor von frimmel ( 1853 - 1928 ), who believed that painting in the danube river region around regensburg, passau, and linz possessed common characteristics ; the style seems to exist even though leading artists did not form a school in the usual sense of the term, since they did not work in a single workshop or in a particular centre. major artists whose work represents the style include lucas cranach the elder, albrecht altdorfer and wolf huber. a minister who was below the rank of priest in the catholic, anglican and orthodox churches. deacons originally cared for both the sick and the poor in early christian communities. the representation of christ enthroned in glory as judge or ruler of the world, flanked by the virgin mary and john the baptist acting as intercessors. in medieval art a picture, often an altarpiece, consisting of two folding wings without a fixed central area. in renaissance art theory, the design of a painting seen in terms of drawing, which was help to be the basis of all art. the term stresses not the literal drawing, but the concept behind an art work. with the mannerists the term came to mean an ideal image that a work attempts to embody but can in fact never fully realize. as disegno appeals to the intellect, it was considered far more important that coloure ( colour ), which was seen as appealing to the senses and emotions. a technique of painting in which pigments are diluted with water and bound with a glue. it was usually used for painting wall decorations and frescoes, though a few artists, notably andrea mantegna ( 1430 / 31 - 1506 ), also used it on", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5588104874694089, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:36.638974"} {"text": "in which pigments are diluted with water and bound with a glue. it was usually used for painting wall decorations and frescoes, though a few artists, notably andrea mantegna ( 1430 / 31 - 1506 ), also used it on canvas. in architecture, hemispherical structure evolved from the arch, usually forming a ceiling or roof. a roman catholic order of mendicant friars founded by st. dominic in 1216 to spread the faith through preaching and teaching. the dominicans were one of the most influential religious orders in the later middle ages, their intellectual authority being established by such figures as albertus magnus and st. thomas aquinas. the dominicans played the leading role in the inquisition. a patron who commissioned a work of art for a church. donors sometimes had their portraits included in the work they were donating as a sign of piety. a male garment, formerly worn under armour, that from the 15th century referred to a close - fitting jacket. a ceramic product invented in england around 1720, which belongs to the category of fine stoneware. the porous white bodies are made of fired raw materials containing clay and kaolin as well as quartz, feldspar, and talc. a transparent glaze is applied upon the first or second firing. earthenware, which is suitable for everyday use, is distinguished by its light, creamy surface. the most famous example of this category is made by the english firm of wedgwood ( since 1780 ). stand on which a painting is supported while the artist works on it. the oldest representation of an easel is on an egyptian relief of the old kingdom ( c. 2600 - 2150 bc ). renaissance illustrations of the artist at work show all kinds of contrivances, the commonest being the three - legged easel with pegs, such as we still use today. light folding easels were not made until the 18th and 19th centuries, when painters took to working out of doors. the studio easel, a 19th - century invention, is a heavy piece of furniture, which runs on castors or wheels, and served to impress the c1ients of portrait painters. oil painters need an easel which will support the canvas almost vertically or tip it slightly forward to prevent reflection from the wet paint, whereas the watercolourist must be able to lay his paper nearly flat so that the wet paint will not run down. the term ' easel - painting ' is applied to any picture small enough to have been painted on", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5135078482257871, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:36.639850"} {"text": "from the wet paint, whereas the watercolourist must be able to lay his paper nearly flat so that the wet paint will not run down. the term ' easel - painting ' is applied to any picture small enough to have been painted on a standard easel. the words of pontius pilate in the gospel of st. john ( 19, 5 ) when he presents jesus to the crowds. hence, in art, a depiction of jesus, bound and flogged, wearing a crown of thorns and a scarlet robe. in portraiture, a pose in which the sitter faces the viewer directly ; full face. coloured glass in powder form and sometimes bound with oil, which is bonded to a metal surface or plaque by firing. a print made from a metal plate that has had a design cut into it with a sharp point. ink is smeared over the plate and then wiped off, the ink remaining in the etched lines being transferred when the plate is pressed very firmly onto a sheet of paper. a combining of several media grouped together to form a composite art work. chapels were among the most notable renaissance ensembles, sometimes combining panel painting, fresco, sculpture, and architecture. in classical architecture, the part of a building between the capitals of the columns and the roof. it consists of the architrave, the frieze, and the cornice. pictures or tables with reliefs and inscriptions erected in honour of the deceased in churches or sepulchral chapels. the science of the end of the world and beginning of a new world, and of the last things, death and resurrection. the sacrament of holy communion, celebrated with bread and wine, the most sacred moment of the christian liturgy. the term is used in an italian context to designate spiritual currents manifest around 1540 which might be said to have occupied the confessional middle ground between catholicism and protestantism ; hence it does not relate at all to the term ' evangelical ' as used in german or english contexts. it has been applied particularly to the so - called spirituali of the viterbo circle, notably cardinal pole, vittoria colonna, marcantonio flaminio, carnesecchi and ochino, and also to giulia gonzaga, contarini, giovanni morone ; gregorio cortese and vermigli. such persons combined a zeal for personal religious renewal with spiritual anxieties akin to those of luther, to which they sought an answer in the study of st paul and st augustine ; convinced of the inefficacy of human works,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5492076925014915, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:36.640875"} {"text": "to the lofty and rhetorical manner of history painting that in academic theory was considered appropriate to the most serious and elevated subjects. the classic exposition of its doctrines is found in reynolds ' s third and fourth discourses ( 1770 and 1771 ), where he asserts that ' the gusto grande of the italians, the beau ideal of the french, and the great style, genius, and taste among the english, are but different appellations of the same thing '. the idea of the grand manner took shape in 17th - century italy, notably in the writings of bellori. his friend poussin and the great bolognese painters of the 17th century were regarded as outstanding exponents of the grand manner, but the greatest of all was held to be raphael. an extensive journey to the continent, chiefly to france, the netherlands, and above all italy, sometimes in the company of a tutor, that became a conventional feature in the education of the english gentleman in the 18th century. such tours often took a year or more. it had a noticeable effect in bringing a more cosmopolitan spirit to the taste of connoisseurs and laid the basis for many collections among the landed gentry. it also helped the spread of the fashion for neoclassicism and an enthusiasm for italian painting. among the native artists who catered for this demand were batoni, canaletto, pannini, and piranesi, and british artists ( such as nollekens ) were sometimes able to support themselves while in italy by working for the dealers and restorers who supplied the tourist clientele. there was also a flourishing market in guide books. a cross with four arms of equal length. term current with several different meanings in the literature of the visual arts. in the context of the fine arts, it most usually refers to those arts that rely essentially on line or tone rather than colour \u2014 i. e. drawing and the various forms of engraving. some writers, however, exclude drawing from this definition, so that the term ' graphic art ' is used to cover the various processes by which prints are created. in another sense, the term \u2014 sometimes shortened to ' graphics ' \u2014 is used to cover the entire field of commercial printing, including text as well as illustrations. a painting done entirely in one colour, usually gray. grisaille paintings were often intended to imitate sculpture. italian political terms derived from the german welf, a personal and thence family name of the dukes of bavaria, and waiblingen, the name of a castle of the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5275577408862272, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 10, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:36.650326"} {"text": "wired. co. uk : \" there is lots of talking in fragmented silos, but we want to capture all of that in one place and expedite the process through which science turns into the first stage of cancer commons is to create a database where each different type of cancer has a \" molecular disease model \" ( mdm ) - - an expert - curated reference node that catalogues the known molecular subtypes of a particular cancer, linked to relevant pathways, diagnostic tests, approved and experimental therapies and current clinical trials. each is akin to a dynamic research paper that reflects the latest scientific, clinical and technological advancements. a rapid submission and dissemination process allows each mdm to be maintained online and continuously updated by cancer specialists and moderated by editors. the project is governed by an editorial board with an impressive set of credentials. the 18 specialists - - chaired by george lundberg, former editor - in - chief of journal of the american medical association and of webmd ' s online properties and e - medicine - - include a former fda commissioner, a former editor of science and a former president of the american society of so far, only one model has been created, for melanoma. it incorporates 78, 185 abstracts from research papers and information relating to some 1016 clinical trials that are ongoing in the field. some 11 expert editors have been assigned to that particular mdm, including dr david fisher, the head of the dermatology at harvard medical school and dr keith flaherty, from the department of medicine at harvard medical school. over the coming year the plan is to create mdms for other cancers including lung, breast, sarcoma, and lymphoma - - each with their own experts overseeing in order to harness the power of the mdm, collabrx is developing apps that tap into the data to aid decision - making. for example, the \" targeted therapy finder \" can be used by doctors to help identify genetic tests that map an individual tumour ' s unique characteristics, and then select potential treatments based on the findings. by entering information about the particular tumour, they ' ll be given options of tests that ' ll help narrow down the particular subtype of cancer being dealt with ( as categorised by the mdm ), and therefore find out which treatments are the most promising. they can then find information about trials that are looking for patients with that particular subtype. the view is to develop further apps that allow doctors and researchers to submit clinical observations and outcomes and then collaborative", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5522688081319027, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:36.665955"} {"text": "robb godshaw, from syynlabs, has created a haptic cube that gives you an impression of what the temperature will be like tomorrow. the cube, which godshaw has named the cryoscope, consists of an aluminium shell surrounding a peltier element, heatsink, cooling fan and an led, all controlled by an arduino. the cube is heated to a \" neutral \" state of 30c, and then adjusted by the number of degrees that the next day ' s forecast differs from room temperature ( 23c ). it takes into account wind chill and humidity to give an idea what the following day will \" feel \" like, rather than merely reflecting air temperature. so, for example, if the forecast for the next day is for 18c, once those factors are all taken into account, the cube ' s temperature will decrease five degrees from 30c to 25c, resulting in it being slightly cool to the touch. godshaw describes it in the video above as a \" haptic weathervane \", adding : \" users enter their location into a web app. the cube then automatically adjusts to the forecasted temperature. by touching the cryoscope, the user is able to feel tomorrow ' s air you can see the cryoscope in action over on godshaw ' s website. updated 08 : 29 09 / 05 / 2012 : godshaw has redesigned the cryoscope and is raising money for full production over on kickstarter.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.6072630673046221, "token_count": 298, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:36.667370"} {"text": "french and american scientists won the nobel prize in physics tuesday for their work with light and matter, which may lead the way to superfast computers and \" the most precise clocks ever seen, \" the prize committee said. serge haroche of france and david wineland of the united states will share the $ 1. 2 million prize, the second of six nobel prizes announced this month. the award surprised those who expected the physics nobel this year to be related to the discovery of the higgs boson, considered one of the top scientific achievements of the past 50 years. wineland and haroche work in the field of quantum optics, approaching the same principles from opposite directions. the american uses light particles to measure the properties of matter, whereas his french colleague focuses on tracking light particles by using atoms. both nobel laureates have found ways to isolate the subatomic particles and keep their properties intact at the same time, scientists at the royal swedish academy of sciences said in stockholm, sweden. usually when these particles interact with the outside world, the properties that scientists would like to directly observe disappear, leaving researchers postulating over what is going on with them. the two have found a way around this, making direct observation possible. \" the new methods allow them to examine, control and count the particles, \" the academy said. haroche is a professor at the college de france and ecole normale superieure in paris, and wineland is group leader and nist fellow at the national institute of standards and technology and the university of colorado boulder. their work has some potential side benefits to future technology. \" their ground - breaking methods have enabled this field of research to take the very first steps towards building a new type of super fast computer based on quantum physics, \" the academy said.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5443370251424734, "token_count": 360, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:36.679275"} {"text": "here ' s the way the nws defines it : forecasts issued by the national weather service routinely include a \" pop \" ( probability of precipitation ) statement, which is often expressed as the \" chance of rain \" or \" chance of precipitation \". http : / / www. srh. noaa. gov / ffc /? n = pop zone forecasts for north and central georgia national weather service peachtree city ga 119 pm edt thu may 8 2008 including the cities of... atlanta... conyers... decatur... 119 pm edt thu may x 2008. this afternoon... mostly cloudy with a 40 percent chance of showers and thunderstorms. windy. highs in the lower 80s. near steady temperature in the lower 80s. south winds 15 to 25 mph.. tonight... mostly cloudy with a chance of showers and thunderstorms in the evening... then a slight chance of showers and thunderstorms after midnight. lows in the mid 60s. southwest winds 5 to 15 mph. chance of rain 40 percent. what does this \" 40 percent \" mean?... will it rain 40 percent of of the time?... will it rain over 40 percent of the area? the \" probability of precipitation \" ( pop ) describes the chance of precipitation occurring at any point you select in the area. how do forecasters arrive at this value? mathematically, pop is defined as follows : pop = c x a where \" c \" = the confidence that precipitation will occur somewhere in the forecast area, and where \" a \" = the percent of the area that will receive measureable precipitation, if it occurs at all. so... in the case of the forecast above, if the forecaster knows precipitation is sure to occur ( confidence is 100 % ), he / she is expressing how much of the area will receive measurable rain. ( pop = \" c \" x \" a \" or \" 1 \" times \". 4 \" which equals. 4 or 40 %. ) but, most of the time, the forecaster is expressing a combination of degree of confidence and areal coverage. if the forecaster is only 50 % sure that precipitation will occur, and expects that, if it does occur, it will produce measurable rain over about 80 percent of the area, the pop ( chance of rain ) is 40 %. ( pop =. 5 x. 8 which equals. 4 or 40 %. ) in either event, the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5435529484714401, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:36.684131"} {"text": "| yoon jae kim, yj1dreamer at gmail. com ( a project report written under the guidance of prof. raj jain ) | | download | service oriented architecture ( soa ) is a design pattern which is composed of loosely coupled, discoverable, reusable, inter - operable platform agnostic services in which each of these services follow a well defined standard. each of these services can be bound or unbound at any time and as needed. [ jamil08 ] however, as defined, soa has a loosely - coupled feature, which makes soa open to the challenges of security. it means that soa must meet several requirements. the main requirements are as follows [ candolin07 ] : service discovery, service authentication, user authentication, access control, confidentiality, integrity, availability, and privacy. to ensure security in a loosely - coupled soa environment, the open standards communities that created web services developed a number of security standards for web services which is one of the most active and widely adopted implementation of soa. figure 1 depicts a notional reference model for web services security standards. this reference model maps the different standards to the different functional layers of a typical web service implementation. as described above, in the web services security stack the security assertion markup language ( saml ) and the extensible access control markup language ( xacml ) are the standard for access control which means that when the service is requested by a user the service must enforce the specified security policy related to access control. we focus on access control in the web services security and represent what saml and xacml are, how they work and where they are able to be applied together. saml, created by the security services technical committee of the organization for the advancement of structured information standards ( oasis ), is a an xml - based framework for communicating user authentication, entitlement, and attribute information. as its name suggests, saml allows business entities to make assertions regarding the identity, attributes, and entitlements of a subject ( an entity that is often a human user ) to other entities, such as a partner company or another enterprise application. [ madsen05 ] saml is a flexible and extensible protocol designed to be used - and customized if necessary - by other standards. web single sign - on in web sso, a user authenticates to one web site and then, without additional authentication, is able to access some personalized or customized resources at another", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.532596099255496, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:36.701351"} {"text": "to be used - and customized if necessary - by other standards. web single sign - on in web sso, a user authenticates to one web site and then, without additional authentication, is able to access some personalized or customized resources at another site. saml enables web sso through the communication of an authentication assertion from the first site to the second which, if confident of the origin of the assertion, can choose to log in the user as if they had authenticated directly. a principal authenticates at the identity provider and is subsequently appropriately recognized ( and given corresponding access / service ) at the service provider. [ google ] for example, google made saml single sign - on ( sso ) service for google apps. and google apps provides a saml - based single sign - on ( sso ) service that offers partner companies with full control over the authorization and authentication of hosted user accounts that can access web - based applications like gmail or google calendar. as the service provider google offers services as gmail and start pages and partner companies control account information as identity provider. similar to the web sso scenario, the attribute - based authorization model has one web site communicating identity information about a subject to another web site in support of some transaction. however, the identity information may be some characteristic of the subject ( such as a person ' s role in a b2b scenario ) rather than, or in addition to, information about when and how the person was authenticated. the attribute - based authorization model is important when the individual ' s particular identity is either not important, should not be shared for privacy reasons, or is insufficient on its own. securing web services saml assertions can be used within soap messages in order to convey security and identity information between actors in web service interactions. the saml token profile produced by the oasis web services security ( wss ) tc specifies how saml assertions should be used for this purpose with the ws - security framework. the liberty alliance ' s identity web service framework ( id - wsf ) builds on these specifications to use saml assertions for enabling secure and privacy - respecting access to web services. ws - trust, one component of the private ws - * framework initiative, proposes protocols for the exchange and validation of security tokens used as described within ws - security. saml assertions are one such supported security token format. figure 3 illustrates these actors and information flow. as can be seen in the figure, the pap writes polices and policysets and", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5200435833144023, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:36.702301"} {"text": "be performed before granting or denying access. a rule element defines the target elements to which the rule is applied and details conditions to apply the rule and has three components such as target, effect, and condition. a target element specifies the resources, subjects, actions and the environment to which the rule is applied. a condition element shows the conditions to apply the rule and a effect is the consequence of the rule as either permit or deny. a policy is the set of rules which are combined with some algorithms. these algorithms are called rule - combining algorithms. for instance \" permit override \" algorithm allows the policy to evaluate to \" permit \" if any rule in the policy evaluates to \" permit \". a policy also contains target elements which shows the subjects, resources, actions, environment that policy is applied. a policyset consists of policies and policysets combined with policy - combined algorithm. it has also target like a policy. the xacml context shows how flexible and suitable the xacml is for various application. this feature makes it possible that xacml is applied to access control system with saml. section 4 shows the more detailed. saml is one standard suitable for providing the assertion and protocol mechanisms and specifies schemas for carrying the security and authorization related information and have the bindings to basic transportation mechanisms. therefore, oasis publishes a saml profile for the xacml ( oasis, 2005 ) [ anderson05 ] to carry the xacml messages between the xacml actors. this profile defines the usage of saml 2. 0 to protect, store, transport, request and respond with xacml instances and other information. it contains largely four categories. first, this profile specifies how to use saml attributes in an xacml system. this category contains three standard saml elements such as saml attribute, saml attributestatement and saml assertion, two standard saml protocol such as saml attributequery and saml response, and one new saml extension element, xacmlassertion. in an xacml system, saml attribute may be used to store and to transmit attribute values and must be transformed into an xacml attribute before used in an xacml request context. also saml attributestatement may be used to hold saml attribute instances. a saml assertion may be used to hold saml attributestatement instances in an xacml system, either in an attribute repository or in a saml response to a saml attributequery. to transform", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5301792242966681, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:36.704220"} {"text": "should be granted to pep. xacml defines the content of request / response messages but does not define protocols or transport mechanisms, which saml provides by defining schemas for use in requesting and responding with various types of security assertions. this saml / xacml based access control is a very powerful and practical solution for dynamic and large - scale application domain because it is easier to change and maintain policies. so it can extend the authentication and authorization mechanism within a portal to external web services. | [ candolin07 ] | | candolin, catharina, \" a security framework for service oriented architectures \", military communications conference, 2007. milcom 2007. ieee, 29 - 31 oct. 2007, pp. 1 - 6 http : / / ieeexplore. ieee. org / xpl / freeabs _ all. jsp? arnumber = 4455332 | | [ singhal07 ] | | singhal, anoop, \" web services security : challenges and techniques \" policy, eighth ieee international workshop on policies for distributed systems and networks ( policy ' 07 ), 2007, pp. 282 http : / / www2. computer. org / portal / web / csdl / doi / 10. 1109 / policy. 2007. 50 | | [ madsen05 ] | | madsen, paul, et al., \" saml v2. 0 executive overview \", oasis committee draft, 12 april 2005 http : / / www. oasis - open. org / committees / download. php / 13525 / sstc - saml - exec - overview - 2. 0 - cd - 01 - 2col. pdf | | [ ragouzis08 ] | | ragouzis, nick, et al., \" security assertion markup language ( saml ) v2. 0 technical overview \", committee draft 02, 25, march 2008, http : / / www. oasis - open. org / committees / download. php / 27819 / sstc - saml - tech - overview - 2. 0 - cd - 02. pdf | | [ sun ] | | \" sun ' s xacml implementation \", july 2004, http : / / sunxacml. sourceforge. net / guide. html | | [ moses05 ] | | moses, tim, et al., \" extensible access control markup language ( xacml ) version 2. 0 \",", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5635301368578292, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:36.706630"} {"text": "/ code. google. com / apis / apps / sso / saml _ reference _ implementation. html | | corba | | common object request broker architecture | | dce | | distributed computing environment | | gsa | | general services administration | | idp | | general services administration | | j2se | | java platform standard edition | | id - wsf | | identity web services framework | | ldap | | lightweight directory access protocol | | oasis | | the organization for the advancement of structured information standards | | pap | | policy administration point | | pdp | | policy decision point | | pep | | policy enforcement point | | pip | | point information point | | saml | | security assertion markup language | | soa | | service oriented architecture | | soap | | simple object access protocol | | ssl | | secure sockets layer | | tls | | transport layer security | | wss | | web security service | | xacml | | extensible access control markup language | | xkms | | xml key management specification | | xml | | extensible markup language | | xslt | | extensible markup language | last modified : april, 19, 2009 this and other papers on latest advances in network security are available on line at http : / / www1. cse. wustl. edu / ~ jain / cse571 - 09 / index. html back to raj jain ' s home page", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5557611121435126, "token_count": 310, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 8, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:36.707884"} {"text": "eighteen years ago, the eminent conservation biologist gary meffe warned of what he considered to be the greatest problem in human history \u2013 humanity \u2019 s inexorable and exponential increase in numbers. meffe \u2019 s paper, entitled \u2018 human population control : the missing agenda \u2019 published in the journal conservation biology, outlined the threats posed by an ever - increasing human population to biodiversity in terms of species extinctions, and to the ecosystem services necessary for our survival. these include water and air purification, hydrologic cycling and food production. not only is humanity \u2019 s deluge drowning the creatures we share the earth with, but it also runs the risk of submerging itself too. but was this \u2018 missing agenda \u2019 acknowledged? was a dam constructed to stem our exponential flow? nearly two decades later and we see the publication of the un \u2019 s state of world population report 2011. it announced that on october 31st we reached the population milestone of seven billion people inhabiting our world. instead of warning of future population growth and the associated negative impact, it had a more positive tone that encouraged us to ask \u201c what can i do to make our world better? \u201d rather than \u201c are we too many? \u201d this is the united nations after all, and understandably it has to take a progressive and reassuring stance rather than one of doom and gloom. but the angle taken is perhaps revealing of the prevailing attitude of the global collective consciousness \u2013 population growth is inevitable and cannot be stopped. of course there \u2019 s no such thing as a global collective consciousness, explaining in part why meffe \u2019 s view has been largely ignored, because humanity lacks a collective impetus and so anything that requires mass cohesion, for instance only having one child or reducing carbon emissions, is doomed to fail. seven billion people \u2013 it \u2019 s enough to make you feel insignificant. except it \u2019 s not, it \u2019 s just a number. a very big number too large to visualise, grasp or comprehend. incidentally, if you \u2019 re ever having trouble feeling insignificant, then listen to what the \u2018 woody allen \u2019 of science, lawrence krauss has to say. in his recent lecture on cosmic connections for the school of life he stated that \u201c you are much more insignificant than you thought \u201d before going on to compete with brian cox for the title of \u2018 king of making outlandish profound points \u2019, by explaining how we are all quite literally \u201c made of stars \u201d. every atom in our bodies comes from the remnants of an exploded star. it turns out moby was right ( see", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5009441296163296, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:36.715258"} {"text": "title of \u2018 king of making outlandish profound points \u2019, by explaining how we are all quite literally \u201c made of stars \u201d. every atom in our bodies comes from the remnants of an exploded star. it turns out moby was right ( see video below ). this digression aside, the ineffably large human population will continue to increase and even if we wanted to implement population control, doing so would be unethical and practically speaking impossible. very few people, not even many devout conservationists, would be willing to sacrifice the right to have children. i for one wouldn \u2019 t, it is in our evolutionary spirit. instead of tackling the so called \u2018 root cause \u2019 of the population problem by implementing unrealistic, unfavourable, and unwanted population control, efforts have been directed at addressing offshoot issues such as those relating to overconsumption and overexploitation of natural resources. if we can adopt new cleaner technologies and practices to ensure our impact on the environment is neutral or at least negligible, it will be a step in the right direction. just this week the production of a \u2018 microbial fuel cell \u2019 has been announced which can purportedly produce electricity from human urine! researchers at the university of the west of england ( uwe ) have found that by utilising anaerobic bacteria as they metabolise organic waste waters, electrons can be harnessed and useful electricity generated. by \u2018 useful \u2019 it is meant that enough electricity would be generated to charge a battery say, but presumably not enough to heat a home for instance, yet. for now, no one is suggesting this is the answer to the world \u2019 s problems, but switching to technologies that rely less on finite earth resources and more on recycling waste products will help ameliorate the effects our species has on the planet. unfortunately though, those who sing the praises of such advances are often branded with the stigma of being too \u2018 preachy \u2019. increasing public apathy to important issues such as clean technology, climate change and biodiversity decline should be at least as worrying to everyone as financial crises or global terrorism.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5199519644335401, "token_count": 432, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:36.716230"} {"text": "idaho state university researchers study newly discovered earthquake fault in idaho \u2019 s sawtooth mountains posted september 28, 2010 while looking at a highly detailed new topographic image of idaho \u2019 s sawtooth range, idaho state university geosciences professor glenn thackray had an \" eureka moment \" when he discovered a previously unknown active earthquake fault about 65 miles, as the crow flies, from boise. the researchers examined a light detection and ranging ( lidar ) image. lidar is a remote sensing system used to collect topographic data with aircraft - mounted lasers capable of recording elevation measurements at a rate of 25, 000 pulses per second and can have a vertical precision of about six inches. the images can be displayed so they don ' t show an area ' s vegetation. four years ago while doing some research on glaciers in the sawtooth range, thackray was examining a high - resolution, \" bare - earth \" lidar image of the mountains : this is when he noticed a line running through the image in the vicinity of redfish lake. \" the black line stood out and i thought that it had to be an earthquake fault, \" thackray said. \" it was long suspected that there was an active fault in the sawtooths, but without the lidar technology it would have been exceptionally hard to find. \" since that time, isu researchers have been on the ground documenting the fault that is at least 25 miles long and could be as long as 40 miles. it is located on the eastern edge of the range and comes within about five miles from the town of stanley. a portion of it runs through the upper end of redfish lake. it runs along the range approximately from near stanley lake to at least as far south as petitt lake. \u201c the reason this discovery is so important is that it is within the heavily visited areas of the sawtooth national recreation area, very close to the town of stanley, and within 65 miles of idaho \u2019 s largest city, boise, and the most populated area in the state, \u201d thackray said. \u201c we would like to know how big the earthquakes are along this fault and how active it is. \u201d thackray emphasized that the fault is cause for concern, but not alarm, for visitors to and residents of the stanley - sawtooth area, and to the residents of the wood river or boise valleys. the discovery may have implications for land - use and emergency planning, and perhaps building codes. depending on the magnitude of a potential earthquake, it could do damage to surrounding areas. there are", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5209201326235089, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:36.719815"} {"text": "as christo pantev prowled the halls of toronto ' s baycrest center for geriatric care he was struck, over and over, by the vitality of many of the elderly patients who played a musical instrument. \" i saw much more activity in these people than in the others, \" says pantev, a neuroscientist at the center ' s rotman research institute. he saw a difference even among those who were slipping over the edge into dementia. memory begins to fade as the patients slide toward that dark abyss, but the last thing that goes \u2014 the last bit of memory \u2014 he says, is their ability to remember music. and he thinks he may know why. musician and scientist he has developed evidence over the years that the study of music may change the way the human brain is wired. and that has kept him on a course that has guided nearly his entire professional career. he has a few questions he would like to answer, including : does learning a skill, like playing the violin, physically change the brain and improve cognitive and perceptive skills among children, and maybe even stave off mental illness among the elderly? maybe, he reasons, the intense concentration and the long hours of practice that make someone a skilled musician have benefits that far outweigh the rewards of playing a musical instrument. those are tall questions, but pantev has spent the last few years laying the groundwork for research that is just getting underway at the institute. as a child, pantev spent years studying the violin, and it became his passion. even today, he says, \" if i work, i have to hear music. \" in time, the violin gave way to neuroscience, but it was to return later as a key player in his research. while working at the university of muenster ' s institute for experimental audiology in germany, panlev and a colleague began studying people who had lost a limb to see how their brains adapted to their new environment. it was known that persons who had lost a hand sometimes felt pain, or other sensations, in their fingers, even though the hand was no longer there. the researchers used sensitive equipment that could measure electric activity and magnetic fields in the brain to see which areas were active when the person reported feeling \" phantom pain \" in the missing limb. the results, published in a 1995 issue of the journal nature, showed that other parts of the body commandeered the neurons formerly used by the missing limb. if the lip took over those neurons, for example,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5320651977556974, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:36.725780"} {"text": "pain \" in the missing limb. the results, published in a 1995 issue of the journal nature, showed that other parts of the body commandeered the neurons formerly used by the missing limb. if the lip took over those neurons, for example, simply biting the lip caused the person to feel pain in the phantom limb. the research showed that the brain adapted to its new environment by rewiring itself, and that led pantev to his next question. \" can we modify the functional brain organization by training? \" he asks. playing violin, wearing a helmet to answer that, the researchers needed a model, something they could test to see if training had a measurable impact on the brain. pantev knew from his own experience that playing the violin required far more dexterity in the left hand than the right. \" the right hand is much less involved, \" he says. pantev, the violinist, thus supplied pantev, the neuroscientist, with \" the perfect model. \" like the research into phantom pain, the difference between the use of the left hand as opposed to the right gave the researchers something to measure in the brain. over time, they reasoned, practicing the violin several hours a day should cause a neurological shift in the brain.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5586898470455417, "token_count": 259, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:36.726294"} {"text": "australian bureau of statistics 1301. 0 - year book australia, 2009 \u2013 10 previous issue released at 11 : 30 am ( canberra time ) 04 / 06 / 2010 | page tools : print page rss search this product | feature article : households and renewable energy householders have increased their use of energy saving measures in their homes. in 2008, 59 % of households had energy saving lighting installed ( up from 33 % in 2005 ) ( graph 2. 40 ) ; and energy star ratings were the main household consideration when replacing refrigerators, freezers, dishwashers and clothes dryers. counteracting this, graph 2. 39 shows more households now own coolers ( 66 % in 2008 up from 35 % in 1999 ) and dishwashers ( 45 % in 2008 up from 30 % in 1999 ) and other appliances, such as lcd and plasma televisions, the latter using almost three times the amount of energy compared to a standard television ( end note 6 ). types of energy electricity is the main energy source used in people ' s homes. in 2007 - 08, about half ( 49 % ) of the energy used by households was sourced from electricity. household electricity consumption rose to 210 petajoules ( pj ) in 2007 - 08, up 48 % from 1990 - 91 ( abare, 2009 ). in march 2008, electricity was the primary source throughout australia for household cooking ( three - quarters of ovens used electricity and more than half ( 56 % ) of cooktops ) and for hot water systems ( 46 % ). there has been a fall in the use of electricity for hot water systems between 2002 and 2008 from 61 % to 46 %. of those homes with heaters, electricity was the main source of energy for space heating ( 45 % ), followed by gas ( 41 % for mains gas and lpg / bottled together ) and wood ( 13 % ). natural gas is the second most common source of energy used in the home, used by more than six in ten households ( 61 % ) in 2008. in total, households used 137 pj of natural gas in 2007 - 08, equivalent to almost a third ( 32 % ) of total household energy use ( abare, 2009 ). for almost one in three australian households ( 31 % ), gas ( mains or lpg / bottled ) was the main source of energy for space heating and 37 % used gas for hot water systems. in the main gas - producing states of victoria and western australia, gas was used as an energy source in nine", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5432166646812153, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:36.732066"} {"text": "( mains or lpg / bottled ) was the main source of energy for space heating and 37 % used gas for hot water systems. in the main gas - producing states of victoria and western australia, gas was used as an energy source in nine out of ten households ( 90 % and 87 % respectively, compared with six out of ten households nationally ). used primarily as a source of heating, wood use by households has declined 26 % in the last 10 years, from 82 pj in 1997 - 98 to 60 pj in 2007 - 08 ( abare, 2009 ). in 2008, 13 % of australian households used wood as a source of energy in the home. more than one - third ( 35 % ) of households in tasmania used wood as an energy source, a decrease from more than half ( 52 % ) in 2002 ( graph 2. 41 ). due to air pollution concerns, households have been encouraged to stop using wood for heating or to convert open fires to slow combustion fires, which are more energy efficient and produce less greenhouse emissions than open fires. firewood collection can have a detrimental effect on australia ' s native wildlife, as dead trees and fallen timber provide habitat for a diverse range of fauna including a number of threatened species ( end note 7 ). a range of government grants and rebates have been made available to households in recent years to encourage people to use solar energy in the home. in 2008, 7 % of households used solar energy to heat water, up from 4 % of households in 2005. more than half of all households in the northern territory used solar energy to heat water ( 54 % ) - a much larger proportion than in western australia ( 21 % ) and no other state or territory exceeded 10 % ( graph 2. 42 ). greenpower provides an option for people to pay a premium for electricity generated from renewable sources that is fed into the national power grid. greenpower was first established in new south wales in 1997 and since then has spread to other states and territories. by march 2009, just over 984, 000 households were paying for greenpower, up from 132, 300 customers in march 2005 ( end note 8 ). there has also been an increase in the awareness of greenpower products in the past decade. in 1999, less than one - fifth ( 19 % ) of households were aware of greenpower. nearly a decade later, this had risen to more than half ( 52 % ) of all households in 2008, including 5 % who reported that they were already paying for greenpower. households", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5401112340980508, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:36.732971"} {"text": "fifth ( 19 % ) of households were aware of greenpower. nearly a decade later, this had risen to more than half ( 52 % ) of all households in 2008, including 5 % who reported that they were already paying for greenpower. households in the australian capital territory had the highest rate of greenpower awareness ( 71 %, including 5 % who were paying for greenpower ) while western australian households had the lowest awareness ( 39 % ) ( graph 2. 43 ). biomass is plant material, vegetation or agricultural waste used as a fuel or energy source. biomass can also be processed to produce liquid biofuels ( biodiesel ) or a gas biofuel ( biogas ). hydro - electric power is electricity produced from the energy of falling water using dams, turbines and generators. solar / solar photovoltaic : photovoltaics ( pv ) convert sunlight directly into electricity. photovoltaic systems differ from solar hot water systems that absorb sunlight directly into the water - carrying tubes contained in the panel. wind turbines can be used to drive a generator to create electricity. 1. australian energy regulator, state of electricity market 2008, viewed 22 january 2009, < http : / / www. aer. gov. au > 2. department of climate change ( dcc ), australia ' s national greenhouse accounts : national inventory by economic sector 2007, last viewed 20 october 2009, < http : / / www. climatechange. gov. au / inventory > 3. australian bureau of agricultural and resource economics ( abare ), energy update 2009, electronic datasets, viewed 22 september 2009, < http : / / www. abare. gov. au > 4. australian bureau of agricultural and resource economics ( abare ), energy update 2009, table f, viewed 22 september 2009, < http : / / www. abare. gov. au > 5. department of climate change ( dcc ), australia ' s national greenhouse accounts : national inventory by economic sector 2007, dcc, 2009, canberra. 6. energy australia, typical household appliance wattages, viewed 29 january 2009, < http : / / www. energy. com. au >. 7. department of environment, water, heritage and the arts, land pressures, viewed 28 october 2009, < http : / / www. environment. gov. au / land > 8. greenpower, you can bank on greenpower, viewed 26 november 2008, < http : / / www. greenpower. gov. au >", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5430952401675129, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:36.733803"} {"text": "genetic model organisms have revolutionized science, and today, with the rapid advances in technology, there is significant potential to launch many more plant species towards model status. however, these new model organisms have to be carefully selected. hemerocallis ( the daylily ) satisfies multiple criteria for selection and deserves serious consideration as a subject of intensive biological investigation. several attributes of the genus are of great biological interest. these include the strict control of flower opening and, within a short period, the precisely regulated floral death by a programmed cell death system. the self - incompatibility system in hemerocallis is also noteworthy and deserves more attention. importantly, the genus is widely cultivated for food, medicinal value and ornamental interest. hemerocallis has considerable potential as a \u2018 nutraceutical \u2019 food plant and the source of new compounds with biomedical activity. the genus has also been embraced by ornamental plant breeders and the extraordinary morphological diversity of hybrid cultivars, produced within a relatively short time by amateur enthusiasts, is an exceptional resource for botanical and genetic studies. this paper in aob plants explores these points in detail, explaining the reasons why this genus has considerable value \u2013 both academic and socio - economic \u2013 and deserves new resources devoted to its exploration as a model. its impact as a future model will be enhanced by its amenability to cultivation in laboratory and field conditions. in addition, established methods for various tissue and cell culture systems as well as transformation will permit maximum exploitation of this genus by science. rodriguez - enriquez, m. j., and grant - downton, r. t. ( 2012 ) a new day dawning : hemerocallis ( daylily ) as a future model organism. aob plants 5 : pls055 doi : 10. 1093 / aobpla / pls055", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5082240474871293, "token_count": 374, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:36.742750"} {"text": "discover the cosmos! each day a different image or photograph of our fascinating universe is featured, along with a brief explanation written by a professional astronomer. 2001 december 20 explanation : viewed from earth, the solar system ' s planets do a cosmic dance that is hard to appreciate on any single night. but consider this well planned animated sequence combining 23 pictures taken at approximately 2 week intervals from june 2000 through may 2001. it reveals the graceful looping or retrograde motion of bright wanderers jupiter ( leftmost ) and saturn. loitering among the background stars are the familiar pleiades ( above right ) and v - shaped hyades ( below left ) star clusters. the planets didn ' t actually loop by reversing the direction of their orbits, though. their apparent retrograde motion is a reflection of the motion of the earth itself. retrograde motion can be seen each time earth overtakes and laps planets orbiting farther from the sun, earth moving more rapidly through its own relatively close - in orbit. astronomer tunc tezel captured jupiter and saturn ' s \" paired \" retrograde loop in this remarkable series made after the close alignment of these gas giants in may 2000. the next opportunity to see these two planets dance such a pas de deux will be in the year 2020. authors & editors : jerry bonnell ( usra ) nasa technical rep. : jay norris. specific rights apply. a service of : lhea at nasa / gsfc & michigan tech. u.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5139711209162329, "token_count": 297, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:36.746449"} {"text": ". it was german political parties, such as the socialists, the catholic centre party, and the democrats, forming various coalition governments, that were solely responsible for the policies they conducted. of course, admission of responsibility for any calamity cannot be expected from any political party. | how could a european nation that prided itself on its high levels of education and scholarly knowledge suffer such a thorough destruction of its money? | the reasoning that led these parties to inflate the national currency at such astronomical rates is not only interesting for economic historians, but also very revealing of the rationale for monetary destruction. the doctrines and theories that led to the german monetary destruction have since then caused destruction in many other countries. in fact, they may be at work right now all over the western world. in our judgment, four erroneous doctrines or theories guided the german monetary authorities in those baleful years. the most amazing economic sophism that was advanced by eminent financiers, politicians, and economists endeavored to show that there was neither monetary nor credit inflation in germany. these experts readily admitted that the nominal amount of paper money issued was indeed enormous. but the real value of all currency in circulation, that is, the gold value in terms of gold or goods prices, they argued, was much lower than before the war or than that of other industrial countries.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5085806242262326, "token_count": 275, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:36.753553"} {"text": "successful. the pros and cons of the approach have been cogently summed up by hardaker et al. ( 1984a ; 1984b ) and ward ( 1984 ). aside from problems common to any project - based introduction, a specific constraint to the full realization of the potential of agroforestry by institutional means relates to the disciplinary compart - mentalization that characterizes institutions concerned with land use, whereby - as the director of icraf commented - \" agriculture and forestry normally fall under different ministries or, if they are under the same ministry, under separate departments, ' ( lundgren 1987, 44 ). writing specifically of the forestry sector in the south pacific, watt ( 1980, 302 - 303 ) noted that \" the separation of agricultural and forestry extension services encourages the impression that agriculture and forestry are mutually exclusive alternatives rather than complementary land uses. \" following on from and related to this sectoral compartmentalization is each institution ' s imperative to maximize the individual component that is the focus of that institution. in contrast, as has often been observed : the subsistence land user ' s strategy and aims are to use his labour and land resources to optimize, with minimum risk, the production of various products and services required to satisfy all his basic needs. the fundamental inadequacy of conventional - discipline - oriented institutions lies in the failure to acknowledge and understand these basic facts, strategies and aims, and in the inability to adapt to them. the aims, infrastructure, rationale and philosophy of these institutions, as well as the training of their experts, are geared to the maximization of individual components, be they food crops, cash crops, animals or trees. there is little understanding that the land user needs to share out his resources for the production of other commodities or services ( lundgren 1987, 46 ). when maximization is aimed at commercial products, as it most frequently is in the pacific, a set of sometimes contradictory processes comes into play. for example, attempts to produce cash crops while continuing to meet subsistence needs may bring agricultural involution if land is limited, or it may result in an extension of cropping onto marginal sloping lands as cash crops or cattle take over better lands. a specialization in commercial products may not be accompanied by any concomitant increase in labour availability or extension advice ( often restricted to larger producers ) on how to increase subsistence production ( ward 1986 ; yen 1980b ). even the fiji - german forestry project, which commenced in the mid1980s, appears mainly focused", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5087993061901692, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 14, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:36.863912"} {"text": "- published : 12 feb 2012 - views : 396745 - author : musicisprettyneat pretty great blocked in germany. irony artist / band : kraftwerk album : the man - machine year : 1978 genre : \" synthpop \" / electronic wikipedia article : http : / / en. wik... man - machine may refer to : | this disambiguation page lists articles associated with the same title. if an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article. a machine is a tool consisting of one or more parts that is constructed to achieve a particular goal. machines are powered devices, usually mechanically, chemically, thermally or electrically powered, and are frequently motorized. historically, a device required moving parts to classify as a machine ; however, the advent of electronics technology has led to the development of devices without moving parts that are considered machines. the word \" machine \" is derived from the latin word machina, which in turn derives from the doric greek \u03bc\u03b1\u03c7\u03b1\u03bd\u03b1 ( machana ), ionic greek \u03bc\u03b7\u03c7\u03b1\u03bd\u03b7 ( mechane ) \" contrivance, machine, engine \" and that from \u03bc\u03b7\u03c7\u03bf\u03c2 ( mechos ), \" means, expedient, remedy \". the meaning of machine is traced by the oxford english dictionary to an independently functioning structure and by merriam - webster dictionary to something that has been constructed. this includes human design into the meaning of machine. a simple machine is a device that simply transforms the direction or magnitude of a force, but a large number of more complex machines exist. examples include vehicles, electronic systems, molecular machines, computers, television and radio. | this section requires expansion. | perhaps the first example of a human made device designed to manage power is the hand axe, made by chipping flint to form a wedge. a wedge is a simple machine that transforms lateral force and movement of the tool into a transverse splitting force and movement of the workpiece. the idea of a \" simple machine \" originated with the greek philosopher archimedes around the 3rd century bc, who studied the \" archimedean \" simple machines : lever, pulley, and screw. he discovered the principle of mechanical advantage in the lever. later greek philosophers defined the classic five simple machines ( excluding the inclined plane ) and were able to roughly calculate their mechanical advantage. heron of alexandria ( ca. 10 \u2013 75 ad ) in his work mechanics lists five mechanisms that can \"", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5814618606395126, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:36.922531"} {"text": "in the lever. later greek philosophers defined the classic five simple machines ( excluding the inclined plane ) and were able to roughly calculate their mechanical advantage. heron of alexandria ( ca. 10 \u2013 75 ad ) in his work mechanics lists five mechanisms that can \" set a load in motion \" ; lever, windlass, pulley, wedge, and screw, and describes their fabrication and uses. however the greeks ' understanding was limited to the statics of simple machines ; the balance of forces, and did not include dynamics ; the tradeoff between force and distance, or the concept of work. during the renaissance the dynamics of the mechanical powers, as the simple machines were called, began to be studied from the standpoint of how much useful work they could perform, leading eventually to the new concept of mechanical work. in 1586 flemish engineer simon stevin derived the mechanical advantage of the inclined plane, and it was included with the other simple machines. the complete dynamic theory of simple machines was worked out by italian scientist galileo galilei in 1600 in le meccaniche ( \" on mechanics \" ). he was the first to understand that simple machines do not create energy, only transform it. the classic rules of sliding friction in machines were discovered by leonardo da vinci ( 1452 \u2013 1519 ), but remained unpublished in his notebooks. they were rediscovered by guillaume amontons ( 1699 ) and were further developed by charles - augustin de coulomb ( 1785 ). | simple machines | | inclined plane, wheel and axle, lever, pulley, wedge, screw | | mechanical components | | axle, bearings, belts, bucket, fastener, gear, key, link chains, rack and pinion, roller chains, rope, seals, spring, wheel | | clock | | atomic clock, chronometer, pendulum clock, quartz clock | | compressors and pumps | | archimedes ' screw, eductor - jet pump, hydraulic ram, pump, trompe, vacuum pump | | heat engines | | external combustion engines | | steam engine, stirling engine | | internal combustion engines | | reciprocating engine, gas turbine | | heat pumps | | absorption refrigerator, thermoelectric refrigerator, regenerative cooling | | linkages | | pantograph, cam, peaucellier - lipkin | | turbine | | gas turbine, jet engine, steam turbine, water turbine, wind generator, windmill | | aerofoil | | sail, wing, rudder, flap, propeller | | electronic", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5911892520388298, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:36.923470"} {"text": "first mechanical calculator. this machine is considered to be the forerunner of the modern computer though none of them were built in his lifetime. study of the molecules and proteins that are the basis of biological functions has led to the concept of a molecular machine. for example, current models of the operation of the kinesin molecule that transports vesicles inside the cell as well as the myocin molecule that operates against actin to cause muscle contraction ; these molecules control movement in response to chemical stimuli. researchers in nano - technology are working to construct molecules that perform movement in response to a specific stimulus. in contrast to molecules such as kinesin and myosin, these nano - machines or molecular machines are constructions like traditional machines that are designed to perform in a task. machines are assembled from standardized types of components. these elements consist of mechanisms that control movement in various ways such as gear trains, transistor switches, belt or chain drives, linkages, cam and follower systems, brakes and clutches, and structural components such as frame members and fasteners. modern machines include sensors, actuators and computer controllers. the shape, texture and color of covers provide a styling and operational interface between the mechanical components of a machine and its users. assemblies within a machine that control movement are often called \" mechanisms. \" mechanisms are generally classified as gears and gear trains, cam and follower mechanisms, and linkages, though there are other special mechanisms such as clamping linkages, indexing mechanisms and friction devices such as brakes and clutches. controllers combine sensors, logic, and actuators to maintain the performance of components of a machine. perhaps the best known is the flyball governor for a steam engine. examples of these devices range from a thermostat that as temperature rises opens a valve to cooling water to speed controllers such the cruise control system in an automobile. the programmable logic controller replaced relays and specialized control mechanisms with a programmable computer. servomotors that accurately position a shaft in response to an electrical command are the actuators that make robotic systems possible. design plays an important role in all three of the major phases of a product lifecycle : the industrial revolution was a period from 1750 to 1850 where changes in agriculture, manufacturing, mining, transportation, and technology had a profound effect on the social, economic and cultural conditions of the times. it began in the united kingdom, then subsequently spread throughout western europe, north america, japan, and eventually the rest of the world. starting in the later part of", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5993286608332894, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:36.925582"} {"text": "technology had a profound effect on the social, economic and cultural conditions of the times. it began in the united kingdom, then subsequently spread throughout western europe, north america, japan, and eventually the rest of the world. starting in the later part of the 18th century, there began a transition in parts of great britain ' s previously manual labour and draft - animal \u2013 based economy towards machine - based manufacturing. it started with the mechanisation of the textile industries, the development of iron - making techniques and the increased use of refined coal. mechanization or mechanisation ( be ) is providing human operators with machinery that assists them with the muscular requirements of work or displaces muscular work. in some fields, mechanization includes the use of hand tools. in modern usage, such as in engineering or economics, mechanization implies machinery more complex than hand tools and would not include simple devices such as an un - geared horse or donkey mill. devices that cause speed changes or changes to or from reciprocating to rotary motion, using means such as gears, pulleys or sheaves and belts, shafts, cams and cranks, usually are considered machines. after electrification, when most small machinery was no longer hand powered, mechanization was synonymous with motorized machines. automation is the use of control systems and information technologies to reduce the need for human work in the production of goods and services. in the scope of industrialization, automation is a step beyond mechanization. whereas mechanization provides human operators with machinery to assist them with the muscular requirements of work, automation greatly decreases the need for human sensory and mental requirements as well. automation plays an increasingly important role in the world economy and in daily experience. an automaton ( plural : automata or automatons ) is a self - operating machine. the word is sometimes used to describe a robot, more specifically an autonomous robot. an alternative spelling, now obsolete, is automation. | wikimedia commons has media related to : machines | the world news ( wn ) network, has created this privacy statement in order to demonstrate our firm commitment to user privacy. the following discloses our information gathering and dissemination practices for wn. com, as well as e - mail newsletters. we do not collect personally identifiable information about you, except when you provide it to us. for example, if you submit an inquiry to us or sign up for our newsletter, you may be asked to provide certain information such as your contact details ( name, e", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5403054686087354, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:36.926539"} {"text": "atlas faust, md dark matter and dark energy these are two words you often hear thrown around and more often that not i come across people who don \u2019 t know precisely what they are or even that they are two quite different things. so here we go. when you take a look at a galaxy you see a certain characteristic known as gravitational lensing where light is warped in a certain way by mass. from this you can deduce an estimate of the mass of the galaxy. however when we compare this to the mass we estimated based on the concentration, size and distribution of visible mass within the galaxy we find the two numbers to be at odds and not only this but the greatest curving of space time is found in the spaces between objects where nothing can be seen. the difference in masses is believed to be caused by the elusive dark matter, so called because it warps spacetime like regular matter but is completely invisible ( hence the dark ). all in all dark matter constitutes 23 % of the mass - energy density of the universe and a worrying 83 % of the total amount of matter. the universe is made chiefly of stuff you cannot see. dark energy is also the answer to a problem, behaving somewhat like the x value in an algebraic equation we \u2019 re forced to solve. the problem lays in the fact that the universe is continuing to expand at an ever increasing rate and we have no idea why. when you think about it it really doesn \u2019 t make any sense, you would expect the universe \u2019 s expansion to slow down or at least stay constant but unfortunately this isn \u2019 t the case. thus we call this mysterious energy that is causing the increasing the rate at which the universe expands \u201c dark energy \u201d. we really know so very little.