the potato is a starchy, tuberous crop from the perennial solanum tuberosum of the solanaceae family ( also known as the nightshades ). the word potato may refer to the plant itself as well as the edible tuber. in the region of the andes, there are some other closely related cultivated potato species. potatoes were first introduced outside the andes region four centuries ago, and have become an integral part of much of the world ’ s cuisine. it is the world ’ s fourth - largest food crop, following rice, wheat, and maize. long - term storage of potatoes requires specialised care in cold warehouses. wild potato species occur throughout the americas, from the united states to uruguay. the potato was originally believed to have been domesticated independently in multiple locations, but later genetic testing of the wide variety of cultivars and wild species proved a single origin for potatoes in the area of present - day southern peru ( from a species in the solanum brevicaule complex ), where they were domesticated 7, 000 – 10, 000 years ago. following centuries of selective breeding, there are now over a thousand different types of potatoes. of these subspecies, a variety that at one point grew in thechiloe archipelago ( the potato ’ s south - central chilean sub - center of origin ) left its germplasm on over 99 % of the cultivated potatoes worldwide. following the spanish conquest of the inca empire, the spanish introduced the potato to europe in the second half of the 16th century. the staple was subsequently conveyed by european mariners to territories and ports throughout the world. the potato was slow to be adopted by distrustful european farmers, but soon enough it became an important food staple and field crop that played a major role in the european 19th century population boom. however, lack of genetic diversity, due to the very limited number of varieties initially introduced, left the crop vulnerable to disease. in 1845, a plant disease known as late blight, caused by the fungus - like oomycete phytophthora infestans, spread rapidly through the poorer communities of western ireland, resulting in the crop failures that led to the great irish famine. nonetheless, thousands of varieties persist in the andes, where over 100 cultivars might be found in a single valley, and a dozen or more might be maintained by a single agricultural household. the annual diet of an average global citizen in the first decade of the 21st century included about 33 kg ( 73 lb ) of potato. however, the local importance of


elements | blogs wednesday, september 7, 2011 is there oxygen in space? yes, this summer astronomers using the herschel telescope identified oxygen molecules in space. they found these molecules in the orion nebula, 1, 344 light years away. oxygen is the third most abundant element in the universe. until now, scientists have only seen individual oxygen atoms in space. we do not breathe individual oxygen atoms, but rather oxygen molecules. ( a molecule is a group of atoms banded together and it is the smallest unit of chemical compound that can take part in a chemical reaction. ) oxygen molecules make up 20 % of the air we breathe. scientists theorize that the oxygen molecules were locked up in water ice that... thursday, march 10, 2011 i ' m atoms ( scientific cover of jason mraz ' s i ' m yours ) here in chicago it has been gray for the last three weeks – no sun, just melting snow and rain. this song made our day. it has sunshine, great music and atoms! the lyrics include fabulous lines such as : “ atoms bond together to form molecules most of what ’ s surrounding me and you … ” this science verse has been set to the music of jason mraz ’ s “ i ’ m yours ”. this is a must watch! saturday, february 26, 2011 the deep carbon observatory here at supersmart carbon, we love learning about carbon. apparently, we are not alone. there is a project being launched called the deep carbon observatory that is being funded by the alfred p. sloan foundation. the purpose of this group is to study carbon deep inside the earth. carbon makes up somewhere from 0. 7 % to 3. 2 % of the earth ’ s elements. we know that there is carbon trapped under the earth ’ s crust, but we don ’ t know how much. the deep carbon observatory is going to study how much carbon there is in the earth and what happens to it. another question is what form is the... friday, february 25, 2011 where does gas come from? carbon! ( we always love it when the answer is carbon. ) the gas we use to power our cars comes from decomposing organic matter. what does that mean? all life has carbon in it - - this includes everything living from you and me to zebras, tapeworms, tulips and seaweed. since all living things have carbon in them, they are referred to as organic matter. non - organic matter includes things like rocks, water and metals. when something organic dies


painting, artists and art ( technique, of all times ) painting is the practice of applying paint, pigment, color or other medium to a surface. in art, the term describes both the act and the result, which is called a painting. paintings may have for their support such surfaces as walls, paper, canvas, wood, glass, lacquer, clay or concrete. paintings may be decorated with gold leaf, and some modern paintings incorporate other materials including sand, clay, and scraps of paper. what is painting? is the fourth in a series of installations drawn from the museum ' s collection of contemporary art. it presents a selection of artworks made since approximately 1965, including a number of recent acquisitions and many works displayed for the first time since the museum ' s reopening. a variety of responses to the question " what is painting? " are proposed in loose chronological sequence, ranging from ironic to sincere ; from figurative to abstract ; and from an embrace and creative reimagining of painting ' s possibilities to a critical engagement with its limits. the installation ' s title derives from john baldessari ' s eponymous painting of 1966 – 68 ( with the addition of a question mark ), acknowledging the ongoing debates over the practice of painting and its place within contemporary art. painting is a mode of expression, and the forms are numerous. drawing, composition or abstraction and other aesthetics may serve to manifest the expressive and conceptual intention of the practitioner. paintings can be naturalistic and representational ( as in a still life or landscape painting ), photographic, abstract, be loaded with narrative content, symbolism, emotion or be political in nature... wikipedia