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5990951284068038, "token_count": 352, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:36.940807"} {"text": "here ' s a fine think - piece by susan cain that praises some introversion as indispensable for creativity. to some great extent, socrates and jesus were solitary men. and the wisdom they shared with us couldn ' t have been captured in group reports or multi - authored articles. not only that, we live in a society that discourages, in so many ways, thinking for ourselves. we defer so readily to public opinion, fashion, and what the experts say and the studies show. most studies that show stuff have a lot more than one author. most books that change our lives have only one, and we don ' t live in a time when many are being written. just about every good play or novel or painting, of course, has its source in the vision of a single artist. we also see, of course, that in the disciplines that require deep thought and personal interpretation ( such as philosophy \u2014 especially political philosophy \u2014 and history ), articles almost only have one author. technical and scientific reports usually have more authors than they do pages. if we want learning to be personal, personal thought has to be encouraged and rewarded. and persons, of course, have to be held personally responsible for both what they ' ve learned and the ways in which they have expressed their thoughts. in a class dealing with \" real books \" ( such as ones written by plato or kant or jane austen or pascal or simone weil ), i find that the best students get less than ten percent of what ' s really going on, and \" what ' s gotten \" differs dramatically from student to student. if they had to produce a multi - authored paper, the result would be flattened out to what they can explain to each other. it goes without saying the good students would be particularly shy about expressing their most unconventional thoughts to each other, especially ones that have to do with god, love, death, and such to the other group members. they would also be shy about being too enthusiastic or \" erotic \" about what they ' ve read to others who just didn ' t work as hard or care as much as they did. ( all this is why i can ' t stand \" peer review \" as even a stage in evaluating student papers. ) it also goes without saying that the natural result is for good students to have quite different views on the truth and significance of what they ' ve read \u2014 in part, due to what else they ' ve read and their personal experiences. how could they possibly write a conclusion based on some consensus that ' s", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5213476906340193, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:36.957991"} {"text": "for good students to have quite different views on the truth and significance of what they ' ve read \u2014 in part, due to what else they ' ve read and their personal experiences. how could they possibly write a conclusion based on some consensus that ' s more than a bunch of feel - good banalities? good students do, of course, learn from each other through conversation. part of a great class is something like a socratic dialogue \u2014 keeping in mind that the participant closest to socrates ( me ) dominates the discussion in various ways. the community of learners doesn ' t mean that all the learners are equal in the ways relevant to actual learning. in the end : the student paper should be a rather solitary, introverted effort, although not one so introverted that the author is not excited about the possibility that the truth can be shared in common. \" shared in common \" in the socratic sense is a long distance from groupthink or what ' s usually meant by collaborative learning. another problem with \" group projects \" as a learning tool is that our society already rewards being witty and fashionable and pleasing to others far too much. it also already rewards too much shirkers whose main talent is taking credit for the real work of others. let sucking up be saved for the actual world of business. it ' s not a skill that should be rewarded by college credit. here ' s another problem : collaborative learning is also often an excuse for professorial laziness. why read twenty papers when you can read five ( written by groups of four )? the group dynamic also means that the papers will only be so good or so bad, and that means that the professor won ' t be taxed by a product that is too \" outside the box \" of what ' s expected. if you ever sign up for a class that ' s a mixture of powerpoint presentations based on some textbook followed up by group projects and presentations, immediately drop it and ask for your money back. the philosopher rousseau was against taking the idea of dispersing wisdom to everyone characteristic of the enlightenment too seriously because the real goal of that approach is the production of a vain and pseudo - sophisticated herd of seemingly meritocratic techno - elitists. the philosopher \u2014 or the genuinely enlightened person \u2014 is always a law unto himself. he ' s almost always not characterized by the ambiguous virtue of working well with others.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5404829673404682, "token_count": 483, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:36.958924"} {"text": "wednesday, january 30, 2013 summary : this book discusses : * where to look for birds close to home - - often - overlooked spots in cities and suburban neighborhoods that can be bird magnets * how to get deeper by studying the birds around your home and participating in citizen science and conservation projects * green birding listing challenges and groups the green birder can get involved in * includes advice on how to adapt your equipment to a new style of birding and how to attract more birds to your home garden. recommendation : a brief but detailed overview on the subject. 2 ) pagel, mark. wired for culture : origins of the human social mind. 2013. w. w. norton. paperback : 416 pages. price : $ 18. 95 u. s. summary : a unique trait of the human species is that our personalities, lifestyles, and worldviews are shaped by an accident of birth \u2014 namely, the culture into which we are born. it is our cultures and not our genes that determine which foods we eat, which languages we speak, which people we love and marry, and which people we kill in war. but how did our species develop a mind that is hardwired for culture \u2014 and why? evolutionary biologist mark pagel tracks this intriguing question through the last 80, 000 years of human evolution, revealing how an innate propensity to contribute and conform to the culture of our birth not only enabled human survival and progress in the past but also continues to influence our behavior today. shedding light on our species \u2019 defining attributes \u2014 from art, morality, and altruism to self - interest, deception, and prejudice \u2014 wired for culture offers surprising new insights into what it means to be human. recommendation : for those with an interest in human social evolution.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5492239446954412, "token_count": 359, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:36.963421"} {"text": "\u201c moral, \u201d in some sense \u2013 solution. ) in the 1980s, researchers began investigating a potential link between addiction and genetics \u2013 and almost immediately started talking about whether genetics would explain why some races or nationalities had higher incidences of problem drinking than others. again, it was offered as a morally neutral alternative to existing stereotypes about weak - willed, shiftless or mean drunks, particularly those in certain minority groups ( native americans, and to a much, much, lesser extent, irish - americans ). brown university epidemiologist stephen buka, in a paper discussing health disparities as they relate to substance abuse, notes that there is greater genetic variability within major racial groups than between them and that racial disparities in health status. research on ethnicity and race as they relate to heavy drinking is intrinsically problematic, if not impossible to conduct, because these are plastic concepts that change with society ; discussions about the ethnic connection to drinking invariably group all native americans ( on both continents ) into one single ethnic category ; in the same discussions, the irish are presented as genetically distinct from all other european ethnicities. the same way that evolutionary psychology ( or at least, bad reporting on evolutionary research ) often conveniently reinforces sexist stereotypes about the role of men and women in the 21st society, genetic explanations for alcoholism tend to reinforce preexisting stereotypes about certain ethnic groups and races \u2013 in the case of both native americans and ( now fully assimilated, but still cheekily stereotyped ) irish - americans, these are stereotypes that date back centuries before the discovery of dna ; stories about the purported \u201c out - of - control \u201d drinking habits of native americans date back to the first interactions between white explorers and natives, with the former presenting their own drinking norms as refined and in control. socioogist and social worker richard thatcher, author of the 2004 book fighting firewater fictions : moving beyond the disease model of alcoholism, argues that both the disease model and the \u201c firewater myth \u201d not only cast native american people in the most essentialist terms, but considers problem drinking from the social, cultural and economic realities with which many indigenous people cope \u2013 perpetuating a racist status quo and leading many young people to believe they will eventually, inevitably become alcoholics themselves. that becomes a self - fulfilling prophecy, particularly in cultures ( thatcher ' s work focuses on indigenous people in canada ) where no effort is made to address the other societal factors that lead to problem drinking. people drink for a lot of reasons : to celebrate, to grie", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.554388025834615, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:36.976149"} {"text": "intellectual disability begins in childhood. people with intellectual disability have limits in their mental functioning seen in below - average intelligence ( iq ) tests and in their ability to communicate, socialize, and take care of their everyday needs. the degree of disability can vary from person to person. it can be categorized as mild, moderate, severe, or profound. some causes of intellectual disability can be prevented with proper medical care. children diagnosed with an intellectual disability are most successful when they get help early in life. if you suspect that your child may have an intellectual disability, contact your doctor. several hundred causes of intellectual disability have been discovered, but many are still unknown. the most common ones are : biomedical causes resulting from : - abnormal genes inherited from parents - errors when genes combine, such as down syndrome and fragile x syndrome - nutritional deficiencies - metabolic conditions, such as phenylketonuria ( pku ), galactosemia, and congenital hypothyroidism - developmental brain abnormality, such as hydrocephalus and brain malformation - infections during pregnancy, such as : - behavioral issues during pregnancy, such as : problems at birth, such as : - premature delivery or low birth weight - baby doesn \u2019 t get enough oxygen during birth - baby is injured during birth factors during childhood, such as : - nutritional deficiencies - illnesses or infections that affect the brain, including meningitis, encephalitis, chickenpox, whooping cough, and measles - exposure to lead, mercury, and other toxins - head injury or near drowning - social factors, such as child stimulation and adult responsiveness - educational deficiencies a child could be at higher risk for intellectual disability due to any of the causes listed above, or due to intellectual disability in other family members. if you are concerned that your child is at risk, tell your child ' s doctor. symptoms appear before a child reaches age 18. symptoms vary depending on the degree of the intellectual disability. if you think your child has any of these symptoms, do not assume it is due to intellectual disability. these symptoms may be caused by other, less serious health conditions. - learning and developing more slowly than other children of the same age - difficulty communicating or socializing with others - lower than average scores on iq tests - trouble learning in school - inability to do everyday things like getting dressed or using the bathroom without help - difficulty hearing, seeing, walking, or talking - inability to think logically the following categories are often used to describe the level", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5283756251667284, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:36.983517"} {"text": "scores on iq tests - trouble learning in school - inability to do everyday things like getting dressed or using the bathroom without help - difficulty hearing, seeing, walking, or talking - inability to think logically the following categories are often used to describe the level of intellectual disability : - iq 50 - 70 - slower than normal in all areas - no unusual physical signs - can learn practical skills - reading and math skills up to grades 3 - 6 - can conform socially - can learn daily task skills - functions in society - iq 35 - 49 - noticeable delays, particularly speech - may have unusual physical signs - can learn simple communication - can learn elementary health and safety skills - can participate in simple activities and self - care - can perform supervised tasks - can travel alone to familiar places - iq 20 - 34 - significant delays in some areas ; may walk late - little or no communication skills, but some understanding of speech with some response - can be taught daily routines and repetitive activities - may be trained in simple self - care - needs direction and supervision socially - iq < 20 - significant delays in all areas - congenital abnormalities present - needs close supervision - requires attendant care - may respond to regular physical and social activity - not capable of self - care if you suspect your child is not developing skills on time, tell the doctor as soon as possible. your doctor will ask about your child \u2019 s symptoms and medical history. a physical exam will be done. standardized tests may be given that measure : - intelligence \u2014 iq tests measure a person \u2019 s ability to do things such as think abstractly, learn, and solve problems. a child may have intellectual disability if iq test results are 70 or below. adaptive behavior \u2014 these are skills needed to function in everyday life, including : - conceptual skills like reading and writing - social skills like responsibility and self - esteem - practical skills like the ability to eat, use the bathroom, and get dressed children with intellectual disability have a higher risk for other disabilities such as hearing impairment, visual problems, seizures, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, or orthopaedic conditions. additional testing may be needed to check for other conditions. talk with your doctor about the best treatment plan for your child. treatment is most helpful if it begins as early as possible. treatment includes : - early intervention programming for infants and toddlers up to age three - family counseling - human development training, including emotional skills and hand - eye coordination - special education programs - life skills training, such as preparing food, bathing - job coaching - social opportunities - housing services to help", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_computing", "similarity_score": 0.5043413668024299, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:36.984526"} {"text": "i like projects. i really liked this project. the pipe insulation roller coaster project is one of the most enjoyable projects i ' ve ever used in class. it was my second year teaching physics. during the unit on energy, the book we were using frequently used roller coasters in their problems. we even had a little \" roller coaster \" to use with photo gates. i thought we could do better. my original idea was to get some flexible hot wheels tracks and make some loop - de - loops and hills. turns out a class set of hot wheels track is pretty expensive. on an unrelated yet serendipitous visit to my local big box hardware store, i ran across the perfect ( and cheap! ) substitute : pipe insulation!. for $ 1. 30 or so you can get six feet of pipe insulation - which doubles nicely as a marble track1 when you split the pipe insulation into two equal halves. it ' s really easy to cut pipe insulation with a sharp pair of scissors. just be sure you don ' t buy the \" self - sealing \" pipe insulation, which has glue pre - applied - it ' s more expensive and it ' d turn into a sticky mess. at first i planning to simply design a one - period long investigation using the pipe insulation ( my original ideas morphed into the pre - activity for this project ). as i started to think through the project more and more, i realized we could go way bigger. and thus, the pipe insulation roller coaster project was born. building the coasters in groups of three, students were given 24 feet of pipe insulation ( 4 pieces ), a roll of duct tape2, and access to a large pile of cardboard boxes3. all groups had to adhere to a few standard requirements : - construction requirements - the entire roller coaster must fit within a 1. 0m x 2. 0m rectangle4. - there must be at least two inversions ( loops, corkscrews, etc. ). - all 24 feet of pipe insulation must be used. - the track must end 50 cm above the ground. in addition to meeting the above requirements, students were required to utilize their understanding of the work - energy theorem, circular motion, and friction to do the following : - determine the average rolling friction, kinetic energy, and potential energy at 8 locations on their roller coaster. - determine the minimum velocities required for the marble to stay on the track at the top of all the inversions - determine the g - forces the marble experiences", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5770061893825563, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:36.997669"} {"text": "friction, kinetic energy, and potential energy at 8 locations on their roller coaster. - determine the minimum velocities required for the marble to stay on the track at the top of all the inversions - determine the g - forces the marble experiences through the inversions and at least five additional corners, hills, or valleys. - the g - forces must be kept at \" safe \" levels5. - rolling friction, kinetic energy, and potential energy - the potential energy ( ) is easy enough to find after measuring the height of the track and finding the mass of the marble. the kinetic energy is trickier and can be done by filming the marble and doing some analysis with tracker, but since the speed of the marble is likely to be a little too fast for most cameras to pick up clearly, it ' s probably easier ( and much faster ) to simply measure the time it takes the marble travel a certain length of track. i describe how this can be done in a previous post, so check that out for more info. that post also includes how to calculated the coefficient of friction by finding how much work was done on the marble due to friction - so i ' ll keep things shorter here by not re - explaining that process. - pro - tip : have students mark every 10 cm or so on their track before they start putting together their coasters ( note the tape marks in this pic ). since d in in this case is the length of track the marble has rolled so far, it makes finding the value for d much easier than trying to measure a twisting, looping roller coaster track. - this is also called the critical velocity. that ' s fitting. if you ' re riding a roller coaster it ' s pretty critical that you make it around each loop. also, you might be in critical condition if you don ' t. while falling to our death would be exciting, it also limits the ability to ride roller coasters in the future ( and i like roller coasters ). since we ' re primarily concerned with what is happening to the marble at the top of the loop, here ' s a diagram of the vertical forces on the marble at the very top of the loop : so just normal force ( the track pushing on the marble ) and gravitational force ( the earth pulling on the marble ). since these forces are both acting towards the center of the loop together they ' re equal to the radial force : when the marble is just barely making it around the loop ( at the critical velocity ), the normal force goes to zero", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5557320261281824, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:36.998606"} {"text": "the marble ). since these forces are both acting towards the center of the loop together they ' re equal to the radial force : when the marble is just barely making it around the loop ( at the critical velocity ), the normal force goes to zero. that is, the track stops pushing on the marble for just an instant at the top of the loop. if the normal force stays zero for any longer than that it means the marble is in free fall, and that ' s just not safe. so : then when you substitute in masses and accelerations for the forces and do some rearranging : there you go. all you need to know is the radius of the loop, and that ' s easy enough to measure. of course, you ' d want a little cushion above the critical velocity, especially because we ' re ignoring the friction that is constantly slowing down the marble as it makes its way down the track. - an exciting roller coaster will make you weightless and in the next instant squish you into your seat. a really bad roller coaster squishes you until you pass out. this is awesomely known as g - loc ( g - force induced loss of consciousness ). with the proper training and gear, fighter pilots can make it to about 9g ' s before g - loc. mere mortals like myself usually experience g - loc between 4 and 6g ' s. as i mentioned, i set the limit for pipe insulation roller coasters at 30g ' s simply because it allowed more creative and exciting coaster designs. while this would kill most humans, it turns out marbles have a very high tolerance before reaching g - loc. raise the stakes students become fiercely proud of their roller coasters. they ' ll name them. brag about them. drag their friends in during lunch to show them off. seeing this, i had students show off their creations to any teachers, parents, or administrators that i was able to cajole into stopping by for the official testing of the coasters. i even made up a fun little rubric (. doc file ) for any observers to fill out for each coaster. this introduces some level of competition into the project, which gives me pause - though from day one students generally start some friendly smack talk about how their coaster is akin to the millenium force while all other coasters are more like the woodstock express. the students love to show off their coasters, and it seems the people being shown enjoy the experience as well. assessment is massively", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5722436681402172, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:36.999504"} {"text": "how their coaster is akin to the millenium force while all other coasters are more like the woodstock express. the students love to show off their coasters, and it seems the people being shown enjoy the experience as well. assessment is massively important. however, this post is already long. the exciting conclusion of this post will feature the assessment piece in : part 2 : pipe insulation roller coaster assessment. the pipe insulation roller coaster series - pipe insulation roller coasters and rolling friction - pipe insulation roller coasters - pipe insulation roller coaster assessment - the first day we played with pipe insulation in class i had students use some marble - sized steel balls. unfortunately because the steel balls are so much heavier and the pipe insulation is spongy and flexible, there was just too much friction. when we switched to marbles the next day everything worked like a charm. ( back ) - most groups typically use more than one roll of duct tape. my first couple years i bought the colored duct tape and gave each group a different color. that was a nice touch, but also a bit more expensive than using the standard silver. whatever you decide, i highly recommend avoiding the cut - rate duct tape. the cheap stuff just didn ' t stick as well which caused students to waste a lot of time fixing places where the duct tape fell and in the end used a lot more duct tape. ( back ) - i had an arrangement with our school ' s kitchen manager to set broken down boxes aside for me for a few weeks before we started the project. if that ' s not an option, i ' ve also found if you talk to a manager of a local grocery store they ' re usually more than willing to donate boxes. ( back ) - i made it a requirement for groups to start by building a cardboard rectangle with the maximum dimensions. this served two functions : ( 1 ) it made it easy for the groups to see what space they had to work with, and ( 2 ) it allows the roller coasters to be moved around a little by sliding them across the floor. ( back ) - originally i wanted students to keep g - forces below 10. very quickly it became apparent that under 10g ' s was overly restrictive and i upped it to 30g ' s. that ' s not really safe for living creatures, but it would certainly make it more \" exciting. \" ( back )", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.530097657401594, "token_count": 482, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:37.000385"} {"text": "it is obvious that some people are more successful in different intellectual domains than others. gardner ' s multiple intelligences suggests eight different domains of intellectual skill people can identify with. the domains consist of the following, in which people can score any level in all categories : linguistic, logico - mathematical, spatial, musical, bodily - kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal and naturalistic. although his model is impossible to falsify, this idea is important because it serves as a good starting point in which scientists can begin distinguishing what qualifies as an \" intelligence \" versus a talent. however, it is possible that talents and intelligence are actually the same, when intelligence is defined among gardner ' s approach. it is impossible to say einstein had a talent in math yet didn ' t identify with that intelligence. a causation approach seems to be inapplicable because research points towards intelligence being considerably stable, while talents can be improved... yet those talents remain in the same realm as its partnering intelligence. this article talks about how there is a controversy on the misuse of his idea into new teaching methods. however, who said that just because someone is intelligent in music means that they will all of a sudden learn geography classes significantly better based on singing the information? they would simply just excel in the musical part of tasks, further concluding their continued talent / intelligence. as suggested in the text, i prefer to conclude i have an intelligence in humor, but one could beg to differ. overall, i now wonder if someones iq could actually be the degree in which every arguable intelligence is taken into consideration, then somehow calculated. the wais test seems to imply there are different areas of intelligence, so why not add them all...? oh, how psychology is incredibly ambiguous. multiple intelligences : possibly interchangeable with talent? trackback url : http : / / blog. lib. umn. edu / cgi - bin / mt - tb. cgi / 168052", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5344756795284709, "token_count": 407, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:37.042692"} {"text": "\u201c in nine months, a group of children left alone with a computer in any language will reach the same standard as an office secretary in the west. \u201d ~ dr. sugata mitra one fine day on 26 january 1999, the chief scientist at niit and his team plan to dig a hole in their office wall adjacent to the delhi slum area. they install a freely accessible computer and observe the rest. this computer created instant ripples and the inferences were revolutionary. the slum children not only learn basic computer skills but teach other children as well. this experiment known as the hole in the wall is the discovery of professor sugata mitra. he also coined the concept of minimally invasive education ; a pedagogy under which children driven by curiosity and peer support teach themselves and others. professor sugata mitra had always been fascinated with the idea of unsupervised learning and computers and when finally he put it into practice, it won him another award. on tuesday, february 26. dr. mitra was given the ted award 2013 which grants him $ 1 million to set up his own learning laboratory based on this concept. dr. mitra plans to set up learning spaces that would be totally automated and controlled from the cloud. the supervisor will not be a teacher or a computer expert but only a safety and health supervisor. probably set up in india, these learning spaces would take the hole in the wall experiment to the implementation stage. dr. mitra has been the chief scientist at niit and is currently professor of educational technology at newcastle university, uk. dr. mitra is a winner of \u201c man of peace award \u201d from together for peace foundation, usa, and \u201c social innovation award \u201d from institute of social inventions, uk. he has also been given the \u201c dewang mehta award \u201d by the government of india in recognition for his work related to hole - in - the - wall. according to dr. mitra, the learners of the new age need two things. a broadband connection and a teacher to stand back. he says, \u201c the victorians were great engineers. they engineered a [ schooling ] system that was so robust that it \u2019 s still with us today, continuously producing identical people for a machine that no longer exists. \u201d we were fortunate enough to have prof. mitra with us in one of the wiziq conversations. you can revisit his works and words anytime. professor mitra was self - taught and has a firm belief that others can do the same through technology and", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_entanglement", "similarity_score": 0.5184953119230171, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:37.048778"} {"text": "combined gas law the combined gas law combines charles law, boyle s law and gay lussac s law. the combined gas law states that a gas pressure x volume x temperature = constant. alright. in class you should have learned about the three different gas laws. the first one being boyle ' s law and it talks about the relationship between pressure and volume of a particular gas. the next one should be charles law which talks about the volume and temperature of a particular gas. and the last one should be gay lussac ' s law which talks about the relationship between pressure and temperature of a particular gas. okay. but what happens when you have pressure, volume and temperature all changing? well, we ' re actually going to combine these gas laws to form one giant gas law called the combined gas law. okay. if you notice then these three gas laws the pressure and volume are always in the numerator. so we ' re going to keep them on the numerator. p1v1. and notice the temperature is in the denominator over t1. so all these things are just squished into one and then p2v2 over t2. okay. so this is what we ' re going to call the combined gas law. so let ' s actually get an example and do one together. alright, so i have a problem up here that says a gas at 110 kilo pascals and 33 celsius fills a flexible container with an initial volume of two litres, okay? if the temperature is raised to 80 degrees celsius and the pressure is raised to 440 kilo pascals, what is the new volume? okay. so notice we have three variables. we ' re talking about pressure, temperature and volume. okay, so now we ' re going to employ this combined gas law dealing with all three of these variables. so we ' re going to look at our first, our first number 110 kilo pascals and that ' s going to, that is the unit of pressure. so we know that ' s p1. our p1 is 110 kilo pascals, at 30 degree celsius. i don ' t like things with celsius so i ' m going to change this to kelvin. so i ' m going to add 273 to that which makes it 303 kelvin. that ' s our temperature. and my initial volume is two litres so i ' m going to say v1 = 2 litres. okay then i continue reading. if the temperature is raised at 80", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5453436478771518, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:37.076863"} {"text": "to add 273 to that which makes it 303 kelvin. that ' s our temperature. and my initial volume is two litres so i ' m going to say v1 = 2 litres. okay then i continue reading. if the temperature is raised at 80 degree celsius, again we want it in kelvin, so we ' re going to add 273 making it to 353. so our t2 is 353 kelvin and the pressure increased to 440 kilo pascals, the pressure p2 is equal to 440 kilo pascals which i ' m very happy that i kept it in kilo pascals that i kept it in kilo pascals. i ' ve got to make sure these units are the same because pressure can be measured in several different units. i ' m going to make sure all units are the same. and what is the new volume? so our v2 is our variable, what we ' re trying to find. okay. so let ' s basically plug all these variable in into our combined gas law to figure out what the new volume would be. okay. so i ' m going to erase this and say our pressure one is 110 kilo pascals. our volume one is two litres. our temperature one is 303 kelvin. our pressure two is 440 kilo pascals. we don ' t know our volume so we ' re just going to say v2 over 353 kelvin. okay. when i ' m looking for a variable i ' m going to cross multiply these guys. so i ' m going to say 353 times 110 times 2 and that should give me seven, 77660, if you put that in a calculator. so i just cross multiply these guys. and i cross multiply these guys 303 times 440 times v2 gives me 133320v2. okay, so then i want to get my, i want to isolate my variable, so i ' m going to divide 133320. 133320. and i find that my new volume is 0. 58. 0. 58 metres. and that is how you do the combined gas law.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5458424229717672, "token_count": 430, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:37.110559"} {"text": "epilepsy phenome / genome project ( epgp ) the purpose of this study is to collect detailed information about the characteristics and genetics of a large number of individuals with epilepsy. | study design : | | observational model : case control time perspective : prospective | official title : | | epilepsy phenome / genome project : a phenotype / genotype analysis of epilepsy | - epgp will recruit persons with specific forms of epilepsy. dna will be isolated from participants ' blood and genetic variants associated with common forms of epilepsy will be identified. [ time frame : over 4. 5 years ] [ designated as safety issue : no ] biospecimen retention : samples with dna | study start date : | | november 2007 | | estimated study completion date : | | december 2013 | | estimated primary completion date : | | december 2012 ( final data collection date for primary outcome measure ) | individuals with epilepsy epilepsy is one of the most common neurological disorders and is a major public health concern. approximately 30 percent of people with epilepsy have medically intractable epilepsy, and the medical and social consequences of the disorder are enormous. treatments developed for epilepsy have largely been experimental rather than based on knowledge of basic mechanisms because the mechanisms are poorly understood. the epilepsy phenome / genome project ( epgp ) is a large - scale, international, multi - institutional, collaborative research project aimed at advancing the understanding of the genetic basis of the most common forms of epilepsy. the overall goal of epgp is to collect detailed, high quality phenotypic ( i. e., characteristics of individuals, from the molecular level to the whole person ) information on persons with epilepsy and to compare the phenotypic information with genomic information. epgp will provide a resource that may lead to many discoveries related to the diagnosis and treatment of epilepsy, including the eventual development of new therapies based on a better understanding of causes of the disorder. show 25 study locations | principal investigator : | | daniel lowenstein, md | | university of california, san francisco, department of neurology | | principal investigator : | | ruben kuzniecky, md | | new york university, comprehensive epilepsy center |", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_entanglement", "similarity_score": 0.5503216918731484, "token_count": 471, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:37.131279"} {"text": "expanding community resources : a collaborative effort - chapter 7. teaching and learning basic invasion - game tactics in 4th grade : a descriptive study from situated and constraints theoretical perspectives. rovegno, inez ; nevett, michael ; brock, sheri ; babiarz, matthew / / journal of teaching in physical education ; jul2001, vol. 20 issue 4, p370 focuses on the description of invasion - game tactics using theoretical perspective. implication of the content, instruction and learning ; recognition of the qualitative data ; identification of the high - ability and low - ability group. - the learning revolution : perched at the millennium. o ' banion, terry / / community college week ; 01 / 12 / 98, vol. 10 issue 12, p4 opinion. comments on the shift which has emerged in education in the united states, focusing on that change in community colleges. what this shift emerged initially as ; how some observers characterized this shift ; need for overhauling the architecture of education. - feedback. kelley, susan ; jones, barbara ; gordon, brian / / community college week ; 07 / 27 / 98, vol. 10 issue 26, p5 presents several feedback from educators on the learning revolution. problems with student learning ; measurement of the effectiveness of teaching ; support for and conversation about learning colleges. - what ' s your learning style? / / current health 1 ; oct96 1 of 2, vol. 20 issue 2, p23 describes a variety of learning styles. visual learning ; aural learning ; cooperative learning ; highlights of a teacher - students discussion on learning styles. - the notebook. white, elizabeth ross / / christian science monitor ; 6 / 16 / 98, vol. 90 issue 140, pb2 offers news briefs related to learning. gorp. com, a web site that provides outdoor recreation information ; details on the children ' s scholarship fund ; maine college of art exchange program with hanoi fine arts college in vietnam ; ministers to teach religion in a public high school in buena... - alignment and gategory learning. lassaline, mary e. ; murphy, gregory l. / / journal of experimental psychology. learning, memory & cognition ; jan1998, vol. 24 issue 1, p144 presents information on a series of studies which shows that alignment is involved in category learning. details on the experiments ; results of the experiments ; discussion on the experiments. - dynamic changes in hypermnesia across early and late tests ; a relation / item - specific account.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5490997033648206, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:37.138289"} {"text": "a series of studies which shows that alignment is involved in category learning. details on the experiments ; results of the experiments ; discussion on the experiments. - dynamic changes in hypermnesia across early and late tests ; a relation / item - specific account. mcdaniel, mark a. ; moore, brent a. ; whiteman, howard l. / / journal of experimental psychology. learning, memory & cognition ; jan1998, vol. 24 issue 1, p173 presents information on experiments which tested predictions derived from r. r. hunt, and m. a. mcdaniel ' s relational / item - specific account of hypermnesia. methodology of the experiments ; results of the experiments ; discussion on the experiments. - influences of temporal organization on sequence learning and transfer : comments on stadler ( 1995 ).. dominey, peter ford / / journal of experimental psychology. learning, memory & cognition ; jan1998, vol. 24 issue 1, p234 investigates the hypothesis that both the serial order of events and their temporal organization influence the internal representation of a sequence and thus influence its learnability. methodology of the investigation ; results of the investigation ; discussion on the investigation. - helping your child learn. / / humpty dumpty ' s magazine ; dec96, vol. 44 issue 8, p34 suggests techniques to encourage learning in children. promotion of reading by setting up a home library ; telling of family stories ; meeting with teachers.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5863181143158847, "token_count": 301, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:37.138829"} {"text": "influenza, or \u201c the flu, \u201d is a contagious viral infection of the nose, throat, and lungs which occurs most often in the late fall, winter, and early spring. flu is a serious infection which is associated, on average, with more than 200, 000 hospitalizations due to flu related complications and can lead to thousands of deaths every year in the united states. \u201c no one wants to spread the flu to family, friends, or colleagues. yet many of us admit to tossing our manners aside when we have the flu, \u201d said anna post, great - great - granddaughter of emily post and co - author of the 18th edition of emily post \u2019 s etiquette. \u201c knowing how to politely cancel an event you \u2019 re hosting or how to avoid shaking your client \u2019 s hand because you \u2019 re sick can help avoid a potentially difficult and awkward situation. by following appropriate flu etiquette, we can all play a role in preventing the spread of the flu virus. \u201d the emily post institute offers the following etiquette tips to manage common situations where the flu virus might be spread from one person to another : 1. share space, not the flu \u2013 covering sneezes and coughs is a good habit all year round, especially during flu season. the flu virus can spread up to six feet away from coughing, sneezing, or even just talking. 2. know when to take a sick day \u2013 the flu is highly contagious and the people you work with don \u2019 t want to get sick. knowing the symptoms of flu versus a cold is important so you know when to take a sick day and see a doctor. remember the acronym f. a. c. t. s. to recognize if you might have the flu ( fever, aches, chills, tiredness with sudden onset ). 3. in tight quarters \u2013 it \u2019 s tough to point out someone \u2019 s behavior mid - flight with hours left to go. however, flu is highly contagious. if there \u2019 s no other seat available, consider saying, \u201c i can see you \u2019 re not feeling well \u2014 would you mind covering your mouth when you cough? thanks. \u201d most people when prompted are eager to show good manners and do the right thing. \u201c every year, millions of americans get influenza. we are all personally responsible for helping to control its spread, \u201d says susan j. rehm, md, medical director at the national foundation for infectious diseases ( nfid ). \u201c the centers for disease control and", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5041849714125706, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:37.151331"} {"text": "record : darwin, c. r. geological diary : port desire. cul - dar34. 29 - 34 transcribed by kees rookmaaker, edited by john van wyhe ( darwin online, http : / / darwin - online. org. uk / ). revision history : transcribed by kees rookmaaker and john van wyhe, corrections by van wyhe and gordon chancellor 1. 2011. rn2 note : this document, part of the largest scientific document composed by darwin during the voyage of the beagle, is written mostly in ink. marginal notes are here integrated into the text. editorial symbols used in the transcription : [ some text ] ' some text ' is an editorial insertion [ some text ] ' some text ' is the conjectured reading of an ambiguous word or passage [ some text ] ' some text ' is a description of a word or passage that cannot be transcribed < > word ( s ) destroyed < some text > ' some text ' is a description of a destroyed word or passage text in small red font is a hyperlink or notes added by the editors. reproduced with the permission of the syndics of cambridge university library and william huxley darwin. n side of river. porphyry. \u2014 ascending which you arrive at a dead level plain, much divided & cut up by vallies one side corresponds to the other. \u2014 this plain reaches up to the foot of two hills is seen stretching to the west - ward. to the sw. & south of [ river ]. all level forming square pieces of table land. \u2014 covered with gravel of porphyry. \u2014 endless varieties, & some white quartz. pebbles here the size of r negro but evidently same sort \u2014 all water brackish, more or less. v [ bottle ] : is it washing any salt water of old sea? in one valley, which was deep, there was a coating of salt which resembled the salitrales more to the north. \u2014 v. specimen. \u2014 on the high plain, there are groups of many shells lying thick together, & curiously perfect, considering exposure to weather. \u2014 patellae. & mytilus with colour. \u2014 ( same as new bay ) not covered with diluvium. \u2014 recent sea cause of sterility. \u2014 i should imagine gravel 10 20 or 30 feet thick, for beneath this there appears a white. calcareo - sandy clay \u2014 clayey sandstone in soft. forming beds. seen in vallies at foot of 2 hills. \u2014", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5001272188365252, "token_count": 511, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:37.165773"} {"text": "inferior rocks. \u2014 more especially as the junction is slightly inducted. \u2014 whatever origin of 1679 is it must be the same for all porphiries 1634 - - 39. for where section f is ; the cliffs end & great porphyritic formation begins of which ( 1677 ) present in external form & nature a good type. \u2014 yet i cannot think rocks such as 1681. which pass into 1675. & such, 1673.,. 1674. which lie over rocks of aqueous origin such rocks as 1673 passing into. 1649 & pass into each other & alternate without marked change can owe their origins to such different causes as fire & water. section f is interesting, where porphyry 1677 dips into the sea. i thought it belonged to the range of hills behind the fort \u2014 it was only at its outcrop. i saw it overlying such rocks as 1678. 1679. ) & other coarser varieties with small pebbles such as ( 1649 ). \u2014 the dip is here w n w. \u2014 which is unusual & it is the point of a bite or bay & commencement of the tw softer rocks. \u2014 the general dip of all the above rocks is nnw. \u2014 but not accurately ; the stratification is in plains considerably disturbed. at dip at about 15\u00b0. \u2014 i noticed here the same fact as at the falklands namely outcrop behind outcrop without anticlinal lines. \u2014 [ sketch of anticlinal lines ] gran 1650 1675 white [ illeg ] 1681 1650 1674 red [ illeg ] 1649 1651 mortar & f. b. 1681 i may notice that form of harbor roughly agrees with stratification. creek running to the s. of w & e. \u2014 in the east of the fort, where the spaniards have quarried.. \u2014 the following rocks are visible. \u2014 1682 \u2014 \u2014 to 1691. \u2014 which tell something like same tale as section f. viz. that porphyry ( 1684 ) ( which is part of same bed with ( 1690 : 1691 ) & which include the principal varieties in the country. lies over rocks of a very earthy nature, sometimes quite soft. & very commonly lined with horizontal or waving ferruginous lines. as in sandstone, evidently formed in water. \u2014 these 6 rocks occur without any determinate order & pass into each other. \u2014 the passage of porhyry 1684. is certain. the laminated variety 1691. occurs at top", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5015508718400333, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:37.170948"} {"text": "lines. as in sandstone, evidently formed in water. \u2014 these 6 rocks occur without any determinate order & pass into each other. \u2014 the passage of porhyry 1684. is certain. the laminated variety 1691. occurs at top of bed. \u2014 which appears to be its common position. \u2014 these beds ( porphyry ) inducted dip to sse at 10\u00b0 ( or about ). now they rest on s side of great porphyry range. behind the fort. \u2014 this range runs about ene & wsw or ne & w. which line continued falls to the south of the cliffs. & therefore their northerly dip is explained by line of violence continued, although no actual hills are produced. the following facts are i think proved by geology of port desire viz that earthy & crystalline porphiries were formed, were covered by conglomerates & other mechanical rock ; that rocks partaking of both character of mechanical & chemical passed into each other & alternated an argument for the wernerians ; that there was a common deposit of white earthy feldspar : & that the dykes are of curious chemical nature, that the conglomerates are formed from the rolling of porphyries rocks now present. that these beds were upheaved by the chain of hills north of the fort. \u2014 that this roughly impressed the present form of land. \u2014 that in certain places, a great bed of yellowish sandy clay was deposited abounding with large ostreae very generally same fossils. with s josef & st fe contemporaneous. that the upper parts of this bed was purer clay & contained layers of gypsum, that above this there is bed of to earthy sandstone, sometimes generally ( same as in r. chupat near rios calcareous. \u2014 that these beds show no sign of violence. \u2014 that after this a most enormous alluvial action removed parts of the lower beds & deposited a vast thickness of rounded porphyry & white quartz pebbles. ( if these were two upheavals one took place at this period? ) \u2014 that the sea remained or this gave time enough to leave shells which now exist, even with their colours. elevated 247 feet above the sea. \u2014 then the land was elevated or sea subsided. \u2014 that some this there has been very great alluvial action, more than the present dry climate can account for. even if we put out of the case the great removals & immense vallies in the upper plain, where there are little", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5266041695709405, "token_count": 510, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:37.171937"} {"text": "american journal of physical anthropology doi : 10. 1002 / ajpa. 21350 a mitochondrial revelation of early human migrations to the tibetan plateau before and after the last glacial maximum zhendong qin et al. as the highest plateau surrounded by towering mountain ranges, the tibetan plateau was once considered to be one of the last populated areas of modern humans. however, this view has been tremendously changed by archeological, linguistic, and genetic findings in the past 60 years. nevertheless, the timing and routes of entry of modern humans into the tibetan plateau is still unclear. to make these problems clear, we carried out high - resolution mitochondrial - dna ( mtdna ) analyses on 562 tibeto - burman inhabitants from nine different regions across the plateau. by examining the mtdna haplogroup distributions and their principal components, we demonstrated that maternal diversity on the plateau reflects mostly a northern east asian ancestry. furthermore, phylogeographic analysis of plateau - specific sublineages based on 31 complete mtdna sequences revealed two primary components : pre - last glacial maximum ( lgm ) inhabitants and post - lgm immigrants. also, the analysis of one major pre - lgm sublineage a10 showed a strong signal of post - lgm population expansion ( about 15, 000 years ago ) and greater diversity in the southern part of the tibetan plateau, indicating the southern plateau as a refuge place when climate dramatically changed during lgm.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5235454336001812, "token_count": 287, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:37.175888"} {"text": "date : december 2004 creator : habel, agnieszka description : this problem in lieu of thesis is a discussion of two topics : brownian movement and quantum computers. brownian movement is a physical phenomenon in which the particle velocity is constantly undergoing random fluctuations. chapters 2, 3 and 4, describe brownian motion from three different perspectives. the next four chapters are devoted to the subject of quantum computers, which are the signal of a new era of technology and science combined together. in the first chapter i present to a reader the two topics of my problem in lieu of thesis. in the second chapter i explain the idea of brownian motion, its interpretation as a stochastic process and i find its distribution function. the next chapter illustrates the probabilistic picture of brownian motion, where the statistical averages over trajectories are related to the probability distribution function. chapter 4 shows how to derive the langevin equation, introduced in chapter 1, using a hamiltonian picture of a bath with infinite number of harmonic oscillators. the chapter 5 explains how the idea of quantum computers was developed and how step - by - step all the puzzles for the field of quantum computers were created. the next chapter, chapter 6, discus the basic quantum unit of information... contributing partner : unt libraries", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.7444297127121304, "token_count": 265, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:37.177234"} {"text": "fixing math education 2 aka \" drill - n - kill \" vs \" inquiry based \" aka \" traditional \" vs \" progressive \" notice how some terms just naturally sound better than others? does that have anything to do with the substance of the ideas? so there ' s really no general agreement on what constructivism is. some people argue it ' s not curriculum or pedagogy, it ' s brain science. i simply use it to refer to those approaches of teaching mathematics that require students to develop their own mathematics from scratch. it might include \" problem solving, \" \" discovery learning, \" and \" inquiry - based learning ( ibl ). \" my apologies to those who will claim that i do violence to their pet definitions here. but there do seem to be two general camps. on the one hand we have those who think students should learn efficient, time - tested methods of solving problems, and learn them to mastery ( automation ). these i call \" traditionalists. \" on the other hand, we have those who emphasize that students should learn to think creatively, develop strategies to solve novel problems, and develop deep insights into mathematics. these i call \" constructivists. \" the answer is actually simple. we need both. however, when sacrifices must be made, there is one approach that is essential, and one that is merely desirable. unfortunately, reasonable people will disagree about which is which. this, however, is my blog, so my opinion is right. the much - maligned traditional method is essential. we must first realize that there is a great deal of disinformation floating around about the traditional method. its opponents claim the traditional method teaches rote memorization without understanding or thinking. except perhaps in some isolated enclaves where stereotypically poor teaching took place, this has never been the case. all the widely used math textbooks of the 19th century, for example, emphasized \" mental arithmetic, \" that is, the ability to think through multiple - step problems \" in your head \" and give the solution, not only without a calculator but even without a pencil. the kinds of thinking and understanding that were required differed from what is expected today, because the skill set expected of an educated person has changed. so in those days, being able to carry sums in your head was far more important than, say, sketching the graph of an exponential function. in honest debate, we must realize that \" back - to - the - basics \" or \" traditional education \" does not imply restricting ourselves to the content or", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5892840325303652, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:37.205230"} {"text": "your head was far more important than, say, sketching the graph of an exponential function. in honest debate, we must realize that \" back - to - the - basics \" or \" traditional education \" does not imply restricting ourselves to the content or objectives of a bygone era. the primary features of the traditional method include : 1 ) understanding a mathematical concept, e. g. \" what does it mean to add two numbers? \" 2 ) memorization of basic facts / definitions / results, e. g. \" the times tables. \" 3 ) application of memorized knowledge to novel problems and more advanced concepts. 4 ) review and maintenance of memorized knowledge. the traditional method results in efficient learning and provides the foundation necessary for creative thinking, even if it fails to sufficiently address that objective, according to its critics. and yes, even educators from singapore, whose students smoke the americans in international tests, are looking with envy at the creativity of some of our students. this demonstrates that a commitment to the essential objectives may not produce all the results that are desirable. it is well documented in cognitive science that the brain has a limited capacity to manipulate objects in \" working memory. \" it is often said that we cannot process more than seven memory objects at once, which supposedly explains why phone numbers have seven digits ( only now they have 10, but that ' s ok, because the phone remembers all the numbers for us ). the working memory is where problem solving and creative activities take place. the working memory can access permanent memory for information it needs. however, any new information that must be taken in to solve a problem must occupy space in the working memory, thus taking away from the space available for creative activity. that is why we quickly become frustrated when trying to follow assembly instructions that include many terms with which we are not familiar. even if the actual steps in the process are simple, if they involve several terms that are not defined in our permanent memory, those terms require space in our working memory which is then not available for solving the problem. this explains why the pedagogic fad of \" learning to learn \" is a failure. we do indeed need skills for learning - - but such skills are utterly dependent on a reliable bank of information which can be accessed instantly and does not require the use of working memory. the first step in problem solving or creativity must be putting as much relevant information as we can into permanent memory.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5548426345663906, "token_count": 491, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:37.206202"} {"text": "do you ever feel like no matter what you do to get healthier or fit that you don \u2019 t seem to succeed? have you tried every diet out there, only to find the restrictions too difficult to manage? have you attempted in earnest to maintain a fitness program only to find that, despite your best efforts, doing a consistent routine is too difficult to manage? with all these starts and stops over years and decades, you may think : what \u2019 s the point of trying? or maybe you \u2019 ve given up and resolved to just accept poor health as part of your life. well, the inability to \u201c stick with it \u201d has many facets, some of which you may not be able to control. in fact, research shows that the self - control needed to succeed in many of these cases may be a limited resource. in 2006, michael inzlicht and colleagues at the university of toronto scarborough studied what happens in the brain when humans try to abstain from something they want. that is, when we try to use willpower to refrain from acting on our urges to do something specific. failure to control one \u2019 s behavior is found in all aspects of life. it includes acting out, saying mean things, stealing and drug abuse. it also encompasses not doing things that are good for you like walking, eating healthy and getting plenty of rest. inzlicht set up a study, published in the journal psychological science, which tested participants \u2019 self - control over time. participants were first asked to do something to deplete their \u201c store \u201d of willpower or behavioral control and then see how much they had left for another, unrelated task. first, participants watched an emotionally upsetting movie and were asked to suppress their emotions and try not to cry during especially difficult scenes. following this, participants completed what is called a stroop task. stroop is a psychological test that measures the reaction time needed to name colors that are printed in a color not associated with the color word. in other words, saying \u201c green \u201d when the word \u201c green \u201d was printed in the color red. this task may seem simple. while this seems simple, if you try it you will see how much self - control it takes not to blurt out the printed color and to have to suppress that urge and replace it with a correct response. during both the watching of the film and the stroop task, participants \u2019 brain activity was measured by an eeg ( electroencephalography ) device. this records the electrical activity on the scalp", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_computing", "similarity_score": 0.5159163859738752, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:37.218587"} {"text": "urge and replace it with a correct response. during both the watching of the film and the stroop task, participants \u2019 brain activity was measured by an eeg ( electroencephalography ) device. this records the electrical activity on the scalp to measure voltage changes within the brain \u2019 s neurons. what the researchers discovered was intriguing. when participants had to restrain themselves and exert quite a bit of self - control ( when not expressing emotions or when trying to say the names of colors ), there was an increase of brain activity in the part of the brain \u2019 s frontal lobe known as the anterior cingulate cortex. this is the region of the brain involved in autonomic functions, like regulating blood pressure and heart rate, as well as rational cognitive functions, such as reward anticipation, decision - making and emotion. the interesting finding in this study is that there was less frontal lobe activity with the stroop task after watching the gut - wrenching film. in other words, when a fair amount of self - control was previously used on one task, the next time it was needed there was less available for use. these findings suggest that people may not have as much willpower or control over their behavior as time progresses and demands are placed on them to exert such control. it is pretty discouraging to think that the human brain is capable only of providing a strong degree of self - control during a given time period. that might seem to leave most of us with little hope for change. think about it : if we use self - control to not eat a sticky bun with breakfast and force ourselves to take that morning jog, then we will have less available control over our behavior when it comes to making lunch and dinner choices, or passing on the second round of drinks, or going to the gym or to yoga class. is it any wonder why so many fail at diets and exercise routines time and time again? well, this needn \u2019 t be the case and more information has recently been published on this issue. a study again headed by inzlicht, this time with colleague brandon schmeichel of texas a & m university, appeared in the september issue of the journal perspectives on psychological science. in this further research, inzlicht now finds that the \u201c limited resource \u201d model of self - control is too narrow and does not explain the exceptions, the times when self - control is in place and one is able to maintain the level necessary to effect positive change by making repeated good choices. it is not", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5270448430177069, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:37.219711"} {"text": "\u201c limited resource \u201d model of self - control is too narrow and does not explain the exceptions, the times when self - control is in place and one is able to maintain the level necessary to effect positive change by making repeated good choices. it is not a \u201c use it or lose it \u201d situation as previously thought, but more closely tied to motivation, this study shows. while previous research apparently pointed to a decrease in the amount of willpower available with each passing task requiring some form of self - control, this conclusion may be flawed because of the generic activity used in the studies. in other words, researchers had set up lab situations wherein subjects had no strong motivation influencing their behavior. the more recent study indicates that mood, personal beliefs, positive reinforcement and motivation play a big role in exerting willpower. inzlicht and schmeichel propose that \u201c engaging in self - control by definition, is hard work ; it involved deliberation, attention, and vigilance. \u201d it \u2019 s not the case that resisting an extra piece of bacon at breakfast uses up our daily store of willpower, making self - control more difficult later in the day when needed. rather, it seems that the motivation to exert our willpower later in the day seems less motivating. at that later time, we tend to want to reward ourselves for hard work done. in the end, as with everything else affecting health and well - being, you can divide your circumstances into things you can do to help reach your goals and things beyond your control. in the case of self - control, you need long - term behavior modification for success. my experience has shown that trying to restrict too many things is what leads to failure. for example, trying to set new exercise goals, diet routines and sleep patterns all at the same time creates an overwhelming struggle. instead, making one change for a few weeks before adding another seems to allow the brain and behaviors to reshape and recondition to the new activity. repetition over time turns a self - controlled behavior into a habit that then keeps taking place on autopilot. once the first piece of the healthy behavior is under new control, add the second piece, and so on. in this way, you don \u2019 t run out of your willpower stores, you don \u2019 t deplete your motivation and you learn new healthier behaviors along the way. without behavior modification, all programs for change will fail. think about times you have tried to make positive changes in your life and have fallen", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.516614751815772, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:37.220689"} {"text": "you wouldn \u2019 t guess that a bit of green slime could do so much. but from from food to fuel, petroalgae, inc. seems to have thought of everything. this florida - based renewable energy company has developed a technology in which algae and other microorganisms produce fuel to feed cars, animals, and even humans... and say they can do it cheaper than anyone else. with the addition of a few basic nutrients, algae gather most of their energy from the sun. the result is a protein and carbohydrate - rich slime that can be converted to a variety of products. first, the protein is extracted and processed into animal feed or blended into human food products. petroalgae actually lists one of its products as \u201c meal replacer \u201d, conjuring images of our new utopian future in which chewing is obsolete. after the protein extraction, what remains is a \u201c lipid - carbohydrate mash \u201d. petroalgae claims that this material can be sent directly to a petroleum refinery and processed into diesel, gas, or jet fuel without the need to retro - fit any of the refinery \u2019 s conventional equipment. algae cultivation requires very little square - footage relative to conventional crops, can be grown on non - arable land, and consumes up to twice its weight in carbon dioxide as it grows. in addition to algae, petroalgae draws from a large pool of microorganisms including diatoms, cyanobacteria, and micro - angiosperms ( tiny flowering plants ). while exact species remain unnamed, the company conscientiously notes that they use only species indigenous to the region in which a production facility will be installed. they have already begun licensing their technology to commercial facilities in asia, and are poised to complete contracts with the u. s. and several european countries this year. each licensee is promised the potential to produce 1. 