the failings of socialist economies, led many to conclude that von mises and hayek were right. hurwicz was more interested in advancing the debate than declaring victory. “ panaceas are not to be found at either end of the spectrum, ” he wrote in 1984. he agreed with hayek and von mises that a bureaucrat who simply demanded results would be met with slacking, budgetpadding and lies. but rather than giving up, hurwicz attacked the problem directly. he asked what “ mechanisms ” an intelligent but ill - informed planner might use to extract information from others and then allocate resources fairly, efficiently or profitably. such mechanisms are as old as trade itself, most obviously the auction, in which even an ignorant seller can expect a good price. but hurwicz laid the foundations for thinking systematically about designing mechanisms, defining all the terms rigorously and showing what might be possible. hurwicz described a mechanism as a kind of “ message centre ”, where market participants would submit information, true or false, and a pre - specified set of rules would adjudicate the result. that abstract description is a perfect account of an ebay auction : a seller sets a minimum bid, a time limit and perhaps a reserve price, while bidders submit bids that may bear no resemblance to the true value they place on the prize. ebay is just one example of a message centre ; hurwicz showed that it was useful to think about many economic institutions in this way. participants in a mechanism can always lie. a keen buyer can pretend to be an indifferent one ; a brilliant worker can conceal his laziness. hurwicz realised that in order to get a better bid from the keenest buyer, for example, the seller must give that buyer a reason to tell the truth. similarly, an employer cannot persuade the ablest worker to work just as hard as the rest unless the extra effort brings extra rewards. the general problem of persuading the “ best ” agents to act differently from the rest is called the “ incentive compatibility constraint ”. one example would be an auction where the highest bidder wins but only has to pay the second highest bid. this strange - sounding rule is all it takes to persuade the keenest bidder to tell the truth about the real value he places on the prize. ebay uses a similar rule. although hurwicz studied with the greats of the field – including nicholas kaldor at the lse, and paul samuelson – he never had


to a large extent broken down. in such an ideological and moral vacuum, one seeks out standards many people more or less agree upon. the holocaust partly fills that function. it plays a role as a defining moment in european history. the holocaust touches upon very basic questions which many europeans do not like to ask themselves explicitly. what was it in european culture and in european societies that made the holocaust possible? this leads to a taboo question. have the elements which made the holocaust possible disappeared, or are they to some extent still with us? the first nations which should ask these questions are germany and austria. yet at present they do not seem inclined to do so. the present generation is not responsible for what their ancestors did. however, the holocaust and nazism can not be eliminated from german history. i would like to phrase the question somewhat differently. many of the ancestors of contemporary germans and austrians were nazi enthusiasts. many other germans and austrians went along with the nazis without hesitation. is it at all imaginable that nothing of these attitudes has remained in these countries today? another element of importance for the increasing interest in the holocaust is the growing uncertainty in the world. that requires more and more points of reference for events which take place almost daily. one example which has to be analyzed is the emergence of parties in european countries with many neo - fascist and neo - nazi characteristics. this becomes problematic in particular if these parties enter parliament. while the interest in the holocaust is growing there is simultaneously also a massive increase in the distortion of the history and the memory of the holocaust. to understand the abuse of the holocaust in our days, we have to start looking at it by category. in my book, “ the abuse of holocaust memory, distortions and responses ” i have developed eight categories of distortion. these are : holocaust justification and promotion, holocaust denial, holocaust deflection and whitewashing, de - judaization, holocaust equivalence, holocaust inversion, i. e the portraying of israel and jews as nazis, holocaust trivialization and obliterating holocaust memory the massive ongoing abuse of the holocaust brings us to the question, what can be done about it? there is no single way to fight against the abuse of the holocaust. education is very important. so are memorials, monuments etc. the crucial point however remains not to let abuse of the holocaust enter further in the public debate. it is a task for everybody to react when israel is called a nazi state and to call on governments to bring the iranian leaders grand ayatollah khamenei and


elementary matrices generate the general linear group okay, so we can use elementary row operations to put any matrix into its ( unique ) reduced row echelon form. as we stated last time, this consists of building up a basis for the image of the transformation the matrix describes by walking through a basis for the domain space and either adding a new, independent basis vector or writing the image of a domain basis vector in terms of the existing image basis vectors. so let ’ s say we ’ ve got a transformation in. given a basis, we get an invertible matrix ( which we ’ ll also call ). then we can use elementary row operations to put this matrix into its reduced row echelon form. but now every basis vector gets sent to a vector that ’ s linearly independent of all the others, or else the transformation wouldn ’ t be invertible! that is, the reduced row echelon form of the matrix must be the identity matrix. but remember that every one of our elementary row operations is the result of multiplying on the left by an elementary matrix. so we can take the matrices corresponding to the list of all the elementary row operations and write which tells us that applying all these elementary row operations one after another leads us to the identity matrix. but this means that the product of all the elementary matrices on the right is. and since we can also apply this to the transformation, we can find a list of elementary matrices whose product is. that is, any invertible linear transformation can be written as the product of a finite list of elementary matrices, and thus the elementary matrices generate the general linear group.