5 million barrels of transportation fuel per year, or the equivalent of 1. 4 billion miles for a single truck. if petroalgae \u2019 s assertions hold true, the cost of fuel production is essentially paid for by the revenue from food and feed products, meaning that their microbe - derived fuels will remain competitive with fossil fuels, at any price. petroalgae is in the business of licensing its technology rather than building the algae plants itself. it already has deals with algae farms in india and china and is currently working on deals", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5091021872153745, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:37.223320"} {"text": ". net type design guidelines | visual c # tutorials | |. net framework tutorials |. net type design guidelines | \u00a9 2006 microsoft corp. | | this tutorial \u2014. net type design guidelines \u2014 is from framework design guidelines : conventions, idioms, and patterns for reusable. net libraries, by krzysztof cwalina, brad abrams. copyright \u00a9 2006 microsoft corp.. all rights reserved. this article is reproduced by permission. this tutorial has been edited especially for c # online. net. read the book review! | ( this article was written and annotated by members of the microsoft common language runtime ( clr ) and. net teams and other experts. ) type design guidelines in. net from the clr perspective, there are only two categories of types \u2014 reference types and value types \u2014 but for the purpose of framework design discussion we divide types into more logical groups, each with its own specific design rules. figure 4 - 1 shows these logical groups. classes are the general case of reference types. they make up the bulk of types in the majority of frameworks. classes owe their popularity to the rich set of object - oriented features they support and to their general applicability. base classes and abstract classes are special logical groups related to extensibility. extensibility and base classes are covered in chapter 6. interfaces are types that can be implemented both by reference types and value types. this allows them to serve as roots of polymorphic hierarchies of reference types and value types. in addition, interfaces can be used to simulate multiple inheritance, which is not natively supported by the clr. structs are the general case of value types and should be reserved for small, simple types, similar to language primitives. enums are a special case of value types used to define short sets of values, such as days of the week, console colors, and so on. static classes are types intended as containers for static members. they are commonly used to provide shortcuts to other operations. delegates, exceptions, attributes, arrays, and collections are all special cases of reference types intended for specific uses, and guidelines for their design and usage are discussed elsewhere in this book. - do ensure that each type is a well - defined set of related members, not just a random collection of unrelated functionality. - it is important that a type can be described in one simple sentence. a good definition should also rule out functionality that is only tangentially related. | if you", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5514717106930918, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:37.229131"} {"text": "- defined set of related members, not just a random collection of unrelated functionality. - it is important that a type can be described in one simple sentence. a good definition should also rule out functionality that is only tangentially related. | if you have ever managed a team of people you know that they don ' t do well without a crisp set of responsibilities. well, types work the same way. i have noticed that types without a firm and focused scope tend to be magnets for more random functionality, which, over time, make a small problem a lot worse. it becomes more difficult to justify why the next member with even more random functionality does not belong in the type. as the focus of the members in a type blurs, the developer ' s ability to predict where to find a given functionality is impaired, and therefore so is productivity. | | good types are like good diagrams : what has been omitted is as important to clarity and usability as what has been included. every additional member you add to a type starts at a net negative value and only by proven usefulness does it go from there to positive. if you add too much in an attempt to make the type more useful to some, you are just as likely to make the type useless to everyone. | | when i was learning oop back in the early 1980s, i was taught a mantra that i still honor today : if things get too complicated, make more types. sometimes, i find that i am thinking really hard trying to define a good set of methods for a type. when i start to feel that i ' m spending too much time on this or when things just don ' t seem to fit together well, i remember my mantra and i define more, smaller types where each type has well - defined functionality. this has worked extremely well for me over the years. on the flip side, sometimes types do end up being dumping grounds for various loosely related functions. the. net framework offers several types like this, such as |", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5644787433549674, "token_count": 404, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:37.229970"} {"text": "in statistics, a confidence region is a multi - dimensional generalization of a confidence interval. it is a set of points in an n - dimensional space, often represented as an ellipsoid around a point which is an estimated solution to a problem, although other shapes can occur. the confidence region is calculated in such a way that if a set of measurements were repeated many times and a confidence region calculated in the same way on each set of measurements, then a certain percentage of the time, on average, ( e. g. 95 % ) the confidence region would include the point representing the \" true \" values of the set of variables being estimated. however, unless certain assumptions about prior probabilities are made, it does not mean, when one confidence region has been calculated, that there is a 95 % probability that the \" true \" values lie inside the region, since we do not assume any particular probability distribution of the \" true \" values and we may or may not have other information about where they are likely to lie. the case of independent, identically normally - distributed errors suppose we have found a solution to the following overdetermined problem : where y is an n - dimensional column vector containing observed values, x is an n - by - p matrix which can represent a physical model and which is assumed to be known exactly, is a column vector containing the p parameters which are to be estimated, and is an n - dimensional column vector of errors which are assumed to be independently distributed with normal distributions with zero mean and each having the same unknown variance. a joint 100 ( 1 - ) % confidence region for the elements of is represented by the set of values of the vector b which satisfy the following inequality : where the variable b represents any point in the confidence region, p is the number of parameters, i. e. number of elements of the vector and s2 is an unbiased estimate of equal to the above inequality defines an ellipsoidal region in the p - dimensional cartesian parameter space rp. the centre of the ellipsoid is at the solution. according to press et al., it ' s easier to plot the ellipsoid after doing singular value decomposition. the lengths of the axes of the ellipsoid are proportional to the reciprocals of the values on the diagonals of the diagonal matrix, and the directions of these axes are given by the rows of the 3rd matrix of the decomposition. weighted and generalised least squares now let us consider the more general case where some distinct elements", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5477097015200291, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:37.251813"} {"text": "| | this article has multiple issues. please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. preventive medicine or preventive care consists of measures taken to prevent diseases, ( or injuries ) rather than curing them or treating their symptoms. this contrasts in method with curative and palliative medicine, and in scope with public health methods ( which work at the level of population health rather than individual health ). occupational medicine operates very often within the preventive medicine. preventive medicine strategies are typically described as taking place at the primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary prevention levels. in addition, the term primal prevention has been used to describe all measures taken to ensure fetal well - being and prevent any long - term health consequences from gestational history and / or disease. the rationale for such efforts is the evidence demonstrating the link between fetal well - being, or \" primal health, \" and adult health. primal prevention strategies typically focus on providing future parents with : education regarding the consequences of epigenetic influences on their child, sufficient leave time for both parents or, for lack of it, at least some kin caregiving. simple examples of preventive medicine include hand washing, breastfeeding, and immunizations. preventive care may include examinations and screening tests tailored to an individual ' s age, health, and family history. for example, a person with a family history of certain cancers or other diseases would begin screening at an earlier age and / or more frequently than those with no such family history. on the other side of preventive medicine, some nonprofit organizations, such as the northern california cancer center, apply epidemiologic research towards finding ways to prevent diseases. | prevention levels | | doctor \u2019 s side | | primary prevention | | methods to avoid occurrence of disease. most population - based health promotion efforts are of this type. | | secondary prevention | | methods to diagnose and treat existent disease in early stages before it causes significant morbidity. | | tertiary prevention | | methods to reduce negative impact of existent disease by restoring function and reducing disease - related complications. | | quaternary prevention | | methods to mitigate or avoid results of unnecessary or excessive interventions in the health system. | universal, selective, and indicated gordon ( 1987 ) in the area of disease prevention, and later kumpfer and baxley in the area of substance use proposed a three - tiered preventive intervention classification system : universal, selective, and indicated prevention. amongst others, this typology has", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5389249072923095, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:37.289815"} {"text": ") in the area of disease prevention, and later kumpfer and baxley in the area of substance use proposed a three - tiered preventive intervention classification system : universal, selective, and indicated prevention. amongst others, this typology has gained favour and is used by the u. s. institute of medicine, the nida and the european monitoring centre for drugs and drug addiction. | universal prevention | | involves whole population ( nation, local community, school, district ) and aims to prevent or delay the abuse of alcohol, tobacco, and other drugs. all individuals, without screening, are provided with information and skills needed to prevent the problem. | | selective prevention | | involves groups whose risk of developing problems of alcohol abuse or dependence is above average. subgroups may be distinguished by traits such as age, gender, family history, or economic status. for example, drug campaigns in recreational settings. | | indicated prevention | | involves a screening process, and aims to identify individuals who exhibit early signs of substance abuse and other problem behaviours. identifiers may include falling grades among students, known problem consumption or conduct disorders, alienation from parents, school, and positive peer groups etc. | outside the scope of this three - tier model is environmental prevention. environmental prevention approaches are typically managed at the regulatory or community level and focus on ways to deter drug consumption. prohibition and bans ( e. g. on smoking, alcohol advertising ) may be viewed as the ultimate environmental restriction. however, in practice, environmental preventions programs embrace various initiatives at the macro and micro level, from government monopolies for alcohol sales through roadside sobriety or drug tests, worker / pupil / student drug testing, increased policing in sensitive settings ( near schools, at rock festivals ), and legislative guidelines aimed at precipitating punishments ( warnings, penalties, fines ). professionals involved in the public health aspect of this practice may be involved in entomology, pest control, and public health inspections. public health inspections can include recreational waters, swimming pools, beaches, food preparation and serving, and industrial hygiene inspections and surveys. in the united states, preventive medicine is a medical specialty, and has one of the 24 certifying boards recognized by the american board of medical specialties ( abms ) dedicated to it as well as one of the 18 certifying boards recognized by the american osteopathic association bureau of osteopathic specialists ( aoabos ). it encompasses three areas of specialization : - general preventive medicine and", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.524284665679949, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:37.291006"} {"text": ") dedicated to it as well as one of the 18 certifying boards recognized by the american osteopathic association bureau of osteopathic specialists ( aoabos ). it encompasses three areas of specialization : - general preventive medicine and public health - aerospace medicine - occupational medicine to become board - certified in one of the preventive medicine areas of specialization, a licensed u. s. physician ( m. d. or d. o. ) must successfully complete a preventive medicine medical residency program following a one - year internship. following that, the physician must pass the preventive medicine board examination. the residency program is at least two years in length and includes completion of a master ' s degree in public health ( mph ) or equivalent. the board exam takes a full day : the morning session concentrates on general preventive medicine questions, while the afternoon session concentrates on the one of the three areas of specialization that the applicant has studied. in addition, there are two subspecialty areas of certification : these certifications require sitting for an examination following successful completion of an mt or uhb fellowship and prior board certification in one of the 24 abms - recognized specialties or 18 aoabos - recognized specialties. prophylaxis ( greek : \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c6\u03c5\u03bb\u03b1\u03c3\u03c3\u03c9 to guard or prevent beforehand ) is any medical or public health procedure whose purpose is to prevent, rather than treat or cure, a disease or other medical issue. in general terms, prophylactic measures are divided between primary prophylaxis ( to prevent the development of a disease ) and secondary prophylaxis ( whereby the disease has already developed and the patient is protected against worsening of this process ). some specific examples of prophylaxis include : - many vaccines are prophylactic, vaccines such as polio vaccine, smallpox vaccine, measles vaccine, mumps vaccine and others have greatly reduced many childhood diseases ; hpv vaccines prevent certain cancers ; influenza vaccine. - birth control methods are used to prevent unwanted pregnancy. condoms, for instance, are sometimes euphemistically referred to as \" prophylactics \" because of their use to prevent pregnancy, as well as the transmission of sexually transmitted infections. - daily and moderate physical exercise in various forms can be called prophylactic because it can maintain or improve one ' s health. cycling for transport appears to very significantly improve health by reducing risk of heart diseases, various cancers, muscular - and skeletal diseases, and overall mortality. - eating plenty", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5219763039237619, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:37.292021"} {"text": "may be released into the environment in the event of an accident at a nuclear power plant, or the detonation of a nuclear explosive ( see thyroid protection due to nuclear accidents and emergencies ). - prophylaxis may be administered as oral medication. oral prophylaxis includes : pep, npep, or prep. pep stands for post - exposure prophylaxis used in an occupational setting e. g., to prevent the spread of hiv or hepatitis c from patient to staff following an accidental needlestick. npep is non - occupational post - exposure prophylaxis. npep may be used in a sexual or injection exposure to hiv, hepatitis, or other infectious agents ; for example, during intercourse, if the condom breaks and one partner is hiv - positive, npep will help to decrease the probability that the hiv - negative partner becomes infected with hiv. ( an npep is sometimes known as a pepse - i. e. post - exposure prophylaxis sexual encounter. ) prep is a measure taken daily ( before, during, and after ) possible exposure ; for example, by a person who inconsistently uses condoms during sex with a partner who may have an hiv infection. since preventive medicine deals with healthy individuals or populations the costs and potential harms from interventions need even more careful examination than in treatment. for an intervention to be applied widely it generally needs to be affordable and highly cost effective. for instance, intrauterine devices ( iud ) are highly effective and highly cost effective contraceptives, however where universal health care is not available the initial cost may be a barrier. iuds work for several years ( 3 to 7 or more ) and cost less over a year or two ' s time than most other reversible contraceptive methods. they are also highly cost effective, saving health insurers and the public significant costs in unwanted pregnancies. making contraceptives available with no up front cost is one way to increase usage, improving health and saving money. preventive solutions may be less profitable and therefore less attractive to makers and marketers of pharmaceuticals and medical devices. birth control pills which are taken every day and may take in a thousand dollars over ten years may generate more profits than an iud, which despite a huge initial markup only generates a few hundred dollars over the same period. leading cause of preventable death | cause | | deaths caused ( millions per year ) | | sexually transmitted infections | | 3. 0 | | overweight and obesity | | 2.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5376689696645318, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:37.293934"} {"text": "gofrit on, shemer j, leibovici d, modan b, shapira sc. quaternary prevention : a new look at an old challenge. isr med assoc j. 2000 ; 2 ( 7 ) : 498 - 500. - gordon, r. ( 1987 ), \u2018 an operational classification of disease prevention \u2019, in steinberg, j. a. and silverman, m. m. ( eds. ), preventing mental disorders, rockville, md : u. s. department of health and human services, 1987. - kumpfer, k. l., and baxley, g. b. ( 1997 ), ' drug abuse prevention : what works? ', national institute on drug abuse, rockville. - \" what is prophylaxis? \". wisegeek. - jamie michelle womack ( 2010 ) \" safety and adherence : issues that hinder childhood vaccinations \" journal of the american academy of physician assistants - lars bo andersen et al. ( june 2000 ). \" all - cause mortality associated with physical activity during leisure time, work, sports, and cycling to work \". archives of internal medicine 160 ( 11 ) : 1621 \u2013 8. doi : 10. 1001 / archinte. 160. 11. 1621. pmid 10847255. - united states department of agriculture. \" why is it important to eat fruit? \". united states department of agriculture. retrieved 8 february 2012. - \" recommendations for using fluoride to prevent and control dental caries in the united states. centers for disease control and prevention \". mmwr. recommendations and reports : morbidity and mortality weekly report. recommendations and reports / centers for disease control 50 ( rr - 14 ) : 1 \u2013 42. 2001. pmid 11521913. - creeth, j. e. ; gallagher, a. ; sowinski, j. ; bowman, j. ; barrett, k. ; lowe, s. ; patel, k. ; bosma, m. l. ( 2009 ). \" the effect of brushing time and dentifrice on dental plaque removal in vivo \". journal of dental hygiene : jdh / american dental hygienists ' association 83 ( 3 ) : 111 \u2013 116. pmid 19723429. - de oliveira jc, martinelli m, d ' orio nishioka sa, et al. ( 2009 ). \" efficacy of antibiotic prophylaxis prior to the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5562726699711852, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:37.299065"} {"text": "real form ( lie theory ) in mathematics, the notion of a real form relates objects defined over the field of real and complex numbers. a real lie algebra g0 is called a real form of a complex lie algebra g if g is the complexification of g0 : real forms for lie groups and algebraic groups using the lie correspondence between lie groups and lie algebras, the notion of a real form can be defined for lie groups. in the case of linear algebraic groups, the notions of complexification and real form have a natural description in the language of algebraic geometry. just as complex semisimple lie algebras are classified by dynkin diagrams, the real forms of a semisimple lie algebra are classified by satake diagrams, which are obtained from the dynkin diagram of the complex form by labeling some vertices black ( filled ), and connecting some other vertices in pairs by arrows, according to certain rules. it is a basic fact in the structure theory of complex semisimple lie algebras that every such algebra has two special real forms : one is the compact real form and corresponds to a compact lie group under the lie correspondence ( its satake diagram has all vertices blackened ), and the other is the split real form and corresponds to a lie group that is as far as possible from being compact ( its satake diagram has no vertices blackened and no arrows ). in the case of the complex special linear group sl ( n, c ), the compact real form is the special unitary group su ( n ) and the split real form is the real special linear group sl ( n, r ). the classification of real forms of semisimple lie algebras was accomplished by elie cartan in the context of riemannian symmetric spaces. in general, there may be more than two real forms. suppose that g0 is a semisimple lie algebra over the field of real numbers. by cartan ' s criterion, the killing form is nondegenerate, and can be diagonalized in a suitable basis with the diagonal entries + 1 or - 1. by sylvester ' s law of inertia, the number of positive entries, or the positive index of intertia, is an invariant of the bilinear form, i. e. it does not depend on the choice of the diagonalizing basis. this is a number between 0 and the dimension of g which is an important invariant of the real lie algebra, called its index. split real form a real form g0 of a complex semisimple lie algebra g", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.6059333345697855, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:37.310609"} {"text": "choice of the diagonalizing basis. this is a number between 0 and the dimension of g which is an important invariant of the real lie algebra, called its index. split real form a real form g0 of a complex semisimple lie algebra g is said to be split, or normal, if in each cartan decomposition g0 = k0 \u2295 p0, the space p0 contains a maximal abelian subalgebra of g0, i. e. its cartan subalgebra. elie cartan proved that every complex semisimple lie algebra g has a split real form, which is unique up to isomorphism. it has maximal index among all real forms. the split form corresponds to the satake diagram with no vertices blackened and no arrows. compact real form a real lie algebra g0 is called compact if the killing form is negative definite, i. e. the index of g0 is zero. in this case g0 = k0 is a compact lie algebra. it is known that under the lie correspondence, compact lie algebras correspond to compact lie groups. the compact form corresponds to the satake diagram with all vertices blackened. construction of the compact real form in general, the construction of the compact real form uses structure theory of semisimple lie algebras. for classical lie algebras there is a more explicit construction. let g0 be a real lie algebra of matrices over r that is closed under the transpose map, the complexification g of g0 decomposes into the direct sum of g0 and ig0. the real vector space of matrices is a subspace of the complex lie algebra g that is closed under the commutators and consists of skew - hermitian matrices. it follows that u0 is a real lie subalgebra of g, that its killing form is negative definite ( making it a compact lie algebra ), and that the complexification of u0 is g. therefore, u0 is a compact form of g. see also - helgason 1978, p. 426", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5946385735542041, "token_count": 418, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:37.313726"} {"text": "30 : 44 edt - cameras catch snow leopards in afghanistanfrom upithu, 14 jul 2011, 5 : 30 : 29 edt - cameras catch snow leopards in afghanistanfrom upiwed, 13 jul 2011, 18 : 00 : 26 edt - snow leopard population discovered in afghanistanfrom science blogwed, 13 jul 2011, 14 : 00 : 23 edt - snow leopard population discovered in afghanistanfrom science dailywed, 13 jul 2011, 13 : 30 : 31 edt - snow leopard population discovered in afghanistanfrom physorgwed, 13 jul 2011, 12 : 32 : 13 edt - healthy snow leopard population discovered in afghanistanfrom newswise - scinewswed, 13 jul 2011, 12 : 32 : 02 edt latest science newsletterget the latest and most popular science news articles of the week in your inbox! it ' s free! check out our next project, biology. net from other science news sites popular science news articles - uc davis engineers create on - wetting fabric drains sweat - not just blowing in the wind : compressing air for renewable energy storage - amazon river exhales virtually all carbon taken up by rain forest - 1 in 10 teens using ' study drugs, ' but parents aren ' t paying attention - slow earthquakes : it ' s all in the rock mechanics no popular news yet no popular news yet - stem cell transplant restores memory, learning in mice - 2 landmark studies report on success of using image - guided brachytherapy to treat cervical cancer - researchers discover mushrooms can provide as much vitamin d as supplements - cutting back on sleep harms blood vessel function and breathing control - study : low - dose aspirin stymies proliferation of 2 breast cancer lines", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5222908236218798, "token_count": 352, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:37.373746"} {"text": "woodrow wilson, as described in the introductory section of the text, was the leader of the immediate post - war period and was the architect of an internationalist vision for a new world order. yet, as discussed in the paragraphs below, he was not able to persuade the other allied leaders at the peace settlement negotiations in paris to embrace his vision. but it was not just the opposition of clemenceau and lloyd george to some of his ideas that moved the conference away from wilson ' s vision. wilson became so blindingly caught up in his vision, thinking that everything he advocated was what democracy and justice wanted, that he completely alienated the other negotiators in paris, and they stopped listening to him. another historian points to a different problem, that wilson himself stopped listening to his earlier vision, having become convinced that a harsh peace was justified and desirable. even if that historical view is accurate, wilson was probably still more moderate in his conception of a harsh peace than were clemenceau and lloyd george. but as the conference dragged on and the departure from wilsonianism became more and more pronounced, wilson clung to his proposal for the league of nations. in fact, he seemed to place all his faith in his pet project, believing it would solve all the evils the negotiators were unable to solve during the conference. unfortunately, wilson made it clear that the league was his primary objective, and it came to be his only bargaining chip. he then compromised on numerous issues that had no corollary in his vision in order to maintain the support for the creation of the league. thus, though full of good intentions and a vision for a just and peaceful future, wilson ' s arrogance and ineffective negotiating skills largely contibuted to the downfall of his vision. finally, it must be mentioned that wilson ' s inability to negotiate with the senate in its discussion of the ratification of the treaty of versailles caused the senate to reject the treaty, leaving the united states noticeably absent from the newly created league of nations, which greatly undermined the effectiveness and importance of wilson ' s principal goal. nonetheless, wilson was awarded the 1919 nobel peace prize for his efforts to secure a lasting peace and the success in the creation of the league of nations. david lloyd george, the british prime minister, entered the negotiations in paris with the clear support of the british people, as evidenced by his convincing win in the so - called khaki election of december 1918. during the weeks leading up to the election, though, he had publicly committed", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.521824960744222, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:37.443172"} {"text": "cognitive moral development and loevinger ' s concept of ego development ( kohlberg ) this study explored the nature of the relationship between cognitive moral development as defined by lawrence kohlberg and ego development as defined by jane loevinger. the effects of general cognitive development were controlled by the selection of subjects who were capable of formal operational thinking. subjects were 120 jewish volunteers comprised of equal numbers of junior high - school, senior high - school, and college students of both sexes. all subjects received three tests : a screening measure for formal operations, the sentence completion test ( sct ) which measures ego development, and the moral judgment interview ( mji ). results indicated the existence of significant positive correlations between the sct and mji in the overall sample, in the total male and female samples, in the entire college group, and in the female college group. no significant correlations were found in the junior high - school and senior high - school groups, possibly due to restricted ranges of scores. in addition, most subjects at moral development stages 3 / 4 and above had attained at least the conscientious - conformist level. results also indicated the presence of differences between male and female scores. the correlations for females were consistently higher than for males, females scored significantly higher on the sct, males scored significantly higher on the mji, and the relationship between specific moral and ego development stages seemed to be stronger for females than for males. the differences found in this study between the sexes in performance on the mji are consistent with gilligan ' s theory about the distinctions between male and female approaches to moral dilemmas. however, that theory was found to be inadequate in explaining the stronger relationship between mji and sct scores manifested by the females in this study. the sct was criticized for not specifying clearly the ego development features that it measured. it was suggested that the exact nature of the interplay between moral and ego development could be illuminated more fully by research that focused on specific well - defined features of ego development. ^ \" cognitive moral development and loevinger ' s concept of ego development ( kohlberg ) \" ( january 1, 1984 ). etd collection for fordham university.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5476738170834928, "token_count": 445, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:37.570074"} {"text": "dwc is prone to root rot, always due to low do * altitude play an important role in how much do a solution can carry. if you reduce your nute loads, your solution can carry more do. if you live in denver, you may have a problem indoor growing with any temps above 65\u00baf if you check out roseypanties experiment, you will see he had much better result using a reduced nute load. there were two positive effects on the plants, that were grown using the reduced nute load. the first good thing that happened was, his do increased, due to the reduced salinity, of his nutrient solution. second, osmotic pressure was reduced in the rhyzome, allowing the plant to take in more h2o and thus grow faster. what does this second statement really mean? take your hand, and leave it in salt water for an hour. your skin wrinkles,... why? because the salt has caused the osmotic pressure on the outdside of your skin to be higher than the pressure inside your skin, and as the water in your hand is sucked out through your skin, your hand actually shrinks from the loss of fluid and the skin becomes loose it is harder for your plant to uptake water and nutrients when you use high nute loads, because the salt creates negative osmotic pressure ( hypertonicity ) against the semipermeable membrane of the root cell walls. here is the wiki \" scientific answer \". osmotic pressure is the hydrostatic pressure produced by a solution in a space divided by a semipermeable membrane ( your roots ) due to a differential in the concentrations of solute. osmoregulation is the homeostasis mechanism of an organism to reach balance in osmotic pressure. osmotic potential is the opposite of water potential with the former meaning the degree to which a solvent ( usually water ) would want to stay in a liquid and not pass through the membrane. hypertonicity is a solution that causes cells to shrink. it may or may not have a higher osmotic pressure than the cell interior since the rate of water entry will depend upon the permeability of the cell membrane. hypotonicity is a solution that causes cells to swell it may or may not have a lower osmotic pressure than the cell interior, since the rate of water entry will depend upon the permeability of the cell membrane. isotonic is a solution that produces no change in cell", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5113371914974573, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:37.573252"} {"text": "communities were strangled by the ever - growing amoral beast of capitalism. in contrast, there were revolutionary movements, initially based in europe, that sought to gain power for workers through struggle. karl marx and frederick engels were only two of those associated with this approach. these movements also co - existed ( and usually not very well ) with revolutionary anarchists who envisioned the immediate end of not only capitalism, but any governmental / state system. it was also during the 19th century that the first great experiment in the creation of a worker \u2019 s state took place during the short - lived paris commune of 1871. this urban uprising of the dispossessed shook the world and suggested that worker power was more than a slogan. the 20th century was the moment for the great socialist experiments, beginning with the russian / soviet revolution in october 1917, and continuing on with china, vietnam, cuba and numerous other locales. time and space do not permit anything approaching an exhaustive look at the twists and turns of the socialist experiments of the last century and the many conclusions that we could draw. for the purposes of this essay, let us say that revolutionary transformation proved to be far more difficult than the overthrow of a particular state structure. among other things, capitalism is not simply about a ruling class of capitalists, but about toxic practices, many of them day - to - day, which people have learned over generations and, as the great italian marxist antonio gramsci would say, have come to be accepted as \u201c common sense. \u201d these practices and expectations operate like the ghostly hands of demons in a graveyard reaching out and placing often unexpected constraints on the ability to break free of such haunted spaces. we also discovered that socialism was about far more than economics. it must be about the expansion of democracy and the actual control over the lives of working people by the workers themselves. this means that there will be mistakes, setbacks, and detours. but the people themselves need to take these on, since there is no omnipotent individual or organization that can ensure success in a process that knows no guarantees. socialism, then, is not a utopia but a step in a process that takes us in the direction of an idea - that is, a society free of all exploitation and oppression, and with the elimination of all oppressing and oppressed classes. for me, it is summarized not in the text of a great socialist treatise, but, ironically perhaps, in the words of a fictional character, captain jean luc picard of the starship enterprise, in the film star trek", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5404550682852438, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:37.585943"} {"text": "correlation and application of statistics to problems of heredity 63 oxford, and the three last were two men who committed suicide under circumstances of great disgrace and palmer, the rugeley murderer, who was hanged. there is possibly little knowledge to be obtained from the result for a single medical school, but comparative statistics for several would be of considerable value. chapter v deals with normal variability, and galton shows how the distribution depends only on the two constants, the median and the quartile, and further that if two individuals whose grades are known be actually measured, then the median and quartile, and so the whole distribution of variation, can be discovered ( p. 62, footnote, and cf. our vol. ii, p. 385 ). the origin of the normal distribution is illustrated mechanically by aid of the \" quincunx \" ( see our pp. 9 and 10 ). nor is galton able to avoid becoming poetically enthusiastic in a paragraph headed the charms of statistics, for he writes \" it is difficult to understand why statisticians commonly limit their inquiries to averages and do not revel in more comprehensive views. their souls seem as dull to the charm of variety as that of the native of one of our flat english counties, whose retrospect of switzerland was that, if its mountains could be thrown into its lakes, two nuisances would be got rid of at once. an average is but a solitary fact, whereas if a single other fact be added to it, an entire normal scheme, which nearly corresponds to the observed one, starts potentially into existence. \" some people hate the very name of statistics, but i find them full of beauty and interest. whenever they are not brutalised, but delicately handled by the higher methods, and are warily interpreted, their power of dealing with complicated phenomena is extraordinary. they are the only tools by which an opening can be cut through the formidable thicket of difficulties that bars the path of those who pursue the science of man. \" ( pp. 62 - 63. ) galton at the end of his chapter v gives the two fundamental propositions on which his normal surface for the distribution of characters in two relatives depends. he envisages it in the following manner. \" ( 1 ) bullets are fired by a man who aims at the centre of a target, which we will call its 11f, and we will suppose the marks that the bullets make to be painted red, for the sake of distinction. the system of lateral deviations of these red marks from the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5328732267473208, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:37.589330"} {"text": "who aims at the centre of a target, which we will call its 11f, and we will suppose the marks that the bullets make to be painted red, for the sake of distinction. the system of lateral deviations of these red marks from the centre m will be approximately normal, whose q [ probable error ] we will call c. [ this is the distribution of the first relative. ] then another man takes aim, not at the centre of the target, but at one or other of the red marks, selecting these at random. we will suppose his shots to be painted green. the lateral distance of any green shot from the red mark at which it was aimed will have a probable error, that we will call b. now if the lateral distance of a particular green mark from m is given [ a ], what is the most probable distance from m of the red mark at which it was aimed? it is + b2 a *. \" ( 2 ) what is the probable error of this determination? in other words, if estimates have been made for a great many distances founded upon the formula in ( 1 ), they would be correct on the average, though erroneous in particular cases. the errors thus made would form a normal system whose q [ probable error ] it is desired to determine. its value is, / b2 l2 1. \" * unfortunately galton has the value v o + b21 which is very liable to confuse the reader. t in more modern notation, this may be looked upon as the variability of the array of the second relative = c2 ( 1 -? - ' i ) ; therefore r =. / c2 / ( c2 + b 2 ). hence the regression of first relative on second relative = rc / jc2 + b2 x a = ~ + b2 x a. again the variance of the difference in character between the two relatives = c2 + ( c2 + b2 ) - 2c1 / c2 + b2 r = b2, or b has for physical meaning the probable error of the distribution of the difference in character between the two relatives.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5724070831069912, "token_count": 426, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:37.590090"} {"text": "| page ( 1 ) of 1 - 03 / 02 / 13 | | email article | | print page | the power is in the pixels : power generation game added to thinking skills club ( march 02, 2013 ) toronto, on ( prweb ) march 02, 2013 a steam kettle whistles. the steam activates an electric current causing a beaker of water to heat up and drip onto a turbine, which activates a new current and completes the circuit. not the usual way to get energy from point a to point b, but a creative and compelling way to get to the next level in an online game called electric box. the game, hosted by candystand. com, was recently added to the thinking skills club, an after school club where in grades 3 through 8 play computer games that help kids develop a variety of cognitive skills. thinking skills club founder mitch moldofsky says the game was chosen because it employs logic, the concept of cause and effect, planning and making mistakes in order to win. \" making mistakes is very important in learning, \" says moldofsky, an educator and cognitive science graduate from the university of toronto, \" i do it all the time. \" moldofsky believes the game encourages the development of executive function skills in the frontal lobes of the brain, based on another executive function training method, tools of the mind. \" what they ' ve found with tools of the mind is that simply modifying activities during the school day to include things like self - reflection, evaluation, planning and trial and error can radically shape a student ' s approach to activities outside the classroom as well, such as behavior, \" says moldofsky. \" games like these encompass all of these skills. \" unlike other brain training games on the web, which moldofsky claims are often repetitive and boring, the games on the thinking skills club are \" fun - tested, \" since they are culled from gaming sites. \" these games are already being played by the kids in this age group, without the coercion of parents or teachers. they ' re intrinsically rewarding, \" he says. there are five other types of games on the thinking skills club aside from executive function, including attention and memory, even social skills. \" there ' s some good new research out there about the effects of prosocial games, \" says moldofsky, \" and they ' re not too hard to find if you know where to look. \" read the full story at http : / / www. prweb. com /", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5513655009736113, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:37.593322"} {"text": "about the effects of prosocial games, \" says moldofsky, \" and they ' re not too hard to find if you know where to look. \" read the full story at http : / / www. prweb. com / releases / 2013 / 3 / prweb10486757. htm. related keywords : education, adult education, further education, religious education, computing and information technology, satellite technology, wireless technology, science and technology, technology ( general ), identification technology, agricultural research and technology, plastic art, internet, entertainment award, entertainment ( general ), arts ( general ), arts, culture and entertainment, arts, culture and entertainment, entertainment ( general ), entertainment award, computer crime, commonwealth games, winter goodwill games, summer asian games, winter asian games, panamerican games, african games, mediterranean games, southeast asiatic games, panpacific games, southpacific games, panarabic games, summer goodwill games, world games, paralympic games, government aid, government debt, government contract, education, adult education, further education, religious education, government health care, government, national government, government departments, non government organizations ( ngo ), family, family planning, market research, research and development, medical research, science and technology, applied science, material science, human science, natural science, philosophical science, research, science ( general ), animal science, micro science,, weather science, agricultural research and technology", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5309978173315304, "token_count": 302, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:37.593967"} {"text": "a. j. nestebatteries at a station on a philadelphia commuter line capture excess current when trains brake and store the power for use when a train accelerates. a giant battery bank installed by the side of the southeast pennsylvania transit authority \u2019 s subway tracks a little over a month ago is saving about nine megawatt - hours of power a week, its manufacturer says, which is more electricity than the typical apartment - dweller uses in a year. the battery system, which i wrote about last year, is allowing the trains to run a bit like prius hybrids. when they slow down at a station, their motors turn into generators, converting torque into current. before the battery bank was installed, some of that current was returned to the third rail ; but if the voltage got too high, it was shunted instead into a giant electric heater under the train, which simply dissipated the energy as heat. now the battery captures excess current, about 3. 5 to 4 kilowatt - hours per train that stops, and puts it back on the line when a train is accelerating. sometimes it does this for several trains at once. the battery bank is also receiving signals every four seconds from the regional grid operator and either absorbing energy or giving it back to the grid to help balance supply and demand. until very recently, the solar industry was mainly concerned with getting a toehold in the production of electricity at a utility - level scale. now a new jersey company is looking for its niche in a different field \u2014 how to handle a system that is saturated with solar energy, sometimes enough to destabilize the electric grid. the company, petra solar, has a highly visible product : it is under contract to supply 200, 000 panels that public service electric & gas will attached to utility poles around new jersey. around 75, 000 are already up. about six feet wide and four feet high, the panels make 200 watts when in full sun, and newer models will make 225 watts, the company says. on a mild day, one could almost meet the needs of an entire house in the daytime ; on a hot day, four or five would run a window air conditioner. on the top side of the panel, the side angled toward the sun, is the obvious attention - getter, the polycrystalline solar cell. what is different is the electronics bolted to the bottom, which are meant to prevent a solar power overdose. they could turn out to be crucial, according to company executives.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5335197542355796, "token_count": 505, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:37.599591"} {"text": "- current issue sign in to access the harper \u2019 s archive alert : usernames and passwords from the old harpers. org will no longer work. to create a new password and add or verify your email address, please sign in to customer care and select email / password information. ( to learn about the change, please read our faq. ) from \u201c what democracy? the case for abolishing the united states senate, \u201d by richard n. rosenfeld in the may 2004 harper \u2019 s. americans believe in the idea of democracy. we fight wars in its name and daily pledge allegiance to its principles. curiously, the fervor with which we profess our faith in democracy is matched only by the contempt with which we regard our politics and politicians. how interesting that we should so dislike the process that we claim to revere. perhaps, however, our unhappiness with politics points to something significant ; perhaps americans dislike the daily reality of their political system precisely because it falls short of being a proper democracy. indeed, in the last presidential election, we saw a man take office who did not win the popular vote. money above all else shapes our political debate and determines its outcome, and in the realm of public policy, even when an overwhelming democratic majority expresses its preference ( as for national health insurance ), deadlocks, vetoes, filibusters, and \u201c special interests \u201d stand in the way. no wonder so few people vote in national elections ; we have become a nation of spectators, not citizens. the united states of america is not, strictly speaking, a democracy ; indeed, the u. s. constitution was deliberately designed to prevent the unfettered expression of the people \u2019 s will. yet the founders were not, as some imagine, of one mind concerning the proper shape of the new american union, and their disputes are instructive. the political dysfunction that some imagine to be a product of recent cultural decadence has been with us from the beginning. in fact, the document that was meant to prevent democracy in america has bequeathed the american people a politics of minority rule in which our leaders must necessarily pursue their unpopular aims by means of increasingly desperate stratagems of deceit and persuasion. yet hope remains, for if americans have little real experience of democracy, they remain a nation convinced that the best form of government is by and for the people. growing numbers of americans suspect that all is not right with the american way. citizens, faced with the prospect of sacrificing the well -", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5209323200494457, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:37.607454"} {"text": "what does the term \" flawed democracy \" actually mean? why are some of the world ' s successful democracies like france, israel and india rated \" flawed democracies \" by the economist intelligence unit? first off the wikipedia page that you cite to is based on the economist intelligence unit ' s democracy index ( \" eiudi \" ) which is not an academic source. the methodology used to assemble the report is not known, but that doesn ' t mean that it is not useful. with that in mind from the eiudi 2011 report : the eiudi report uses five criteria to measure a country ' s democracy : the countries that you are interested in scored as follows for these five categories : france : france scores relatively low on \" functioning of government, \" \" political participation, \" and \" political culture. \" israel : israel scores pretty bad on \" civil liberties, \" and sort of mediocre on everything else. india : india scores bad on both \" political participation, \" and \" political culture. \" so these countries have good governments, but there are certain issues typically related to the political culture that bring their overall score down and make them flawed democracies according to the index. | show 2 more comments | democracy, in this index in particular, mostly refers to participation in the governments system of elections. not electioneering, laws or even policies that could inherently discriminate. it is a weak index and is only useful for investors looking for a predictable government to trade with, or to entrench a western cultural world view. its virtually guaranteed that foreign exchange controls and this index are highly correlated. besides the methodology of collecting information being scientifically unsound, this is not an indicator of human rights, discrimination in the public space, respect for international law or even outright racist laws and policies. these can all be violated \" democratically \". but then again, this is the economist, which has proven repeatedly to present a highly neo - liberal bias in it ' s political commentary ( white - male - westerners will likely disagree ). not a good index, not representative of the reality of the world. civil rights : the most important thing in a democracy is human and civil rights, as well as the rule of the law ( ie not arbitrary decisions ). with the indefinite detention act voted in the usa, plus guantanamo, non respect for international laws, drones strikes, the enforced role of the military in the civilian sector, police brutality... and so much more, the usa is way down in the rank", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5262810915506804, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:37.633944"} {"text": "the indefinite detention act voted in the usa, plus guantanamo, non respect for international laws, drones strikes, the enforced role of the military in the civilian sector, police brutality... and so much more, the usa is way down in the rank of democracies. political culture : this is set upside down, a ridiculous way of evaluation. france gives exposure to all presidential as well as house representatives candidates : equal time to speak on tv, equal exposure in all aspects during the weeks before the elections. and that ' s how you can promote knowledge and awareness, which is culture. it is not at all this way in america. on the contrary, the us people are stuck with their two political parties system that represents the rich and powerful elite only, those capable of paying to be heard and known by the public. \" culture \" in the us is only available on given topics, the point of views of the rich and interests of big business only. this only promotes ignorance. actually, the usa is not democracy, it ' s plutocracy. it does not deserve a high rank. it has one of the lowest and most backwards political culture and system in the western world, belonging to the beginning of the 20th century, no longer to the 21rst. corruption should be a major criterion to include in the index. there, france ranks very low. so does the usa. freedom of press is an aspect, but the actual representation of a greater diversity of points of views from all sides should be the criterion to include in the index. that ' s the means and obstructions to freedom of expression. it is huge in the usa with over 85 % of all news coming out of 5 corporations linked to the cia, defense conglomerate and corporate interests in general. and much more.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5014395543577371, "token_count": 358, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:37.634642"} {"text": "permanent adultery \" as a missionary once tried to tell me. adultery is never permanent. it is a momentary relationship in secrecy with no responsibility involved. polygamy, on the other hand, is a public state, often based on a legally valid contract. it involves life - long responsibility and obligations. if polygamy is marriage, separation is divorce. if we compare marriage with a living organism, husband and wife can be compared with the two essential organs, the head and the heart. in all higher - developed organisms one head corresponds to one heart. only primitive organisms are just a plurality of cells, as for example the alga volvox globator. parts of that organism are relatively independent from the whole. a tapeworm can be cut apart and the parts are still able to live. one could compare polygamy with a primitive organism, which has not yet reached the state in which one head corresponds to one heart. still, a tapeworm is one organism as much as polygamy is marriage. our dilemma is that we want monogamy and we do not want divorce. yet, in a polygamous situation we cannot have one without the other. there are situations in life where we have the choice between two sins and where the next step can only be taken in counting on the forgiveness of our crucified savior. it is in such situations where luther gave the advice in all evangelical freedom, \" sin bravely! \" being guided by the love for your neighbor and by what is most helpful to that neighbor. for me, there is no doubt that in omodo ' s case the most helpful solution for his second wife would be to marry the man she loves. the case of omodo ' s third wife, whom he had inherited from his late brother, is probably the most difficult one. in 0modo ' s case it was especially difficult, because she was blind. i would have gathered the elders of the church and explored possibilities with them on how to support her through congregational help in case she wanted to live independently. the way a congregation treats their widows is the best test of their willingness and ability to carry responsibility for the individual. one question is still open : when would i have baptized omodo? i do not know. one cannot answer this question theoretically. i hope you understand that what i have just described is not the work of an afternoon, but of months, maybe years. under the condition that this work is done, the moment chosen for baptism is not of decisive importance. there", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5258449395501539, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 16, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:37.677601"} {"text": "who are taught using brainstorming technique and conventional technique. h1 : there is no significant difference in average score in speaking between students who are taught using brainstorming technique and conventional technique. h0 : there is no significant improvement in average score in speaking between students who are taught speaking using brainstorming technique. h2 : there is a significant improvement in average score in speaking between students who are taught speaking using brainstorming technique. h0 : there is no significant improvement in average score in speaking between students \u2019 who are already taught speaking using brainstorming technique. h3 : there is a significant improvement in average score in speaking between students \u2019 who are already taught speaking using brainstorming technique. h0 : there is no significant difference in average score in speaking between students \u2019 after taught speaking using brainstorming technique. h4 : there is no significant difference in average score in speaking between students \u2019 after being taught speaking using brainstorming technique. h0 : there is no significant difference in average score in speaking between students \u2019 after being taught speaking using brainstorming technique. h5 : there is a significant difference in average score in speaking between students \u2019 after being taught speaking using brainstorming technique and conventional technique. h0 : there is no significant difference in average score in speaking between students who are being taught speaking using brainstorming and conventional technique. h6 : there is a significant difference in average score in speaking between students who are being taught speaking using brainstorming and conventional technique. h0 : there is no interaction effect of using brainstorming technique and conventional technique towards students \u2019 speaking achievements. h7 : there is no interaction effect of using brainstorming technique and conventional technique towards students \u2019 speaking achievements. 1. 6 the criteria for testing hypothesis in this study, the hypothesis that has been formulated before, the writer used the critical value of t - table at the significance 0. 05 is with n = 30. if the value of t - obtained is higher than value of t - table, the alternative hypothesis 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7 will be accepted and the null hypothesis will be rejected. and if the value of t - table is higher than value of t - obtained, they null hypothesis will be accepted and the alternative hypothesis 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7 will be rejected. in variance analysis, at the significance 0. 05 is with n = 30. - ii. literature review the use of brainstorming brainstorming is a", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_entanglement", "similarity_score": 0.546052126946117, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:37.691098"} {"text": "hypothesis 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7 will be rejected. in variance analysis, at the significance 0. 05 is with n = 30. - ii. literature review the use of brainstorming brainstorming is a group creativity technique designed to generate a large number of ideas for the solution of a problem. in 1953 the method was popularized by alex faickney osborn in a book called applied imagination. osborn proposed that groups could double their creative output with brainstorming. oxford defined that brainstorming is a way of making a group of people all think about something at the same time, often in order to solve a problem or to create good ideas. brainstorming is the name given to a situation when a group of people meet to generate new ideas around a specific area of interest. using rules which remove inhibitions, people are able to think more freely and move into new areas of thought and so create numerous new ideas and solutions. the participants shout out ideas as they occur to them and then build on the ideas raised by others. all the ideas are noted down and are not criticized. only when the brainstorming session is over are the ideas evaluated. the other meaning of brainstorming is to brainstorm is to use a set of specific rules and techniques which encourage and spark off new ideas which would never have happened under normal circumstances. so there you have it : brainstorming will help you come up with new ideas. and not only will you come up with new ideas but you will do so with surprisingly little effort. brainstorming makes the generation of new ideas easy and is a tried - and - tested process. exactly what you apply brainstorming techniques to depends on what you want to achieve. you can apply them to develop new products, services and processes in your job, or you can apply them to develop your personal life. there are two models of brainstorming - traditional brainstorming the normal view of brainstorming is where a group of people sit in a room and shout out ideas as they occur to them. they are told to lose their inhibitions and that no ideas will be judged so that people are free to shout out any ideas at all without feeling uncomfortable. people should build on the ideas called out by other participants. the purpose of this is to gain as many ideas as possible for later analysis. out of the many ideas suggested there will be some of great value. because of the free - thinking environment, the session will help promote radical new ideas which break free from", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5999867740135474, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:37.692017"} {"text": "the purpose of this is to gain as many ideas as possible for later analysis. out of the many ideas suggested there will be some of great value. because of the free - thinking environment, the session will help promote radical new ideas which break free from normal ways of thinking. - advanced brainstorming the model we propose is an extension of the traditional brainstorming scenario and makes the whole process easier and more effective. advanced brainstorming builds on the current methods of brainstorming to produce more original ideas in a more efficient way. specialized techniques, better processes and better awareness, combined with new technologies make traditional brainstorming a less frustrating process. most of the problems associated with traditional brainstorming disappear as a more effective process is used. keep on reading for more details of how you can do advanced brainstorming for great profit to you and your organization. advanced brainstorming uses : - new processes and new training to reduce inhibitions - creative and lateral thinking techniques - new materials for stimulation and recording ideas motivation in learning english motivation is the driving force which help causes us to achieve goals. motivation is said to be intrinsic or extrinsic. according to various theories, motivation may be rooted in a basic need to minimize physical pain and maximize pleasure, or it may include specific needs such as eating and resting, or a desired object, goal, state of being, ideal, or it may be attributed to less - apparent reasons such as altruism, selfishness, morality, or avoiding mortality. there are many things instructors can do to prevent glazed - over eyes or nodding heads in a classroom. faculty can help maintain and increase student motivation by - establishing challenging, but not impossible goals for students. offering intellectual tasks that are a \u201c reach \u201d can spur learners to higher levels of success. - helping students set their own goals for learning that are ambitious, but realistic and achievable. research shows that, if given a choice, people will choose a challenging, though not daunting task over one that is too hard \u2013 or too easy. while it \u2019 s often helpful to offer an easy question first in a discussion or on an exam, it \u2019 s counterproductive to make everything too easy. - being clear, specific, and concrete in explaining course material and in giving examples. - organizing student learning ; for example, consciously building new material on facts or concepts that students already know. - offering positive, consistent, and timely feedback \u2013 which doesn \u2019 t have to mean grades. a brief comment \u2013 if sincere \u2013 may", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5360561574635906, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:37.692942"} {"text": "examples. - organizing student learning ; for example, consciously building new material on facts or concepts that students already know. - offering positive, consistent, and timely feedback \u2013 which doesn \u2019 t have to mean grades. a brief comment \u2013 if sincere \u2013 may suffice. engaging students in a variety of teaching activities, such as role - playing, problem - solving, or any kind of student interaction, especially if these activities can relate the course to students \u2019 interests and skills. the key here is activity, as passivity can be an impediment to feeling motivated. speaking means to be able to use language ( oxford, 1986 : 6 ). according to finnociaro and brumfit ( 1983 : 1440 ) in nurkhasanah speaking is one of the important language skills that have to be mastered by language learners. they consider that speaking skill is a complex skill, which involves the knowledge of sound, vocabulary and cultural sub - system of english language. it means that the knowledge from pronunciation, structure, vocabulary and cultural system of english system are important and much needed for communicating to society. according to yorkey, speaking skill is a skill and like other skill, it must be practiced continuously. the teacher role is becoming important for students later. there are many keys to support speaking skill by listening cassette, watching tv, watching film, practicing with foreigners, practicing with partners. dobson is quoted by fita krisnawati in her thesis. speaking is an ability when students can judge how accurate their selling and how they use the sentences they have learned and it merely different when it is conveyed to writing skill, they usually produce rather mistakes but in free speaking, they have tendency to make mistakes that they wouldn \u2019 t make in writing 2. speaking is easy, but conveys the speaking in to meaning is not easy. by having some experts \u2019 statement and some guidance, the writer believes that speaking will easier when someone else opens a certain topic or do the brainstorming. brainstorming can motivate student to speak because the way of brainstorming work is interesting. it can be compared to students who have no any topic to be talked, they will keep silent because they don \u2019 t know what should be talked, the feel afraid to speak, the afraid of making mistakes etc. the use of brainstorming is a good idea to convey students in speaking english everyday. nurkhasanah, iin. the effectiveness of teaching speaking through debate activity of efac course in intermediate level. 2007 richard c york", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.522850692215676, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:37.693858"} {"text": "november 9, 2012 a couple of cups of coffee may help our brains process some words faster, a small experiment suggests. but we only get the message faster if the words are emotionally positive. the study included 66 healthy young men. they were told to consume no caffeine, nicotine or alcohol in the 12 hours before the experiment. the men were randomly divided into 2 groups. one group took a tablet containing 200 milligrams of coffee, about the amount in 2 to 3 cups of coffee. each person in the other group received a placebo ( fake ) pill. half an hour later, the men were given tests that involved being shown a series of real and invented words. they had to press buttons to indicate whether a word was real or not. men who took the caffeine pills did this faster and more accurately for words with a positive emotional connotation. they did not perform better than men who got the placebo pills for recognizing neutral or negative words. the journal plos one published the study online. healthday news wrote about it november 8. by howard lewine, m. d. harvard medical school what is the doctor ' s reaction? you often hear people say things like \" don ' t talk to me. i haven ' t had my coffee yet. \" researchers from germany offer us new insight into why we might feel that way. the study comes from the department of psychology at ruhr university. in general, people recognize and process the meaning of words faster if the words have a positive emotional slant. what these researchers found is that caffeine speeds up that link even more. but caffeine did not speed up how quickly people recognize and process emotionally neutral or negative words. low doses of caffeine tend to put you in a more positive mood. caffeine also generally helps you do mental tasks faster and with fewer errors. now we can add the faster processing of positively charged emotional content. these are good explanations for why you want that first cup of coffee before talking to anyone. how caffeine affects the brain is not completely understood. but here is how most experts explain it. caffeine gets absorbed in the stomach and small intestine. it enters the blood stream and is distributed throughout the body, including the brain. once it reaches the brain, caffeine probably has multiple targets. but the main one seems to be adenosine receptors. adenosine is a chemical that dampens brain activity. this counters the action of another brain chemical, dopamine.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5006684302804321, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:37.699440"} {"text": "12. june 2012 10 : 55 retinal hemorrhage occurs when the blood vessels in the retina get damaged or ruptured, leading to abnormal bleeding. the retina, which is composed of rods and cones is the region of the eye responsible for sensitivity to light, and vision. the retinal vein and artery, along with a dense network of capillaries, are responsible for transmitting the blood supply to the retina. when these blood vessels are damaged, due to any reason, this affects the blood supply to the retina, which in turn leads to a decrease in visual acuity. diabetic retinopathy is the leading cause of blindness in people aged between 20 and 65. the dense network of cells in the retina is extremely sensitive, and can be damaged with even a slight trauma. the causes due to which this damage might occur include : - high blood pressure - forceful blows in the head region - child abuse in infants - improper development of blood vessels in infants born prematurely - blurred vision - spotted vision - lines in the field of vision - blind spots - distorted vision - progressive vision loss - the disease is diagnosed by an ophthalmologist, who uses an opthalmoscope to examine the internal structure of the eye. - another method that is commonly used to detect the abnormalities in the blood vessels is a fluorescein angiography test, in which a fluorescent dye is injected into the patient \u2019 s bloodstream, after which photographs are clicked to view the blood vessels. - in some cases, the physician might also order for a blood test to be performed. - the disorder is self - limiting in most patients, with more than 85 % cases healing on their own. - the most common treatment for retinal hemorrhages is laser treatment, in which a laser beam is used to remove the affected blood vessels. - if the disease is caused by some underlying medical condition like diabetes or hypertension, the treatment focuses on eliminating that disorder. - injection of anti - vegf drugs like avestin has been found to be effective in the treatment of hemorrhages associated with the growth of new vessels. - the administration of various nutritional and herbal supplements like antioxidants, omega - 3 - rich foods, antioxidant vitamins, zinc, lutein, pine bark extract, grape seed extract, etc. has also been found to be effective in improving the symptoms of the disease. we at killeen eyecare center are renowned throughout killeen for providing the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5236645743846435, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:37.762923"} {"text": "by chris wickham london ( reuters ) - scientists in switzerland have come up with a material mimicking the way tendons connect to bones, which could speed the development of stretchy, wearable electronic devices. the stretchable electronics industry is in its infancy but devices that are able to flex without breaking could revolutionize devices from smartphones and solar cells to medical implants. futurists have long predicted clothes with sensors that monitor the vital signs of the wearer, or smartphones and screens woven into the fabric of shirts or jackets. but while circuits and wiring are quite happy on rigid surfaces like those in a tablet computer, they break easily when combined with materials that stretch. \" you have two materials with very different mechanical properties, \" andre studart, a researcher at the swiss federal institute of technology in zurich, told reuters. \" the challenge is to bridge these different properties. \" studart and his team have overcome the problem with a stretchy material made from polyurethane that contains \" islands \" stiff enough to house and protect delicate circuits. while the soft part can stretch by 350 percent, the stiff regions created by impregnating the material with tiny platelets of aluminum oxide and a synthetic clay called laponite, hardly deform and can protect the electronics. the material, presented in research published in the journal nature communications, is made from bonded layers and because the concentration of the platelets is gradually increased, the junction between the stretchy and stiff parts is also durable. \" there are many biological materials that have these properties as well, like the way tendons link muscle to bone, \" said studart. \" but there are not so many examples in synthetic materials. \" one of the companies trying to commercialize stretchable electronics is mc10 inc, a massachusetts - based start - up born out of research by john rogers and his team at the university of illinois. the firm recently announced plans to start selling a sensor - laden, flexible skullcap that monitors impacts to the head during sports. it was developed with reebok and goes on sale next year. amar kendale, the company ' s strategist, said the skullcap gives a level of contact with the head that previous attempts to put sensors in helmets or gum shields have not been able to achieve. mc10 is using a different approach from the zurich team. the company uses extremely thin silicon chips sandwiched in a stretchable polymer and connected by tiny wires in a concertina configuration that can stretch about 60 percent, about the same as the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5051159006362735, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:37.766518"} {"text": "achieve. mc10 is using a different approach from the zurich team. the company uses extremely thin silicon chips sandwiched in a stretchable polymer and connected by tiny wires in a concertina configuration that can stretch about 60 percent, about the same as the body ' s soft tissues. mc10 has also developed a balloon catheter with built - in electronic sensors for heart patients, which researchers plan to start testing on people in the next year or so. \" decorating the surface of the balloon with sensors or a mechanism that delivers energy gives a good way of delivering therapy to soft tissue, like the heart, to correct arrhythmia, \" kendale said. market potential is difficult to estimate but kendale said the technology could be applied to the monitoring and management of chronic diseases from diabetes to hypertension. the swiss researchers say their technique could also be used to build synthetic cartilage or false teeth with better matches to their natural counterparts. currently the ceramics used for dental fillings are so hard they can damage natural teeth if a patient bites too hard. and one treatment for women with crumbling vertebrae from osteoporosis involves injecting a stiff polymer that over time can damage the surrounding healthy vertebrae. \" the problem is that it is equally stiff everywhere, \" said studart. \" the vision is that you will be able to make materials that are as heterogeneous as the biological ones. \" ( editing by david holmes )", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5323748941623585, "token_count": 292, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:37.767164"} {"text": "knowledge is from the heart as well as the mind. it is not a mere mental perception of the forms of things or a knowledge of their material nature ; it must include the soul of things, the divine ideas that they enshrine. everything is dependent on the small things : relaxation - you always relax more ; acceptance, oneself and others - can always try ; house - cleaning - will always be just as difficult, but at least you have done it before. it is important to do all these little things question : - how can we discern whether it is the divine conscience animating us and directing us in a certain direction, or the animal soul seeking release from seemingly unfavorable environments : answer : - the divine conscience acts in all struggles for betterment, but clouded more or less in each by reason of education and habit of thought ; hence it varies in brightness. it is not possible to make a hard - and - fast fixed rule for finding out what is the animating motive. if we are trying to get into a better state, it is for us to decide if that be simply and wholly selfish. all actions are surrounded by desire as the rust is round the polished metal or the smoke round the fire, but we must try. so if we fix for ourselves the rule that we will try to do the best we can for others, we will generally be led right. if we rely on the higher self and aspire to be guided by it, we will be led to the right even if the road goes through pain, for sorrow and pain are necessary for purification of the soul. but if we wish to run away from an environment because we do not like it and without trying to live in it while not of it, we are not altering ourselves but simply altering the circumstances, and may not always gain anything. questioner : what is your attitude to the early teachings of theosophy, the blavatsky type? do you consider we have deteriorated or advanced? krishnamurti : i am afraid i do not know, because i do not know what madame blavatsky ' s teachings are. why should i? why should you know of someone else ' s teachings? you know, there is only one truth, and therefore there is only one way, which is not distant from the truth ; there is only one method to that truth, because the means are not distinct from the end. now you who have studied madame blavatsky ' s and the latest theosophy, or whatever it is,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5460809945333825, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:37.803672"} {"text": "is not distant from the truth ; there is only one method to that truth, because the means are not distinct from the end. now you who have studied madame blavatsky ' s and the latest theosophy, or whatever it is, why do you want to be students of books instead of students of life? why do you set up leaders and ask whose teachings are better? don ' t you see? please, i am not being harsh, or anything of that kind. don ' t you see? you are christians ; find out what is true and false in christianity \u2014 and you will then find out what is true. find out what is true and false in your environment with all its oppressions and cruelties, and then you will find out what is true. why do you want philosophies? because life is an ugly thing, and you hope to run away from it through philosophy. life is so empty, dull, stupid, ignominious, and you want something to bring romanticism into your world, some hope, some lingering, haunting feeling ; whereas, if you really faced the world as it is, and tackled it, you would find it something much more, infinitely greater than any philosophy, greater than any book in the world, greater than any teaching or greater than any teacher. we have really lost all sense of feeling, feeling for the oppressed, and feeling for the oppressor. you only feel when you are oppressed. so gradually we have intellectually explained away all our feelings, our sensitiveness, our delicate perceptions, until we are absolutely shallow ; and to fill that shallowness, to enrich ourselves, we study books. the theosophical society has had three objects for more than a century. they are : of these three objects the first has been considered the most important, at least since the time h. p. blavatsky and h. s. olcott arrived in india in 1879. strangely enough the ' mission - statement ' of the theosophical society in wheaton ( adyar ) rephrases the above, but leaves brotherhood out. it is as follows : to encourage open - minded enquiry into world religions, philosophy, science, and the arts in order to understand the wisdom of the ages, respect the unity of all life, and help people explore spiritual self - transformation. a mission statement is merely another word for aim or object. so one would expect the three objects of the theosophical society to agree precisely with", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5493677393788492, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:37.804613"} {"text": "of the ages, respect the unity of all life, and help people explore spiritual self - transformation. a mission statement is merely another word for aim or object. so one would expect the three objects of the theosophical society to agree precisely with the mission - statement. one would also expect the wording of the mission - statement to be more modern. in that vein it would have been a nice challenge if the board of directors of the us - section of the ts had found a new sex - neutral way of saying that people should treat each other well. what else does a ' nucleus of the universal brotherhood of humanity ( etc ) ' mean? but to leave it all out is really going too far for me, and for several of the people i met in wheaton this summer. this mission - statement sounds selfish to me. great : i find an organisation where people will help me with my self - transformation en where my open enquiry into religions, spirituality and science will be supported. wonderful. and there is no suggestion that i personally need to do anything at all. i don ' t need to practice loving kindness. i don ' t need to find tolerance in my heart for those i ' ve learned to despise or ignore. i will perhaps learn to respect the unity of all life in abstract, but there is no need for me to do anything practical at all... i ' m obviously being cynical. in actual fact the attempt to form a nucleus of the universal brotherhood of humanity, without distinction of race, creed, sex, caste or color is work. it means a constant attempt to overcome my conditioning. it means reaching out to people. it means practicing kindness. it means learning to deal with people i may not like. i find it very disappointing that the ts in america has edited this very important attempt out of its ' mission statement ' and hope they will change things soon. each summer the american section of the theosophical society ( ts ) has a gathering that is both business meeting and summer school. non - members of the ts are not explicitly invited, but in practice nothing is done to discourage them from coming either. the atmosphere of the gathering was both very familiar to me, as strange and new. familiar, as it was as comfortable talking to these overseas theosophists, as it has always been talking to theosophists here in the netherlands. strange as well, as inevitably things are done differently, when there is a different host - country. the opening was a lot former than", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5409290020842337, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:37.805599"} {"text": "that several people told me that they had a tendency to fall asleep during the morning - meditation. the lectures were very good. radha burnier ' s opening lecture was about finding balance. she meant finding a balance between the development of buddhi ( roughly intuition ), thought, emotion and action. if there is insight, don ' t act on it immediately. let it germinate, it will express itself naturally in action or words at some point. spiritual aspiration as well needs to be in harmony. too much of it leads to ambition, too much tension or waste of energy. mental balance includes overcoming the duality of thought. this means that likes and dislikes will disappear and we will neither accept nor reject what is. diana chapotin, in her lecture about the theosophical order of service ( tos ), stressed that theosophists are active in social service in various ways. one of the main ways is individual action. she meant that theosophists all over the world are active in social work through organisations that have nothing to do with theosophy. the second way in which theosophists are active practically in the world is through the activities of local theosophical lodges and sections. the tos complements all that with very specific projects in area ' s like education, animal welfare, vegetarianism and help in case of natural disasters like recently katrina. on an organisational level tos - groups are led by theosophists, but the volunteers don ' t have to be members. though any kind of social work can be taken on, it is necessary that central theosophical values behind the work are communicated regularly to keep the work theosophical. diana explained that the work of the tos has grown dramatically recently under her leadership. she can ' t cope on her own anymore and a reorganisation is necessary. joy mills gave a public lecture on the vitality of living truth. she stressed the difference between living wisdom and book wisdom. theosophists always risk not going beyond book wisdom. if we really see the truth, our heart and our whole being will change. that ' s the power of living truth. in order for that to happen, we need to actually practice truth as we know it ( not as we want it to be ) in our daily lives. every experience that broadens our sensitivity, mirrors living truth for us. in modern thought the interconnectedness of everything is becoming quite clear. h. p. blavatsky actually went one", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5196462739692024, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:37.807613"} {"text": "we want it to be ) in our daily lives. every experience that broadens our sensitivity, mirrors living truth for us. in modern thought the interconnectedness of everything is becoming quite clear. h. p. blavatsky actually went one step further : she saw everything as one living being, one life. the theory of gaia shows this on the level of the earth, but for blavatsky it ' s true of the whole universe. breath is used as an image of that oneness. radha ' s second lecture dealt with a very central theme : growing in wisdom. in this lecture she repeated a theme that threads through her watchtower pieces in the theosophist as well : humanity grows in knowledge, but not in wisdom. the knowledge that has been developed over the past two centuries leads to destruction because there is no knowledge on what is right in the long run. it is relatively easy to develop knowledge. it is very hard to find out what right action is. we don ' t realise enough that in hurting someone else, we hurt ourselves. wisdom leads to a peaceful, sensitive world. knowledge leads to pride and this can only be challenged by becoming aware of the limitations of knowledge. otherwise knowledge leads to a feeling of separateness. on the other hand it is necessary to learn to think independently and become aware to what extent we are all influenced by others. an example she gave is that the simple life is no longer seen as ideal. everybody wants to live as is portrayed on television. in all her lectures this week radha reminded us that our personal problems need to come second. growth in wisdom means growth in altruism and that means forgetting self. our personal problems and our joys are both temporary. we make them bigger than they are. why is suffering such a large problem? the ts was founded to fight prejudice. prejudice hinders an insight into real problems and can only be dissolved by a feeling of connectedness with all human beings. our altruism needs to become universal. the buddha said : it ' s better to give a little lovingly, than to give a lot without love. it was very impressive to hear the report of theosophists living near the area where katrina hit. there were slides as accompanying there very personal report. the most important insight i got from that was that storms are normal for the people in this region. normally people do not leave in case of a storm. despite that fact, and this has not been stressed enough, this was the most successful evacuation in history", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5310020114495438, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:37.808597"} {"text": "most important insight i got from that was that storms are normal for the people in this region. normally people do not leave in case of a storm. despite that fact, and this has not been stressed enough, this was the most successful evacuation in history. around 90 - 95 % of the people in the new orleans region were evacuated. we were told that criminals always stay behind so they can loot. this is part of the pattern. because this storm did so much more damage than most other storms, everything got bigger than usual. john algeo spoke about the most holy mission of theosophy. he started by saying that blavatsky in her final five years on earth, had left a legacy of five : these three letters were the backbone to johns two lectures. they give direction to theosophical work in the world. blavatsky ' s last years were tough, but john stressed that out of disaster, blessings often come. disasters mix things up. tibetan buddhism would never have spread to the west as it has, if china hadn ' t invaded tibet. in her 1891 letter, blavatsky mainly spoke of living theosophy, not the teachings. in her first letter she stressed the aim of the theosophical society to unite people of all nations and altruism. organisations are important, but they can ' t created holiness, health or wholeness. we have to become fully human, that is what the word master signifies : to master ourselves. there can only be harmony in organisations, if opposites are balanced, not through wiping out differences. in his second lecture he returned to the theme of unifying people of all nations. he also pointed out that every wise administration knows that things can ' t be forced. no rule can open the heart - mind of people. no group is safe from fundamentalism. theosophists too run this risk, though in real theosophy there can be no dogmas, because it is based on real insight and rational thinking. real theosophy reflects divine reason, the reason of buddhi. john closed with blavatsky ' s words in the last letter to the american conventions : to be theosophists, live theosophy. in her next lecture radha talked about growing in love. love is our true being, that aspect of ourselves which is one with every other. love is beyond words, it ' s part of universal life. it is necessary to feel affection for kids and animals. continually looking for security, that wish", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.514454098223361, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:37.809468"} {"text": "love. love is our true being, that aspect of ourselves which is one with every other. love is beyond words, it ' s part of universal life. it is necessary to feel affection for kids and animals. continually looking for security, that wish masks a desire for love. our world is dark, there is little friendship, little love. how do we remove the barriers that separate us from our essential nature : love? to this practical question, radha ' s answer is to be more sensitive. we have to feel as others feel, without identifying with their pain. you can ' t help others by going along with their pain, but you have to know what it is. right action requires going beyond social custom and convention and being really sensitive. this sensitivity doesn ' t hinder our happiness. our real nature isn ' t just love, it ' s also bliss. but we need to become conscious of other people. unkind thoughts hurt others, and ultimately ourselves. they are like a hungry wolf that eats up our best tendencies. annie besant said that if we can ' t see god in others, we must be the worst possible atheists. the problem with gossip is that it is superficial. we have to learn to look under the surface, without judgment of any kind. the habit to criticize strengthens the ego. be a missionary of love and generosity. be prepared to give of yourself. don ' t just do what is necessary, but actively contribute to the welfare of people in conversation. every tendency of personality has to disappear. that way of looking teaches us to overcome pettiness. the first step is the last step, because the direction in which we move is of primary importance. radha ' s final lecture was called ' purification through action '. real wisdom is in seeing action in non - action and non - action in action. the central question she asked : what is right action? each of us has to decide that for ourselves. keep in mind that our energy impacts the world, not just our actions. everything is interconnected. that ' s why abstaining from action isn ' t the same thing as freedom from action. when actions create problems, it ' s not right action. right action is necessary, but we have to avoid identifying with it. in everything you do, ask yourself if there is egoism involved. the tricky part is that even that thought is in a way selfish. we need an inner balance that is independent of success or failure. success and failure are part of the ups and downs of", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5770117451406502, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 7, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:37.810356"} {"text": "you do, ask yourself if there is egoism involved. the tricky part is that even that thought is in a way selfish. we need an inner balance that is independent of success or failure. success and failure are part of the ups and downs of life, but we don ' t have to inwardly get involved in that. the risk of accomplishment is that one starts thinking : i can do this. that feeling can get in the way of right action. the problem with selfish action is that even if the short - term result seems good, it ' s never permanent. radha closed with one of krishnamurti ' s insights : actions that are a product of the past, don ' t work. action only works if it ' s the consequence of right insight. this lecture was very insightful, but i missed one aspect that the title does suggest : that sometimes insight follows unselfish action. right action can help clean the personality. one has to start somewhere. the final session was a question and answer round with radha burnier, joy mills and john algeo. the questions had come in through the internet and from the discussion groups. what follows is a selection. can muslims become members of the theosophical society? yes, we have muslim members in indonesia, india and pakistan. radha stressed that muslim women aren ' t forced to stay at home in all countries. in many countries they are free. why do people ignore the middle path? the middle path is hard, said radha, people prefer it easy. it ' s hard to overcome the tendency to overdo things. a question was asked about loving yourself. joy mills answered that it is important to look at yourself objectively. observe yourself, it is unnecessary to become emotional or judgmental about yourself. loving yourself means accepting what is, and resolving to change. radha asks what it means to love yourself. can you love your shadow? reality is, it doesn ' t need to be loved. as this summary shows, the lectures were very interesting and deep. i really enjoyed myself and met some very good people.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5343327852476668, "token_count": 420, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 8, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:37.811087"} {"text": "math is all about problem solving. one of the best ways to help children learn math is to present them with a problem in which they have to devise their own strategies to find the solution ( s ). there is usually more than 1 way to solve math problems and children need the opportunity to discover shortcuts and their own algorithms to determine the appropriate solution, they should also justify their solution ( s ). the following math word problems are specific for children in the sixth grade and are divided into the main math cagegories : number concepts, patterns and algebra, geometry and measurement, data management and probability. children should be involved in problem solving activities every day. problems for second grade students should be read to them. students should also be able to describe why their solutions work or how they know it ' s the right solution. my favorite question to children is ' how do you know '. when they have to explain how they arrived at their answer, you immediately know the learning that has taken place. patterns and algebra kelly ' s classroom organized an e - pal club. 11 people joined the club. each of of them sent an email to each of the members of the club. how many emails were actually sent? how do you know? ticket sales for the bake sale were underway. four people bought tickets on the first day of sales, twice as many people bought tickets on the second day and each day afterwards twice as many people bought tickets. how many tickets were sold after 16 days? data management and probability pet parade : mr. james has 14 cats, dogs and guinea pigs. what are all the combinations he could have? how many different types of pizza can you make with the following toppings : pepperoni, tomatoes, bacon, onions and green peppers? show your answer. sam bought 8 ball caps, one for each of her eight friends, for $ 8. 95 each. the cashier charged her an additional $ 12. 07 in sales tax. she left the store with a measely $ 6. 28. how much money did sam start with? geometry and measurement. watch your favorite television show from beginning to end. time each of the commercials and determine the percentage of commercial time for the entire show. now determine the percentage of time the actual show is. what is the fraction of commercials? two squares are beside each other. one square has 6 times the lenght of the other square, how many times greater is the area of the larger square? how do you know?", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.502986230055692, "token_count": 504, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:37.816154"} {"text": "playing with equations to solve problems date : 09 / 16 / 2003 at 10 : 48 : 13 from : mara subject : to state the geometric property of an equation i need to give the geometric property common to all lines in the family x - ky = 1 i know that the answer is that all lines in this family have an x - intercept at x = 1 but i am totally clueless about showing why this is the case. at first i thought that using the double - intercept equation ( x / a ) + ( y / b ) = 1 would work but i couldn ' t get it in the correct form. then i tried to solve for x and y and got x = 1 + ky and y = ( - 1 / k ) + ( - x / k ) but now i do not know what to do with this. so i was wondering if you knew how to go about solving this? date : 09 / 16 / 2003 at 12 : 28 : 52 from : doctor peterson subject : re : to state the geometric property of an equation hi, mara. i don ' t think there is any method you can use to solve this sort of problem without a lot of thinking and testing. let ' s see how i personally would approach it ( as well as i can construct it, considering that i know the answer already! ). then i ' ll look at some alternative approaches you might take. we have x - ky = 1 and we want to know what property all these lines have in common. probably, since this is an open - ended question and i don ' t expect it to be straightforward, i would start by just \" playing \" with the equation, getting a feel for how it works by trying a few special cases. i might take k = 0, 1, and - 1 and graph those three lines, x = 1 x - y = 1 x + y = 1 i would find that they all intersect at ( 1, 0 ), and my answer would be that all the lines seem to contain that point. ( in a sense this is a more purely \" geometric \" property than the x - intercept, since it does not refer to the coordinates. ) then i would want to prove that this is true for all k, to make sure i hadn ' t fooled myself by choosing three cases that happened to intersect. thinking of this as a point shared by all lines in the family, i would prove it by simply substituting x = 1, y = 0 in the general equation : x - ky = 1 1", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5512245075960052, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:37.819611"} {"text": "myself by choosing three cases that happened to intersect. thinking of this as a point shared by all lines in the family, i would prove it by simply substituting x = 1, y = 0 in the general equation : x - ky = 1 1 - k * 0 = 1 is true for all k so ( 1, 0 ) is indeed on all the lines, not just the three i tried. or, i might think of it as a common x - intercept, as you said ; then i would do what you suggested and put the equation into two - intercept form x / a + y / b = 1 that ' s easy ; all it takes is to interpret - ky as y divided by - 1 / k : x / 1 + y / ( - 1 / k ) = 1 so the x - intercept is 1 for all these lines, and the y - intercept is - 1 / k. so my approach is to experiment ( the more adult word for \" play \"! ) and make a conjecture ( the more adult word for \" guess \" ), and then prove that conjecture. now, is there any other way you might approach this? if you were really smart ( and i might possibly have done this if i were faced with the equation afresh ), you could just see that the equation looks like the two - intercept form, and gone directly to the proof. if you could do that, fine ; but you can ' t depend on such insight! you might instead just go through each form of the equation, starting probably with slope - intercept, and see whether any important feature ( such as the slope or y - intercept ) is constant. when that failed, it would be hard to move on to the point - slope or two - point form, because you would have to choose the point ( s ), and there is no obvious basis for that choice. so you would probably next try the two - intercept form ( which many studuents never see, so you ' re lucky ). your approach came close. when you solved for x, you just had to look and see that the x - intercept ( the constant in that form ) is always 1. but since that form, the slope - x - intercept form, is little - known, it ' s not surprising that you did not know what to do with it. but i really think that my approach is the most reasonable hope to find the answer quickly. if you have any further questions, feel free to write back. - doctor peterson, the math forum", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5118676947486179, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:37.821574"} {"text": "the physics help forum not working today, at least not from my isp, so this goes here. it ' s basically a math deal anyway : the formula to calculate the force of a point of mass, let ' s call them planets, that results from its being gravitationally attracted by another point of mass is newton ' s : where is the force of the planet that results from the gravitational attraction exerted upon it by the other planet, is newton ' s gravity constant, and are the respecive masses of the planets, and d is the distance between them. for simplicity ' s sake let ' s say all the planets considered are of the same mass, so we can write instead of. now, if i ' m not mistaken, the formula for calculating the force of a planet resulting from the gravitational attraction of more than two planets is : where is the force on the jth planet resulting from the gravitational attraction of the other planets, and is the distance between the jth planet and the kth planet. my question is \" where is the vector addition? \" that is, when considering the force on one planet that results from the gravitational attraction of many other planets, we have to take into account not only the distance of the other planets from planet j but also their position with respect to it ( right? ). take for example the simple case of three planets in the same plane. planet j is at the origin. planet k is one unit to the right of j on the x axis, while planet l is one unit up the y axis. if the masses all equal 1, then, by the formula above, the force on planet j would be : but is a function of both the distance and the position, right? so we must consider not only the gravitational forces individually exerted upon j by k and l, but also the angle at which these forces are exerted. that is, we must add the vectors. to add vectors you just plug in the x value and y value sums of the added vectors into pythagoras ' formula. the force on planet j should therefore be : ( where is the angle subtended by a line drawn from planet j to planet x. i. e. and ) so, what am i missing here? i am fully aware that i, and not newton, am missing something here. someone please help point this out for me.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5755747461268561, "token_count": 485, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:37.824566"} {"text": "09, 2008 | not rated yet | 0 - epo doping helps combat cerebral malaria apr 21, 2011 | not rated yet | 0 - motion perception revisited : high phi effect challenges established motion perception assumptions apr 23, 2013 | 3 / 5 ( 2 ) | 2 - anything you can do i can do better : neuromolecular foundations of the superiority illusion ( update ) apr 02, 2013 | 4. 5 / 5 ( 11 ) | 5 - the visual system as economist : neural resource allocation in visual adaptation mar 30, 2013 | 5 / 5 ( 2 ) | 9 - separate lives : neuronal and organismal lifespans decoupled mar 27, 2013 | 4. 9 / 5 ( 8 ) | 0 - sizing things up : the evolutionary neurobiology of scale invariance feb 28, 2013 | 4. 8 / 5 ( 10 ) | 14 pressure - volume curve : elastic recoil pressure don ' t make sense may 18, 2013 from pressure - volume curve of the lung and chest wall ( attached photo ), i don ' t understand why would the elastic recoil pressure of the lung is... if you became brain - dead, would you want them to pull the plug? may 17, 2013 i ' d want the rest of me to stay alive. sure it ' s a lousy way to live but it beats being all - the - way dead. maybe if i make it 20 years they ' ll... mri bill question may 15, 2013 dear pfers, the hospital gave us a $ 12k bill for one mri ( head with contrast ). the people i talked to at the hospital tell me that they do not... ratio of hydrogen of oxygen in dessicated animal protein may 13, 2013 as an experiment, for the past few months i ' ve been consuming at least one portion of jell - o or unflavored knox gelatin per day. i ' m 64, in very... alcohol and acetaminophen may 13, 2013 edit : sorry for the typo in the title, can ' t edit i looked around on google quite a bit and it ' s very hard to find precise information on the... marie curie ' s leukemia may 13, 2013 does anyone know what might be the cause of marie curie ' s cancer - more from physics forums - medical sciences more news stories a new report suggests that improved health care and significant reductions in drug costs might be attained by breaking up the age - old relationship between physicians", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5669549652683668, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:37.832813"} {"text": "better : neuromolecular foundations of the superiority illusion ( update ) apr 02, 2013 | 4. 5 / 5 ( 11 ) | 5 - the visual system as economist : neural resource allocation in visual adaptation mar 30, 2013 | 5 / 5 ( 2 ) | 9 - separate lives : neuronal and organismal lifespans decoupled mar 27, 2013 | 4. 9 / 5 ( 8 ) | 0 - sizing things up : the evolutionary neurobiology of scale invariance feb 28, 2013 | 4. 8 / 5 ( 10 ) | 14 pressure - volume curve : elastic recoil pressure don ' t make sense may 18, 2013 from pressure - volume curve of the lung and chest wall ( attached photo ), i don ' t understand why would the elastic recoil pressure of the lung is... if you became brain - dead, would you want them to pull the plug? may 17, 2013 i ' d want the rest of me to stay alive. sure it ' s a lousy way to live but it beats being all - the - way dead. maybe if i make it 20 years they ' ll... mri bill question may 15, 2013 dear pfers, the hospital gave us a $ 12k bill for one mri ( head with contrast ). the people i talked to at the hospital tell me that they do not... ratio of hydrogen of oxygen in dessicated animal protein may 13, 2013 as an experiment, for the past few months i ' ve been consuming at least one portion of jell - o or unflavored knox gelatin per day. i ' m 64, in very... alcohol and acetaminophen may 13, 2013 edit : sorry for the typo in the title, can ' t edit i looked around on google quite a bit and it ' s very hard to find precise information on the... marie curie ' s leukemia may 13, 2013 does anyone know what might be the cause of marie curie ' s cancer - more from physics forums - medical sciences more news stories older prostate cancer patients with other underlying health conditions should think twice before committing to surgery or radiation therapy for their cancer, according to a multicenter study led by researchers in the ucla... cancer 11 hours ago | not rated yet | 0 | intensity - modulated radiation therapy has become the most commonly used type of radiation in prostate cancer, but research from the university of north carolina suggests that the therapy may not be more effective than older", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5698160670089383, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:37.841767"} {"text": ". cancer 11 hours ago | not rated yet | 0 | intensity - modulated radiation therapy has become the most commonly used type of radiation in prostate cancer, but research from the university of north carolina suggests that the therapy may not be more effective than older,... cancer 13 hours ago | not rated yet | 0 new research suggests that a compound abundant in the mediterranean diet takes away cancer cells ' \" superpower \" to escape death. by altering a very specific step in gene regulation, this compound essentially re - educates cancer... cancer 14 hours ago | 4. 8 / 5 ( 12 ) | 2 | ( healthday ) \u2014 for young adults needing either a chest or abdominopelvic computed tomography ( ct ), the short - term risk of death from underlying morbidity is greater than the long - term risk of radiation - induced... cancer 15 hours ago | not rated yet | 0 in a new study described in the journal oncogene, researchers reveal how a key player in cell growth, immunity and the inflammatory response can be transformed into a primary contributor to tumor growth. cancer 20 hours ago | not rated yet | 0 | a nobel prize - winning scientist tuesday played down \" shock - horror scenarios \" that a new virus strain will emerge with the potential to kill millions of people. 42 minutes ago | 5 / 5 ( 1 ) | 0 no new human cases of the h7n9 virus have been recorded in china for a week, national health authorities said, for the first time since the outbreak began in march. 24 minutes ago | not rated yet | 0 johns hopkins researchers say they have discovered specific chemical alterations in two genes that, when present during pregnancy, reliably predict whether a woman will develop postpartum depression. 1 hour ago | not rated yet | 0 | ( medical xpress ) \u2014 a research team, led by jeremy barr, a biology post - doctoral fellow, unveils a new immune system that protects humans and animals from infection. 11 hours ago | 4. 6 / 5 ( 13 ) | 5 | children who have suffered maltreatment are 36 % more likely to be obese in adulthood compared to non - maltreated children, according to a new study by king ' s college london. the authors estimate that the prevention or effective... 1 hour ago | not rated yet | 0 early - life exposure to traffic - related air pollution was significantly associated with higher hyperactivity scores at age 7, according to new research from the university of", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5205845093223431, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:37.842657"} {"text": "decoupled mar 27, 2013 | 4. 9 / 5 ( 8 ) | 0 - sizing things up : the evolutionary neurobiology of scale invariance feb 28, 2013 | 4. 8 / 5 ( 10 ) | 14 classical and quantum mechanics via lie algebras apr 15, 2011 i ' d like to open a discussion thread for version 2 of the draft of my book ' ' classical and quantum mechanics via lie algebras ' ', available online at http : / / lanl. arxiv. org / abs / 0810. 1019, and for the... - more from physics forums - independent research more news stories no new human cases of the h7n9 virus have been recorded in china for a week, national health authorities said, for the first time since the outbreak began in march. diseases, conditions, syndromes 33 minutes ago | not rated yet | 0 a nobel prize - winning scientist tuesday played down \" shock - horror scenarios \" that a new virus strain will emerge with the potential to kill millions of people. diseases, conditions, syndromes 51 minutes ago | 5 / 5 ( 1 ) | 0 bacteria resistant to the antibiotic colistin are also commonly resistant to antimicrobial substances made by the human body, according to a study in mbio, the online open - access journal of the american society for microb... diseases, conditions, syndromes 5 hours ago | 5 / 5 ( 1 ) | 0 ( ap ) \u2014 federal investigators probing the hantavirus outbreak blamed for three deaths at yosemite national park recommend that design changes to tent cabins and other lodging run by private concessionaires first be reviewed... diseases, conditions, syndromes 11 hours ago | not rated yet | 0 a new diagnostic test for a worm infection that can lead to severe enlargement and deformities of the legs and genitals is far more sensitive than the currently used test, according to results of a field... diseases, conditions, syndromes 12 hours ago | not rated yet | 0 | ( medical xpress ) \u2014 a three - year multinational study has tracked and detailed the progression of huntington ' s disease ( hd ), predicting clinical decline in people carrying the hd gene more than 10 years before... 44 seconds ago | not rated yet | 0 1 hour ago | not rated yet | 0 | ( medical xpress ) \u2014 a research team, led by jeremy barr, a biology post - doctoral fellow, unveils a new", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6133661865534726, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:37.850627"} {"text": "news tagged with renewable energy related topics : energy, wind turbines, electricity, solar panels, fossil fuels renewable energy is energy generated from natural resources \u2014 such as sunlight, wind, rain, tides, and geothermal heat \u2014 which are renewable ( naturally replenished ). in 2006, about 18 % of global final energy consumption came from renewables, with 13 % coming from traditional biomass, such as wood - burning. hydroelectricity was the next largest renewable source, providing 3 % of global energy consumption and 15 % of global electricity generation. wind power is growing at the rate of 30 percent annually, with a worldwide installed capacity of 121, 000 megawatts ( mw ) in 2008, and is widely used in european countries and the united states. the annual manufacturing output of the photovoltaics industry reached 6, 900 mw in 2008, and photovoltaic ( pv ) power stations are popular in germany and spain. solar thermal power stations operate in the usa and spain, and the largest of these is the 354 mw segs power plant in the mojave desert. the world ' s largest geothermal power installation is the geysers in california, with a rated capacity of 750 mw. brazil has one of the largest renewable energy programs in the world, involving production of ethanol fuel from sugar cane, and ethanol now provides 18 percent of the country ' s automotive fuel. ethanol fuel is also widely available in the usa. while most renewable energy projects and production is large - scale, renewable technologies are also suited to small off - grid applications, sometimes in rural and remote areas, where energy is often crucial in human development. kenya has the world ' s highest household solar ownership rate with roughly 30, 000 small ( 20 \u2013 100 watt ) solar power systems sold per year. some renewable energy technologies are criticised for being intermittent or unsightly, yet the renewable energy market continues to grow. climate change concerns coupled with high oil prices, peak oil and increasing government support are driving increasing renewable energy legislation, incentives and commercialization. new government spending, regulation, and policies should help the industry weather the 2009 economic crisis better than many other sectors. this text uses material from wikipedia and is available under the gnu free documentation license.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5084999099196558, "token_count": 447, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:37.852858"} {"text": "a machine for turning, that is, for shaping articles of wood, metal, or other material, by causing them to revolve while acted upon by a cutting tool. basically, a machine that fashions work by making the work turn on an axis. the cutting is done by a tool that is not rotating. on wood lathes the wood usually turns between the headstock and the tailstock. the turner holds the tool by hand and moves it to cut various shapes on the wood. on metal lathes the work ( whatever material is being fashioned ) turns and the tool is held rigid whilst the operator moves the tool using hand wheels. lathes are very versatile, come in a myriad of styles, and many contradict the above definitions. wood can be cut in any metal lathe and soft metals can usually be cut on wood lathes. a machine that is used for working metals and plastics by rotating about the horizontal axis against a tool that shapes it. a machine that spins timber, this makes it unique as all other power tools move whilst the timber remains static. a lathes is a machine which holds a piece of wood or metal between two centers and turns it so the work can be shaped by hand - held \" turning chisels. \" foot operated or hand cranked. a machine designed to center a piece of wood on an axis : as it turns, the woodturner can cut into the wood to create symmetrical objects. a machine that hold a piece of metal or wood and turns it rapidly against a cutting tool for shaping finally, he used a lathe to shape the wooden bowl. a machine on which logs are peeled to yield veneer for plywood. machine tool for shaping metal or wood ; the workpiece turns about a horizontal axis against a fixed tool a common tool used in machining a machine for changing the shape of a piece of wood, metal, etc a machine for use in working metal or wood which holds the material and rotates it against a tool that shapes it a machine in which a piece of wood is rotated around a fixed axis while being shaped by a fixed tool a machine that cuts away small amounts of the comm to restore it to a trued state a machine that holds the wood on a rapidly spinning axis a machine that rotates a piece of wood to create a uniform circular design when the wood is cut with a chisel a machine that turns metal, wood, etc a machine tool for shaping metal or other material a machine tool, specifically designed to help in the a machine tool that generates", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5586420783946034, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:37.868670"} {"text": "of wood to create a uniform circular design when the wood is cut with a chisel a machine that turns metal, wood, etc a machine tool for shaping metal or other material a machine tool, specifically designed to help in the a machine tool that generates circular sections by rotating the job around an axis and cutting it with a tool a machine tool that removes unwanted material from a cylindrical work piece by rotating it against a cutting tool a machine tool used to produce mechanical parts with cylindrical features a machine used for shaping parts a machine used for turning wood, metal and other materials by rotating the article against tools which cut it to shape a machine used to turn rounded objects a marvelous tool an ancient tool that was used by the egyptians, greeks, romans, and other ancient and medieval peoples an object created by revolving a spline curve, which determines the contour of the shape, around an axis a power tool that spins the wheel around and slowly shapes it until all the sides are the same a tool for making round things a tool used to create objects with cylindrical symmetry such as table legs a very easy to make primitive tool a machine for shaping a piece of wood, metal, etc. by holding and turning it rapidly against the edge of the cutting tool. a tool, usually free standing, for turning a piece while tools are held against it. typically several feet long and about a foot wide. different lathes are used for wood or metal ( or glass ) pieces. a lathe commonly has a headstock that grips the piece and has gears and a motor drive for turning the piece and a tailstock that guides the other end of long pieces. most lathes allow working a piece held only at the headstock, as for making bowl shaped pieces. the tailstock is normally mounted on rails ( the bed ) so it can be moved accurately to different distances while remaining centered on the headstock. a wood lathe will have a tool rest to help guide the handheld tools along the piece while a metal lathe will have a solid tool holder with screw adjustments to withstand the increased force. glass lathes are used to join medium and large diameter tubing for scientific glass work, keeping two tubes aligned as heat is applied all around the joint. rev. 2003 - 02 - 27 a lathe is used for turning materials like wood and bone when they are being worked. a machine tool by which work is rotated on a horizontal axis and shaped or cut by a fixed tool. a machine which derives its usefulness by rotating stock against which tooling may be brought to bear. springs", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5129834690058847, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:37.869626"} {"text": "and bone when they are being worked. a machine tool by which work is rotated on a horizontal axis and shaped or cut by a fixed tool. a machine which derives its usefulness by rotating stock against which tooling may be brought to bear. springs are often wound on a lathe. power tool, which is used to turn wood or metal objects so that cutting tools may shape it while it, rotates. machine for shaping turned parts by the application of cutting edges against the revolving wood. a lathe is a machine tool which spins a block of material to perform various operations such as cutting, sanding, knurling, drilling, or deformation with tools that are applied to the workpiece to create an object which has symmetry about an axis of rotation. in 3 d computer graphics, a lathed object is a 3d model whose vertex geometry is produced by rotating the points of a spline or other point set around a fixed axis. the lathing may be partial ; the amount of rotation is not necessarily a full 360 degrees. the point set providing the initial source data can be thought of as a cross section through the object. a metal lathe is generic description for a rigid machine tool designed to remove material from a workpiece, through the action of a cutting tool. they were originally designed to machine metals however with the advent of plastics and other materials, and with their inherent versatility, they are used in a wide range of applications, and a broad range of materials.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5581651895904521, "token_count": 298, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:37.870177"} {"text": "by vaudine england bbc news, hong kong a study by doctors in hong kong has concluded that epilepsy can be induced by the chinese tile game of mahjong. the study said the syndrome affects more men than women the findings, published in the hong kong medical journal, were based on 23 cases of people who suffered mahjong - induced seizures. the report ' s four authors, from hong kong ' s queen mary hospital, said the best prevention - and cure - was to avoid playing mahjong. the study led the doctors to define mahjong epilepsy as a unique syndrome. epileptic seizures can be provoked by a wide variety of triggers, but one cause increasingly evident to researchers is the playing - or even watching - of mahjong. this chinese tile game, played by four people round a table, can involve gambling and quickly becomes compulsive. the game, which is intensely social and sometimes played in crowded mahjong parlours, involves the rapid movement of tiles in marathon sessions. the doctors conclude that the syndrome affects far more men than women ; that their average age is 54 ; and that it can hit sufferers anywhere between one to 11 hours into a mahjong game. they say the attacks were not just caused by sleep deprivation or gambling stress. mahjong is cognitively demanding, drawing on memory, fast calculations, concentration, reasoning and sequencing. the distinctive design of mahjong tiles, and the sound of the tiles crashing onto the table, may contribute to the syndrome. the propensity of chinese people to play mahjong also deserves further study, the doctors say. what is certain though, is that the only sure way to avoid mahjong epilepsy, is to avoid mahjong, which for many people is easier said than done.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_entanglement", "similarity_score": 0.513838905821594, "token_count": 370, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:37.904414"} {"text": "assessing the effectiveness of a model program they developed, dartmouth medical school researchers dr. w. carl cooley, adjunct associate professor in pediatrics, and jeanne mcallister, research associate in pediatrics, review the experience of four practices in vermont and new hampshire who used their program to identify and implement changes to improve the care they deliver to children with special health care needs. the concept of community - based \" medical homes \" places where care is managed through coordination of clinicians, educators, therapists, healthcare professionals, and caregivers has been advocated by national health policy makers and the american academy of pediatrics as the best model for providing systematic yet individualized care to children with complex conditions and multiple needs. still, the changes required for a practice to become an effective medical home can be difficult to make. \" introducing change into a busy pediatric practice is like trying to repair a bicycle while riding it, \" the authors write. \" even the most motivated practice finds change difficult to implement. many primary care providers believe that implementing the medical home concept is the right thing to do but question how they can do so and remain solvent. \" to make the process easier, the authors developed a medical home improvement tool kit that allows practices to look at key functions of the medical home, assess their own operation, and identify the steps and strategies they will follow to become a medical ho contact : andy nordhoff dartmouth medical school", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.500251978128066, "token_count": 283, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:37.905792"} {"text": "this is outstanding, but how does the cerebrospinal fluid stop the brain receiving harmful pathogens in the same way that the blood would? any answers welcome, i ' m just interested! image courtesy j. iliff and m. nedergaard, aaas green tracer molecules drift through cerebrospinal fluid crowding around a blood vessel. image courtesy j. iliff and m. nedergaard, aaas published august 16, 2012 talk about brainwashing \u2014 a newfound plumbing system, identified in mice, likely helps the brain empty its waste, a new study says. because mouse biology is similar to ours, the same findings should apply to people too, experts say. thanks to a blood - brain barrier \u2014 a natural wall that protects the brain tissue \u2014 the organ never touches blood, thus protecting it from microbes, viruses, and other pathogens. to get nutrients to brain tissue and remove its waste, the brain makes a liquid called cerebrospinal fluid. but exactly how the fluid removes gunk generated by brain cells wasn ' t certain until now. watch a video explaining the newfound plumbing system. experiments in the 1950s and ' 60s hinted that diffusion \u2014 the passive method by which, say, food coloring spreads out in a glass of water \u2014 moved cerebrospinal fluid around the brain. yet this process is too slow to explain the brain ' s lightning - fast activity and immaculate cleanliness. it turns out that, while studying brain tissue, the researchers in the 1950s and ' 60s unwittingly turned off the plumbing that washes the tissue. \" the idea of a cleaning system based on pressure has been around for a long time, but if you open the skull anywhere, like a hydraulic pump, it stops. they thought [ the cleaning system ] didn ' t exist, \" said study leader maiken nedergaard, a neuroscientist at the university of rochester medical center. the pump system is \" on the order of a thousand times faster than diffusion, \" she said. \" i ' m surprised that no one had discovered this until now. \" brain under pressure nedergaard and her colleagues dubbed the newfound plumbing the glymphatic system, after neural tissue called glial cells, which power the flow of cerebrospinal fluid. glial cells do this by growing their \" feet \" around vessels and veins that carry blood, forming a sort of pipe around a pipe. tiny pores in this outer pipe then suck nutrient - rich", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5063670928800533, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:37.919715"} {"text": "flow of cerebrospinal fluid. glial cells do this by growing their \" feet \" around vessels and veins that carry blood, forming a sort of pipe around a pipe. tiny pores in this outer pipe then suck nutrient - rich cerebrospinal fluid from the blood vessels into channels dense with nerve cells, and pores at other locations pump the fluid out. the process simultaneously carries away the brain ' s waste while feeding its cells. nedergaard and her team used a special two - photon microscope, whose infrared light allows a deep, clear look into living brain tissue without harming it. \" these microscopes are revolutionizing neuroscience, and they ' ve only become commercially available in the past five or six years, \" nedergaard said. studying living mouse brains required opening their skulls. yet unlike in previous experiments, the researchers sealed each hole with a tiny glass plate, keeping the fluid pressure while providing a window for the microscope. fluorescent dyes injected into the mouse brains then allowed the team to record movies of the cerebrospinal fluid moving through brain tissue. \" the fact we could look at it and make a movie was very important to showing the flow, \" nedergaard said. ( see brain pictures. ) brain study makes scientist ' s \" heart sing \" clinical neuroscientist bruce ransom, who studies glial cells but was not involved in the study, said the work makes his \" heart sing. \" \" it wasn ' t impossible to imagine that cerebrospinal fluid moves with enough force to be a garbage - disposal system, but that was always speculative, \" said ransom, of the university of washington in seattle. \" this team, however, has done something very clever to find this system : demonstrate how it works and show it can vigorously wash away waste. \" now that the plumbing has been found, study leader nedergaard and her colleagues are exploring its implications. a big one may be in its role in alzheimer ' s disease, which is thought to arise when brain cells are killed by the accumulation of a protein waste called beta - amyloid. \" next we need to move beyond mice, \" nedergaard said. \" we need to see if this same system exists in humans \u2014 which i suspect it does. \" the study of the brain ' s plumbing system was published in the journal science translational medicine. these six scientists were snubbed for awards or robbed of credit for discoveries \u2026 because they were women. sweden needs garbage to maintain its energy", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5288789469737751, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:37.920662"} {"text": "glasses - free 3d is something available on just a handful of tvs, which manage it only through complicated hardware, and at no small cost. still, the effect is pretty smooth and no more tiresome for the eyes than glasses - assisted technology, from what we ' ve been able to gather. there is one more accomplishment that tech experts are looking for : holographic television, which offers a different perspective at the action, depending on the angle from which one beholds the tv. researchers from the massachusetts institute of technology ( mit ) claim to have created something of the sort. called tensor display, it uses several layers of liquid crystal displays ( lcds ) with a refresh rate of 360 hz per second. the technique is different from the one used in nintendo ' s 3ds, which has two layers of lcd screens ( the bottom for light and dark bands and the top for the two slightly offset images ). the problem with this old method ( a century old really ) is that the only way so far known for creating multiple perspectives would rely on complicated hardware and algorithms. hundreds of perspectives would have to be produced in order to suit a moving viewer, and that means that too much info has to be displayed at once. every frame of the stereo - 3d video would need the screen to flicker 10 times, each with a different pattern. thus, a convincing stereo - 3d illusion would need a 1, 000 hz refresh rate. mit ' s tensor display lowers that requirement by using a higher number of lcds, although it does bring another problem : the pattern calculation becomes more complex. fortunately, the researcher had a convenient factor to exploit : not all aspects of a scene change with the viewing angle. this reduced the amount of information that needed to be sent to the lcd screens. the end result was a panel that produces stereo - 3d images based on calculations similar to those behind ct, x - ray and computed tomography, of all things ( they produce 3d images of internal organs ). the media lab researchers will demo a tensor display prototype at siggraph 2012 ( 5 - 9 august ), made of three lcd panels. a second model will have two lcds with a sheet of lenses between them ( refract light left and right ), primarily for wider viewing angles ( 50 degrees rather than 20 ). practical and commercial applications should appear soon, or at least sooner than any alternatives. \u201c holography works, it \u2019 s beautiful, nothing can touch its quality. the problem, of course, is that holograms don", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5672776705751114, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:37.924479"} {"text": "a group of teachers were keen to embed rich tasks from the nrich website http : / / nrich. maths. org into their curriculum for all ks3 and ks4 students. in this article, the teachers share the issues they needed to consider and what they are doing to address them. the catalysts for change were our desire to : these changes took some of us, and our colleagues, out of our comfort zone as we adapted the way in which we worked in our classrooms and tried out different roles for ourselves and our we needed to take into account the different needs of individual teachers in our schools and their students as they began to use in order to improve both teachers ' and students ' abilities to work on the rich tasks, it was necessary to take account of, and find ways of supporting : the challenges involved in learning mathematics through rich the use of a range of lesson structures the use of effective questioning to promote thinking in what follows, we have identified some problems from the nrich website, closely linked to the curriculum, which are ideal for use by schools wishing to introduce rich tasks. the aim is to be able to predict the area of any tilted what areas are possible? what areas are impossible? is there a connection between the \" tilt \" and the area of a what observations, thoughts and conclusions can you offer? the nrich website offers teachers ' notes to many problems. these include suggestions for how the problems might be used in the briefly, introduce the environment with an interactive whiteboard ( iwb ), or drawing diagrams on the board. ask students to work in pairs to find one or more ways to calculate the exact area of the square displayed on the board. obtain suggestions, with students coming to the board to demonstrate their methods, until the group seem confident with both techniques i. e. ' boxing in ' and dissection. then pose the questions give them five minutes to work on their own / in pairs to think about, and make some brief notes on how they will start working on the problem and why they think such an approach would be share ideas about strategies as a whole group. they will need to find ways of breaking the problem down working systematically and keeping track of their data. it may be useful to stop the group and share \" good ideas \" as work progresses. the aim is to mediate the problem by encouraging systematic approaches. as conjectures emerge ask learners to write them on a poster / the board and ensure they have convincing arguments or proofs to hand that can justify them. encourage students to", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.52171312244134, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:37.950395"} {"text": "work progresses. the aim is to mediate the problem by encouraging systematic approaches. as conjectures emerge ask learners to write them on a poster / the board and ensure they have convincing arguments or proofs to hand that can justify them. encourage students to find clear concise vocabulary to express their rules, and to express how certain they are about them ( e. g. probable pattern / result from choose four consecutive whole numbers, for example, 4, 5, 6 multiply the first and last numbers together. multiply the middle pair together. choose different sets of four consecutive whole numbers and do what do you notice? choose five consecutive whole numbers, for example, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7. multiply the second and fourth numbers together. choose different sets of five consecutive whole numbers and do what do you notice now? what happens when you take 6, 7, 8, '? \u00a6 n consecutive whole numbers and compare the product of the first and last numbers with the product of the second and penultimate numbers? explain your findings. establish that the group knows the meaning of ' consecutive ' - consecutive days, consecutive letters in the alphabet... choose four consecutive numbers and tell your students that you will multiply the outer ones and the inner ones. ask students to pick their own sets of four consecutive numbers and do the same. record all the results on the board. what do they notice? will this always happen? even with consecutive negative how could we explain it? encourage algebraic and geometric much of what will follow will depend on the arithmetical and algebraic confidence of the group. use the extension and support remarks below to indicate the best way to use this resource beyond the questions in the problem. this problem only operated on the end numbers and the ' end but one ' numbers. could you make a more general statement and justify if you have an odd number of consecutive numbers, what ' s the difference between the product of the end numbers and the square of the middle number? this problem could also be approached purely numerically, as an exercise in developing fluency with multiplication tables while looking for pattern and structure. a multiplication grid could be used for recording results, with the pair products highlighted according to how many consecutive numbers were being used. visualisation through blocks of dots or rectangle areas may help students explain why their pattern must work in every case. imagine you have a large supply of 3kg and 8kg weights. four 3kg weights and one 8kg weight have an average weight of how many of each weight would", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5447375340292758, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:37.951367"} {"text": "help students explain why their pattern must work in every case. imagine you have a large supply of 3kg and 8kg weights. four 3kg weights and one 8kg weight have an average weight of how many of each weight would you need for the average ( mean ) of the weights to be 6kg? if you had other combinations of the 3kg and 8kg weights, what other whole number averages could you make? what ' s the smallest? what ' s the largest? can you make all the whole number values in between? what if you have a different pair of weights ( for example 2kg what averages can you now make? try other different pairs of weights. do you notice anything about your results? do they have anything in common? can you use what you notice to find, for example, the combination of 17kg and 57kg weights that have an average of 44kg...... of 52kg....... of 21kg.....? explain an efficient way of doing this. can you explain why your method works? given the original 3kg and 8kg weights, can you find combinations that produce averages of 4. 5kg... of 7. 5kg... of 4. 2kg... of 6. 9kg...? convince yourself that all averages between 3kg and 8kg are possible. what averages are possible if you are allowed a negative number of 3kg and 8kg weights? you may initially wish to restrict the weights used to those which have a difference of 2kg, then 3kg, then 4kg, etc. in order to model working systematically, and to make the pattern of results some students may find multilink cubes useful to support their here are two examples of students work on searching for this is a game for two players. you will need a 100 square which you can download or you can use the first player chooses a positive even number that is less than 50, and crosses it out on the grid. the second player chooses a number to cross out. the number must be a factor or multiple of the first number. players continue to take it in turns to cross out numbers, at each stage choosing a number that is a factor or multiple of the number just crossed out by the other player. the first person who is unable to cross out a number loses. switch the challenge", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5613610242244704, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:37.952261"} {"text": "continue to take it in turns to cross out numbers, at each stage choosing a number that is a factor or multiple of the number just crossed out by the other player. the first person who is unable to cross out a number loses. switch the challenge from winning the game to covering as many numbers as possible. pupils can again work in pairs trying to find the longest sequence of numbers that can be crossed out. can more than half the numbers be crossed out? this challenge could run for an extended period : the longest sequence can be displayed on a noticeboard and pupils can be challenged to improve on it ; any improved sequences can be added to ask pupils to explain why their choice of numbers is good. a semi - regular tessellation has two properties : can you find all the semi - regular tessellations? can you show that you have found them all? to help you when you are working away from the computer, multiple copies of the different polygons are available to print and cut out. ask students to suggest shapes that could fit round a point. test out their suggestions. record what works and what doesn ' t. e. g. 1 pentagon, 2 squares and 1 triangle don ' t fit round a why do some fit and some don ' t? could you tell in advance, without using the interactivity? elicit from students the idea that the interior angles of regular polygons are a crucial factor in determining whether the regular polygons will fit together or not. before moving on to the computers ask students to work on paper finding combinations of regular polygons that will fit round a point. this may encourage students to work systematically when using the interactivity provided. resources are provided at the end of the problem to support students working away from the challenge students to find all the possible semi - regular tessellations and to provide convincing evidence that they have got the complete set. each school worked in different ways. here are examples of what some of the schools did : this is what the schools said about how their practice has this article is the result of the collaborative work of : susanne mallett, steve wren, mark dawes and colleagues from comberton village college amy blinco, brett haines and colleagues from gable hall school jenny everton, ellen morgan and colleagues from longsands community craig barton, debbie breen, geraldine ellison and colleagues from the range school danny burgess, jim stavrou and colleagues from sawston village catherine carre and fran watson and colleagues from sharnbrook david cherry, chris hawkins and", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.543085974584876, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:37.953164"} {"text": "oct. 13, 2010 - - the idiom \u201c a dog \u2019 s life \u201d suggests that pooches have it made when it comes to happiness, but new research indicates that the emotional states of dogs can be as varied as the moods of their owners. dogs can see their food bowls as half empty rather than half full, just as human pessimists see a glass of water as half empty instead of half full. british researchers who tested separation reactions of dogs say they found that some dogs are more likely than others to become depressed and anxious when left alone, causing them to bark, scratch at doors, chew on furniture, and generally misbehave. on the other hand, optimistic dogs are more likely to behave better and become more relaxed when left alone. mike mendl, phd, head of animal welfare and behavioral research at the university of bristol, and colleagues, studied 24 dogs, males and females, that had been sent to two animal centers. each dog was tested beforehand for separation anxiety - related behaviors. a researcher played with each dog in an isolated room for 20 minutes. the next day the dogs were taken back to their rooms and left alone for five minutes while video cameras recorded their behavior. some of the dogs barked, jumped on furniture, and scratched at the door, but the \u201c optimistic \u201d ones did not - - or didn \u2019 t do it as much. to study optimistic or pessimistic tendencies, the dogs were trained so that when a bowl was placed at one location in a room, it contained food, but when put somewhere else, it didn \u2019 t. then the bowls were placed at ambiguous locations between the positive and negative positions. \u201c dogs that ran fast to these ambiguous locations as if expecting the positive food reward were classed as making relatively \u2018 optimistic \u2019 decisions, \u201d mendl says in a news release. \" interestingly, these dogs tended to be the ones who also showed least anxiety - like behavior when left alone for a short time. \u201d he says about half of dogs may at some point engage in behaviors related to separation anxiety, such as barking, scratching, or tearing things up when separated from owners. \u201c our study suggests that dogs showing these types of behavior also appear to make more pessimistic judgments generally, \u201d he says. \u201c we all have a tendency to think that our pets and other animals experience emotions similar to our own, but we have no way of knowing directly because emotions are essentially private, \u201d he says. \u201c however, we can use findings from human psychology research to develop", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5346961247578308, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:37.998217"} {"text": "thursday, september 1st, 1859, 11 : 18am : thirty three year - old richard carringto, widely acknowledged to be one of england ' s foremost solar astronomer, was in his well - appointed private observatory. just as usual on every sunny day, his telescope was projecting an 11 - inch - wide image of the sun on a screen, and carrington skillfully drew the sunspots he saw. on that morning, he was capturing the likeness of an enormous group of sunspots. suddenly, before his eyes, two brilliant beads of blinding white light appeared over the sunspots, intensified rapidly, and became kidney - shaped. realizing that he was witnessing something unprecedented and \" being somewhat flurried by the surprise, \" carrington later wrote, \" i hastily ran to call someone to witness the exhibition with me. on returning within 60 seconds, i was mortified to find that it was already much changed and enfeebled. \" he and his witness watched the white spots contract to mere pinpoints and disappear. friday, september 2nd, 1859 : just before dawn the next day, skies all over planet earth erupted in red, green, and purple auroras so brilliant that newspapers could be read as easily as in daylight. indeed, stunning auroras pulsated even at near tropical latitudes over cuba, the bahamas, jamaica, el salvador, and hawaii. even more disconcerting, telegraph systems worldwide went haywire. spark discharges shocked telegraph operators and set the telegraph paper on fire. even when telegraphers disconnected the batteries powering the lines, aurora - induced electric currents in the wires still allowed messages to be transmitted. [ click the following images for better reading. ] monthly notices of the royal astronomical society forecasting the impact of an 1859 - calibre superstorm on satellite resources the 1859 solar \u2013 terrestrial disturbance and the current limits of extreme space weather activity may be read online. space radiation hazards and the vision for space exploration : report of a workshop", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5089117330633802, "token_count": 400, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:38.003277"} {"text": "acrophobia is defined as a fear of heights. unlike a specific phobia like aerophobia - - fear of flying - - and other specific phobias, acrophobia can cause a person to fear a variety of things related to being far from the ground. depending on the phobia ' s severity, an acrophobic person may equally fear being on a high floor of a building or simply climbing a ladder. acrophobia and related conditions true vertigo is a medical condition that causes a sensation of spinning and dizziness. illyngophobia is a phobia in which the fear of developing vertigo can actually lead to vertigo - like symptoms. acrophobia can induce similar feelings, but the three conditions are not the same. see a doctor for tests if you experience vertigo symptoms. medical tests may include bloodwork, ct scans and mris, which can rule out a variety of neurological conditions. bathmophobia, or the fear of slopes and stairs, is sometimes related to acrophobia. in bathmophobia, you may panic when viewing a steep slope, even if you have no need to climb the slope. although many people with bathmophobia have acrophobia, most acrophobia sufferers do not also experience bathmophobia. climacophobia is related to bathmophobia, except that the fear generally occurs only when contemplating making a climb. if you suffer from climacophobia, you are probably not afraid to see a steep set of stairs as long as you can remain safely at the bottom. however, climacophobia may occur in tandem with acrophobia. aerophobia is the specific fear of flying. depending on the severity of your fear, you may be afraid of airports and airplanes, or may only feel the fear when in the air. aerophobia may occasionally occur alongside acrophobia. symptoms of acrophobia if you experience acrophobia, you may never experience vertigo symptoms. instead, you may feel a sense of panic when at height. you may instinctively begin to search for something to cling to. you may find that you are unable to trust your own sense of balance. common reactions include descending immediately, crawling on all fours and kneeling or otherwise lowering the body. emotionally and physically, the response to acrophobia is similar to the response to any other phobia. you may begin to shake, sweat, experience heart palpitations and even cry or yell out. you may feel terrified and", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5134534933629593, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:38.009297"} {"text": ". behavioral techniques that expose the sufferer to the feared situation either gradually ( systematic desensitization ) or rapidly ( flooding ) are frequently used. in addition, the client is taught ways of stopping the panic reaction and regaining emotional control. traditionally, actual exposure to heights is the most common solution. however, several research studies performed since 2001 have shown that virtual reality may be just as effective. a major advantage of virtual reality treatment is the savings in both cost and time, as there is no need for \" on - location \" therapist accompaniment. this method is not yet readily available, but may be worth trying to find if you can. the drug d - cycloserine has been in clinical trials for anxiety disorder treatment since 2008. it appears that using the medication in tandem with cognitive - behavioral therapy may improve results, but the research remains preliminary at this time. acrophobia appears to be rooted in an evolutionary safety mechanism. nonetheless, it represents an extreme variation on a normal caution, and can become quite life - limiting for sufferers. it can also be dangerous for those who experience a full panic reaction while at a significant height. acrophobia can share certain symptoms with vertigo, a medical disorder with a variety of possible causes, as well as with other specific phobias. for these reasons, if you experience the signs of acrophobia, it is extremely important to seek professional help as soon as possible. sources : gibson, e. j., & walk, r. d. \" the ' visual cliff '. \" scientific american. 1960. 202, 67 - 71. may 5, 2008. retrieved from http : / / www. wadsworth. com / psychology _ d / templates / student _ resources / 0155060678 _ rathus / ps / ps05. html emmelkamp, paul, bruynzeel, mary, drost, leonie, van der mast, charles. \" virtual reality treatment in acrophobia : a comparison with exposure in vivo \" cyberpsychology & behavior. june 1, 2001, 4 ( 3 ) : 335 - 339. may 5, 2008.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5103151179453693, "token_count": 442, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:38.011023"} {"text": "with the worlds energy needs growing rapidly, can zero - carbon energy options be scaled up enough to make a significant difference? how much of a dent can these alternatives make in the worlds total energy usage over the next half - century? as the mit energy initiative approaches its fifth anniversary next month, this five - part series takes a broad view of the likely scalable energy candidates. of all the zero - carbon energy sources available, wind power is the only one thats truly cost - competitive today : a 2006 report by the u. s. energy information administration put the total cost for wind - produced electricity at an average of $ 55. 80 per megawatt - hour, compared to $ 53. 10 for coal, $ 52. 50 for natural gas and $ 59. 30 for nuclear power. as a result, wind turbines are being deployed rapidly in many parts of the united states and around the world. and because of winds proven record and its immediate and widespread availability, its an energy source thats seen as having the potential to grow very rapidly. wind is probably one of the most significant renewable energy sources, simply because the technology is mature, says paul sclavounos, an mit professor of mechanical engineering and naval architecture. there is no technological risk. globally, 2 percent of electricity now comes from wind, and in some places the rate is much higher : denmark, the present world leader, gets more than 19 percent of its electricity from wind, and is aiming to boost that number to 50 percent. some experts estimate wind power could account for 10 to 20 percent of world electricity generation over the next few decades. taking a longer - term view, a widely cited 2005 study by researchers at stanford university projected that wind, if fully harnessed worldwide, could theoretically meet the worlds present energy needs five times over. and a 2010 study by the national renewable energy laboratory found that the united states could get more than 12 times its current electricity consumption from wind alone. but impressive as these figures may sound, wind power still has a long way to go before it becomes a significant factor in reducing carbon emissions. the potential is there with abundant wind available for harvesting both on land and, especially, over the oceans but harnessing that power efficiently will require enormous investments in manufacturing and installation. so far, installed wind power has the capacity to generate only about 0. 2 terawatts ( trillions of watts ) of energy worldwide a number that pales in comparison to an average world demand of 14 terawatts, expected to double by 2050. the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5475862408518666, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:38.018555"} {"text": "over an intercom. but the plan of the study was to provoke the students into anger, which the experimenters did using a technique which has been used many times in similar studies. the experimenter interrupted the study participants several times to ask them to speak louder into the intercom, finally saying \u201c look, this is the third time i have to say this! can \u2019 t you follow directions? speak louder! \u201d after this part of the experiment, the participants were told they would be participating in a task examining the effects of music on creativity and feelings. the students were told to go back to the anagram task and \u201c see the scene in your mind \u2019 s eye. \u201d they were put into three groups, each of which were asked to view the scene in different ways. some students were told to adopt a self - immersed perspective ( \u201c see the situation unfold through your eyes as if it were happening to you all over again \u201d ) and then analyze their feelings surrounding the event. others were told to use the self - distancing perspective ( \u201c move away from the situation to a point where you can now watch the event unfold from a distance and watch the situation unfold as if it were happening to the distant you all over again \u201d ) and then analyze their feelings. the third control group was not told how to view the scene or analyze their feelings. each group was told to replay the scene in their minds for 45 seconds. then the researchers tested the participants for aggressive thoughts and angry feelings. results showed that students who used the self - distancing perspective had fewer aggressive thoughts and felt less angry than both those who used the self - immersed approach and those in the control group. \u201c the self - distancing approach helped people regulate their angry feelings and also reduced their aggressive thoughts, \u201d mischkowski said. in a second study, the researchers went further and showed that self - distancing can actually make people less aggressive when they \u2019 ve been provoked. in this study, 95 college students were told they were going to do an anagram task, similar to the one in the previous experiment. but in this case, they were told they were going to be working with an unseen student partner, rather than one of researchers ( in reality, it actually was one of the researchers ). in this case, the supposed partner was the one who delivered the scathing comments about following directions. as in the first study, the participants were then randomly assigned to analyze their feelings surrounding the task from a self - immersed or a self", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5671520474462162, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:38.034209"} {"text": "researchers ). in this case, the supposed partner was the one who delivered the scathing comments about following directions. as in the first study, the participants were then randomly assigned to analyze their feelings surrounding the task from a self - immersed or a self - distanced perspective. participants assigned to a third control group did not receive any instructions regarding how to view the scene or focus on their feelings. next, the participants were told they would be competing against the same partner who had provoked them earlier in a reaction - time task. the winner of the task would get the opportunity to blast the loser with noise through headphones \u2013 and the winner chose the intensity and length of the noise blast. investigators discovered participants who used the self - distancing perspective to think about their partners \u2019 provocations showed lower levels of aggression than those in the other two groups. that is, their noise blasts against their partner tended to be shorter and less intense. \u201c these participants were tested very shortly after they had been provoked by their partner, \u201d mischkowski said. \u201c the fact that those who used self - distancing showed lower levels of aggression shows that this technique can work in the heat of the moment, when the anger is still fresh. \u201d of interest is the discovery that those who used the self - distancing approach showed less aggression than those in the control group, who were not told how to view the anger - inducing incident with their partner. this suggests people may naturally use a self - immersing perspective when confronted with a provocation \u2013 a perspective that is not likely to reduce anger. thus, the tendency to immerse oneself in a problem ( anger ) to work through the situation, may backfire and make an individual more aggressive. a better technique to use when angry is distraction \u2013 thinking of something calming to take the mind off the anger. however, even this technique is only a short - term strategy. mischkowski believes the research clearly shows that self - distancing is the best method to mitigate anger. \u201c but self - distancing really works, even right after a provocation \u2013 it is a powerful intervention tool that anyone can use when they \u2019 re angry. \u201d source : ohio state university", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5143027899766228, "token_count": 448, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:38.035068"} {"text": "people who struggle to find enough food to eat are poor. the world bank \u2019 s poverty line is an income of less than $ 1. 25 a day. financial times readers, who spend more than that amount on their morning newspaper, are in no position to dispute that judgment. in the past two decades, economic growth in china and india has reduced global poverty by an unprecedented amount. that achievement is not diminished because some individuals in both these countries have become very rich. fundamentally, poverty is about absolute deprivation. kay observes that there is also a relative definition of poverty : under the definition that i have proposed on this blog for wealth, poverty would simply be an absence of wealth, or a deficit of valued outcomes. the median income is the level that equal numbers of people are above and below, so that a rise in sir martin sorrell \u2019 s bonus does not lead anyone into poverty \u2013 that would confuse poverty and inequality. but the choice of median income as a reference level has a wider significance. it encapsulates the idea that in a rich society, poverty is an enforced inability to participate in the everyday activities of that society. you might therefore be poor if you lack access to antibiotics or facebook, even though in this respect you are no worse off than the sun king or john d. rockefeller, and in other respects considerably better off than most people in the world. however, to define poverty as social exclusion takes the definition far away from the assessment of income. it is not hard to imagine places in which few, if any, people experience a sense of exclusion. these might include both sophisticated societies with high incomes per head \u2013 towns in scandinavia \u2013 and simple cultures without access to modern essentials \u2013 rural villages in the developing world. poverty becomes a cultural and political phenomenon rather than an economic one. but once we define poverty in terms of outcomes beyond simple incomes as measured in currency units, we have indeed entered the territory of culture and politics, and ultimately, what constitutes a life worth living. just as gdp doesn ' t measure all that matters when it comes to wealth, i am deeply skeptical of efforts to define multi - dimensional metrics of \" poverty \" that integrate different valued outcomes. statistics are indeed important inputs to policy, and i prefer mine simple and transparent. so let ' s leave poverty defined in terms of absolute income, as defined by the world bank and others. if we care about obesity, lack of access to antibiotics or even facebook - - all perfectly legitimate valued outcomes - - then let ' s track these outcomes on their merits and", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5559815926429302, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:38.044240"} {"text": "introduction to how colorblindness works roses are red, violets are blue - - well, bluish. the sky is blue, too. grass is green. these are things that most of us know for a fact and don ' t question. but what if you were colorblind? what would you see? is life one long black - and - white movie? in \" the wizard of oz, \" dorothy gale steps out of her black - and - white kansas farmhouse and into the color - saturated land of oz. she moves from a humdrum existence of chores and troubles to an intense fantasyland peopled with curious creatures, trading in a clapboard house for yellow brick roads, red ruby slippers and a brilliant green city of emeralds. what would her transformation have been without this rainbow of colors? color isn ' t just a component of vision. we associate color with beauty, like in a gorgeous sunset. some colors have meaning in and of themselves - - purple is for royals, red signifies passion. colors seep into our expressions - - if we ' re depressed, we say we ' re feeling blue. we ' re also \" green with envy, \" we \" see red \" and we might go \" white with fear. \" colors even have practical meaning - - red means stop, green means go. certain colors are said to help you sleep, while others make you hungry. and never underestimate the effect of a bright red dress. color is important. in this article, we ' re going to learn what the world looks like for someone who ' s colorblind.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.52128409995797, "token_count": 324, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:38.062103"} {"text": "you have to break a few ( hundred ) eggs to make a good crystal space science news home you have to break a few ( hundred ) eggs to make a good crystal bell curve shape to crystal quality may point to best candidates for flight sept. 20, 1999 : did you ever ask the teacher to grade a tough test \" on the curve \"? what you were asking was that the grades be adjusted so that a \" c \" fell under the part of the curve where most of your classmates had scored. a few were to the left and got a d or f ; and few were to the right and got a b or an a. right : to the crystallographer, this may not be a diamond but it ' s just as priceless. a lysozyme crystal grown in orbit looks great under a microscope, but the real test is x - ray crystallography. the colors are caused by polarizing filters. links to 549x379 - pixel, 69kb jpg. credit : nasa / marshall. that ' s basically how the bell curve works. in nature, objects and events quite often can be grouped along a bell curve. in a population of adult animals, most will be around the same size. a few will be larger and a few will be smaller. \" if you talk to statisticians, \" noted dr. russell judge of the university of alabama in huntsville, \" variations within populations in nature can be described in terms of distributions. \" december 3 : mars polar lander nears touchdown december 2 : what next, leonids? november 30 : polar lander mission overview november 30 : learning how to make a clean sweep in space the question now is whether scientists can use the microgravity of space to shift the curve to the right to grow the large, nearly perfect crystals they need for molecular lock - picking, the first step in designing drugs that can treat a broad range of diseases and disorders. \" we want to determine how the growth of crystals effect their quality, \" judge said in may when nasa selected his investigation for development, \" and then take that into space to see how microgravity is enhancing the growth characteristics that lead to good crystals. from this we want to develop techniques, so that by observing crystal growth on the ground, we can predict which proteins are likely to benefit the most from microgravity crystallization. \" sign up for our express science news delivery these functions are a result not just of a chemical formula, but of structure which can be quite large ( on", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5017114215861365, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:38.071005"} {"text": ", we can predict which proteins are likely to benefit the most from microgravity crystallization. \" sign up for our express science news delivery these functions are a result not just of a chemical formula, but of structure which can be quite large ( on the atomic scale ) and fragile. if the shape isn ' t right, the protein cannot match up with other proteins or chemicals to do its job, just as the wrong key won ' t unlock a door. sickle cell anemia, for example, results from structural differences in the hemoglobin that carries oxygen in red blood cells. designing new treatments means designing altered proteins or other chemicals that act as a skeleton key or as a sophisticated lock pick. proteins can form crystals, generated by rows and columns of molecules that form up like soldiers on a parade ground. shining x - rays through a crystal will produce a pattern of dots that can be decoded to reveal the arrangement of the atoms in the molecules making up the crystal. like the troops in formation, uniformity and order are everything in x - ray crystallography. x - rays have much sorter wavelengths than visible light, so the best looking crystals under the microscope won ' t necessarily pass muster under x - rays. left : judge ( left ) and dr. edward snell, a national research council fellow working at nasa / marshall, inspect the sample holder in the x - ray crystallography unit. links to 600x616 - pixel, 188kb jpg, or click here for a 1207x1240 - pixel, 543kb jpg. credit : nasa / marshall. this has become an invaluable tool for understanding the structure and the function of dozens of proteins. but many proteins remain shrouded in mystery because on earth crystal imperfections are introduced by fluid flows and the settling of the crystals to the bottom of the container. this leaves internal defects that distort or blur the view of the structure. \" in order to have crystals to use for x - ray diffraction studies, \" judge said, \" you need them to be fairly large and well ordered. \" scientists also need lots of crystals since exposure to air, the process of x - raying them, and other factors destroy the crystals. getting just one perfect specimen isn ' t enough. dozens may be needed, and the quality might not be known until well into the analysis. research has heavy implications. july 1998. crystal - clear view of insulin should lead to improved therapies for diabetics growing", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5565475022888015, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:38.071951"} {"text": "specimen isn ' t enough. dozens may be needed, and the quality might not be known until well into the analysis. research has heavy implications. july 1998. crystal - clear view of insulin should lead to improved therapies for diabetics growing protein crystals in the microgravity of space has yielded striking results, such as determining to a fine resolution how certain molecules of insulin join so scientists can improve injectable insulin needed by diabetics. there have also been disappointments when crystals in other experiments did not grow as expected. since the 1970s, scientists have used a variety of approaches in trying to determine what leads to the growth of a large, perfect crystal. judge tried a different approach that built on results noted by researchers dating as far back as 1946. he and his team looked at the effects of concentration, temperature, and ph ( acid vs. base ) on the growth of lysozyme, a common protein in chicken egg white. lysozyme ' s structure is well known and it has become a standard in many crystallization studies on earth and in space. although lysozyme has an atomic mass of 14, 300 daltons - almost 92 times that of the ordinary sugar that many of us crystallized in elementary school science - it ' s a relative lightweight in the protein world. to exclude impurities often found in commercial lysozyme preparations, judge and his team purified lysozyme extracted from eggs obtained from a local egg farm. while one experiment run required only five dozen eggs, the full series of experiment consumed about 200 eggs. judge and his team grew the crystals in trays with small plastic wells filled with solutions containing a trace of salt to help stimulate crystal growth. temperatures ranged from 4 to 18 deg c ( 39 - 64 deg f ) and ph from 4. 0 to 5. 2 ( slightly acidic ; pure water theoretically has a ph of 7 ). judge also varied the driving force behind the crystal growth process, called supersaturation, by varying the initial concentration of protein. protein concentration must be set above a critical limit, the solubility, in order to form crystals ( below this concentrations the protein stays dissolved and never forms crystals ) left : a bell curve for lysozyme crystals produced in judge ' s experiments, and a possible shift in the curve that microgravity experiments might produce. links to 660x440 - pixel, 39kb jpg. credit : nasa / marshall. the tough part was examining each of the over 2000 wells and", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5518267324291242, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:38.072886"} {"text": "experiments, and a possible shift in the curve that microgravity experiments might produce. links to 660x440 - pixel, 39kb jpg. credit : nasa / marshall. the tough part was examining each of the over 2000 wells and counting the crystals. it turned out that the solution ph had the largest effect on the growth of the crystals, possibly due to changes in charges on the surface of the molecules. when solution conditions had been optimized to give a small number of large crystals, a sample of 50 crystals was withdrawn for x - ray diffraction analysis. judge hoped that when the ideal conditions were found and then applied to subsequent batches, he would be able to grow consistently large, high quality crystals of lysozyme. the expectation was that with ideal conditions, quality crystals could be cranked out as if in a factory. instead, nature put him on the curve. \" some variation is occurring there, \" judge said, \" but we haven ' t quite pinpointed the cause. \" judge got a bell curve when he measured the x - ray clarity, properly called the signal - to - noise ratio ( a radio with static has a low signal - to - noise ratio ). a graph of the number of crystals versus the signal - to - noise ratio forms a bell curve, albeit slightly skewed to one side. right : distribution of diffraction characteristics - essentially a measure of quality - for a batch of crystals approximates a bell curve. links to 875x637 - pixel, 66kb jpg. credit : nasa / marshall. \" the distribution is saying a very few crystals form perfectly in solution, \" he continued, \" and a small number are really poor. the majority of crystals are in - between. \" it ' s doubly puzzling because the crystals were grown from the same batch of lysozyme that was poured into 120 wells in the experiment tray and crystallized under the same conditions. \" we have some ideas, \" judge said, \" but we haven ' t tested them yet, so we ' re hesitant to say it might be this or that. \" the research will continue with insulin, the crucial protein that conveys sugar from the blood stream into a body ' s cells, and with glucose isomerase, a larger ( 46, 000 daltons ) protein used in industrial processes to convert glucose to a sweeter sugar called fructose. left : crystals of insulin grown in space let scientists determine the vital enzyme ' s structure and", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5714610045456384, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:38.073833"} {"text": "glucose isomerase, a larger ( 46, 000 daltons ) protein used in industrial processes to convert glucose to a sweeter sugar called fructose. left : crystals of insulin grown in space let scientists determine the vital enzyme ' s structure and linkages with much higher resolution that earth - grown crystals had allowed. links to 640x448 - pixel, 104kb jpg. larger format versions of these and related images are available from the nasa image exchange and using the keyword \" insulin. \" credit : nasa / marshall. \" in all of the proteins we ' re using the structure is pretty well known, \" judge added. in addition to ground - based experiments, judge hopes to conduct flight experiments in the next year or so. he would use the vapor diffusion apparatus, a device developed by the university of alabama in birmingham and well - proven in a number of space shuttle flights. \" most researchers say that crystals grown in microgravity will be better than those on the ground, \" judge said. and a number of experiments bear out that belief. \" somehow, microgravity pushes up the end of the distribution curve. \" right : crystals of glucose isomerase, a larger molecular weight protein, will be grown to see if they, too, are graded \" on the curve. \" links to 1018x749 - pixel, 365kb jpg. credit : nasa / marshall. with expected flight experiments on lysozyme, insulin and glucose isomerase, judge will have crystals grown in conditions as close as possible to the ideal conditions he had determined so far. at the same time, he will grow crystals on earth from the same mix as the flight batch and using identical hardware and conditions so that microgravity is the only variable. eventually, he hopes that his studies will lead to a tool for screening candidate proteins for flight. the effect of temperature and solution ph on the nucleation of tetragonal lysozyme crystals. biophysics journal, september 1999, p. 1585 - 1593, vol. 77, no. 3 russell a. judge, * randolph s. jacobs, # tyralynn frazier, \u00a7 edward h. snell, and \u00b6 marc l. pusey * alliance for microgravity material science and applications, nasa / marshall space flight center, huntsville, alabama 35812 ; # department of chemical engineering, university of alabama in huntsville, huntsville, alabama 35899 ; \u00a7 biochemistry department, michigan state university, east lansing, michigan 48", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.562057398121002, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:38.074765"} {"text": "and applications, nasa / marshall space flight center, huntsville, alabama 35812 ; # department of chemical engineering, university of alabama in huntsville, huntsville, alabama 35899 ; \u00a7 biochemistry department, michigan state university, east lansing, michigan 48825 ; and \u00b6 biophysics sd48, nasa / marshall space flight center, huntsville, alabama 35812 usa part of the challenge of macromolecular crystal growth for structure determination is obtaining crystals with a volume suitable for x - ray analysis. in this respect an understanding of the effect of solution conditions on macromolecule nucleation rates is advantageous. this study investigated the effects of supersaturation, temperature, and ph on the nucleation rate of tetragonal lysozyme crystals. batch crystallization plates were prepared at given solution concentrations and incubated at set temperatures over 1 week. the number of crystals per well with their size and axial ratios were recorded and correlated with solution conditions. crystal numbers were found to increase with increasing supersaturation and temperature. the most significant variable, however, was ph ; crystal numbers changed by two orders of magnitude over the ph range 4. 0 - 5. 2. crystal size also varied with solution conditions, with the largest crystals obtained at ph 5. 2. having optimized the crystallization conditions, we prepared a batch of crystals under the same initial conditions, and 50 of these crystals were analyzed by x - ray diffraction techniques. the results indicate that even under the same crystallization conditions, a marked variation in crystal properties exists. more space science headlines - nasa research on the web life and microgravity sciences and applications information from nasa hq on science in space microgravity research programs office headquartered at marshall space flight center microgravity news online version of nasa ' s latest in microgravity advancements, published quarterly. join our growing list of subscribers - sign up for our express news delivery and you will receive a mail message every time we post a new story!!! for more information, please contact : | dr. john m. horack, director of science communications curator : linda porter nasa official : m. frank rose", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5626268933678762, "token_count": 438, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:38.075616"} {"text": "assessing students ' understanding of complex systems assessing student understanding of complex thinking is quite challenging. as with assessing student learning on any topic, the first step is to identify your learning goals for your students. once you have identified learning goals, it becomes easier to choose one or more assessment tools appropriate to the task. here is a list of possible learning objectives related to students ' thinking about complex systems ( i. e., skills expected from students who exhibit complex systems thinking ). while this is in no way intended to be a comprehensive list of possible learning goals, it may help you to articulate your own list. a student who demonstrates complex systems thinking can : - identify and explain the characteristics of a complex system - describe and / or model a process where there is a feedback mechanism at work - build a model that mimics the expected behavior of the target system - identify stocks / reservoirs and flows - correctly identify positive / negative feedbacks - test a model through trial and error and comparison to real - world data - explore the possible outcomes of a system under different parameters - bridge across scales : student explanations of processes show fidelity across scales ( e. g., a student applies the concept of homeostasis at multiple levels ) - create and interpret graphical information - predict attributes of system behavior based on specific inputs or components of the system - understand that a complex system is irreducible, unpredictable, historical, nonlinear, and has emergent properties, and be able to describe what these terms mean a number of assessment tools can be used to assess students ' understanding ( or progress toward understanding ) of complex systems. a few of these tools are listed below. a concept map is a diagram with hierarchical nodes, labeled with concepts. the nodes are linked together with directional lines and are arranged from general to specific. by developing concept maps, students literally illustrate their understanding of a complex system. this method can be used for summative or formative assessment, and has the benefit of highlighting any misconceptions. students can develop and run physical or computer models to gain an understanding of how a system works. the choices a student makes in developing a model ( what components of the system to include, how they are linked, and so on ), along with how the student explains his or her choices, illustrate that student ' s understanding of the system in question. their ability to explain the behavior of the model ( describe the outcomes given different inputs, find patterns in the output, etc. ) offers further opportunity for assessment. this method can be employed for summative or", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5766682768756612, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:38.088777"} {"text": "s understanding of the system in question. their ability to explain the behavior of the model ( describe the outcomes given different inputs, find patterns in the output, etc. ) offers further opportunity for assessment. this method can be employed for summative or formative assessment ( or both ). an understanding of graphical representations of data is an essential component of data analysis. students can demonstrate their understanding of complex systems by interpreting graphical data illustrating the relationships between system variables. this method can be employed for summative or formative assessment ( or both ). for more information about using graphs in the classroom, see the starting point web pages on describing and analyzing graphs. assessing students ' thinking processes much frustration can be avoided by engaging in formative assessment : assessing student learning during the learning process. one way to do this is to incorporate several \" checkpoints \" in each teaching activity or assignment where you ask students to articulate what the results are and how they got there. this serves two functions : 1 ) it exposes misconceptions or misapplications at an early stage, and 2 ) it requires students to think about what they are doing and why - - and whether their progress makes sense in the context of what they know or expect. this opens up the realm of metacognition, wherein students think specifically about their own learning and engage in self - monitoring and self - regulatory behavior. research demonstrates that metacognition improves learning ( lovett, 2008 ).", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5572698858870967, "token_count": 297, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:38.089459"} {"text": "12 feb 13 biodiversity is a recent word. it was used for the first time in washington in 1986 by an entomologist ( edward o. wilson ) and can be a misunderstood topic. in actual fact it should be a simple concept, because at its essence, it signifies nature, life itself, and the diversity of life on many levels - from the smallest and most basic ( genes - the building blocks of life ) to animal and plant species, up to the most complex levels ( ecosystems ). all these levels intersect and influence each other and each other \u2019 s evolution. studies from the university of stanford have compared the species and varieties of an ecosystem to rivets that hold an airplane together. if we remove the rivets, for a while nothing will happen and the airplane will continue to operate. but little by little the structure will weaken and, at a certain point, just removing one rivet will cause the plane to crash. in the history of the planet, everything has a beginning and an end, and in every era, many species have become extinct. but never at the horrifying rate of recent years, one that is a thousand times greater than previous eras. this summer after a thorough study of many years, the prestigious university of exeter in england declared that the earth is undergoing its sixth mass extinction ( with the fifth, 65 million years ago, the dinosaurs disappeared ). yet there is a substantial difference between this and the extinctions of the past : the cause. for the first time man is responsible. man continues to destroy rainforests, cement the land, pollute waters and grounds with chemical pesticides and fertilizers, and accumulate plastic in the oceans. and he insists on excluding the earth \u2019 s last custodians : those small - scale farmers, shepherds and fishers that know and respect the fragile equilibrium of nature. slow food started its work with biodiversity in 1997 and our foot in the door - that since the beginning has given us a unique perspective - was food. if biodiversity disappears what will happen to our food? together with the plants and wild animals, the plants domesticated by man, breeds selected ( for milk or meat ) will also disappear. according to the fao, 75 % of plant varieties have been irreversibly lost. in the usa the figure is 95 %. today 60 % of the world \u2019 s food is based on three cereals : wheat, rice and corn. not on the thousands of rice varieties selected by farmers that once were cultivated in india and china,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5562437747371554, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:38.108125"} {"text": "the potato is a starchy, tuberous crop from the perennial solanum tuberosum of the solanaceae family ( also known as the nightshades ). the word potato may refer to the plant itself as well as the edible tuber. in the region of the andes, there are some other closely related cultivated potato species. potatoes were first introduced outside the andes region four centuries ago, and have become an integral part of much of the world \u2019 s cuisine. it is the world \u2019 s fourth - largest food crop, following rice, wheat, and maize. long - term storage of potatoes requires specialised care in cold warehouses. wild potato species occur throughout the americas, from the united states to uruguay. the potato was originally believed to have been domesticated independently in multiple locations, but later genetic testing of the wide variety of cultivars and wild species proved a single origin for potatoes in the area of present - day southern peru ( from a species in the solanum brevicaule complex ), where they were domesticated 7, 000 \u2013 10, 000 years ago. following centuries of selective breeding, there are now over a thousand different types of potatoes. of these subspecies, a variety that at one point grew in thechiloe archipelago ( the potato \u2019 s south - central chilean sub - center of origin ) left its germplasm on over 99 % of the cultivated potatoes worldwide. following the spanish conquest of the inca empire, the spanish introduced the potato to europe in the second half of the 16th century. the staple was subsequently conveyed by european mariners to territories and ports throughout the world. the potato was slow to be adopted by distrustful european farmers, but soon enough it became an important food staple and field crop that played a major role in the european 19th century population boom. however, lack of genetic diversity, due to the very limited number of varieties initially introduced, left the crop vulnerable to disease. in 1845, a plant disease known as late blight, caused by the fungus - like oomycete phytophthora infestans, spread rapidly through the poorer communities of western ireland, resulting in the crop failures that led to the great irish famine. nonetheless, thousands of varieties persist in the andes, where over 100 cultivars might be found in a single valley, and a dozen or more might be maintained by a single agricultural household. the annual diet of an average global citizen in the first decade of the 21st century included about 33 kg ( 73 lb ) of potato. however, the local importance of", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5099877291741275, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:38.118560"} {"text": "elements | blogs wednesday, september 7, 2011 is there oxygen in space? yes, this summer astronomers using the herschel telescope identified oxygen molecules in space. they found these molecules in the orion nebula, 1, 344 light years away. oxygen is the third most abundant element in the universe. until now, scientists have only seen individual oxygen atoms in space. we do not breathe individual oxygen atoms, but rather oxygen molecules. ( a molecule is a group of atoms banded together and it is the smallest unit of chemical compound that can take part in a chemical reaction. ) oxygen molecules make up 20 % of the air we breathe. scientists theorize that the oxygen molecules were locked up in water ice that... thursday, march 10, 2011 i ' m atoms ( scientific cover of jason mraz ' s i ' m yours ) here in chicago it has been gray for the last three weeks \u2013 no sun, just melting snow and rain. this song made our day. it has sunshine, great music and atoms! the lyrics include fabulous lines such as : \u201c atoms bond together to form molecules most of what \u2019 s surrounding me and you \u2026 \u201d this science verse has been set to the music of jason mraz \u2019 s \u201c i \u2019 m yours \u201d. this is a must watch! saturday, february 26, 2011 the deep carbon observatory here at supersmart carbon, we love learning about carbon. apparently, we are not alone. there is a project being launched called the deep carbon observatory that is being funded by the alfred p. sloan foundation. the purpose of this group is to study carbon deep inside the earth. carbon makes up somewhere from 0. 7 % to 3. 2 % of the earth \u2019 s elements. we know that there is carbon trapped under the earth \u2019 s crust, but we don \u2019 t know how much. the deep carbon observatory is going to study how much carbon there is in the earth and what happens to it. another question is what form is the... friday, february 25, 2011 where does gas come from? carbon! ( we always love it when the answer is carbon. ) the gas we use to power our cars comes from decomposing organic matter. what does that mean? all life has carbon in it - - this includes everything living from you and me to zebras, tapeworms, tulips and seaweed. since all living things have carbon in them, they are referred to as organic matter. non - organic matter includes things like rocks, water and metals. when something organic dies", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5803926651673219, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:38.137619"} {"text": "painting, artists and art ( technique, of all times ) painting is the practice of applying paint, pigment, color or other medium to a surface. in art, the term describes both the act and the result, which is called a painting. paintings may have for their support such surfaces as walls, paper, canvas, wood, glass, lacquer, clay or concrete. paintings may be decorated with gold leaf, and some modern paintings incorporate other materials including sand, clay, and scraps of paper. what is painting? is the fourth in a series of installations drawn from the museum ' s collection of contemporary art. it presents a selection of artworks made since approximately 1965, including a number of recent acquisitions and many works displayed for the first time since the museum ' s reopening. a variety of responses to the question \" what is painting? \" are proposed in loose chronological sequence, ranging from ironic to sincere ; from figurative to abstract ; and from an embrace and creative reimagining of painting ' s possibilities to a critical engagement with its limits. the installation ' s title derives from john baldessari ' s eponymous painting of 1966 \u2013 68 ( with the addition of a question mark ), acknowledging the ongoing debates over the practice of painting and its place within contemporary art. painting is a mode of expression, and the forms are numerous. drawing, composition or abstraction and other aesthetics may serve to manifest the expressive and conceptual intention of the practitioner. paintings can be naturalistic and representational ( as in a still life or landscape painting ), photographic, abstract, be loaded with narrative content, symbolism, emotion or be political in nature... wikipedia", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5550338735215214, "token_count": 333, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:38.151578"} {"text": "the failings of socialist economies, led many to conclude that von mises and hayek were right. hurwicz was more interested in advancing the debate than declaring victory. \u201c panaceas are not to be found at either end of the spectrum, \u201d he wrote in 1984. he agreed with hayek and von mises that a bureaucrat who simply demanded results would be met with slacking, budgetpadding and lies. but rather than giving up, hurwicz attacked the problem directly. he asked what \u201c mechanisms \u201d an intelligent but ill - informed planner might use to extract information from others and then allocate resources fairly, efficiently or profitably. such mechanisms are as old as trade itself, most obviously the auction, in which even an ignorant seller can expect a good price. but hurwicz laid the foundations for thinking systematically about designing mechanisms, defining all the terms rigorously and showing what might be possible. hurwicz described a mechanism as a kind of \u201c message centre \u201d, where market participants would submit information, true or false, and a pre - specified set of rules would adjudicate the result. that abstract description is a perfect account of an ebay auction : a seller sets a minimum bid, a time limit and perhaps a reserve price, while bidders submit bids that may bear no resemblance to the true value they place on the prize. ebay is just one example of a message centre ; hurwicz showed that it was useful to think about many economic institutions in this way. participants in a mechanism can always lie. a keen buyer can pretend to be an indifferent one ; a brilliant worker can conceal his laziness. hurwicz realised that in order to get a better bid from the keenest buyer, for example, the seller must give that buyer a reason to tell the truth. similarly, an employer cannot persuade the ablest worker to work just as hard as the rest unless the extra effort brings extra rewards. the general problem of persuading the \u201c best \u201d agents to act differently from the rest is called the \u201c incentive compatibility constraint \u201d. one example would be an auction where the highest bidder wins but only has to pay the second highest bid. this strange - sounding rule is all it takes to persuade the keenest bidder to tell the truth about the real value he places on the prize. ebay uses a similar rule. although hurwicz studied with the greats of the field \u2013 including nicholas kaldor at the lse, and paul samuelson \u2013 he never had", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5683700247950791, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:38.167528"} {"text": "to a large extent broken down. in such an ideological and moral vacuum, one seeks out standards many people more or less agree upon. the holocaust partly fills that function. it plays a role as a defining moment in european history. the holocaust touches upon very basic questions which many europeans do not like to ask themselves explicitly. what was it in european culture and in european societies that made the holocaust possible? this leads to a taboo question. have the elements which made the holocaust possible disappeared, or are they to some extent still with us? the first nations which should ask these questions are germany and austria. yet at present they do not seem inclined to do so. the present generation is not responsible for what their ancestors did. however, the holocaust and nazism can not be eliminated from german history. i would like to phrase the question somewhat differently. many of the ancestors of contemporary germans and austrians were nazi enthusiasts. many other germans and austrians went along with the nazis without hesitation. is it at all imaginable that nothing of these attitudes has remained in these countries today? another element of importance for the increasing interest in the holocaust is the growing uncertainty in the world. that requires more and more points of reference for events which take place almost daily. one example which has to be analyzed is the emergence of parties in european countries with many neo - fascist and neo - nazi characteristics. this becomes problematic in particular if these parties enter parliament. while the interest in the holocaust is growing there is simultaneously also a massive increase in the distortion of the history and the memory of the holocaust. to understand the abuse of the holocaust in our days, we have to start looking at it by category. in my book, \u201c the abuse of holocaust memory, distortions and responses \u201d i have developed eight categories of distortion. these are : holocaust justification and promotion, holocaust denial, holocaust deflection and whitewashing, de - judaization, holocaust equivalence, holocaust inversion, i. e the portraying of israel and jews as nazis, holocaust trivialization and obliterating holocaust memory the massive ongoing abuse of the holocaust brings us to the question, what can be done about it? there is no single way to fight against the abuse of the holocaust. education is very important. so are memorials, monuments etc. the crucial point however remains not to let abuse of the holocaust enter further in the public debate. it is a task for everybody to react when israel is called a nazi state and to call on governments to bring the iranian leaders grand ayatollah khamenei and", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.518355821569445, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:38.204347"} {"text": "elementary matrices generate the general linear group okay, so we can use elementary row operations to put any matrix into its ( unique ) reduced row echelon form. as we stated last time, this consists of building up a basis for the image of the transformation the matrix describes by walking through a basis for the domain space and either adding a new, independent basis vector or writing the image of a domain basis vector in terms of the existing image basis vectors. so let \u2019 s say we \u2019 ve got a transformation in. given a basis, we get an invertible matrix ( which we \u2019 ll also call ). then we can use elementary row operations to put this matrix into its reduced row echelon form. but now every basis vector gets sent to a vector that \u2019 s linearly independent of all the others, or else the transformation wouldn \u2019 t be invertible! that is, the reduced row echelon form of the matrix must be the identity matrix. but remember that every one of our elementary row operations is the result of multiplying on the left by an elementary matrix. so we can take the matrices corresponding to the list of all the elementary row operations and write which tells us that applying all these elementary row operations one after another leads us to the identity matrix. but this means that the product of all the elementary matrices on the right is. and since we can also apply this to the transformation, we can find a list of elementary matrices whose product is. that is, any invertible linear transformation can be written as the product of a finite list of elementary matrices, and thus the elementary matrices generate the general linear group.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5511693766811279, "token_count": 331, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:38.216007"} {"text": "from uncyclopedia, the content - free encyclopedia heliocentrism is a theory which has become an established dogma in 21st century privately - funded science, despite having been abandoned in the 20th century, according to conservapedia. heliocentrism is the concept that a giant magnet is located in the center of the earth, and the planets and the universe revolve around it, attracted by the magnetic energy. heliocentrism is criticized for ignoring the everyday observations of mountain climbers and airplane travellers. it has been characterized by sarah palin as \" a lie perpetrated by scientists to diminish the glory of america \" and pushed onto the good, god - fearing people by ignorant pagan - types suffering from gross moral turpitude. edit proponents of heliocentrism the most ardent supporters of heliocentrism are found in us academia, despite or perhaps because of how the theory is being used to diminish the central role of the usa and its establishment at the center of the universe. among those scientists that support it, the overwhelming majority also support the theories of evolution, climate change, nuclear fusion, ley line energy production, spacial time distortion, and extra - dimensional astral travel as well as using more tax dollars to fund their own research. notable believers in heliocentrism include charles darwin, lenin, al gore and ellen degeneres. edit evidence of heliocentrism heliocentrism is widely considered as being in accordance with the teaching of the holy book, which is commonly accepted as scientific evidence. firm proofs of heliocentrism include : - he has fixed the earth firm, immovable. ( 1 chronicles 16 : 30 ) - thou didst fix the earth on its foundation so that it never can be shaken. ( psalm 104 : 5 ) - who made the earth and fashioned it, and himself fixed it fast \u2026 ( isaiah 45 : 18 ) - the sun also ariseth, and the sun goeth down, and hasteth to his place where he arose. ( ecclesiastes 1 : 5 ) as a reliable scientific theory, heliocentrism has surprisingly been approved by school boards in kansas.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5718594755223717, "token_count": 454, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:38.223395"} {"text": "with over 58 % of the energy consumed in the home going to heating water and heating and cooling the rooms, you can make drastic changes in the amount of energy consumed and the money you pay for it just by making modifications to the way you control the temperature in your home. solar water heaters : your water heater is a constant energy waster and largely goes unnoticed when considering ways to conserve energy. current energy tax credits and solar rebates make converting to a solar water heating system extremely affordable. read more \u00bb solar electric : the heating and cooling system is by far the biggest user of energy in any home. photovoltaic pv systems not only can reduce or eliminate your energy costs, they can actually generate enough energy to sell back to the power grid through the utilities. read more \u00bb the greatest user of energy in commercial buildings is heating and cooling the work spaces and the water. computer facilities not only consume great amounts of energy, they also require a considerable expense in energy to keep cool. in the meantime, the sun is contributing to the consumption of energy instead of being used as solar energy to generate it. commercial solar panels have the capacity to reduce energy consumption in commercial buildings to less than half, simply by changing the way we heat and cool the work spaces. that savings goes directly towards the bottom line \u2014 the company ' s profits. read more \u00bb commercial solar water heating is the ideal compliment to solar electric systems. according to the us dept. of energy \" the energy tied up in water heating can be a significant component of the building ' s total energy consumption. for example, in the lodging industry, 42 percent of energy use goes for water heating. other commercial buildings with heavy hot water demand include restaurants, commercial laundries, buildings with industrial processes, dormitories or other high - density housing facilities. \" read more \u00bb with the growth in government comes the growth in government buildings. not only is government a large - scale consumer of energy in its administration, elements of government are also responsible for meeting all demand for energy, nationwide. what source we use to generate that electricity is of great concern to us all. in utah, electrical rates have increased 11 times in the past 7 years. add that to the growth within the state and we are rapidly growing toward the unaffordable consumption of power for us all. electrical generation using fossil fuels have risen four - fold in the past 15 years, but has never dropped significantly. much of our dependence on generating electricity in this way is on foreign oil. clearly, dependence on energy", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5560821069667703, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:38.242570"} {"text": "\u201c eau canada \u201d brings together 28 of canada \u2019 s top water experts to debate canada \u2019 s most critical water issues, and to map out solutions. the diverse range of contributors \u2013 geographers, environmental lawyers, former government officials, aquatic scientists, economists, and political scientists \u2013 reflects the broad range of issues involved in water management debates. contributors argue that weak governance is at the heart of canada \u2019 s water problems. the first three sections of the book provide background on canadian water uses ( and abuses ), identify key weaknesses in canadian water governance, and explore controversial debates over jurisdiction, transboundary waters, water exports, and water privatization. solutions for more sustainable water management are mapped out in the final sections of the book, including a cross - canada consensus on water policy, water conservation and pricing, and an engagement with the implications of new legal frameworks on indigenous people \u2019 s water rights. the book is targeted at a broad audience with the objective of promoting informed debate about some of the most controversial and pressing water issues facing canadians. it will be of relevance to academics and students of geography, politics, economics, environmental studies, engineering, and canadian studies. it will also be of particular interest to water supply managers, environmental and water policy analysts, government officials, community groups, and politicians from across canada.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5065032209115334, "token_count": 264, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:38.259829"} {"text": "air massan extensive body of the atmosphere whose physical properties, particularly temperature and humidity, exhibit only small and continuous differences in the horizontal. it may extend over an area of several million square kilometres and over a depth of several kilometres. backing windcounter - clockwise change of wind direction, in either hemisphere. beaufort scalewind force scale, original based on the state of the sea, expressed in numbers from 0 to 12. fetchdistance along a large water surface trajectory over which a wind of almost uniform direction and speed blows. fogsuspension of very small, usually microscopic water droplets in the air, generally reducing the horizontal visibility at the earth ' s surface to less than 1 km. frontthe interface or transition zone between air masses of different densities ( temperature and humidity ). gale force windwind with a speed between 34 and 47 knots. beaufort scale wind force 8 or 9. gustsudden, brief increase of the wind speed over its mean value. hazesuspension in the atmosphere of extremely small, dry particles which are invisible to the naked eye but numerous enough to give the sky an opalescent appearance. highregion of the atmosphere where the pressures are high relative to those in the surrounding region at the same level. hurricanename given to a warm core tropical cyclone with maximum surface winds of 118 km / h ( 64 knots ) or greater in the north atlantic, the caribbean, the gulf of mexico and in the eastern north pacific ocean. knotunit of speed equal to one nautical mile per hour. ( 1. 852 km / h ) land breezewind of coastal regions, blowing at night from the land towards a large water surface as a result of the nocturnal cooling of the land surface. line squallsquall which occurs in a line. lowregion of the atmosphere in which the pressures are lower then those of the surrounding regions at the same level. mistsuspension in the air of microscopic water droplets which reduce the visibility at the earth ' s surface. pressureforce per unit area exerted by the atmosphere on any surface by virtue of its weight ; it is equivalent to the weight of a vertical column of air extending above a surface of unit area to the outer limit of the atmosphere. ridgeregion of the atmosphere in which the pressure is high relative to the surrounding region at the same level. sea breezewind in coastal regions, blowing by day from a large water surface towards the land as a result of diurnal heating of the land surface. sea fogfog which forms in the lower part of a moist", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5859105291351265, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:38.271858"} {"text": "region at the same level. sea breezewind in coastal regions, blowing by day from a large water surface towards the land as a result of diurnal heating of the land surface. sea fogfog which forms in the lower part of a moist air mass moving over a colder surface ( water ). sea statelocal state of agitation of the sea due to the combined effects of wind and swell. squallatmospheric phenomenon characterizes by an abrupt and large increase of wind speed with a duration of the order of minutes which diminishes suddenly. it is often accompanied by showers or thundershowers. storm force windwind with a wind speed between 48 and 63 knots. beaufort scale wind force 10 or 11. storm surgethe difference between the actual water level under influence of a meteorological disturbance ( storm tide ) and the level which would have been attained in the absence of the meteorological disturbance ( i. e. astronomical tide ). swellany system of water waves which has left its generating area. thunderstormsudden electrical discharge manifested by a flash of light and a sharp or rumbling sound. thunderstorms are associated with convective clouds and are, more often, accompanied by precipitation in the form of rain showers, hail, occasionally snow, snow pellets, or ice pellets. tropical cyclonegeneric term for a non - frontal synoptic scale cyclone originating over tropical or sub - tropical waters with organized convection and definite cyclonic surface wind circulation. tropical depressionwind speed up to 33 knots. tropical disturbancelight surface winds with indications of cyclonic circulation. tropical stormmaximum wind speed of 34 to 47 knots. troughan elongated area of relatively low atmospheric pressure. veeringclockwise change of wind direction, in either hemisphere. visibilitygreatest distance at which a black object of suitable dimensions can be seen and recognized against the horizon sky during daylight or could be seen and recognized during the night if the general illumination were raised to the normal daylight level. waterspouta phenomenon consisting of an often violent whirlwind revealed by the presence of a cloud column or inverted cloud cone ( funnel cloud ), protruding from the base of a cumulonimbus, and of a bush composed of water droplets raised from the surface of the sea. its behaviour is characterized by a tendency to dissipate upon reaching shore. wave heightvertical distance between the trough and crest of a wave. wave periodstime between the passage of two successive wave crests past a fixed point.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5877500675776617, "token_count": 507, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:38.274954"} {"text": "so write it offline in an editor ( e. g., notepad ) and paste it in your little post box, viz. : from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia this article is about the general notion of determinism in philosophy. for other uses, see determinism ( disambiguation ). not to be confused with fatalism, predeterminism, or predictability. determinism is a metaphysical philosophical position stating that for everything that happens there are conditions such that, given those conditions, nothing else could happen. \" there are many determinisms, depending upon what pre - conditions are considered to be determinative of an event. \" determinism throughout the history of philosophy has sprung from diverse considerations, some of which overlap. some forms of determinism can be tested empirically with ideas stemming from physics and the philosophy of physics. the opposite of determinism is some kind of indeterminism ( otherwise called nondeterminism ). determinism is often contrasted with free will. determinism often is taken to mean simply causal determinism, that is, basing determinism upon the idea of cause - and - effect. it is the concept that events within a given paradigm are bound by causality in such a way that any state ( of an object or event ) is completely determined by prior states. this meaning can be distinguished from other varieties of determinism mentioned below. the introduction of \" cause - and - effect \" introduces unnecessary complications related to what is meant by a ' cause ' and how the presence of a ' cause ' might be established, the interpretation of which varies from one physical theory to another. these complications are avoided by a more general formulation based upon connections between ' events ' supplied by a theory : \" a theory is deterministic if, and only if, given its state variables for some initial period, the theory logically determines a unique set of values for those variables for any other period. \" \u2014 ernest nagel, alternative descriptions of physical state p. 292 this quote replaces the idea of ' cause - and - effect ' with that of ' logical implication ' according to one or another theory that connects events. in addition, an ' event ' is related by the theory itself to formalized states described using the parameters defined by that theory. thus, the details of interpretation are placed where they belong, fitted to the context in which the chosen theory applies. other debates often concern the scope of determined systems, with some maintaining that", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.628350951240635, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:38.324007"} {"text": "to formalized states described using the parameters defined by that theory. thus, the details of interpretation are placed where they belong, fitted to the context in which the chosen theory applies. other debates often concern the scope of determined systems, with some maintaining that the entire universe ( or multiverse ) is a single determinate system and others identifying other more limited determinate systems. for example, using the definition of physical determinism above, the limitations of a theory to some particular domain of experience also limits the associated definition of ' determinism ' to that same domain. there are numerous historical debates involving many philosophical positions and varieties of determinism. they include debates concerning determinism and free will, technically denoted as compatibilistic ( allowing the two to coexist ) and incompatibilistic ( denying their coexistence is a possibility ). determinism should not be confused with self - determination of human actions by reasons, motives, and desires. determinism rarely requires that perfect prediction be practically possible \u2013 merely predictable in theory. many philosophical theories of determinism frame themselves with the idea that reality follows a sort of predetermined path causal determinism is \" the idea that every event is necessitated by antecedent events and conditions together with the laws of nature \". however, causal determinism is a broad enough term to consider that \" one ' s deliberations, choices, and actions will often be necessary links in the causal chain that brings something about. in other words, even though our deliberations, choices, and actions are themselves determined like everything else, it is still the case, according to causal determinism, that the occurrence or existence of yet other things depends upon our deliberating, choosing and acting in a certain way \". causal determinism proposes that there is an unbroken chain of prior occurrences stretching back to the origin of the universe. the relation between events may not be specified, nor the origin of that universe. causal determinists believe that there is nothing uncaused or self - caused. historical determinism ( a sort of path dependence ) can also be synonymous with causal determinism. nomological determinism ( sometimes called ' scientific ' determinism, although that is a misnomer ) is the most common form of causal determinism. it is the notion that the past and the present dictate the future entirely and necessarily by rigid natural laws, that every occurrence results inevitably from prior events. quantum mechanics and", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6599370415845622, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:38.325747"} {"text": "misnomer ) is the most common form of causal determinism. it is the notion that the past and the present dictate the future entirely and necessarily by rigid natural laws, that every occurrence results inevitably from prior events. quantum mechanics and various interpretations thereof pose a serious challenge to this view. nomological determinism is sometimes illustrated by the thought experiment of laplace ' s demon. physical determinism holds holds that all physical events occur as described by physical laws. depending upon definitions, there is some room here for the view that not everything in the universe must be tied to some physical state, but that view is not usually emphasized by adherents of physical determinism because of the widely accepted scientific view that the operation of all physical systems ( often unnecessarily taken to mean everything ) can be explained entirely in physical terms, the assumed causal closure of physics. necessitarianism is very related to the causal determinism described above. it is a metaphysical principle that denies all mere possibility ; there is exactly one way for the world to be. leucippus claimed there were no uncaused events, and that everything occurs for a reason and by necessity. predeterminism is the idea that all events are determined in advance. the concept of predeterminism is often argued by invoking causal determinism, implying that there is an unbroken chain of prior occurrences stretching back to the origin of the universe. in the case of predeterminism, this chain of events has been pre - established, and human actions cannot interfere with the outcomes of this pre - established chain. predeterminism can be used to mean such pre - established causal determinism, in which case it is categorised as a specific type of determinism. it can also be used interchangeably with causal determinism - in the context of its capacity to determine future events. despite this, predeterminism is often considered as independent of causal determinism. the term predeterminism is also frequently used in the context of biology and hereditary, in which case it represents a form of biological determinism. fatalism is normally distinguished from \" determinism \". fatalism is the idea that everything is fated to happen, so that humans have no control over their future. fate has arbitrary power, and need not follow any causal or otherwise deterministic laws. types of fatalism include hard theological determinism and the idea of predestination", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.650344880588474, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:38.328327"} {"text": "fated to happen, so that humans have no control over their future. fate has arbitrary power, and need not follow any causal or otherwise deterministic laws. types of fatalism include hard theological determinism and the idea of predestination, where there is a god who determines all that humans will do. this may be accomplished either by knowing their actions in advance, via some form of omniscience or by decreeing their actions in advance. theological determinism is a form of determinism which states that all events that happen are pre - ordained, or predestined to happen, by a monotheistic deity, or that they are destined to occur given its omniscience. two forms of theological determinism exist, here referenced as strong and weak theological determinism. the first one, strong theological determinism, is based on the concept of a creator deity dictating all events in history : \" everything that happens has been predestined to happen by an omniscient, omnipotent divinity \". the second form, weak theological determinism, is based on the concept of divine foreknowledge - \" because god ' s omniscience is perfect, what god knows about the future will inevitably happen, which means, consequently, that the future is already fixed \". there exist slight variations on the above categorisation. some claim that theological determinism requires predestination of all events and outcomes by the divinity ( i. e. they do not classify the weaker version as ' theological determinism ' unless libertarian free will is assumed to be denied as a consequence ), or that the weaker version does not constitute ' theological determinism ' at all. with respect to free will, \" theological determinism is the thesis that god exists and has infallible knowledge of all true propositions including propositions about our future actions \", more minimal criteria designed to encapsulate all forms of theological determinism. theological determinism can also be seen as a form of causal determinism, in which the antecedent conditions are the nature and will of god. logical determinism or determinateness is the notion that all propositions, whether about the past, present, or future, are either true or false. note that one can support causal determinism without necessarily supporting logical determinism and vice versa ( depending on one ' s views on the nature of time, but also randomness", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5617236283035527, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:38.331734"} {"text": "the past, present, or future, are either true or false. note that one can support causal determinism without necessarily supporting logical determinism and vice versa ( depending on one ' s views on the nature of time, but also randomness ). the problem of free will is especially salient now with logical determinism : how can choices be free, given that propositions about the future already have a truth value in the present ( i. e. it is already determined as either true or false )? this is referred to as the problem of future contingents. adequate determinism focuses on the fact that, even without a full understanding of microscopic physics, we can predict the distribution of 1000 coin tosses often synonymous with logical determinism are the ideas behind spatio - temporal determinism or eternalism : the view of special relativity. j. j. c. smart, a proponent of this view, uses the term \" tenselessness \" to describe the simultaneous existence of past, present, and future. in physics, the \" block universe \" of hermann minkowski and albert einstein assumes that time is a fourth dimension ( like the three spatial dimensions ). in other words, all the other parts of time are real, like the city blocks up and down a street, although the order in which they appear depends on the driver ( see rietdijk \u2013 putnam argument ). adequate determinism is the idea that quantum indeterminacy can be ignored for most macroscopic events. this is because of quantum decoherence. random quantum events \" average out \" in the limit of large numbers of particles ( where the laws of quantum mechanics asymptotically approach the laws of classical mechanics ). stephen hawking explains a similar idea : he says that the microscopic world of quantum mechanics is one of determined probabilities. that is, quantum effects rarely alter the predictions of classical mechanics, which are quite accurate ( albeit still not perfectly certain ) at larger scales. something as large as an animal cell, then, would be \" adequately determined \" ( even in light of quantum indeterminacy ). nature and nurture interact in humans. a scientist looking at a sculpture after some time does not ask whether we are seeing the effects of the starting materials or environmental influences. although some of the above forms of determinism concern human behaviors and cognition, others frame themselves as an answer to the nature or nurture debate. they will suggest that one factor will entirely determine behavior. as scientific understanding has grown, however", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.6606001917505799, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:38.334950"} {"text": "influences. although some of the above forms of determinism concern human behaviors and cognition, others frame themselves as an answer to the nature or nurture debate. they will suggest that one factor will entirely determine behavior. as scientific understanding has grown, however, the strongest versions of these theories have been widely rejected as a single cause fallacy. in other words, the modern deterministic theories attempt to explain how the interaction of both nature and nurture is entirely predictable. the concept of heritability has been helpful to make this distinction. biological determinism, sometimes called genetic determinism, is the idea that each of our behaviors, beliefs, and desires are fixed by our genetic nature. behaviorism is the idea that all behavior can be traced to specific causes \u2014 either environmental or reflexive. this nurture - focused determinism was developed by john b. watson and b. f. skinner. cultural determinism or social determinism is the nurture - focused theory that it is the culture in which we are raised that determines who we are. environmental determinism is also known as climatic or geographical determinism. it holds the view that the physical environment, rather than social conditions, determines culture. supporters often also support behavioral determinism. key proponents of this notion have included ellen churchill semple, ellsworth huntington, thomas griffith taylor and possibly jared diamond, although his status as an environmental determinist is debated. a technological determinist might suggest that technology like the mobile phone is the greatest factor shaping human civilization. other ' deterministic ' theories actually seek only to highlight the importance of a particular factor in predicting the future. these theories often use the factor as a sort of guide or constraint on the future. they need not suppose that complete knowledge of that one factor would allow us to make perfect predictions. psychological determinism can mean that humans must act according to reason, but it can also be synonymous with some sort of psychological egoism. the latter is the view that humans will always act according to their perceived best interest. linguistic determinism claims that our language determines ( at least limits ) the things we can think and say and thus know. the sapir \u2013 whorf hypothesis argues that individuals experience the world based on the grammatical structures they habitually use. economic determinism is the theory which attributes primacy to the economic structure over politics in the development of human history. it is associated with the dialectical materialism of karl marx. technological determinism is a reductionist theory", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.603934280364263, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:38.336807"} {"text": "shape of most hdtv monitors ( rectangular ). hdtvs have been manufactured in both 4 : 3 and 16 : 9 aspect ratios. widescreen is a term used for the 16 : 9 aspect ratio which is larger than the standard definition tv screen. - 1080p is the shorthand identification for a category of hdtv video modes. the number 1080 represents 1, 080 lines of vertical resolution ( 1, 080 horizontal scan lines ), while the letter p stands for progressive scan ( meaning the image is not interlaced ). the term usually assumes a widescreen aspect ratio of 16 : 9, implying a horizontal resolution of 1920 pixels. - 1080i is a ( hdtv ) video mode. the term usually assumes a widescreen aspect ratio of 16 : 9, implying a horizontal resolution of 1920 pixels and a frame resolution of 1920\u00d71080 or about 2. 07 million pixels. - 720p is the shorthand name for a category of hdtv video modes. the number 720 stands for the 720 horizontal scan lines of display resolution ( also known as 720 pixels of vertical resolution ), while the letter p stands for progressive scan or non - interlaced. - 720 or 1080 lines of resolution from both the channel broadcast and the hdtv monitor ( note : a 480i dvd is not high definition, even though the image quality is considerably higher than a standard definition tv broadcast on a standard definition tv. ) - ability to display 16x9 aspect ratio pictures - y pb pr video component connections from the cable receiver to the hdtv - audio in the dolby digital ( ac - 3 ) format to support \" 5. 1 \" surround sound most hdtv monitors can display an sdtv ( 480i ) signal. if \" sidebars \" appear, you can press the settings button on the remote control twice to access the hdtv settings. then select the 480i stretch setting, which will stretch the 4 : 3 program to fill the entire screen area.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5180921155260017, "token_count": 403, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:38.380752"} {"text": "a consistent csg model is one which is made up of solid objects with no dangling surfaces. in rayshade, it is quite easy to construct inconsistent models, which will usually appear incorrect in the final images. in rayshade, csg is implemented by maintaining the tree structure of the csg operations. this tree is traversed, and the operators therein applied, on a per - ray basis. it is therefore difficult to verify the consistency of the model ` ` on the fly. ' ' one class of csg problems occur when surfaces of objects being operated upon coincide. for example, when subtracting a box from another box to make a square cup, the result will be wrong if the tops of the two boxes coincide. to correct this, the inner box should be made slightly taller than the outer box. a related problem that must be avoided occurs when two coincident surfaces are assigned different surface properties. it may seem that the union operator is unnecessary, since listing two objects together in an aggregate results in an image that appears to be the same. while the result of such a short - cut may appear the same on the exterior, the interior of the resulting object will contain extraneous surfaces. the following example show this quite clearly. difference box - 2 0 - 3 2 3 3 union / * change to list ; note bad internal surfaces * / sphere 2 1 0 0 sphere 2 - 1 0 0 end end rotate 1 0 0 - 40 rotate 0 0 1 50 the visual evidence of an inconsistent csg object varies depending upon the operator being used. when subtracting a consistent object from and inconsistent one, the resulting object will appear to be the union of the two objects, but the shading will be incorrect. it will appear to be inside - out in places, while correct in other places. the inside - out sections indicate the areas where the problems occur. such problems are often caused by polygons with incorrectly specified normals, or by surfaces that exactly coincide ( which appear as partial ` ` swiss cheese ' ' objects ). the following example illustrates an attempt to subtract a sphere from a pyramid defined using an incorrectly facing triangle. note that the resulting image obviously points to which triangle is reversed. name pyramid list triangle 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 triangle 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 triangle 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 triangle 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 / * wrong order * / end difference object pyramid scale 3 3 3 rotate 0 0 1 45", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.528157934363361, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:38.386696"} {"text": "water creatures caught stealing dna tiny freshwater organisms that have a sex - free lifestyle, may have survived so well because they steal genes from other creatures, us scientists report. researchers from the harvard university in cambridge, massachusetts, have found genes from bacteria, fungi and even plants incorporated into the dna of bdelloid rotifers - minuscule animals that appear to have given up sex 40 million years ago. their report appears in this week ' s edition of science. sex is used by most life forms as a way of coping with changing circumstances, by allowing organisms to develop useful new genes and ditch harmful, mutated ones. the resilience of bdelloid and their sex - free lifestyle has stumped scientists. the team, headed by professor matthew meselson, looked at the dna of bdelloid rotifers to see how they manage to survive and evolve. it appears they overcome this hurdle by stealing dna from our organisms. \" our result shows that genes can enter the genomes of bdelloids in a manner fundamentally different from that which, in other animals, results from the mating of males and females, \" says meselson. \" we found many genes that appear to have originated in bacteria, fungi, and plants. \" the translucent, waterborne creatures, which range in size from 0. 1 to 1 millimetres long, lay eggs, but all their offspring are female. the researchers believe that when bdelloids dry out, they fracture their genetic material and rupture cellular membranes. when they rehydrate, they rebuild their genomes and their membranes, incorporating shreds of genetic material from other bdelloids and unrelated species in their vicinity. \" these fascinating animals not only have relaxed the barriers to incorporation of foreign genetic material, but, more surprisingly, they even managed to keep some of these alien genes functional, \" report co - author dr irina arkhipova says. according to the researchers, the next step is to determine whether bdelloid genomes also contain homologous genes imported from other bdelloids. meselson and his colleagues also hope to examine whether the animals actually use any of the hundreds of snippets of foreign dna they appear to vacuum up. understanding how the animals acquire and make use of these new genes could have implications for medicine. genetic mutations, which occur constantly in any living organism, underlie cancer, heart disease and various other diseases.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5116685476378873, "token_count": 487, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:38.400664"} {"text": "science fair project encyclopedia the sampling frequency or sampling rate defines the number of samples per second taken from a continuous signal to make a discrete signal. the inverse of the sampling frequency is the sampling period or sampling time, which is the time between samples. the sampling frequency can only be applied to samplers in which each sample is periodically taken. there is no rule that limits a sampler from taking a sample at a non - periodic rate. if a signal has a bandwidth of 100 hz then to avoid aliasing the sampling frequency must be greater than 200 hz. in some cases, it is desirable to have a sampling frequency more than twice the bandwidth so that a digital filter can be used in exchange for a weaker analog anti - aliasing filter. this process is known as oversampling. in digital audio, common sampling rates are : - 8, 000 hz - telephone, adequate for human speech - 11, 025 hz - 22, 050 hz - radio - 44, 100 hz - compact disc - 48, 000 hz - digital sound used for films and professional audio - 96, 000 or 192, 400 hz - dvd - audio, some lpcm dvd audio tracks, bd - rom ( blu - ray disc ) audio tracks, and hd - dvd ( high - definition dvd ) audio tracks in digital video, which uses a ccd as the sensor, the sampling rate is defined the frame / field rate, rather than the notional pixel clock. all modern tv cameras use ccds, and the image sampling frequency is the repetition rate of the ccd integration period. - 13. 5 mhz - ccir 601, d1 video - continuous signal vs. discrete signal - digital control - sample and hold - sample ( signal ) - sampling ( information theory ) - signal ( information theory ) the contents of this article is licensed from www. wikipedia. org under the gnu free documentation license. click here to see the transparent copy and copyright details", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5995837492527237, "token_count": 390, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:38.635656"} {"text": "a unique synthesis of symbolism and substance, its occupant the embodiment of that work in progress called the united states and the chief magistrate with supervisory responsibility for all domestic and foreign policy, in effect an elected king and prime minister rolled into one. there was a sense at the time, since confirmed by most historians of the presidency, that no one else could have managed this political evolution so successfully, indeed that under anyone else the experiment with republican government would probably have failed at the start. eventually the operation of the federal government under the constitution would be described as \u201c a machine that ran itself. \u201d at the outset, however, the now venerable checks and balances of the constitution required a trusted leader who had internalized checks and balances sufficiently to understand both the need for executive power and the limitations of its effectiveness. he made the presidency a projection of himself. washington tried to step down after those first four years and, perhaps predictably, failed. his second term was increasingly full of rancor, with dramatic developments in europe and mounting tensions between jefferson and hamilton within his cabinet that together threatened to destroy all he had accomplished. but fierce though these conflicts were, they weren \u2019 t powerful enough to destroy the foundation that washington had built, and they haven \u2019 t managed to yet.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5316878737486271, "token_count": 259, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 18, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:38.742671"} {"text": "the life - giving ideas of chemistry are not reducible to physics. or, if one tries to reduce them, they wilt at the edges, lose not only much of their meaning, but interest too. and, most importantly, they lose their chemical utility \u2014 their ability to relate seemingly disparate compounds to each other, their fecundity in inspiring new experiments. i ' m thinking of concepts such as the chemical bond, a functional group and the logic of substitution, aromaticity, steric effects, acidity and basicity, electronegativity and oxidation - reduction. as well as some theoretical ideas i ' ve been involved in personally \u2014 through - bond coupling, orbital symmetry control, the isolobal analogy. consider the notion of oxidation state. if you had to choose two words to epitomize the same - and - not - the - same nature of chemistry, would you not pick ferrous and ferric? the concept evolved at the end of the 19th century ( not without confusion with \" valency \" ), when the reality of ions in solution was established. as did a multiplicity of notations \u2014 ferrous iron is iron in an oxidation state of + 2 ( or is it 2 +? ) or fe ( ii ). schemes for assigning oxidation states ( sometimes called oxidation numbers ) adorn every introductory chemistry text. they begin with the indisputable : in compounds, the oxidation states of the most electronegative elements ( those that hold on most tightly to their valence electrons ), oxygen and fluorine for example, are \u2013 2 and \u2013 1, respectively. after that the rules grow ornate, desperately struggling to balance wide applicability with simplicity. the oxidation - state scheme had tremendous classificatory power ( for inorganic compounds, not organic ones ) from the beginning. think of the sky blue color of chromium ( ii ) versus the violet or green of chromium ( iii ) salts, the four distinctly colored oxidation states of vanadium. oliver sacks writes beautifully of the attraction of these colors for a boy starting out in chemistry. and not only boys. but there was more to oxidation states than just describing color. or balancing equations. chemistry is transformation. the utility of oxidation states dovetailed with the logic of oxidizing and reducing agents \u2014 molecules and ions that with ease removed or added electrons to other molecules. between electron transfer and proton transfer you have much of reaction chemistry. i want to tell you how this logic leads to quite", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6550918535827391, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:38.754400"} {"text": ". people in the trade will recognize that i ' m talking about \" mulliken population analysis \" or \" natural bond analysis \" or richard bader ' s beautifully worked out scheme for dividing up space in a molecule. what about experiment? is there an observable that might gauge a charge on an atom? i think photoelectron spectroscopies ( esca or auger ) come the closest. here one measures the energy necessary to promote an inner - core electron to a higher level or to ionize it. atoms in different oxidation states do tend to group themselves at certain energies. but the theoretical framework that relates these spectra to charges depends on the same assumptions that bedevil the definition of a charge on an atom. an oxidation state bears little relation to the actual charge on the atom ( except in the interior of the sun, where ligands are gone, there is plenty of energy, and you can have iron in oxidation states up to + 26 ). this doesn ' t stop the occasional theoretician today from making a heap of a story when the copper in a formal cu ( iii ) complex comes out of a calculation bearing a charge of, say, + 0. 51. nor does it stop oxidation states from being just plain useful. many chemical reactions involve electron transfer, with an attendant complex of changes in chemical, physical and biological properties. oxidation state, a formalism and not a representation of the actual electron density at a metal center, is a wonderful way to \" bookkeep \" electrons in the course of a reaction. even if that electron, whether added or removed, spends a good part of its time on the ligands. but enough theory, or, as some of my colleagues would sigh, anthropomorphic platitudes. let ' s look at some beautiful chemistry of extreme oxidation states. incredible, but true recently, a young polish postdoctoral associate, wojciech grochala, led me to look with him at the chemical and theoretical design of novel high - temperature superconductors. we focused on silver ( ag ) fluorides ( f ) with silver in oxidation states ii and iii. the reasoning that led us there is described in our forthcoming paper. for now let me tell you about some chemistry that i learned in the process. i can only characterize this chemistry as incredible but true. ( some will say that i should have known about it, since it was hardly hidden, but the fact is i didn ' t. ) here is what ag ( ii", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6202174419048675, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:38.756535"} {"text": "in the process. i can only characterize this chemistry as incredible but true. ( some will say that i should have known about it, since it was hardly hidden, but the fact is i didn ' t. ) here is what ag ( ii ), unique to fluorides, can do. in anhydrous hf solutions it oxidizes xe to xe ( ii ), generates c6f6 + salts from perfluorobenzene, takes perfluoropropylene to perfluoropropane, and liberates irf6 from its stable anion. these reactions may seem abstruse to a nonchemist, but believe me, it ' s not easy to find a reagent that would accomplish them. ag ( iii ) is an even stronger oxidizing agent. it oxidizes mf6 \u2013 ( where m = pt or ru ) to mf6. here is what neil bartlett at the university of california at berkeley writes of one reaction : \" samples of agf3 reacted incandescently with metal surfaces when frictional heat from scratching or grinding of the agf3 occurred. \" ag ( ii ), ag ( iii ) and f are all about equally hungry for electrons. throw them one, and it ' s not at all a sure thing that the electron will wind up on the fluorine to produce fluoride ( f \u2013 ). it may go to the silver instead, in which case you may get some f2 from the recombination of f atoms. not that everyone can ( or wants to ) do chemistry in anhydrous hf, with f2 as a reagent or being produced as well. in a recent microreview, thomas o ' donnell says ( with some understatement ), \"... this solvent may seem to be an unlikely choice for a model solvent system, given its reactivity towards the usual materials of construction of scientific equipment. \" ( and its reactivity with the \" materials of construction \" of human beings working with that equipment! ) but, o ' donnell goes on to say, \"... with the availability of spectroscopic and electrochemical equipment constructed from fluorocarbons such as teflon and kel - f, synthetic sapphire and platinum, manipulation of and physicochemical investigation of hf solutions in closed systems is now reasonably straightforward. \" for this we must thank the pioneers in the field \u2014 generations of flu", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5660936544261344, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:38.757396"} {"text": "as teflon and kel - f, synthetic sapphire and platinum, manipulation of and physicochemical investigation of hf solutions in closed systems is now reasonably straightforward. \" for this we must thank the pioneers in the field \u2014 generations of fluorine chemists, but especially bartlett and boris zemva of the university of ljubljana. bartlett reports the oxidation of agf2 to agf4 \u2013 ( as kagf4 ) using photochemical irradiation of f2 in anhydrous hf ( made less acidic by adding kf to the hf ). and zemva used kr2 + ( in krf2 ) to react with agf2 in anhydrous hf in the presence of xef6 to make xef5 + agf4 \u2013. what a startling list of reagents! to appreciate the difficulty and the inspiration of this chemistry, one must look at the original papers, or at the informal letters of the few who have tried it. you can find some of neil bartlett ' s commentary in the article that wojciech and i wrote, and in an interview with him. charge it, please chemists are always changing things. how to tune the propensity of a given oxidation state to oxidize or reduce? one way to do it is by changing the charge on the molecule that contains the oxidizing or reducing center. the syntheses of the silver fluorides cited above contain some splendid examples of this strategy. let me use bartlett ' s words again, just explaining that \" electronegativity \" gauges in some rough way the tendency of an atom to hold on to electrons. ( high electronegativity means the electron is strongly held, low electronegativity that it is weakly held. ) it ' s easy to make a high oxidation state in an anion because an anion is electron - rich. the electronegativity is lower for a given oxidation state in an anion than it is in a neutral molecule. that in turn, is lower than it is in a cation. if i take silver and i expose it to fluorine in the presence of fluoride ion, in hf, and expose it to light to break of f2 to atoms, i convert the silver to silver ( iii ), agf4 -. this is easy because the ag ( iii ) is in an anion. i can then pass in boron trifluoride and precipitate silver", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5659937022767785, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:38.758237"} {"text": "to atoms, i convert the silver to silver ( iii ), agf4 -. this is easy because the ag ( iii ) is in an anion. i can then pass in boron trifluoride and precipitate silver trifluoride, which is now a much more potent oxidizer than agf4 - because the electronegativity in the neutral agf3 is much higher than it is in the anion. if i can now take away a fluoride ion, and make a cation, i drive the electronegativity even further up. with such a cation, for example, agf2 +, i can steal the electron from ptf6 - and make ptf6.... this is an oxidation that even kr ( ii ) is unable to bring about. simple, but powerful reasoning. and it works. a world record? finally, a recent oxidation - state curiosity : what is the highest oxidation state one could get in a neutral molecule? pekka pyykko and coworkers suggest cautiously, but i think believably, that octahedral uo6, that is u ( xii ), may exist. there is evidence from other molecules that uranium 6p orbitals can get involved in bonding, which is what they would have to do in uo6. what wonderful chemistry has come \u2014 and still promises to come \u2014 from the imperfect logic of oxidation states! \u00a9 roald hoffmann i am grateful to wojciech grochala, robert fay and debra rolison for corrections and comments. thanks to stan marcus for suggesting the title of this column.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5385249624552289, "token_count": 340, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:38.758790"} {"text": "diagnosing mesothelioma : mris magnetic resonance imaging ( mri ) is one of several imaging techniques that doctors use to detect, stage and evaluate the progression of mesothelioma. these non - invasive scans use magnets and radio waves to help doctors visualize a patient \u2019 s organs, tissues, bones and tumors. many radiologists consider mris ideal for viewing the anatomical structures of the chest and abdomen \u2013 including the pleura and peritoneum, where mesothelioma tumors most commonly develop. the first commercial mri units emerged in the 1980s. since then, the technology has advanced considerably. modern mri units use superconductor magnets and coils to produce a constant magnetic field, as well as radiofrequency energy to measure signals from the nuclei of hydrogen atoms inside the body. computers inside the scanner register these signals and turn them into images. most modern units also include a shield, which prevents the scanner from picking up interference from outside signals sources like televisions and radio stations. mris work by aligning the water molecules in your body. radio waves then cause these aligned particles to emit signals, which register on the scanner. the images reflect the amount of activity that is occurring in each internal structure. each mri - generated image shows a thin slice of the body. the mri process the entire mri process takes about an hour or two to complete. the scan itself takes between 30 and 60 minutes, but the appointment also includes pre - scan positioning and other preparation activities. once patients arrive at the mri center and fill out their paperwork, they must remove all metal objects from their bodies. the strong magnets in an mri scanner can attract zippered clothing, jewelry, watches, belts, keys and credit cards. implanted medical devices that contain metal may also cause complications with the scan. next, patients will put on a hospital gown and ear plugs. fast factsome mri scans use a contrast dye to improve image detail. the most common dye is gadolinium, which is safe and effective for most patients with properly functioning kidneys. this magnetic metal ion can visually enhance lesions on mri images, indicating growths that may be mesothelioma tumors. for contrast - enhanced mris, patients will receive an injection of a contrast dye. this makes certain areas show up more clearly on the test. after the injection, patients lie down on the imaging table. the technologist then arranges a coil around the part of the body that is being imaged. for pl", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5425903692544347, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:38.792134"} {"text": "a contrast dye. this makes certain areas show up more clearly on the test. after the injection, patients lie down on the imaging table. the technologist then arranges a coil around the part of the body that is being imaged. for pleural mesothelioma, this will be the chest. for peritoneal mesothelioma, it will be the abdomen. once the technician positions the patient \u2019 s body correctly for the exam, the patient and table are slid into a tube - like opening in the mri machine. during the scan, the machine makes repetitive knocking sounds as the magnetic field gradients turn on and off. the test itself is painless. patients should try not to move during the scan, but they can communicate with their technician via microphone if they feel scared or claustrophobic. patients can leave the mri center immediately after the scan. a post - processing technologist will then highlight abnormal areas on the images. once the final images are ready for review, a radiologist interprets the results and provides the patient \u2019 s primary doctor with a report. from there, the physician can examine the scan on a computer monitor, send them electronically to the rest of the treatment team or print them out for the patient \u2019 s medical records. mri side effects patients occasionally experience minor side effects after an mri scan. | magnetophosphenes ( brief flashes of light across the retina ) | | vertigo / dizziness | | metallic taste in the mouth | | nausea | | physical burns or burning sensations ( extremely rare ) | mris do not place patients at risk for radiation - induced damage. because mris do not use ionizing radiation, most doctors prefer mris for patients who need routine imaging scans. the u. s. food and drug administration ( fda ) concludes that as long as the field strengths are kept below 2. 0 tesla, mris are safe for repeated use. mris for diagnosing mesothelioma tumors magnetic resonance imaging currently plays a limited role in diagnosing mesothelioma. when doctors do prescribe mri scans to diagnose the disease, they often use them to complement ct scan results. mri - generated images can help differentiate between normal tissue and tumor tissue, which cannot be determined with a ct scan alone. mri scans produce a visual representation of differences is signal intensity between cancerous and noncancerous tissues. because cancerous tissues emit more intense signals than surrounding healthy tissue, malignant mesothelioma tissues appear as", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5116438717180936, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:38.793226"} {"text": "a ct scan alone. mri scans produce a visual representation of differences is signal intensity between cancerous and noncancerous tissues. because cancerous tissues emit more intense signals than surrounding healthy tissue, malignant mesothelioma tissues appear as white spots on the scan results with varying brightness. the difference between malignant and noncancerous tissue is even more pronounced in contrast - enhanced mris. to arrive at a mesothelioma diagnosis, radiologists usually inspect mri - generated images for a mass on the pleura, which encases the lungs. these masses often emit signals of intermediate intensity. the fluid located between the lungs and pleura can also indicate mesothelioma, as areas of pleural fluid with very intense signals sometimes surround pleural masses. mri scans are generally superior to ct scans for characterizing pleural fluid as benign or malignant. | chest wall infiltration | | mediastinal pleural involvement | | circumferential pleural thickening | | nodularity | | other irregular changes in pleural tissue | features such as bilateral pleural involvement, pleural shrinkage, pleural effusions and pleural calcifications may also show up on mri - generated images. these features may suggest mesothelioma, but cannot be used to make a definitive diagnosis. mris for staging mesothelioma tumors most studies indicate that mris and ct scans are equally effective for accurately staging malignant mesothelioma tumors. while mris are less effective at detecting lymph node involvement, they are generally superior at detecting the extent of a tumor \u2019 s invasion of other local structures \u2013 one of the key steps in staging a mesothelioma tumor. when radiologists use mris to stage a mesothelioma tumor, they look for the following features : - loss of normal fat planes - extension into mediastinal fat - tumor growth that encases more than half the circumference of an organ or mediastinal structure radiologists can exclude patients as good surgical candidates if an mri scan shows mediastinal or full - thickness pericardial involvement, diffuse or multifocal chest wall disease or involvement of the diaphragm or spine. by revealing the stage of a mesothelioma tumor, mri images can help doctors determine whether or not the patient is a good candidate for invasive surgery. mris are especially useful for detecting two", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5094394854965713, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:38.794171"} {"text": "involvement of the diaphragm or spine. by revealing the stage of a mesothelioma tumor, mri images can help doctors determine whether or not the patient is a good candidate for invasive surgery. mris are especially useful for detecting two primary features of patients who are unlikely to benefit from an aggressive operation : chest wall invasion and involvement of the diaphragm. in one study, mris detected diaphragmatic spread with 82 percent accuracy, while ct scans detected the same condition with only 55 percent accuracy. mris are useful for staging mesothelioma with the tnm system. some studies suggest that mri scans can differentiate between t3 and t4 disease, but not earlier stages like t1 and t2. one study found that mris understaged half of the mesothelioma tumors by failing to detect pericardial invasion, which advances tumors from stage t2 to stage t3. however, the same mris were effective at detecting involvement of the internal pericardium, which also advances tumors from stage t3 to t4. the study correctly identified all of the tumors that were stage t3 or lower ( while excluding the t4 tumors ) with a positive predictive value of 100 percent. mris for evaluating response to treatment oncologists consider the mri an accurate and reproducible technique for evaluating patient response to mesothelioma treatment. when evaluating the mri scan results of mesothelioma patients undergoing treatment, radiologists often measure the tumor from several separate sites. this helps account for the rind - like growth pattern of the cancer. the primary measurement that the doctors look for is an increase or decrease in pleural thickness. fast factin one study of 50 mesothelioma patients, mri scans correctly categorized the tumor response in 92 percent of patients. if there is no visible disease on the post - treatment imaging scan, doctors call this complete response. if there is a 30 percent decrease in the sum of linear tumor measurements, they generally refer to that as a partial response to treatment. if the mri indicates a size increase of at least 20 percent ( or shows a newly developed lesion ), the disease is considered progressive. doctors may prescribe lung spirometry tests when using mris as another way to evaluate treatment response. patients whose mris indicate a partial or complete response to mesothelioma treatment often display simultaneous improvements in lung function, which can be measured with a spirometer. when doctors study mri results to determine", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5179383623413786, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:38.797535"} {"text": "with an expressive communication disability, and may then need to seek approval for each proposed diagnostic strategy before the actual evaluation. modifications to the proposed plan may be suggested by either attorney or the judge. experts in litigation today must be familiar with the origin and significance of the daubert case ( bernstein & hartsell, 2005 ). this 1993 landmark decision ( daubert v. merrell dow pharms., 509 u. s. 579, 113 s. ct. 2786, 125 l. ed. 2d 469 ) resulted in specific instructions for expert testimony introduced into the courtroom. basically, daubert ' s rule established requirements for admissibility of expert testimony, including whether or not the employed technique has been peer - reviewed and published, has a known error rate, can be tested, and is a generally accepted practice within the field. as expert witnesses, slps need to prepare for testimony with the understanding that their scientific knowledge will be tested by the opposing attorney, challenged regarding peer reviews and publications, and examined for potential errors and general acceptance by their own scholarly community. every word and comma in their expert reports will be scrutinized. although slps may feel confident in their professional knowledge base and clinical skills in aac, writing and defending the expert report within the legal system is very different from preparing a clinical report for a public school or medical facility. to prepare a report for testimony, slps need to translate their clinical knowledge into a legally useful form without using jargon, and to follow the rules, roles, and procedures for written reports according to legal tradition. these evaluations and reports must be precise so as not to introduce any reasonable doubt. failure to understand the purpose and use of a written report may result in a damaging cross - examination and may undermine the slp ' s credibility. one example of potential difficulty is establishing a legal capacity for expressive communication when that expression is an alternative form to speech. as yet, there is no legal definition of \" capacity \" for testimony if not through speech. the definition of \" capacity \" is important \u2014 a client must be judged to have the \" capacity \" to participate, because a legal case may set a precedent. when assistive technologies, such as speech - generating devices ( sgds ) or voice output communication aids ( vocas ), are introduced, the question arises : does the legal capacity ( or definition of expressive communication competence ) shift when an sgd is used? in other words, if an individual communicates through technology, is the individual legally", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5311073862699549, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:38.817147"} {"text": "asia news network we know asia better publication date : 04 - 09 - 2012 with health and wellness gaining prominence in people \u2019 s wish lists, there is now a growing awareness of healthier choices. here are more answers for your myriad of options. pick a wellness plan that will suit you best. please explain \u2014 what \u2019 s all the fuss over over nitrates and nitrites? multiple choice : which meal would you consider supportive of brain health? a ) scrambled eggs cooked in butter plus a generous topping of cheese and sour cream b ) green salad with lean chicken or turkey ham topped with low - fat caesar salad dressing. a is the healthier meal. for one, eggs are nutritious and are considered brain food. vegetables are very good for you ; however, we do not know about the toppings. perhaps the ham is laced with preservatives and additives, including aspartame and nitrite. by itself, nitrite isn \u2019 t so bad. but when it is eaten, it can transform into nitrosamine compounds, considered potent cancer - causing chemicals. this occurs when a chemical reaction happens between nitrate ( added to food ) and amines ( found in protein that is present in the body ). added to processed foods, this chemical, also known as sodium nitrite or potassium nitrite, prevents the contamination of foods by controlling the toxin production of clostridium botulinum ( which causes botulism ). in the us, these chemicals are allowed to be used, setting the limit to one part nitrite to 120 parts per million. nitrates for fertilisers are suspected to enter the food and water supply. and this is why proper farming is a big issue. nitrite and nitrosamine are linked with increased cancer of the colon, lung, pancreas, liver, etc. how to neutralise nitrite poisoning? take megadoses of vitamin c and e, beta - carotene and flavonoids. visit your dentist how do i cure bad breath? would you believe that billions of bacteria, fungi, viruses and parasites live in our mouths? it \u2019 s true. there are over 600 species of bacteria that claim our mouths as their home. an overgrowth of bacteria leads to tooth decay and gum disease. it could, one day, lead to tooth loss. if you are brushing, flossing and gargling regularly, then you shouldn \u2019 t have a real problem. but if you don \u2019", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5037469217559601, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:38.823386"} {"text": "smoke signals, drum telegraphs, and the marathon runner are all examples of man \u2019 s effort to conquer the tyranny of distance. however, the first truly successful solution to the problem of rapidly transmitting language across space was the frenchman claude chappe \u2019 s optical telegraph. chappe ' s chain of stone towers, topped by 10 - ft. poles and 14 - ft. pivoting cross members, and spaced as far apart as the eye could see, was first demonstrated to the public in march of 1791 on the champs elysees. chappe created a language of 9, 999 words, each represented by a different position of the swinging arms. when operated by well - trained optical telegraphers, the system was extraordinarily quick. messages could be transmitted up to 150 miles in two minutes. eventually the french military saw the value of chappe \u2019 s invention, and lines of his towers were built out from paris to dunkirk and strasbourg. within a decade, a network of optical telegraph lines crisscrossed the nation. when napoleon seized power in 1799, he used the optical telegraph to dispatch the message, \u201c paris is quiet and the good citizens are content. \u201d renovated in 1998, the optical telegraph next to the rohan castle in saverne functioned as part of the strasbourg line from 1798 until 1852. it is one of several remaining relay points in the system that can still be visited today.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5952065626499679, "token_count": 283, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:38.831474"} {"text": "logging in or signing up an introduction to greek mythology jhurley download post to : url : related presentations : share add to flag embed email send to blogs and networks add to channel uploaded from authorpoint lite insert youtube videos in powerpont slides with as desktop copy embed code : embed : flash ipad copy does not support media & animations wordpress embed customize embed url : copy thumbnail : copy the presentation is successfully added in your favorites. views : 2428 category : education license : all rights reserved like it ( 0 ) dislike it ( 0 ) added : july 19, 2012 this presentation is public favorites : 2 presentation description why study greek myths? comments posting comment... premium member presentation transcript powerpoint presentation : an introduction greek mythology greek mythologypowerpoint presentation : essential questions : why do myths endure? how is greek mythology evident in our world today? what allusions are there to these stories? what is the origin of greek mythology? powerpoint presentation : what is a myth? a myth is a story, created collectively by a whole people or society over a period of time once believed to be true, that embodies some of the wisdom and truth valued by that society. these stories may help to explain why the world works the way it does, to provide a rationale for customs and observances, to establish set rituals for ceremonies, and to predict what happens to individuals after death. alert : on the test! powerpoint presentation : types of myths cosmic myths concern creation and the end of the world. theistic myths concern gods such as zeus or athena. hero myths concern individuals such as heracles, perseus, and achilles. place / object myths concern items or places such as the golden fleece ; the trojan warpowerpoint presentation : who created myths? ancient greeks, romans, aztecs, ancient egyptians, norse vikings, north american indians, chinese, inhabitants of india \u2014 every ancient civilization \u2014 developed a system of mythology to explain their world. many answer questions such as : who am i? what is this world around me? why am i here? what is the purpose of life? powerpoint presentation : purposes of mythology myths grant continuity and stability to a culture. myths present guidelines for living. myths justify a culture \u2019 s activities. myths give meaning to life. myths explain the unexplainable. myths offer role models. alert : on the test! powerpoint presentation : legacy of the ancient greeks greek empire 2500 years ago science and mathematics : aristotle", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5360261919401794, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:38.843066"} {"text": "culture \u2019 s activities. myths give meaning to life. myths explain the unexplainable. myths offer role models. alert : on the test! powerpoint presentation : legacy of the ancient greeks greek empire 2500 years ago science and mathematics : aristotle, archimedes system of medicine philosophy shaped western civilization and thought arts, drama, poetry, sculpture, literature, architecture law, government, democracy developed in athens military tacticspowerpoint presentation : map of ancient greece important cities mt. olympus troy delphi thebes athens sparta cretepowerpoint presentation : influence of the romans in the last century before the birth of christ, the roman empire expanded and became more powerful than greece. the romans were greatly influenced by the greeks and linked the greek stories to their own gods until both mythologies were almost the same. therefore, there are both latin and greek names for the gods. for example : zeus ( greek ) is also jupiter ( roman / latin ). powerpoint presentation : the ancient soap opera storytellers would tell these stories in the theater. this story telling is an example of \u201c oral tradition. \u201d each time a story was retold, new details would be added. stories of the iliad and the odyssey, both epics of adventure and war, took 24 hours to read. people would bring food and drink and stay for entire performances. powerpoint presentation : why study mythology? read very interesting, fun, and engaging stories see how less sophisticated people attempted to deal with questions and problems of their world detect allusions to greek mythology in writers such as shakespeare to the present identify allusions to greek myths in modern products, vocabulary, and businesses recognize common archetypes in literature? you do not have the permission to view this presentation. in order to view it, please contact the author of the presentation.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5125179246216707, "token_count": 363, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:38.843807"} {"text": "let \u2019 s talk art \" the way a child thinks about her art is more important than the way you think about it, \" says herbert. \" never impose limitations and never say, ' i ' m not good at this. ' it introduces fear. never evaluate a preschooler ' s music, art, or dance. make observations from fact. say, ' there is a red circle, ' or ' see these three red lines. ' evaluating may inhibit creativity or discourage a child. \" the concept of children understanding art in their own way is not new. charlotte mason, a liberal - thinking educator in the late 1800s, wrote in her book home education, \" we cannot measure the influence that one or another artist has upon the children ' s sense of beauty, upon his power of seeing, as in a picture, the common sights of life ; he is enriched more than we know in having really looked at a single picture. \" parents cannot travel inside their child ' s brain and ensure that all the educational efforts they make are learned, stored, and applied appropriately. they can be certain, though, that introducing art and music, which have struck emotional chords in humans worldwide for centuries, will enrich an education. the developing mind of a child will soak up whatever it is surrounded with, so why not provide the best history and culture we have to offer?", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5086813447246296, "token_count": 275, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:38.850867"} {"text": "books & music food & wine health & fitness hobbies & crafts home & garden news & politics religion & spirituality travel & culture tv & movies absolute beginners - autumn skies as the long days of summer slip away and skies darken earlier each evening, the first stars of autumn come into view. the centerpiece of the autumn sky is a starry square called the great square of pegasus. in mid - october it lies almost overhead from mid - northern latitudes around 10 pm. pegasus was the winged horse of greek mythology, and the great square represents the front half of the body of pegasus. four stars mark the corners of the square, boxing in an area of sky so large that you need to hold both hands out at armis length to cover it. sports fans in north america might think of it as a baseball diamond rather than a square. you should be able to find the square without much difficulty, but your star chart can help if you need to orient yourself. ( for help, see \" absolute beginners e start observing. \" there is a link at the end of this article. ) looking at the square, imagine a line from the right - hand side of the square down towards the southern horizon and youill come to a bright star called fomalhaut. fomalhaut is part of the constellation of piscis austrinus, the southern fish. in 2008, astronomers released photographs taken by the hubble space telescope showing a planet in orbit around fomalhaut. returning to the square, imagine a line upwards from the left side. this will lead you to the w - shaped constellation of cassiopeia, one of the easiest star patterns to recognize. continue the line northwards for the same distance to see the north pole star, polaris. although astronomers talk of the great square of pegasus, these days only three of its stars officially belong to that constellation. in ancient times, one star was shared with neighboring andromeda, marking her head. when, in 1930, astronomers came to define official boundaries for the constellations, they ended the practice of sharing stars. andromeda kept her head but pegasus lost a corner of its square. andromeda represents the unfortunate daughter of queen cassiopeia. she was chained to a rock in sacrifice to a sea monster to atone for the sins of her boastful mother. however, youill need a good imagination to see andromeda as more than a couple of crooked lines of stars leading away from the upper left corner of", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5069532364316387, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:38.859241"} {"text": "i have been enjoying reading all the posts on this thread.... thank you for sharing your work. i have one question. if as you say : \" all the letters of the hebrew alphabet are contained in the letter bet \", why is it that the modern form of its shape is different from its ancient form? i would think that the original forms of the hebrew letters would be where design would be found if it were there. we know that the meanings of the letters did not change, but their shapes did... your welcome rose! for starters let me just say this : there is no linguist in the world that can confidently tell anyone where language or written writing originally came from. they cannot truly tell you that so and so writing came before so and so writing. all they can do is surmise. now, i will tell you from lengthy study that all written writing compiled from every known alphabet ( even chinese ) can all be linked to the hebrew block style of writing that first appeared when moses came down from mount sinai with the 10 commandments. we can see similarity in these letters even to cuneiform which is said to be the oldest. so what i estimate happened was that adam and eve originally spoke this language, and the 7th generation from them which was enoch ( who was recorded in his book as well as the book of jubilees and additionally the dead sea scrolls ) who was the first scribe of written writing which was shown to him by g - dis appointed angel ' uriel '. enoch calls these ' ketav einayim ' ( eye writings ). now through the centuries these letters became mottled and distorted ( but we can still see the similarities ). then the letters were revised again ( in their proper forms ) when moses came down from mount sinai. in my book i have a whole chapter called ' language similarities ' in which i reveal how all the alphabetical letters that are found in every single alphabet ever found in the world are still nonetheless the same hebrew letters. hebrew was the original primordial language! - always has, and always will be.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.517911146902813, "token_count": 424, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:38.882572"} {"text": "quantum time waits for no quantum theory, also quantum mechanics, in physics, a theory based on using the concept of the quantum unit to describe the dynamic properties of subatomic particles and the interactions of matter and radiation. the foundation was laid by the german physicist max planck, who postulated in 1900 that energy can be emitted or absorbed by matter only in small, discrete units called quanta. fundamental to the development of quantum mechanics was the uncertainty principle, formulated by the german physicist werner heisenberg in 1927, which states that the position and momentum of a subatomic particle cannot be specified simultaneously. spectral lines of atomic hydrogen : when an electron makes a transition from one energy level to another, the electron emits a photon with a particular energy. these photons are then observed as emission lines using a spectroscope. the lyman series involves transitions to the lowest or ground state energy level. to the second energy level are called the balmer series. these transitions involve frequencies in the visible part of the spectrum. in this frequency range each transition is characterized by a in the 18th and 19th centuries, newtonian, or classical, mechanics appeared to provide a wholly accurate description of the motions of bodies \u2014 for example, planetary motion. in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, however, experimental findings raised doubts about the completeness of newtonian theory. among the newer observations were the lines that appear in the spectra of light emitted by heated gases, or gases in which electric discharges take place. model of the atom developed in the early 20th century by the english physicist ernest rutherford, in which negatively charged electrons circle a positive nucleus in orbits prescribed by newton \u2019 s laws of motion, scientists had also expected that the electrons would emit light over a broad frequency range, rather than in the narrow frequency ranges that form the lines in a spectrum. another puzzle for physicists was the coexistence of two theories of light : the corpuscular theory, which explains light as a stream of particles, and the wave theory, which views light as electromagnetic waves. a third problem was the absence of a molecular basis for in his book elementary principles in statistical mechanics ( 1902 ), the american mathematical physicist j. willard gibbs conceded the impossibility of framing a theory of molecular action that reconciled thermodynamics, radiation, and electrical phenomena as they were then understood. at the turn of the century, physicists did not yet clearly recognize that these and other difficulties in physics were in any way related. the first development that led to the solution of these difficulties", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.7925820733641268, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:38.924410"} {"text": ", radiation, and electrical phenomena as they were then understood. at the turn of the century, physicists did not yet clearly recognize that these and other difficulties in physics were in any way related. the first development that led to the solution of these difficulties was planck \u2019 s introduction of the concept of the quantum, as a result of physicists \u2019 studies of blackbody radiation during the closing years of the 19th century. ( the term blackbody refers to an ideal body or surface that absorbs all radiant energy without any reflection. ) a body at a moderately high temperature \u2014 a \" red heat \" \u2014 gives off most of its radiation in the low frequency ( red and infrared ) regions ; a body at a higher temperature \u2014 \" white heat \" \u2014 gives off comparatively more radiation in higher frequencies ( yellow, green, or blue ). during the 1890s physicists conducted detailed quantitative studies of these phenomena and expressed their results in a series of curves or graphs. the classical, or prequantum, theory predicted an altogether different set of curves from those actually observed. what planck did was to devise a mathematical formula that described the curves exactly ; he then deduced a physical hypothesis that could explain the formula. his hypothesis was that energy is radiated only in quanta of energy hu, where u is the frequency and h is the quantum action, now known as the next important developments in quantum mechanics were the work of german - born american physicist and nobel laureate albert einstein. he used planck \u2019 s concept of the quantum to explain certain properties of the photoelectric effect \u2014 an experimentally observed phenomenon in which electrons are emitted from metal surfaces when radiation falls on these surfaces. according to classical theory, the energy, as measured by the voltage of the emitted electrons, should be proportional to the intensity of the radiation. the energy of the electrons, however, was found to be independent of the intensity of radiation \u2014 which determined only the number of electrons emitted \u2014 and to depend solely on the frequency of the radiation. the higher the frequency of the incident radiation, the greater is the electron energy ; below a certain critical frequency no electrons are emitted. these facts were explained by einstein by assuming that a single quantum of radiant energy ejects a single electron from the metal. of the quantum is proportional to the frequency, and so the energy of the electron depends on the frequency. in 1911 rutherford established the existence of the atomic nucleus. he assumed, on the basis of experimental evidence obtained from the scattering of alpha particles by the nuclei of gold atoms, that every atom consists of a", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.7329596009783756, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:38.925438"} {"text": "the energy of the electron depends on the frequency. in 1911 rutherford established the existence of the atomic nucleus. he assumed, on the basis of experimental evidence obtained from the scattering of alpha particles by the nuclei of gold atoms, that every atom consists of a dense, positively charged nucleus, surrounded by negatively charged electrons revolving around the nucleus as planets revolve around the sun. electromagnetic theory developed by the british physicist james clerk maxwell unequivocally predicted that an electron revolving around a nucleus will continuously radiate electromagnetic energy until it has lost all its energy, and eventually will fall into the nucleus. thus, according to classical theory, an atom, as described by rutherford, is unstable. this difficulty led the danish physicist niels bohr, in 1913, to postulate that in an atom the classical theory does not hold, and that electrons move in fixed orbits. every change in orbit by the electron corresponds to the absorption or emission of a quantum of radiation. the application of bohr \u2019 s theory to atoms with more than one electron proved difficult. the mathematical equations for the next simplest atom, the helium atom, were solved during the 1910s and 1920s, but the results were not entirely in accordance with for more complex atoms, only approximate solutions of the equations are possible, and these are only partly concordant the french physicist louis victor de broglie suggested in 1924 that because electromagnetic waves show particle characteristics, particles should, in some cases, also exhibit wave properties. this prediction was verified experimentally within a few years by the american physicists clinton joseph davisson and lester halbert germer and the british physicist george paget thomson. that a beam of electrons scattered by a crystal produces a diffraction pattern characteristic of a wave ( see diffraction ). the wave concept of a particle led the austrian physicist erwin schrodinger to develop a so - called wave equation to describe the wave properties of a particle and, more specifically, the wave behavior of the electron in the hydrogen atom. although this differential equation was continuous and gave solutions for all points in space, the permissible solutions of the equation were restricted by certain conditions expressed by mathematical equations called eigenfunctions ( german eigen, \" own \" ). the schrodinger wave equation thus had only certain discrete solutions ; these solutions were mathematical expressions in which quantum numbers appeared as parameters. ( quantum numbers are integers developed in particle physics to give the magnitudes of certain characteristic quantities of particles or systems. ) schrodinger equation was solved for the hydrogen atom and", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6723916600380045, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:38.926405"} {"text": "; these solutions were mathematical expressions in which quantum numbers appeared as parameters. ( quantum numbers are integers developed in particle physics to give the magnitudes of certain characteristic quantities of particles or systems. ) schrodinger equation was solved for the hydrogen atom and gave conclusions in substantial agreement with earlier quantum theory. moreover, it was solvable for the helium atom, which earlier theory had failed to explain adequately, and here also it was in agreement with experimental evidence. the solutions of the schrodinger equation also indicated that no two electrons could have the same four quantum numbers \u2014 that is, be in the same energy state. rule, which had already been established empirically by austro - american physicist and nobel laureate wolfgang pauli in 1925, is called the exclusion principle. what is matter in the 20th century, physicists discovered that matter behaved as both a wave and a particle. austrian physicist and nobel prize winner erwin schrodinger discussed this apparent paradox in a lecture in geneva, switzerland, in 1952. a condensed and translated version of his lecture appeared in scientific american the following what is matter? the wave - particle dualism afflicting modern physics is best resolved in favor of waves, believes the author, but there is no clear picture of matter on which physicists can agree fifty years ago science seemed on the road to a clear - cut answer to the ancient question which is the title of this article. it looked as if matter would be reduced at last to its ultimate building blocks \u2014 to certain submicroscopic but nevertheless tangible and measurable particles. but it proved to be less simple than that. today a physicist no longer can distinguish significantly between matter and something else. we no longer contrast matter with forces or fields of force as different entities ; we know now that these concepts must be merged. it is true that we speak of \" empty \" space ( i. e., space free of matter ), but space is never really empty, because even in the remotest voids of the universe there is always starlight \u2014 and that is matter. besides, space is filled with gravitational fields, and according to einstein gravity and inertia cannot very well be separated. thus the subject of this article is in fact the total picture of space - time reality as envisaged by physics. we have to admit that our conception of material reality today is more wavering and uncertain than it has been for a long time. we know a great many interesting details, learn new ones every week. but to construct a clear, easily comprehensible", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.693865730976453, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:38.927341"} {"text": "have to admit that our conception of material reality today is more wavering and uncertain than it has been for a long time. we know a great many interesting details, learn new ones every week. but to construct a clear, easily comprehensible picture on which all physicists would agree \u2014 that is simply impossible. physics stands at a grave crisis of ideas. in the face of this crisis, many maintain that no objective picture of reality is possible. however, the optimists among us ( of whom i consider myself one ) look upon this view as a philosophical extravagance born of despair. we hope that the present fluctuations of thinking are only indications of an upheaval of old beliefs which in the end will lead to something better than the mess of formulas which today surrounds our subject. since the picture of matter that i am supposed to draw does not yet exist, since only fragments of it are visible, some parts of this narrative may be inconsistent with others. like cervantes \u2019 tale of sancho panza, who loses his donkey in one chapter but a few chapters later, thanks to the forgetfulness of the author, is riding the dear little animal again, our story has contradictions. we must start with the well - established concept that matter is composed of corpuscles or atoms, whose existence has been quite \" tangibly \" demonstrated by many beautiful experiments, and with max planck \u2019 s discovery that energy also comes in indivisible units, called quanta, which are supposed to be transferred abruptly from one carrier to another. but then sancho panza \u2019 s donkey will return. for i shall have to ask you to believe neither in corpuscles as permanent individuals nor in the suddenness of the transfer of an energy quantum. discreteness is present, but not in the traditional sense of discrete single particles, let alone in the sense of abrupt processes. discreteness arises merely as a structure from the laws governing the phenomena. these laws are by no means fully understood ; a probably correct analogue from the physics of palpable bodies is the way various partial tones of a bell derive from its shape and from the laws of elasticity to which, of themselves, nothing discontinuous adheres. the idea that matter is made up of ultimate particles was advanced as early as the fifth century b. c. by leucippus and democritus, who called these particles atoms. the corpuscular theory of matter was lifted to physical reality in the theory of gases developed during the 19th century by james clerk maxwell", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.6851885128224243, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:38.929237"} {"text": "as the fifth century b. c. by leucippus and democritus, who called these particles atoms. the corpuscular theory of matter was lifted to physical reality in the theory of gases developed during the 19th century by james clerk maxwell and ludwig boltzmann. the concept of atoms and molecules in violent motion, colliding and rebounding again and again, led to full comprehension of all the properties of gases : their elastic and thermal properties, their viscosity, heat conductivity and diffusion. at the same time it led to a firm foundation of the mechanical theory of heat, namely, that heat is the motion of these ultimate particles, which becomes increasingly violent with rising temperature. within one tremendously fertile decade at the turn of the century came the discoveries of x - rays, of electrons, of the emission of streams of particles and other forms of energy from the atomic nucleus by radioactive decay, of the electric charges on the various particles. the masses of these particles, and of the atoms themselves, were later measured very precisely, and from this was discovered the mass defect of the atomic nucleus as a whole. mass of a nucleus is less than the sum of the masses of its component particles ; the lost mass becomes the binding energy holding the nucleus firmly together. this is called the packing effect. the nuclear forces of course are not electrical forces \u2014 those are repellent \u2014 but are much stronger and act only within very short distances, about 10 - 13 centimeter. here i am already caught in a contradiction. didn \u2019 t i say at the beginning that we no longer assume the existence of force fields apart from matter? i could easily talk myself out of it by saying : well, the force field of a particle is simply considered a part of it. but that is not the fact. the established view today is rather that everything is at the same time both particle and field. everything has the continuous structure with which we are familiar in fields, as well as the discrete structure with which we are equally familiar in particles. this concept is supported by innumerable experimental facts and is accepted in general, though opinions differ on details, as we shall see. in the particular case of the field of nuclear forces, the particle structure is more or less known. most likely the continuous force field is represented by the so - called pi mesons. on the other hand, the protons and neutrons, which we think of as discrete particles, indisputably also have a continuous wave structure, as is shown by the interference patterns", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6713842415101341, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:38.930206"} {"text": "field is represented by the so - called pi mesons. on the other hand, the protons and neutrons, which we think of as discrete particles, indisputably also have a continuous wave structure, as is shown by the interference patterns they form when diffracted by a crystal. the difficulty of combining these two so very different character traits in one mental picture is the main stumbling - block that causes our conception of matter to be so uncertain. neither the particle concept nor the wave concept is hypothetical. the tracks in a photographic emulsion or in a wilson cloud chamber leave no doubt of the behavior of particles as discrete units. the artificial production of nuclear particles is being attempted right now with terrific expenditure, defrayed in the main by the various state ministries of defense. it is true that one cannot kill anybody with one such racing particle, or else we should all be dead by now. but their study promises, indirectly, a hastened realization of the plan for the annihilation of mankind which is so close to all our you can easily observe particles yourself by looking at a luminous numeral of your wrist watch in the dark with a magnifying glass. the luminosity surges and undulates, just as a lake sometimes twinkles in the sun. the light consists of sparklets, each produced by a so - called alpha particle ( helium nucleus ) expelled by a radioactive atom which in this process is transformed into a different atom. a specific device for detecting and recording single particles is the geiger - muller counter. in this short resume i cannot possibly exhaust the many ways in which we can observe single particles. now to the continuous field or wave character of matter. wave structure is studied mainly by means of diffraction and interference \u2014 phenomena which occur when wave trains cross each other. for the analysis and measurement of light waves the principal device is the ruled grating, which consists of a great many fine, parallel, equidistant lines, closely engraved on a specular metallic light impinging from one direction is scattered by them and collected in different directions depending on its wavelength. but even the finest ruled gratings we can produce are too coarse to scatter the very much shorter waves associated with matter. the fine lattices of crystals, however, which max von laue first used as gratings to analyze the very short x - rays, will do the same for \" matter waves. \" directed at the surface of a crystal, high - velocity streams of particles manifest their wave nature. with crystal", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6969907752739355, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:38.931156"} {"text": "max von laue first used as gratings to analyze the very short x - rays, will do the same for \" matter waves. \" directed at the surface of a crystal, high - velocity streams of particles manifest their wave nature. with crystal gratings physicists have diffracted and measured the wavelengths of electrons, neutrons and protons. what does planck \u2019 s quantum theory have to do with all this? planck told us in 1900 that he could comprehend the radiation from red - hot iron, or from an incandescent star such as the sun, only if this radiation was produced in discrete portions and transferred in such discrete quantities from one carrier to another ( e. g., from atom to this was extremely startling, because up to that time energy had been a highly abstract concept. five years later einstein told us that energy has mass and mass is energy ; in other words, that they are one and the same. now the scales begin to fall from our eyes : our dear old atoms, corpuscles, particles are planck \u2019 s energy quanta. the carriers of those quanta are themselves quanta. one gets dizzy. something quite fundamental must lie at the bottom of this, but it is not surprising that the secret is not yet understood. after all, the scales did not fall suddenly. it took 20 or 30 years. and perhaps they still have not fallen completely. the next step was not quite so far reaching, but important enough. by an ingenious and appropriate generalization of planck \u2019 s hypothesis niels bohr taught us to understand the line spectra of atoms and molecules and how atoms were composed of heavy, positively charged nuclei with light, negatively charged electrons revolving each small system \u2014 atom or molecule \u2014 can harbor only definite discrete energy quantities, corresponding to its nature or its constitution. in transition from a higher to a lower \" energy level \" it emits the excess energy as a radiation quantum of definite wavelength, inversely proportional to the quantum given off. this means that a quantum of given magnitude manifests itself in a periodic process of definite frequency which is directly proportional to the quantum ; the frequency equals the energy quantum divided by the famous planck \u2019 s constant, h. according to einstein a particle has the energy mc2, m being the mass of the particle and c the velocity of light. in 1925 louis de broglie drew the inference, which rather suggests itself, that a particle might have associated with it a wave process of frequency mc2 divided by h. the particle for which he postulated", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.697631888166521, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 7, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:38.932064"} {"text": "particle and c the velocity of light. in 1925 louis de broglie drew the inference, which rather suggests itself, that a particle might have associated with it a wave process of frequency mc2 divided by h. the particle for which he postulated such a wave was the electron. within two years the \" electron waves \" required by his theory were demonstrated by the famous electron diffraction experiment of c. j. davisson and l. h. germer. this was the starting point for the cognition that everything \u2014 anything at all \u2014 is simultaneously particle and wave field. thus de broglie \u2019 s dissertation initiated our uncertainty about the nature of matter. both the particle picture and the wave picture have truth value, and we cannot give up either one or the other. but we do not know how to that the two pictures are connected is known in full generality with great precision and down to amazing details. but concerning the unification to a single, concrete, palpable picture opinions are so strongly divided that a great many deem it altogether impossible. i shall briefly sketch the connection. but do not expect that a uniform, concrete picture will emerge before you ; and do not blame the lack of success either on my ineptness in exposition or your own denseness \u2014 nobody has yet succeeded. one distinguishes two things in a wave. first of all, a wave has a front, and a succession of wave fronts forms a system of surfaces like the layers of an onion. you are familiar with the two - dimensional analogue of the beautiful wave circles that form on the smooth surface of a pond when a stone is thrown in. the second characteristic of a wave, less intuitive, is the path along which it travels \u2014 a system of imagined lines perpendicular to the wave fronts. these lines are known as the wave \" normals \" or \" rays. \" we can make the provisional assertion that these rays correspond to the trajectories of particles. indeed, if you cut a small piece out of a wave, approximately 10 or 20 wavelengths along the direction of propagation and about as much across, such a \" wave packet \" would actually move along a ray with exactly the same velocity and change of velocity as we might expect from a particle of this particular kind at this particular place, taking into account any force fields acting on the particle. here i falter. for what i must say now, though correct, almost contradicts this provisional assertion. although the behavior of the wave packet gives us a more or less intuitive picture of a particle,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6805300297880231, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 8, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:38.932977"} {"text": "any force fields acting on the particle. here i falter. for what i must say now, though correct, almost contradicts this provisional assertion. although the behavior of the wave packet gives us a more or less intuitive picture of a particle, which can be worked out in detail ( e. g., the momentum of a particle increases as the wavelength decreases ; the two are inversely proportional ), yet for many reasons we cannot take this intuitive picture quite seriously. for one thing, it is, after all, somewhat vague, the more so the greater the wavelength. for another, quite often we are dealing not with a small packet but with an extended wave. for still another, we must also deal with the important special case of very small \" packelets \" which form a kind of \" standing wave \" which can have no wave fronts or wave normals. one interpretation of wave phenomena which is extensively supported by experiments is this : at each position of a uniformly propagating wave train there is a twofold structural connection of interactions, which may be distinguished as \" longitudinal \" and \" transversal. \" the transversal structure is that of the wave fronts and manifests itself in diffraction and interference experiments ; the longitudinal structure is that of the wave normals and manifests itself in the observation of single particles. however, these concepts of longitudinal and transversal structures are not sharply defined and absolute, since the concepts of wave front and wave normal are not, the interpretation breaks down completely in the special case of the standing waves mentioned above. here the whole wave phenomenon is reduced to a small region of the dimensions of a single or very few wavelengths. you can produce standing water waves of a similar nature in a small basin if you dabble with your finger rather uniformly in its center, or else just give it a little push so that the water surface undulates. in this situation we are not dealing with uniform wave propagation ; what catches the interest are the normal frequencies of these standing waves. the water waves in the basin are an analogue of a wave phenomenon associated with electrons, which occurs in a region just about the size of the atom. the normal frequencies of the wave group washing around the atomic nucleus are universally found to be exactly equal to bohr \u2019 s atomic \" energy levels \" divided by planck \u2019 s constant h. thus the ingenious yet somewhat artificial assumptions of bohr \u2019 s model of the atom, as well as of the older quantum theory in general, are superseded by the far more natural idea of", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6873818805043274, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 9, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:38.933920"} {"text": "energy levels \" divided by planck \u2019 s constant h. thus the ingenious yet somewhat artificial assumptions of bohr \u2019 s model of the atom, as well as of the older quantum theory in general, are superseded by the far more natural idea of de broglie \u2019 s wave phenomenon. phenomenon forms the \" body \" proper of the atom. it takes the place of the individual pointlike electrons which in bohr \u2019 s model are supposed to swarm around the nucleus. such pointlike single particles are completely out of the question within the atom, and if one still thinks of the nucleus itself in this way one does so quite consciously for reasons of expediency. what seems to me particularly important about the discovery that \" energy levels \" are virtually nothing but the frequencies of normal modes of vibration is that now one can do without the assumption of sudden transitions, or quantum jumps, since two or more normal modes may very well be excited simultaneously. the discreteness of the normal frequencies fully suffices \u2014 so i believe \u2014 to support the considerations from which planck started and many similar and just as important ones \u2014 i mean, in short, to support all of quantum the theory of quantum jumps is becoming more and more unacceptable, at least to me personally, as the years go on. its abandonment has, however, far - reaching consequences. it means that one must give up entirely the idea of the exchange of energy in well - defined quanta and replace it with the concept of resonance between vibrational frequencies. yet we have seen that because of the identity of mass and energy, we must consider the particles themselves as planck \u2019 s energy quanta. this is at first frightening. for the substituted theory implies that we can no longer consider the individual particle as a well - defined permanent entity. that it is, in fact, no such thing can be reasoned in other ways. for one thing, there is werner heisenberg \u2019 s famous uncertainty principle, according to which a particle cannot simultaneously have a well - defined position and a sharply defined velocity. this uncertainty implies that we cannot be sure that the same particle could ever be observed twice. another conclusive reason for not attributing identifiable sameness to individual particles is that we must obliterate their individualities whenever we consider two or more interacting particles of the same kind, e. g., the two electrons of a helium atom. two situations which are distinguished only by the interchange of the two electrons must be counted as one and the same ; if they are counted as two equal situations,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.7141673398081373, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 10, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:38.934851"} {"text": "particles of the same kind, e. g., the two electrons of a helium atom. two situations which are distinguished only by the interchange of the two electrons must be counted as one and the same ; if they are counted as two equal situations, nonsense obtains. this circumstance holds for any kind of particle in arbitrary numbers without exception. most theoreticians will probably accept the foregoing reasoning and admit that the individual particle is not a well - defined permanent entity of detectable identity or sameness. nevertheless this inadmissible concept of the individual particle continues to play a large role in their ideas and discussions. even deeper rooted is the belief in \" quantum jumps, \" which is now surrounded with a highly abstruse terminology whose common - sense meaning is often difficult for instance, an important word in the standing vocabulary of quantum theory is \" probability, \" referring to transition from one level to another. but, after all, one can speak of the probability of an event only assuming that, occasionally, it actually occurs. if it does occur, the transition must indeed be sudden, since intermediate stages are disclaimed. moreover, if it takes time, it might conceivably be interrupted halfway by an unforeseen disturbance. this possibility leaves one completely at sea. the wave v. corpuscle dilemma is supposed to be resolved by asserting that the wave field merely serves for the computation of the probability of finding a particle of given properties at a given position if one looks for it there. but once one deprives the waves of reality and assigns them only a kind of informative role, it becomes very difficult to understand the phenomena of interference and diffraction on the basis of the combined action of discrete single particles. it certainly seems easier to explain particle tracks in terms of waves than to explain the wave phenomenon in terms of corpuscles. \" real existence \" is, to be sure, an expression which has been virtually chased to death by many philosophical hounds. its simple, naive meaning has almost become lost to us. therefore i want to recall something else. i spoke of a corpuscle \u2019 s not being an individual. properly speaking, one never observes the same particle a second time \u2014 very much as heraclitus says of the river. you cannot mark an electron, you cannot paint it red. indeed, you must not even think of it as marked ; if you do, your \" counting \" will be false and you will get wrong results at every step \u2014 for the structure of line spectra, in thermod", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.7382460136560293, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 11, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:38.935786"} {"text": "you cannot paint it red. indeed, you must not even think of it as marked ; if you do, your \" counting \" will be false and you will get wrong results at every step \u2014 for the structure of line spectra, in thermodynamics and elsewhere. a wave, on the other hand, can easily be imprinted with an individual structure by which it can be recognized beyond doubt. think of the beacon fires that guide ships at sea. the light shines according to a definite code ; for example : three seconds light, five seconds dark, one second light, another pause of five seconds, and again light for three seconds \u2014 the skipper knows that is san sebastian. or you talk by wireless telephone with a friend across the atlantic ; as soon as he says, \" hello there, edward meier speaking, \" you know that his voice has imprinted on the radio wave a structure which can be distinguished from any other. but one does not have to go that far. if your wife calls, \" francis! \" from the garden, it is exactly the same thing, except that the structure is printed on sound waves and the trip is shorter ( though it takes somewhat longer than the journey of radio waves across the atlantic ). all our verbal communication is based on imprinted individual wave structures. and, according to the same principle, what a wealth of details is transmitted to us in rapid succession by the movie or the television picture! this characteristic, the individuality of the wave phenomenon, has already been found to a remarkable extent in the very much finer waves of particles. one example must suffice. a limited volume of gas, say helium, can be thought of either as a collection of many helium atoms or as a superposition of elementary wave trains of matter waves. both views lead to the same theoretical results as to the behavior of the gas upon heating, compression, and so on. when you attempt to apply certain somewhat involved enumerations to the gas, you must carry them out in different ways according to the mental picture with which you approach it. if you treat the gas as consisting of particles, then no individuality must be ascribed to them, as i said. if, however, you concentrate on the matter wave trains instead of on the particles, every one of the wave trains has a well - defined structure which is different from that of any other. it is true that there are many pairs of waves which are so similar to each other that they could change roles without any noticeable effect on the gas. but if", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.690805899987504, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 12, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:38.936755"} {"text": "the wave trains has a well - defined structure which is different from that of any other. it is true that there are many pairs of waves which are so similar to each other that they could change roles without any noticeable effect on the gas. but if you should count the very many similar states formed in this way as merely a single one, the result would be quite wrong. in spite of everything we cannot completely banish the concepts of quantum jump and individual corpuscle from the vocabulary of physics. we still require them to describe many details of the structure of matter. how can one ever determine the weight of a carbon nucleus and of a hydrogen nucleus, each to the precision of several decimals, and detect that the former is somewhat lighter than the 12 hydrogen nuclei combined in it, without accepting for the time being the view that these particles are something quite concrete and real? this view is so much more convenient than the roundabout consideration of wave trains that we cannot do without it, just as the chemist does not discard his valence - bond formulas, although he fully realizes that they represent a drastic simplification of a rather involved wave - mechanical situation. if you finally ask me : \" well, what are these corpuscles, really? \" i ought to confess honestly that i am almost as little prepared to answer that as to tell where sancho panza \u2019 s second donkey came from. at the most, it may be permissible to say that one can think of particles as more or less temporary entities within the wave field whose form and general behavior are nevertheless so clearly and sharply determined by the laws of waves that many processes take place as if these temporary entities were substantial permanent beings. the mass and the charge of particles, defined with such precision, must then be counted among the structural elements determined by the wave laws. the conservation of charge and mass in the large must be considered as a statistical effect, based on the \" law of large numbers. \" simultaneously with the development of wave mechanics, heisenberg evolved a different mathematical analysis known as matrix mechanics. according to heisenberg \u2019 s theory, which was developed in collaboration with the german physicists max born and ernst pascual jordan, the formula was not a differential equation but a matrix : an array consisting of an infinite number of rows, each row consisting of an infinite number of quantities. matrix mechanics introduced infinite matrices to represent the position and momentum of an electron inside an atom. also, different matrices exist, one for each observable physical property associated with the motion of an electron,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.6859916339852752, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 13, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:38.937903"} {"text": "each row consisting of an infinite number of quantities. matrix mechanics introduced infinite matrices to represent the position and momentum of an electron inside an atom. also, different matrices exist, one for each observable physical property associated with the motion of an electron, such as energy, position, momentum, and angular momentum. these matrices, like schrodinger \u2019 s differential equations, could be solved ; in other words, they could be manipulated to produce predictions as to the frequencies of the lines in the hydrogen spectrum and other observable quantities. like wave mechanics, matrix mechanics was in agreement with the earlier quantum theory for processes in which the earlier quantum theory agreed with experiment ; it was also useful in explaining phenomena that earlier quantum theory could not explain. schrodinger subsequently succeeded in showing that wave mechanics and matrix mechanics are different mathematical versions of the same theory, now called quantum mechanics. even for the simple hydrogen atom, which consists of two particles, both mathematical interpretations are extremely complex. the next simplest atom, helium, has three particles, and even in the relatively simple mathematics of classical dynamics, the three - body problem ( that of describing the mutual interactions of three separate bodies ) is not the energy levels can be calculated accurately, however, even if not exactly. in applying quantum - mechanics mathematics to relatively complex situations, a physicist can use one of a number of mathematical formulations. the choice depends on the convenience of the formulation for obtaining suitable although quantum mechanics describes the atom purely in terms of mathematical interpretations of observed phenomena, a rough verbal description can be given of what the atom is now thought to be like. surrounding the nucleus is a series of stationary waves ; these waves have crests at certain points, each complete standing wave representing an orbit. the absolute square of the amplitude of the wave at any point is a measure of the probability that an electron will be found at that point at any given time. thus, an electron can no longer be said to be at any precise point at any given time. the impossibility of pinpointing an electron at any precise time was analyzed by heisenberg, who in 1927 formulated the uncertainty principle. this principle states the impossibility of simultaneously specifying the precise position and momentum of any particle. in other words, the more accurately a particle \u2019 s momentum is measured and known, the less accuracy there can be in the measurement and knowledge of its position. this principle is also fundamental to the understanding of quantum mechanics as it is generally accepted today : the wave and particle character of electromagnetic radiation can be understood", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.7295081528161719, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 14, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:38.938959"} {"text": "momentum is measured and known, the less accuracy there can be in the measurement and knowledge of its position. this principle is also fundamental to the understanding of quantum mechanics as it is generally accepted today : the wave and particle character of electromagnetic radiation can be understood as two complementary properties of radiation. another way of expressing the uncertainty principle is that the wavelength of a quantum mechanical principle is inversely proportional to its momentum. as atoms are cooled they slow down and their corresponding wavelength grows larger. at a low enough temperature this wavelength is predicted to exceed the spacing between particles, causing atoms to overlap, becoming indistinguishable, and melding into a single quantum state. in 1995 a team of colorado scientists, led by national institutes of standards and technology physicist eric cornell and university of colorado physicist carl weiman, cooled rubidium atoms to a temperature so low that the particles entered this merged state, known as a bose - einstein condensate. the condensate essentially behaves like one atom even though it is made up of thousands. - physicists condense supercooled atoms, forming new state of matter a team of colorado physicists has cooled atoms of gas to a temperature so low that the particles entered a merged state, known as a \" bose - einstein condensate. \" this phenomenon was first predicted about 70 years ago by the theories of german - born american physicist albert einstein and indian physicist satyendra nath bose. the condensed particles are considered a new state of matter, different from the common states of matter \u2014 gas, liquid, and solid \u2014 and from plasma, a high temperature, ionized form of matter that is found in the sun and other stars. physicists have great expectations for the application of this discovery. because the condensate essentially behaves like one atom even though it is made up of thousands, investigators should be able to measure interactions at the atomic and subatomic level that were previously extremely difficult, if not impossible, to study the condensate was detected june 5 by a colorado team led by national institutes of standards and technology physicist eric cornell and university of colorado physicist carl wieman. their discovery was reported in the journal science on july 14. cornell and wieman formed their condensate from rubidium gas. several groups of physicists, including the teams in texas and colorado and a group at the massachusetts institute of technology, have been working to form pure condensate in recent years. the goal of the investigations has been to create a pure chunk of condensate out of atoms in", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.7182043335459595, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 15, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:38.939895"} {"text": "including the teams in texas and colorado and a group at the massachusetts institute of technology, have been working to form pure condensate in recent years. the goal of the investigations has been to create a pure chunk of condensate out of atoms in an inert medium, such as a diffuse, nonreactive gas. the effort began when methods of cooling and trapping became refined enough that it seemed possible to reach the required conditions of temperature and density. the colorado team used two techniques : first laser cooling and then evaporative cooling. the laser technique used laser light whose frequency was carefully tuned to interact with the rubidium atoms and gently reduce their speeds. a number of lasers were aimed at the gas to slow the motion of the atoms in different directions. the colorado physicists then switched to evaporative cooling. in this method, the gas is \" trapped \" by a magnetic field that dwindles to zero at its center. atoms that are moving wander out of the field, while the coldest atoms cluster at the center. because a few very cold atoms could still escape at the zero field point of the trap, the physicists perfected their system by adding a second slowly circling magnetic field so that the zero point moved, not giving the atoms the chance to escape through it. physicists will now begin to explore the properties of the condensate and see what other materials they can use to form it. one unusual characteristic of the condensate is that it is composed of atoms that have lost their individual identities. this is analogous to laser light, which is composed of light particles, or photons, that similarly have become indistinguishable and all behave in exactly the same manner. the laser has found a myriad of uses both in practical applications and in theoretical research, and the bose - einstein condensate may turn out to be just as important. some scientists speculate that if a condensate can be readily produced and sustained, it could be used to miniaturize and speed up computer components to a scale and quickness not possible before. the prediction that a merged form of matter will emerge at extremely low temperatures is based on a number of aspects of the quantum theory. this theory governs the interaction of particles on a subatomic scale. the basic principle of quantum theory is that particles can only exist in certain discrete energy states. the exact \" quantum state \" of a particle takes into consideration such factors as the position of the particle and its \" spin, \" which can only have certain discrete values.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.6778427954420412, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 16, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:38.940842"} {"text": "principle of quantum theory is that particles can only exist in certain discrete energy states. the exact \" quantum state \" of a particle takes into consideration such factors as the position of the particle and its \" spin, \" which can only have certain discrete values. a particle \u2019 s spin categorizes it as either a boson or a fermion. those two groups of particles behave according to different sets of statistical rules. bosons have spins that are a constant number multiplied by an integer ( e. g., 0, 1, 2, 3 ). fermions have spins that are that same constant multiplied by an odd half - integer ( 1 / 2, 3 / 2, 5 / 2, etc. ). examples of fermions are the protons and neutrons that make up an atom \u2019 s nucleus, and composite particles, such as nuclei and atoms, are classified as bosons or fermions based on the sum of the spins of their constituent particles. for instance, an isotope of helium called helium - 4 turns out to be a bose particle. helium - 4 is made up of six fermi particles : two electrons orbiting a nucleus made up of two protons and two neutrons. adding up six odd half - integers will yield a whole integer, making helium - 4 a boson. the atoms of rubidium used in the colorado experiment are bose particles as well. only bose atoms may form a condensate, but they do so only at a sufficiently low temperature and high density. at their lab in colorado, cornell and wieman cooled a rubidium gas down to a temperature as close to absolute zero, the temperature at which particles stop moving, as they could get. the slower the particles, the lower their momentum. in essence, the cooling brought the momentum of the gas particles closer and closer to precisely zero, as the temperature decreased to within a few billionths of a degree kelvin. ( kelvin degrees are on the scale of degrees celsius, but zero kelvin is absolute zero, while zero celsius is the freezing point of water. ) as the temperature, and thus the momentum, of the gas particles dropped to an infinitesimal amount, the possible locations of the atom at any given moment increased proportionally. the goal of the experiment was to keep the gas atoms packed together closely enough that during this process \u2014 as their momentum got lower and lower, and their wavelengths got larger and larger \u2014 their waves would begin to overlap. this interplay of position and movement in three dimensions with the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.7206363429796212, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 17, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:38.941714"} {"text": "was to keep the gas atoms packed together closely enough that during this process \u2014 as their momentum got lower and lower, and their wavelengths got larger and larger \u2014 their waves would begin to overlap. this interplay of position and movement in three dimensions with the relative distances between particles is known as the phase - space density and is the key factor in forming a condensate. in essence, the momentum of the atoms would become so precisely pinpointed ( near zero ) that their position would become less and less certain and there would be a relatively large amount of space that would define each atom \u2019 s position. as the atoms slowed to almost a stop, their positions became so fuzzy that each atom came to occupy the same position as every other atom, losing their individual identity. this odd phenomenon is a bose - einstein as their experimental conditions neared the realm of bose - einstein condensation, cornell and wieman noticed an abrupt rise in the peak density of their sample, a type of discontinuity that strongly indicates a phase transition. the colorado physicists estimated that after progressive evaporative cooling of the rubidium, they were left with a nugget of about 2, 000 atoms of pure condensate. and wieman then released the atoms from the \" trap \" in which they had been cooling and sent a pulse of laser light at the condensate, basically blowing it apart. they recorded an image of the expanding cloud of atoms. prior to the light pulse, when the density dropped after the atoms were released, the physicists believed the temperature of the condensate fell to an amazing frigidity of 20 nanokelvins ( 20 billionths of one degree above absolute zero ). the image showed a larger, expanding sphere of particles with a smaller, more concentrated elliptical - looking center. cornell and wieman observed that when a gas is constrained and then released ( in an extreme example, as in a bomb ), thermodynamics specifies that it will expand outward equally in all directions regardless of the shape in which it had been contained. this occurs because the particles in that gas, even if the gas was very cold, were moving in all different directions with various energies when the gas was this rule of uniform expansion does not hold for a bose - einstein condensate. because the particles were all acting in exactly the same manner at the time of the light pulse, their expansion should give some indication of the shape of the space they had previously inhabited. the uneven, elliptical - looking clump of atoms in the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6411567268254164, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 18, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:38.942647"} {"text": "discussion. in the 1930s the application of quantum mechanics and special relativity to the theory of the electron ( see quantum electrodynamics ) allowed the british physicist paul dirac to formulate an equation that referred to the existence of the spin of the electron. it further led to the prediction of the existence of the positron, which was experimentally verified by the american physicist carl david anderson. the application of quantum mechanics to the subject of electromagnetic radiation led to explanations of many phenomena, such as bremsstrahlung ( german, \" braking radiation, \" the radiation emitted by electrons slowed down in matter ) and pair production ( the formation of a positron and an electron when electromagnetic energy interacts with matter ). it also led to a grave problem, however, called the divergence difficulty : certain parameters, such as the so - called bare mass and bare charge of electrons, appear to be infinite in dirac \u2019 s equations. ( the terms bare mass and bare charge refer to hypothetical electrons that do not interact with any matter or radiation ; in reality, electrons interact with their own electric this difficulty was partly resolved in 1947 - 49 in a program called renormalization, developed by the japanese physicist shin \u2019 ichiro tomonaga, the american physicists julian s. schwinger and richard feynman, and the british physicist freeman dyson. in this program, the bare mass and charge of the electron are chosen to be infinite in such a way that other infinite physical quantities are canceled out in the equations. renormalization greatly increased the accuracy with which the structure of atoms could be calculated from first principles. theoretical physicist c. llewellyn smith discusses the discoveries that scientists have made to date about the electron and other elementary particles \u2014 subatomic particles that scientists believe cannot be split into smaller units of matter. scientists have discovered what smith refers to as sibling and cousin particles to the electron, but much about the nature of these particles is still one way scientists learn about these particles is to accelerate them to high energies, smash them together, and then study what happens when they collide. by observing the behavior of these particles, scientists hope to learn more about the fundamental structures of the universe. electrons : the first hundred years the discovery of the electron was announced by j. j. thomson just over 100 years ago, on april 30, 1897. in the intervening years we have come to understand the mechanics that describe the behavior of electrons \u2014 and indeed of all matter on a small scale \u2014 which is called quantum mechanics.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.7028466570768668, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 20, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:38.945585"} {"text": ". j. thomson just over 100 years ago, on april 30, 1897. in the intervening years we have come to understand the mechanics that describe the behavior of electrons \u2014 and indeed of all matter on a small scale \u2014 which is called quantum mechanics. by exploiting this knowledge, we have learned to manipulate electrons and make devices of a tremendous practical and economic importance, such as transistors and lasers. meanwhile, what have we learned of the nature of the electron itself? from the start, electrons were found to behave as elementary particles, and this is still the case today. we know that if the electron has any structure, it is on a scale of less than 1018 m, i. e. less than 1 billionth of 1 billionth of a meter. however, a major complication has emerged. we have discovered that the electron has a sibling and cousins that are apparently equally fundamental. the sibling is an electrically neutral particle, called the neutrino, which is much lighter than the electron. the cousins are two electrically charged particles, called the mu and the which also have neutral siblings. the mu and the tau seem to be identical copies of the electron, except that they are respectively 200 and 3, 500 times heavier. their role in the scheme of things and the origin of their different masses remain mysteries \u2014 just the sort of mysteries that particle physicists, who study the constituents of matter and the forces that control their behavior, wish to resolve. we therefore know of six seemingly fundamental particles, the electron, the mu, the tau and their neutral siblings, which \u2014 like the electron \u2014 do not feel the nuclear force, and incidentally are known generically as leptons. what about the constituents of atomic nuclei, which of course do feel the nuclear force? at first sight, nuclei are made of protons and neutrons, but these particles turned out not to be elementary. it was found that when protons and neutrons are smashed together, new particles are created. we now know that all these particles are made of more elementary entities, called quarks. in a collision, pairs of quarks and their antiparticles, called antiquarks, can be created : part of the energy ( e ) of the incoming particles is turned into mass ( m ) of these new particles, thanks to the famous equivalence e = mc2. the quarks in the projectiles and the created quark - antiquark pairs can then rearrange themselves to make various different sorts of new particles. today", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6554860001002962, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 21, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:38.946601"} {"text": ") of these new particles, thanks to the famous equivalence e = mc2. the quarks in the projectiles and the created quark - antiquark pairs can then rearrange themselves to make various different sorts of new particles. today, six types of quarks are known which, like the leptons ( the electron and its relations ) have simple properties, and could be elementary. in the past 30 years a recipe that describes the behavior of these particles has been developed. it is called the \" standard model \" of particle physics. however, we lack a real understanding of the nature of these particles, and the logic behind the standard model. what is wrong with the standard model? first, it does not consistently combine einstein \u2019 s theory of the properties of space ( called general relativity ) with a quantum mechanical description of the properties of matter. it is therefore second, it contains too many apparently arbitrary futures \u2014 it is too baroque, too byzantine \u2014 to be complete. it does not explain the role of the mu and the tau, or answer the question whether the fact that the numbers of leptons and quarks are the same \u2014 six each \u2014 is a coincidence, or an indication of a deep connection between these different types of particles. on paper, we can construct theories that give better answers and explanations, and in which there are such connections, but we do not know which, if any, of these theories is correct. third, it has a missing, untested, element. this is not some minor detail, but a central element, namely a mechanism to generate the observed masses of the known particles, and hence also the different ranges of the known forces ( long range for gravity and electromagnetism, as users of magnetic compasses know, but very short range for the nuclear and the so - called weak forces, although in every other respect these forces appear very similar ). on paper, a possible mechanism is known, called the higgs mechanism, after the british physicist peter higgs who invented it. but there are alternative mechanisms, and in any case the higgs mechanism is a generic idea. we not only need to know if nature uses it, but if so, how it is realized in detail. luckily the prospects of developing a deeper understanding are good. the way forward is to perform experiments that can distinguish the different possibilities. we know that the answer to the mystery of the origin of mass, and the different ranges of forces, and certain other very important questions, must lie in an energy", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6900452661765683, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 22, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:38.947622"} {"text": "are good. the way forward is to perform experiments that can distinguish the different possibilities. we know that the answer to the mystery of the origin of mass, and the different ranges of forces, and certain other very important questions, must lie in an energy range that will be explored in experiments at the large hadron collider, a new accelerator now under construction at cern [ also known as the european laboratory for particle physics ] near geneva. the fundamental tools on which experimental particle physics depends are large accelerators, like the large hadron collider, which accelerate particles to very high energies and smash them together. by studying what happens in the collisions of these particles, which are typically electrons or protons ( the nuclei of hydrogen atoms ), we can learn about their natures. the conditions that are created in these collisions of particles existed just after the birth of the universe, when it was extremely hot and dense. knowledge derived from experiments in particle physics is therefore essential input for those who wish to understand the structure of the universe as a whole, and how it evolved from an initial fireball into its present the large hadron collider will therefore not only open up a large new window on the nature of matter, when it comes into operation in 2005, but also advance our understanding of the structure of the universe. however, although it will undoubtedly resolve some major questions and greatly improve our knowledge of nature, it would be very surprising if it established a \" final theory. \" the only candidate theory currently known which appears to have the potential to resolve all the problems mentioned above \u2014 the reason for the existence of the mu and tau, reconciliation of general relativity with quantum mechanics, etc. \u2014 describes the electron and its relatives and the quarks, not as pointlike objects, but as different vibrating modes of tiny strings. however, these strings are so small ( 10 - 35 m ) that they will never be observed if this is so, the electron and the other known particles will continue forever to appear to be fundamental pointlike objects, even if the \u2014 currently very speculative \u2014 \" string theory \" scores enough successes to convince us that this is not the case! future prospects : quantum mechanics underlies current attempts to account for the strong nuclear force and to develop a unified theory for all the fundamental interactions nevertheless, doubts exist about the completeness of quantum theory. the divergence difficulty, for example, is only partly resolved. just as newtonian mechanics was eventually amended by quantum mechanics and relativity, many scientists \u2014 and einstein was among them \u2014 are convinced", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.7007428075585844, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 23, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:38.948709"} {"text": "nevertheless, doubts exist about the completeness of quantum theory. the divergence difficulty, for example, is only partly resolved. just as newtonian mechanics was eventually amended by quantum mechanics and relativity, many scientists \u2014 and einstein was among them \u2014 are convinced that quantum theory will also undergo profound changes in the future. great theoretical difficulties exist, for example, between quantum mechanics and chaos theory, which began to develop rapidly in the 1980s. ongoing efforts are being made by theorists such as the british physicist stephen hawking, to develop a system that encompasses both relativity and quantum mechanics. breakthroughs occurred in the area of quantum computing in the late 1990s. quantum computers under development use components of a chloroform molecule ( a combination of chlorine and hydrogen atoms ) and a variation of a medical procedure called magnetic resonance imaging ( mri ) to compute at a molecular level. scientists used a branch of physics called quantum mechanics, which describes the activity of subatomic particles ( particles that make up atoms ), as the basis for quantum computing. quantum computers may one day be thousands to millions of times faster than current computers, because they take advantage of the laws that govern the behavior of subatomic particles. these laws allow quantum computers to examine all possible answers to a query at one time. future uses of quantum computers could include code breaking and large database queries. quantum time waits for no cosmos the intriguing notion that time might run backwards when the universe collapses has run into difficulties. raymond laflamme, of the los alamos national laboratory in new mexico, has carried out a new calculation which suggests that the universe cannot start out uniform, go through a cycle of expansion and collapse, and end up in a uniform state. it could start out disordered, expand, and then collapse back into disorder. but, since the cobe data show that our universe was born in a smooth and uniform state, this symmetric possibility cannot be applied to the real universe. physicists have long puzzled over the fact that two distinct \" arrows of time \" both point in the same direction. in the everyday world, things wear out - - cups fall from tables and break, but broken cups never re - assemble themselves spontaneously. in the expanding universe at large, the future is the direction of time in which galaxies are further apart. many years ago, thomas gold suggested that these two arrows might be linked. that would mean that if and when the expansion of the universe were to reverse, then the everyday arrow of time would also reverse, with broken cups re - assem", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_computing", "similarity_score": 0.7043240773702664, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 24, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:38.949733"} {"text": "apart. many years ago, thomas gold suggested that these two arrows might be linked. that would mean that if and when the expansion of the universe were to reverse, then the everyday arrow of time would also reverse, with broken cups re - assembling themselves. more recently, these ideas have been extended into quantum physics. there, the arrow of time is linked to the so - called \" collapse of the wave function \", which happens, for example, when an electron wave moving through a tv tube collapses into a point particle on the screen of the tv. some researchers have tried to make the quantum description of reality symmetric in time, by including both the original state of the system ( the tv tube before the electron passes through ) and the final state ( the tv tube after the electron has passed through ) in one mathematical description. murray gell - mann and james hartle recently extended this idea to the whole universe. they argued that if, as many cosmologists believe likely, the universe was born in a big bang, will expand out for a finite time and then recollapse into a big crunch, the time - neutral quantum theory could describe time running backwards in the contracting half of its life. unfortunately, laflamme has now shown that this will not work. he has proved that if there are only small inhomogeneities present in the big bang, then they must get larger throughout the lifetime of the universe, in both the expanding and the contracting phases. \" a low entropy universe at the big bang cannot come back to low entropy at the big crunch \" ( classical and quantum gravity, vol 10 p l79 ). he has found time - asymmetric solutions to the equations - - but only if both big bang and big crunch are highly disordered, with the universe more ordered in the middle of its life. observations of the cosmic microwave background radiation show that the universe emerged from the big bang in a very smooth and uniform state. this rules out the time - symmetric solutions. is that even if the present expansion of the universe does reverse, time will not run backwards and broken cups will not start re -", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.6319038618455897, "token_count": 433, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 25, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:38.951700"} {"text": "glucose is a type of sugar. it comes from food, and is also created in the liver. glucose travels through the body in the blood. it moves from the blood to cells with the help of a hormone called insulin. once glucose is in those cells, it can be used for energy. diabetes is a condition that makes it difficult for the body to use glucose. this causes a buildup of glucose in the blood. it also means the body is not getting enough energy. type 2 diabetes is one type of diabetes. it is the most common type. medication, lifestyle changes, and monitoring can help control blood glucose levels. type 2 diabetes is often caused by a combination of factors. one factor is that your body begins to make less insulin. a second factor is that your body becomes resistant to insulin. this means there is insulin in your body, but your body cannot use it effectively. insulin resistance is often related to excess body fat. the doctor will ask about your symptoms and medical history. you will also be asked about your family history. a physical exam will be done. diagnosis is based on the results of blood testing. american diabetes association ( ada ) recommends diagnosis be made if you have one of the following : symptoms of diabetes and a random blood test with a blood sugar level greater than or equal to 200 mg / dl ( 11. 1 mmol / l ) - fasting blood sugar test \u2014 done after you have not eaten for eight or more hours \u2014 showing blood sugar levels greater than or equal to 126 mg / dl ( 7 mmol / l ) on two different days - glucose tolerance test \u2014 measuring blood sugar two hours after you eat glucose \u2014 showing glucose levels greater than or equal to 200 mg / dl ( 11. 1 mmol / l ) - hba1c level of 6. 5 % or higher \u2014 indicates poor blood sugar control over the past 2 - 4 months mg / dl = milligrams per deciliter of blood ; mmol / l = millimole per liter of blood treatment aims to : - maintain blood sugar at levels as close to normal as possible - prevent or delay complications - control other conditions that you may have, like high blood pressure and high cholesterol food and drinks have a direct effect on your blood glucose level. eating healthy meals can help you control your blood glucose. it will also help your overall health. some basic tips include : if you are overweight, weight loss will help your body use insulin better. talk to your doctor about a healthy weight goal. you and", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5056095578179735, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:38.956670"} {"text": "\" we believe this is the first time bacterial horizontal gene transfer has been observed in eukaryotes at such scale, \" says senior author igor grigoriev of doe jgi. \" this study gets us closer to explaining the dramatic diversity across the genera of diatoms, morphologically, behaviorally, but we still haven ' t yet explained all the differences conferred by the genes contributed by the other taxa. \" from plants, the diatom inherited photosynthesis, and from animals the production of urea. bowler speculates that the diatom uses urea to store nitrogen, not to eliminate it like animals do, because nitrogen is a precious nutrient in the ocean. what ' s more, the tiny alga draws the best of both worldsit can convert fat into sugar, as well as sugar into fatextremely useful in times of nutrient shortage. the team documented more than 300 genes sourced from bacteria and found in both types of diatoms, pointing to their ancient origin and suggesting novel mechanisms of managing nutrientsfor example utilization of organic carbon and nitrogenand detecting cues from their environment. diatoms, encapsulated by elaborate lacework - like shells made of glass, are only about one - third of a strand of hair in diameter. \" the diatom genomes will help us to understand how they can make these structures at ambient temperatures and pressures, something that humans are not able to do. if we can learn how they do it, we could open up all kinds of new nanotechnologies, like for building miniature silicon chips or for biomedical applications, \" says bowler. diatoms reside in fresh or salt water and can be divided into two camps, centrics and pennates. the centric thalassiosira resemble a round \" camembert \" cheese box ( only much smaller ) and pennates like phaeodactylum look more like a cross between a boomerang and a narrow three - cornered hathence the species name, tricornutum. not only is their shape and habitat dive | contact : david gilbert | doe / joint genome institute", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5273880797687598, "token_count": 427, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:38.959714"} {"text": "first ever direct measurement of the earth \u2019 s rotation geodesists are pinpointing the orientation of the earth \u2019 s axis using the world \u2019 s most stable ring laser a group with researchers at the technical university of munich ( tum ) and the federal agency for cartography and geodesy ( bkg ) are the first to plot changes in the earth \u2019 s axis through laboratory measurements. to do this, they constructed the world \u2019 s most stable ring laser in an underground lab and used it to determine changes in the earth \u2019 s rotation. previously, scientists were only able to track shifts in the polar axis indirectly by monitoring fixed objects in space. capturing the tilt of the earth \u2019 s axis and its rotational velocity is crucial for precise positional information on earth \u2013 and thus for the accurate functioning of modern navigation systems, for instance. the scientists \u2019 work has been recognized an exceptional research spotlight by the american physical society. the earth wobbles. like a spinning top touched in mid - spin, its rotational axis fluctuates in relation to space. this is partly caused by gravitation from the sun and the moon. at the same time, the earth \u2019 s rotational axis constantly changes relative to the earth \u2019 s surface. on the one hand, this is caused by variation in atmospheric pressure, ocean loading and wind. these elements combine in an effect known as the chandler wobble to create polar motion. named after the scientist who discovered it, this phenomenon has a period of around 435 days. on the other hand, an event known as the \u201c annual wobble \u201d causes the rotational axis to move over a period of a year. this is due to the earth \u2019 s elliptical orbit around the sun. these two effects cause the earth \u2019 s axis to migrate irregularly along a circular path with a radius of up to six meters. capturing these movements is crucial to create a reliable coordinate system that can feed navigation systems or project trajectory paths in space travel. \u201c locating a point to the exact centimeter for global positioning is an extremely dynamic process \u2013 after all, at our latitude, we are moving at around 350 meters to the east per second, \u201d explains prof. karl ulrich schreiber, meanwhile as station director of the geodetic observatory wettzell where the ring laser is settled. karl ulrich schreiber had directed the project in tum \u2019 s research section satellite geodesy. the geodetic observatory wettzell is run together by tum and bkg. the researchers have succeeded in corrobor", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5235601511815358, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:38.967976"} {"text": "special thanks to our guest blogger, chris myers, u. s. space and rocket center\u00ae, huntsville, al for this post bringing the cosmos to space camp\u00ae! at the u. s. space and rocket center\u00ae and space camp, we are constantly looking for fun and innovative ways to teach our museum guests and trainees about space history and the science and math concepts that surround it. naturally, we were excited to participate in the harvard - smithsonian center for astrophysics series of instructional webinars in order to get some fresh ideas and content. the creativity started to flow as we reviewed the background material, but the amount and quality of the lesson plans and information presented to us by mary dussault and erin braswell was impressive. by the end of the first hour of the webinar, we had solid ideas and lesson plans that could be implemented in every program from summer day camp for 5 - year - olds to advanced space academy\u00ae for high - school seniors. and they meet both state and national curriculum guidelines! in this case, our target subject was astronomy. for our younger trainees, we adapted the activities that dealt with colors and filters into a hands - on component for our astronomy briefing \u201c tenacious telescopes. \u201d we use pvc pipe, colored felt and theater lighting gel in the primary colors to teach the trainees about how real telescopes like the hubble space telescope use filters to look for specific information, and how scientists can put these single - color images together to make a full - color picture. in addition to making it look more like a real telescope, mounting the color filter inside a pvc pipe telescope has the added bonus of keeping our filters fingerprint and wrinkle free. for our advanced academy ( junior high to high school ) trainees, we added an image processing component into our existing astronomy curriculum which is made up of four components. at the beginning of the week, the trainees participate in a lecture called \u201c exploring the night sky \u201d where they learn the basics of astronomy and focus on finding and naming the constellations and deep space objects. our second astronomy block is the \u201c micro observatory lab, \u201d where our trainees use the mobs software to compile full - color images of deep space objects. our third astronomy block is a \u201c night telescope \u201d activity, where the trainees use real telescopes to find the same objects in the sky of which they compiled images the day before. and for our final astronomy block, our advanced academy trainees learn the stories behind selected constellations in our infl", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5659229359753186, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:38.970890"} {"text": "songwriting for beginners : \u2018 just enough \u2019 music theoryby jeff oxenford \u2022 category : how to write songs, songwriting articles ( this is an article in the series \u201c songwriting for beginners \u201d. we are filing the series under the songwriting basics category. ) question : how do you stop a guitarist from playing? answer : put music in front of him. that \u2019 s me. i can \u2019 t read music and i doubt i ever will. however, over the last three years, i \u2019 ve learned just enough about music theory to be dangerous. what i \u2019 ve found is that by understanding some basic concepts, i \u2019 ve been able to find that next chord i was always searching for. the first step in understanding is that most songs are played in a single key and that the chords in the come from that key. the formula ( i. e. what order ) you use for the chords is what make up the song. for example, blues often uses the 1, 4, and 5 chords. if you \u2019 re playing blues in e, the chords are e, a, b ( or b7 ). the blues progression in the key of c, uses c, f, and g. if you can understand the table below, you \u2019 ve got the majority of theory you need. | 1 ( root ) | | 2 | | 3 | | 4 | | 5 | | 6 | | 7 | | 8 ( root ) | | major | | minor | | minor | | major | | major or dominant | | minor | | diminished | | major | here \u2019 s how to understand this table : guitar frets are in half ( h ) step intervals. in other words, moving up one fret is moving up a half ( h ) step. moving up 2 frets is a whole ( w ) step. notes and intervals on a guitar, the open string and the 12th fret on the same string are the same note ( just different octave ). if you look at the a string, the notes are : | a note | | a | | a # or bb | | b | | c | | c # or db | | d | | d # oreb | | e | | f | | f # orgb | | g | | g # orab | | a | to go from a to b is a whole ( w ) step. to go from a to a # ( or bb ) is a half ( h ) step. also, note that for b to c", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5136214411085231, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:38.974194"} {"text": "excerpt of how to read and why by harold bloom ( page 2 of 5 ) printer friendly excerpt i turn to reading as a solitary praxis, rather than as an educational enterprise. the way we read now, when we are alone with ourselves, retains considerable continuity with the past, however it is performed in the academies. my ideal reader ( and lifelong hero ) is dr. samuel johnson, who knew and expressed both the power and the limitation of incessant reading. like every other activity of the mind, it must satisfy johnson ' s prime concern, which is with \" what comes near to ourself, what we can put to use. \" sir francis bacon, who provided some of the ideas that johnson put to use, famously gave the advice : \" read not to contradict and confute, nor to believe and take for granted, nor to find talk and discourse, but to weigh and consider. \" i add to bacon and johnson a third sage of reading, emerson, fierce enemy of history and of all historicisms, who remarked that the best books \" impress us with the conviction, that one nature wrote and the same reads. \" let me fuse bacon, johnson, and emerson into a formula of how to read : find what comes near to you that can be put to the use of weighing and considering, and that addresses you as though you share the one nature, free of time ' s tyranny. pragmatically that means, first find shakespeare, and let him find you. if king lear is fully to find you, then weigh and consider the nature it shares with you ; its closeness to yourself. i do not intend this as an idealism, but as a pragmatism. putting the tragedy to use as a complaint against patriarchy is to forsake your own prime interests, particularly as a young woman, which sounds rather more ironical than it is. shakespeare, more than sophocles, is the inescapable authority upon intergenerational conflict, and more than anyone else, upon the differences between women and men. be open to a full reading of king lear, and you will understand better the origins of what you judge to be patriarchy. ultimately we read - - as bacon, johnson, and emerson agree - - in order to strengthen the self, and to learn its authentic interests. we experience such augmentations as pleasure, which may be why aesthetic values have always been deprecated by social moralists, from plato through our current campus puritan", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5063089174024964, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:38.980406"} {"text": "- - in order to strengthen the self, and to learn its authentic interests. we experience such augmentations as pleasure, which may be why aesthetic values have always been deprecated by social moralists, from plato through our current campus puritans. the pleasures of reading indeed are selfish rather than social. you cannot directly improve anyone else ' s life by reading better or more deeply. i remain skeptical of the traditional social hope that care for others may be stimulated by the growth of individual imagination, and i am wary of any arguments whatsoever that connect the pleasures of solitary reading to the public good. the sorrow of professional reading is that you recapture only rarely the pleasure of reading you knew in youth, when books were a hazlittian gusto. the way we read now partly depends upon our distance, inner or outer, from the universities, where reading is scarcely taught as a pleasure, in any of the deeper senses of the aesthetics of pleasure. opening yourself to a direct confrontation with shakespeare at his strongest, as in king lear, is never an easy pleasure, whether in youth or in age, and yet not to read king lear fully ( which means without ideological expectations ) is to be cognitively as well as aesthetically defrauded. a childhood largely spent watching television yields to an adolescence with a computer, and the university receives a student unlikely to welcome the suggestion that we must endure our going hence even as our going hither : ripeness is all. reading falls apart, and much of the self scatters with it. all this is past lamenting, and will not be remedied by any vows or programs. what is to be done can only be performed by some version of elitism, and that is now unacceptable, for reasons both good and bad. there are still solitary readers, young and old, everywhere, even in the universities. if there is a function of criticism at the present time, it must be to address itself to the solitary reader, who reads for herself, and not for the interests that supposedly transcend the self. copyright \u00a9 2000 by harold bloom. all rights reserved. reproduced by permission of the publisher, simon & schuster.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5105542100259199, "token_count": 438, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:38.981350"} {"text": "buildings don \u2019 t work they way they used to. 1 folks are always saying stuff like this. but let me make the case regarding just one factor and you decide. there are other factors of course, but i want to focus on only one for the moment. this one over - arching factor is the amount of energy exchange across the building enclosure. i think that higher levels of thermal resistance and reduced heat gain across building enclosures has forever changed the performance of buildings \u2014 and not necessarily in a good way. and things are going to get worse before they get better. sound familiar? the lens i am going to use to look at this factor is moisture. why? it is one of the principal damage functions acting on materials along with heat and ultra - violet radiation. 2 i think moisture is the key to understanding the performance of buildings in general \u2014 and in this particular case \u2014 in specific. the consequence of this reduced energy exchange is beginning to be seen all over the place : mold, part load humidity problems, rot, and corrosion. highly insulated building enclosures with reduced heat gain have low drying potentials and increased interior moisture loads. when they get wet they don \u2019 t dry. stuff is beginning to stink, rot, break and annoy. there are two things to look at here. levels of insulation and airtight assemblies and heat gain through glazing, roof assemblies and interior loads. adding insulation and providing airtight assemblies reduces energy flow. that is a good thing right? well, no \u2014 not always. less energy flow from the inside to the outside the colder things on the outside of the building get in the winter. the colder these things, the wetter these things get and the wetter they stay. this is not good. less energy flow from the outside to the inside in the summer and the less heat that is generated inside in the summer the less the air - conditioning system runs. this is a good thing right? well, no \u2014 not always. we create something called \u201c the part load humidity problem. \u201d higher levels of thermal resistance how do we dry wet wood? we kiln dry it. we heat the wood so that the water in the wood is warmer than its surroundings. we add energy to the water and it evaporates. there is a huge exchange of energy. when we put warm wet coffee beans in a room with very cold surfaces we call it freeze - drying. the moisture leaves the coffee beans and accumulates on the cold surfaces. there is a huge exchange of energy. the greater the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5694303467490137, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:39.014971"} {"text": "exchange of energy. when we put warm wet coffee beans in a room with very cold surfaces we call it freeze - drying. the moisture leaves the coffee beans and accumulates on the cold surfaces. there is a huge exchange of energy. the greater the rate of energy exchange the greater the rate of moisture movement. drying cannot happen with out an exchange of energy. when my mom and dad bought their first house in toronto, canada in 1957 there was no insulation in the walls and the house was leaky to air \u2014 it had a high air change driven by a traditional chimney. we lived in a 1, 200 square foot house and in january, when the outside temperature dropped to 0 degrees f., momma cranked up the 300, 000 btu oil furnace to maintain an interior temperature of 70 degrees f. the energy flow across the building enclosure was enormous, but oil was cheap, and we were comfortable and happy. the energy flow was so enormous the building enclosure was simultaneously kiln dried and freeze - dried. in fact, the drying potential was so high, we were uncomfortably dry. as a result poppa insisted that the furnace have a new fangled gadget attached to it \u2014 called a humidifier. how things have changed. well what changed? we \u2019 ve begun to insulate \u2014 and insulate exceptionally well \u2014 and we \u2019 re getting the assemblies \u201c tighter \u201d to air change and convection. that results in two things \u2014 less energy exchange therefore less drying potential \u2014 and things on the exterior side of the enclosure are colder in the winter. things being colder on the outside lead to something most folks don \u2019 t consider. many building materials are hygroscopic ( figure 1 ). this means they absorb moisture based on relative humidity. even more strangely, they don \u2019 t care about vapor pressure except if it affects relative humidity. this is a big deal. in fact it is a huge deal. figure 1 : sorption curve for common building materials \u2014 note that moisture content goes up as relative humidity goes up. there is no temperature dependence or vapor pressure dependence except where temperature affects relative humidity or where vapor pressure affects relative humidity. quick, snap quiz, psychrometric chart stuff \u2026. as the temperature drops, and vapor pressure is kept constant, what happens to the relative humidity? buzz / clang / bell. yes, folks, you are correct, the relative humidity goes up. the implications are staggering. just making things on the outside of your building cold, hygroscopic things, makes them wetter", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.6187362312236099, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:39.015961"} {"text": "humidity? buzz / clang / bell. yes, folks, you are correct, the relative humidity goes up. the implications are staggering. just making things on the outside of your building cold, hygroscopic things, makes them wetter. period, end of story. but, but, the moisture content of the outside air in the wintertime is low. yes, grasshopper, it is, but its \u2019 relative humidity is high. the amount of moisture in the absolute sense is low, but in the relative sense it is high. and hygroscopic materials don \u2019 t care about the absolute sense ; they only care about the relative sense. why? second law stuff \u2014 isn \u2019 t it always? check out photograph 1. nice, normal, everyday type of house in cleveland, oh. twenty years old, no insulation in the wall cavities, built in 1965 ( yes, the photograph was taken in 1985 \u2014 we did have camera \u2019 s back then... ). the house was perfectly happy at this point for twenty years. then the homeowner decides to do something crazy, he decides to insulate the exterior walls to save energy and has the cavities blown with dry cellulose. what a dumb idea in 1985 eh? but, never the less, it was a beautiful job, no voids, yes it can be done, and yes it was done. no voids, no convection ( photograph 2 \u2014 notice how young this engineer once was ). next thing you know, the paint falls off, and the siding gets smelly, moldy and begins to decay ( photograph 3 ). huh? the insulation did this? yup. the drying potential is reduced due to the addition of the insulation so that the moisture entering the cladding assembly from the exterior due to rain and capillarity does not evaporate and this is further exacerbated by the colder siding having a higher local relative humidity and thus a higher equilibrium moisture content due to the sorption properties of wood. bummer. how to fix this? easy, wedges were used to create a gap at the overlaps of the siding reducing capillary uptake at the laps and increasing evaporation despite the cladding being colder ( photograph 4 ). this early lesson in sorption and drying potentials taught this engineer to drain and back - ventilate claddings \u2013 especially those on highly insulated assemblies ( photograph 5 ). photograph 1 : the \u201c typical house \u201d \u2014", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5568972896769886, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:39.016869"} {"text": "why insulating sheathing is pretty much the name of the game for highly insulated wall assemblies \u2014 or at a minimum claddings should be back ventilated and back - drained \u2014 or better, do both. this is easy for new construction. the problem is what to do with the existing building stock? what are we going to do if oil ever goes above $ 100 / barrel? dumb comment. yes, but now we have a real problem. folks cannot just go and blow / spray / fill cavities with a bunch of insulation without appreciating the consequences. this is not just a cold climate problem. it is a problem everywhere. in fact it gets worse when we go far south. read on mcduff \u2026 reduced heat gain i am going to let you in on a little secret that us mechanical engineers don \u2019 t often share with the rest of the world \u2014 air conditioning systems only dehumidify when they run. yup, when they don \u2019 t run, they don \u2019 t dehumidify. if there is no load, there is no dehumidification. 4 well, just make them run longer. how? they still make the air cold no matter how you run them. that is good if you need cold air. but what if you don \u2019 t need cold air? what if you only need dry air? well, you still have to make the air cold to get it to drop its water, and when you are done you still have cold air. so now what? well, you have to heat it back up if you want to use it. this is sometimes called cooling with re - heat. there are other tricks we can do \u2014 read on \u2014 but at the end of the day we have to add energy back to the air that we cooled. there is no other practical way to do it. it gets worse when we over - ventilate with humid air \u2014 especially when it is cloudy and not so hot. now all you are doing is bringing in moisture. but you are doing it when there is not much of a load \u2014 not much of a \u201c sensible load \u201d ( heat gain across the enclosure and heat gain from lights and appliances and people \u2014 the load you can \u201c sense \u201d ) to run the air conditioning system. this moisture that you are bringing in with the ventilation air is also a \u201c load \u201d \u2014 but it is a different kind of load that we have pretty much been ignoring up till now and getting away with it. the operative phrase to note is", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.510313557991477, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:39.018698"} {"text": "system. this moisture that you are bringing in with the ventilation air is also a \u201c load \u201d \u2014 but it is a different kind of load that we have pretty much been ignoring up till now and getting away with it. the operative phrase to note is : \u201c getting away with it. \u201d mechanical engineers like me call this the \u201c hidden load \u201d or the \u201c latent load \u201d ( as in \u201c latent defect \u201d or \u201c hidden defect \u201d ) and our heads explode when we try to explain this problem to the indoor air crazies who think that only dilution is the solution to indoor pollution. i mean how can too much outside air be bad? 5 arrargah \u2026 to take the water out of the air you need to use energy. to make the air comfortable / useful the air can \u2019 t be too cold after you have taken the water out of it. typically heat ( energy ) has to be added back to the air. traditionally this heat ( energy ) was available through lousy glazing systems, too much glass, black roofs with no insulation, poorly insulated walls, energy inefficient lights, and crappy appliances. well, this traditional \u201c re - heat \u201d due to inefficiency and poor practice is disappearing. now we are stuck. if we don \u2019 t warm up the air after we dry it we are going to get into trouble. we haven \u2019 t been, and we are getting into trouble. the buildings are now getting too cold or too humid or worse, both. ah, this is easy you say. just make the air conditioning systems smaller \u2014 \u201c right size \u201d them. don \u2019 t make me scream. i am getting tired of being told by energy weenies that my equipment is too big. 6 i still have to satisfy the \u201c full load \u201d requirement. if you make the equipment too small it doesn \u2019 t satisfy the cooling requirements under full load. let the people be uncomfortable you say. people should suffer you say ; we have had it too good you say. yeah, sure, another greenie weenie value judgment that also makes me scream. i don \u2019 t think we should suffer. i like it being good. i don \u2019 t have a problem with using energy. i have a problem with wasting energy. until now we have gotten pretty good at dealing with this part - load problem with face - bypass, run - around coils, hot gas bypass and heat pipes but we have reached our limits. building enclosures have gotten so good, gla", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5592596133284888, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:39.019655"} {"text": ". until now we have gotten pretty good at dealing with this part - load problem with face - bypass, run - around coils, hot gas bypass and heat pipes but we have reached our limits. building enclosures have gotten so good, glazing systems so good, interior load management so good, that we can \u2019 t use the same equipment to handle the \u201c sensible load \u201d and the \u201c latent load. \u201d did i mention just how good the glazing systems have become? did i mention the low shgc thing? we used to just install air conditioners and only cared about making it cold inside. we used one piece of equipment to handle the sensible and latent load. the reason this worked is that the latent load was small compared to the sensible load. not any more. the sensible load has gotten smaller big time. and, much to my chagrin, the latent load has gone up due to over ventilation. the old systems can \u2019 t handle the new sensible to latent ratios. we have to separate the two loads. we need separate systems for the sensible load and the latent load. this is a big deal and it results from the low heat gain in the modern enclosure. in other words energy conservation and good construction practice is biting us on the butt. we sometimes refer to this second separate latent load control system as supplemental dehumidification \u2014 and we need it when we have a low heat gain enclosure and efficient lighting and appliances. others call it \u201c preconditioning \u201d of outside air since the largest component of the latent load is the ventilation air or the outside air. whatever you call it, we need this second system. we don \u2019 t often get it and it hurts us. but, but these systems use energy. yes, as the saying goes \u2014 there is no thermodynamic free lunch. you need to use energy to make air cold and you need to use energy to make air dry. we have been very good at making air cold. we now have to get good at making air dry. think of it this way. for every 100 units of energy you save on the efficiency and on the cooling side, you are going to have to give back about 20 units of energy to be dry. you are still 80 units ahead. problem is, if you are greedy and want the entire 100 units your building fails and your occupants get very uncomfortable and probably very annoyed. it is pretty amazing to me but the hotel industry figured this out first. they pretty much had", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5717388722346024, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:39.020624"} {"text": "80 units ahead. problem is, if you are greedy and want the entire 100 units your building fails and your occupants get very uncomfortable and probably very annoyed. it is pretty amazing to me but the hotel industry figured this out first. they pretty much had the problem first, so it stands to reason that they would also figure it out first. think about the typical hotel room. the drapes are pretty much closed all the time, the room is empty during the day, and you know the unit has been sized for the full load, with the drapes open, and the room full, and everything on and you know that someone in some bureaucracy somewhere wants way too much outside air. most of the time your latent load dwarfs your sensible load. so what do you do? you reduce the amount of outside air by installing timers on the exhaust fans and you pretty much ignore the faceless bureaucrat. then you only run the through - wall unit to control the temperature ( i. e. make it the \u201c sensible \u201d system ) and install a dehumidifier in each unit control the humidity ( the \u201c latent \u201d system ) ( photograph 6 ). a pretty primitive but effective \u201c fix. \u201d in new design we just \u201c hide \u201d the dehumidifier better \u2014 or better still make it part of the ventilation system. photograph 6 : hotel room fix \u2014 the through - wall unit controls the temperature ( the \u201c sensible \u201d system ). the dehumidifier controls the humidity ( the \u201c latent \u201d system ). guess where this technology is now making an impact \u2014 condos and apartments. small houses are next. we are already separating the latent from the sensible on most commercial design \u2014 after all it is the sensible thing to do. north versus south so how come it is worse in the south than the north? besides the south loosing the civil war? in the north, it still gets cold and the outside cold air is pretty dry \u2014 and walls tend to dry to the outside in the north - so the size of the moisture drying \u201c sink \u201d so to speak \u2014 has not changed. but in the south, walls also dry to the inside \u2014 and if the inside is humid because of the part load problem \u2014 the walls stay wetter because the moisture drying \u201c sink \u201d is smaller. additionally, in the south the moisture drive from the exterior into the wall is greater while at the same time the moisture drive from the wall into the interior is smaller as compared to the corresponding drives in opposite directions in the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5240394787626077, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 7, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:39.021655"} {"text": "functions ( water, heat and uv radiation ) with 80 percent of the 80 percent being water. i don \u2019 t know who said this. can someone help me out? i might have just made it up, but i have been saying it so long i no longer remember if i did or not. aren \u2019 t footnotes great \u2026 air flow \u2014 air change and convection \u2014 increases energy exchange therefore increases drying potential. my canadian friends heads are now going to explode because they have been taught that air leakage leads to \u201c wetting \u201d from interior sources. yes, in extreme climates with high interior moisture loads. think humidified buildings in canada. not everywhere else. come visit the united states, the dollar exchange now works for you and air leakage improves drying potentials. sensible load. i know you knew that i knew this, but some of the email i have been getting from you folks has been quite picky, which is good, but i want to head off the obvious emails, so continue to be picky, but not on this \u2026 some folks don \u2019 t seem to care about the energy thing either. i mean health is paramount and we should always err on the side of caution. how can we argue against health? easy, when the \u201c healthy \u201d measures are \u201c unhealthy. \u201d over - ventilation can be unhealthy \u2014 and energy wasteful. read on. this is leading to interesting discussions in the standard 62 committees. apparently the standard 62 committees are not about energy. apparently energy security is not a 62 problem nor is climate change nor are operating costs. apparently, it is some other committee \u2019 s problem. how about the energy committee ( standard 90. 1 )? except that the energy committee does not want to touch ventilation. cowards. my insider \u2019 s perspective ( on 62. 2 at least ) is that there is a lot of mileage to be made by scaring people about under ventilation, and folks are rising to the occasion. unfortunately, over ventilation in hot humid climates and in mixed humid climates has led to more indoor air problems due to mold resulting from part load issues than under ventilation anywhere else \u2014 in my not so humble opinion. and speaking of health and under ventilation where are all the dead bodies? where is the causal link between health and specific levels of specific indoor contaminants? in my not so humble opinion all of the rates have been just wild assed guesses without a sound epidemiological basis. but the resulting mold from over ventilation is real and demons", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5670781080892303, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 9, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:39.023518"} {"text": "the immune system because the human body provides an ideal environment for many microbes, they try to pass your skin barrier and enter. your immune system is a bodywide network of cells, tissues, and organs that has evolved to defend you against such \" foreign \" invasions. the proper targets of your immune system are infectious organisms - - bacteria such as these streptococci ; fungi ( this one happens to be candida, the cause of yeast infections ) ; parasites, including these worm - like microbes that cause malaria ; and viruses such as this sars virus. markers of self at the heart of the immune response is the ability to distinguish between \" self \" and \" non - self. \" every cell in your body carries the same set of distinctive surface proteins that distinguish you as \" self. \" normally your immune cells do not attack your own body tissues, which all carry the same pattern of self - markers ; rather, your immune system coexists peaceably with your other body cells in a state known as self - tolerance. this set of unique markers on human cells is called the major histocompatibility complex ( mhc ). there are two classes : mhc class i proteins, which are on all cells, and mhc class ii proteins, which are only on certain specialized cells. markers of non - self any non - self substance capable of triggering an immune response is known as an antigen. an antigen can be a whole non - self cell, a bacterium, a virus, an mhc marker protein or even a portion of a protein from a foreign organism. the distinctive markers on antigens that trigger an immune response are called epitopes. when tissues or cells from another individual enter your body carrying such antigenic non - self epitopes, your immune cells react. this explains why transplanted tissues may be rejected as foreign and why antibodies will bind to them. markers of self : major histocompatibility complex your immune cells recognize major histocompatibility complex proteins ( mhc ) when they distinguish between self and non - self. an mhc protein serves as a recognizable scaffold that presents pieces ( peptides ) of a foreign protein ( antigenic ) to immune cells. an empty \" foreign \" mhc scaffold itself can act as an antigen when donor organs or cells are introduced into a patient ' s body. these mhc self - marker scaffolds are also known as a patient ' s \" tissue type \" or as human leukocyte antigens ( h", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5214522275324798, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:39.044880"} {"text": "effective in killing bacteria. scientists long wondered how all the genetic information needed to make millions of different antibodies could fit in a limited number of genes. the answer is that antibody genes are spliced together from widely scattered bits of dna located in two different chromosomes. each antibody molecule is made up of two separate chains, a heavy chain and a light chain. the heavy chain is where the binding of antigens occurs, so much genetic variation is involved in its assembly. for example, to form a heavy chain, 1 of 400 possible variable gene segments ( v ) combines with 1 out of 15 diversity segments ( d ) and 1 out of 4 joining ( j ) segments. this makes 24, 000 possible combinations for the dna encoding the heavy chain alone. as this part of the gene assembles, it joins the variable coding segments with those for the constant - c segments of the heavy - chain molecule. t cells contribute to your immune defenses in two major ways. some help regulate the complex workings of the overall immune response, while others are cytotoxic and directly contact infected cells and destroy them. chief among the regulatory t cells are helper t cells. they are needed to activate many immune cells, including b cells and other t cells. cytotoxic t cells ( sometimes called killer t cells ) help rid your body of cells that have been infected by viruses as well as cells that have been transformed by cancer but have not yet adapted to evade the immune detection system. they are also responsible for the rejection of tissue and organ grafts. cytokines are diverse and potent chemical messengers secreted by the cells of your immune system. they are the chief communication signals of your t cells. cytokines include interleukins, growth factors, and interferons. lymphocytes, including both t cells and b cells, secrete cytokines called lymphokines, while the cytokines of monocytes and macrophages are dubbed monokines. many of these cytokines are also known as interleukins because they serve as a messenger between white cells, or leukocytes. interferons are naturally occurring cytokines that may boost the immune system ' s ability to recognize cancer as a foreign invader. binding to specific receptors on target cells, cytokines recruit many other cells and substances to the field of action. cytokines encourage cell growth, promote cell activation, direct cellular traffic, and destroy target cells - - including cancer cells. when cytokines attract specific", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5538867527916111, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:39.050330"} {"text": "on target cells, cytokines recruit many other cells and substances to the field of action. cytokines encourage cell growth, promote cell activation, direct cellular traffic, and destroy target cells - - including cancer cells. when cytokines attract specific cell types to an area, they are called chemokines. these are released at the site of injury or infection and call other immune cells to the region to help repair damage and defend against infection. killer cells : cytotoxic ts and nks at least two types of lymphocytes are killer cells - - cytotoxic t cells and natural killer cells. both types contain granules filled with potent chemicals. both types kill on contact. they bind their targets, aim their weapons, and deliver bursts of lethal chemicals. to attack, cytotoxic t cells need to recognize a specific antigen bound to self - mhc markers, whereas natural killer ( nk ) cells will recognize and attack cells lacking these. this gives nk cells the potential to attack many types of foreign cells. phagocytes and their relatives some immune cells have more than one name. for example, the name \" phagocytes \" is given to the large immune cells that can engulf and digest foreign invaders, and the name \" granulocytes \" refers to immune cells that carry granules laden with killer chemicals. phagocytes include monocytes, which circulate in the blood ; macrophages, which are found in tissues throughout the body ; dendritic cells, which are more stationary, monitoring their environment from one spot such as the skin ; and neutrophils, cells that circulate in the blood but move into tissues when they are needed. macrophages are versatile cells ; besides acting as phagocytic scavengers, they secrete a wide variety of signaling cytokines ( called monokines ) that are vital to the immune response. neutrophils are both phagocytes and granulocytes : they contain granules filled with potent chemicals. these chemicals, in addition to destroying microorganisms, play a key role in acute inflammatory reactions. other types of granulocytes are eosinophils and basophils, which degranulate by spraying their chemicals onto harmful cells or microbes. the mast cell is a twin of the basophil, except it is not a blood cell. rather, it is responsible for allergy symptoms in the lungs, skin, and linings of the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5160997764474806, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:39.051212"} {"text": "spraying their chemicals onto harmful cells or microbes. the mast cell is a twin of the basophil, except it is not a blood cell. rather, it is responsible for allergy symptoms in the lungs, skin, and linings of the nose and intestinal tract. a related structure, the blood platelet, is a cell fragment. platelets, too, contain granules. they promote blood clotting and wound repair, and activate some immune defenses. phagocytes in the body if foreign invaders succeed in getting past your skin barriers and manage to reach body tissues, they are usually recognized, ingested, and killed by phagocytes strategically positioned throughout the body. macrophages and neutrophils are the main phagocytes involved, with macrophages as the first line of defense. monocytes stop circulating in the blood and mature into specialized macrophages that migrate into the tissues of the body and prepare for invasion. large numbers of mature macrophages reside in connective tissue, along the digestive tract, in the lungs, in the spleen, and even along certain blood vessels in the liver, where they are known as kupffer cells. neutrophils are short - lived immune cells that remain circulating in the blood. when tissue - based macrophages encounter an invader, neutrophils soon reinforce their immune response by coming to the site of infection in large numbers. the complement system consists of a series of about 25 proteins that work to \" complement \" the work of antibodies in destroying bacteria. complement also helps rid the body of antigen - antibody complexes. complement proteins are the culprits that cause blood vessels to become dilated and leaky, causing redness and swelling during an inflammatory response. complement proteins circulate in the blood in an inactive form. the so - called \" complement cascade \" is set off when the first complement molecule, c1, encounters antibody bound to antigen in an antigen - antibody complex. each of the complement proteins performs its specialized job, acting, in turn, on the molecule next in line. the end product is a cylinder that punctures the cell membrane and, by allowing fluids and molecules to flow in and out, dooms the target cell. mounting an immune response microbes attempting to get into your body must first get past your skin and mucous membranes, which not only pose a physical barrier but are rich in scavenger cells and iga antibodies. next, they must elude a series of nonspec", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5213220045466989, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:39.052083"} {"text": "they become trapped in, and damage, the tissues of the kidneys, as seen here, or the lungs, skin, joints, or blood vessels. disorders of the immune system : aids when the immune system is lacking one or more of its components, the result is an immunodeficiency disorder. these disorders can be inherited, acquired through infection, or produced as an inadvertent side effect of drugs such as those used to treat cancer or transplant patients. aids is an immunodeficiency disorder caused by a virus that destroys helper t cells. the virus copies itself incessantly and invades helper t cells and macrophages, the very cells needed to organize an immune defense. the aids virus splices its dna into the dna of the cell it infects ; the cell is thereafter directed to churn out new viruses. human tissue typing for transplants although mhc proteins are required for t cell responses against foreign invaders, they can pose difficulty during transplantation. every cell in the body is covered with mhc self - markers, and each person bears a slightly unique set. if a t lymphocyte recognizes a non - self mhc scaffold, it will rally immune cells to destroy the cell that bears it. for successful organ or blood stem cell transplantations, doctors must pair organ recipients with donors whose mhc sets match as closely as possible. otherwise, the recipient ' s t cells will likely attack the transplant, leading to graft rejection. to find good matches, tissue typing is usually done on white blood cells, or leukocytes. in this case, the mhc - self - markers are called human leukocyte antigens, or hla. each cell has a double set of six major hla markers, hla - a, b, and c, and three types of hla - d. since each of these antigens exists, in different individuals, in as many as 20 varieties, the number of possible hla types is about 10, 000. the genes that encode the hla antigens are located on chromosome 6. a child in the womb carries foreign antigens from the father as well as immunologically compatible self - antigens from the mother. one might expect this condition to trigger a graft rejection, but it does not because the uterus is an \" immunologically privileged \" site where immune responses are somehow subdued. immunity and cancer when normal cells turn into cancer cells, some of the antigens on their", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5029674525169947, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 10, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:39.056927"} {"text": "to trigger a graft rejection, but it does not because the uterus is an \" immunologically privileged \" site where immune responses are somehow subdued. immunity and cancer when normal cells turn into cancer cells, some of the antigens on their surface change. these cells, like many body cells, constantly shed bits of protein from their surface into the circulatory system. often, tumor antigens are among the shed proteins. these shed antigens prompt action from immune defenders, including cytotoxic t cells, natural killer cells, and macrophages. according to one theory, patrolling cells of the immune system provide continuous bodywide surveillance, catching and eliminating cells that undergo malignant transformation. tumors develop when this immune surveillance breaks down or is overwhelmed. a new approach to cancer therapy uses antibodies that have been specially made to recognize specific cancers. when coupled with natural toxins, drugs, or radioactive substances, the antibodies seek out their target cancer cells and deliver their lethal load. alternatively, toxins can be linked to a lymphokine and routed to cells equipped with receptors for the lymphokine. dendritic cells that attack cancer another approach to cancer therapy takes advantage of the normal role of the dendritic cell as an immune educator. dendritic cells grab antigens from viruses, bacteria, or other organisms and wave them at t cells to recruit their help in an initial t cell immune response. this works well against foreign cells that enter the body, but cancer cells often evade the self / non - self detection system. by modifying dendritic cells, researchers are able to trigger a special kind of autoimmune response that includes a t cell attack of the cancer cells. because a cancer antigen alone is not enough to rally the immune troops, scientists first fuse a cytokine to a tumor antigen with the hope that this will send a strong antigenic signal. next, they grow a patient ' s dendritic cells in the incubator and let them take up this fused cytokine - tumor antigen. this enables the dendritic cells to mature and eventually display the same tumor antigens as appear on the patient ' s cancer cells. when these special mature dendritic cells are given back to the patient, they wave their newly acquired tumor antigens at the patient ' s immune system, and those t cells that can respond mount an attack on the patient ' s cancer cells. the immune system and the nervous system biological links between the immune system and the central nervous system exist", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5092870444050833, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 11, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:39.057827"} {"text": "newly acquired tumor antigens at the patient ' s immune system, and those t cells that can respond mount an attack on the patient ' s cancer cells. the immune system and the nervous system biological links between the immune system and the central nervous system exist at several levels. hormones and other chemicals such as neuropeptides, which convey messages among nerve cells, have been found also to \" speak \" to cells of the immune system - - and some immune cells even manufacture typical neuropeptides. in addition, networks of nerve fibers have been found to connect directly to the lymphoid organs. the picture that is emerging is of closely interlocked systems facilitating a two - way flow of information. immune cells, it has been suggested, may function in a sensory capacity, detecting the arrival of foreign invaders and relaying chemical signals to alert the brain. the brain, for its part, may send signals that guide the traffic of cells through the lymphoid organs. a hybridoma is a hybrid cell produced by injecting a specific antigen into a mouse, collecting an antibody - producing cell from the mouse ' s spleen, and fusing it with a long - lived cancerous immune cell called a myeloma cell. individual hybridoma cells are cloned and tested to find those that produce the desired antibody. their many identical daughter clones will secrete, over a long period of time, millions of identical copies of made - to - order \" monoclonal \" antibodies. thanks to hybridoma technology, scientists are now able to make large quantities of specific antibodies. genetic engineering allows scientists to pluck genes - - segments of dna - - from one type of organism and to combine them with genes of a second organism. in this way, relatively simple organisms such as bacteria or yeast can be induced to make quantities of human proteins, including interferons and interleukins. they can also manufacture proteins from infectious agents, such as the hepatitis virus or the aids virus, for use in vaccines. the scid - hu mouse the scid mouse, which lacks a functioning immune system of its own, is helpless to fight infection or reject transplanted tissue. by transplanting immature human immune tissues and / or immune cells into these mice, scientists have created an in vivo model that promises to be of immense value in advancing our understanding of the immune system.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_entanglement", "similarity_score": 0.5667327173210686, "token_count": 479, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 12, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T07:35:39.058780"}