from uncyclopedia, the content - free encyclopedia heliocentrism is a theory which has become an established dogma in 21st century privately - funded science, despite having been abandoned in the 20th century, according to conservapedia. heliocentrism is the concept that a giant magnet is located in the center of the earth, and the planets and the universe revolve around it, attracted by the magnetic energy. heliocentrism is criticized for ignoring the everyday observations of mountain climbers and airplane travellers. it has been characterized by sarah palin as " a lie perpetrated by scientists to diminish the glory of america " and pushed onto the good, god - fearing people by ignorant pagan - types suffering from gross moral turpitude. edit proponents of heliocentrism the most ardent supporters of heliocentrism are found in us academia, despite or perhaps because of how the theory is being used to diminish the central role of the usa and its establishment at the center of the universe. among those scientists that support it, the overwhelming majority also support the theories of evolution, climate change, nuclear fusion, ley line energy production, spacial time distortion, and extra - dimensional astral travel as well as using more tax dollars to fund their own research. notable believers in heliocentrism include charles darwin, lenin, al gore and ellen degeneres. edit evidence of heliocentrism heliocentrism is widely considered as being in accordance with the teaching of the holy book, which is commonly accepted as scientific evidence. firm proofs of heliocentrism include : - he has fixed the earth firm, immovable. ( 1 chronicles 16 : 30 ) - thou didst fix the earth on its foundation so that it never can be shaken. ( psalm 104 : 5 ) - who made the earth and fashioned it, and himself fixed it fast … ( isaiah 45 : 18 ) - the sun also ariseth, and the sun goeth down, and hasteth to his place where he arose. ( ecclesiastes 1 : 5 ) as a reliable scientific theory, heliocentrism has surprisingly been approved by school boards in kansas.


with over 58 % of the energy consumed in the home going to heating water and heating and cooling the rooms, you can make drastic changes in the amount of energy consumed and the money you pay for it just by making modifications to the way you control the temperature in your home. solar water heaters : your water heater is a constant energy waster and largely goes unnoticed when considering ways to conserve energy. current energy tax credits and solar rebates make converting to a solar water heating system extremely affordable. read more » solar electric : the heating and cooling system is by far the biggest user of energy in any home. photovoltaic pv systems not only can reduce or eliminate your energy costs, they can actually generate enough energy to sell back to the power grid through the utilities. read more » the greatest user of energy in commercial buildings is heating and cooling the work spaces and the water. computer facilities not only consume great amounts of energy, they also require a considerable expense in energy to keep cool. in the meantime, the sun is contributing to the consumption of energy instead of being used as solar energy to generate it. commercial solar panels have the capacity to reduce energy consumption in commercial buildings to less than half, simply by changing the way we heat and cool the work spaces. that savings goes directly towards the bottom line — the company ' s profits. read more » commercial solar water heating is the ideal compliment to solar electric systems. according to the us dept. of energy " the energy tied up in water heating can be a significant component of the building ' s total energy consumption. for example, in the lodging industry, 42 percent of energy use goes for water heating. other commercial buildings with heavy hot water demand include restaurants, commercial laundries, buildings with industrial processes, dormitories or other high - density housing facilities. " read more » with the growth in government comes the growth in government buildings. not only is government a large - scale consumer of energy in its administration, elements of government are also responsible for meeting all demand for energy, nationwide. what source we use to generate that electricity is of great concern to us all. in utah, electrical rates have increased 11 times in the past 7 years. add that to the growth within the state and we are rapidly growing toward the unaffordable consumption of power for us all. electrical generation using fossil fuels have risen four - fold in the past 15 years, but has never dropped significantly. much of our dependence on generating electricity in this way is on foreign oil. clearly, dependence on energy


“ eau canada ” brings together 28 of canada ’ s top water experts to debate canada ’ s most critical water issues, and to map out solutions. the diverse range of contributors – geographers, environmental lawyers, former government officials, aquatic scientists, economists, and political scientists – reflects the broad range of issues involved in water management debates. contributors argue that weak governance is at the heart of canada ’ s water problems. the first three sections of the book provide background on canadian water uses ( and abuses ), identify key weaknesses in canadian water governance, and explore controversial debates over jurisdiction, transboundary waters, water exports, and water privatization. solutions for more sustainable water management are mapped out in the final sections of the book, including a cross - canada consensus on water policy, water conservation and pricing, and an engagement with the implications of new legal frameworks on indigenous people ’ s water rights. the book is targeted at a broad audience with the objective of promoting informed debate about some of the most controversial and pressing water issues facing canadians. it will be of relevance to academics and students of geography, politics, economics, environmental studies, engineering, and canadian studies. it will also be of particular interest to water supply managers, environmental and water policy analysts, government officials, community groups, and politicians from across canada.


air massan extensive body of the atmosphere whose physical properties, particularly temperature and humidity, exhibit only small and continuous differences in the horizontal. it may extend over an area of several million square kilometres and over a depth of several kilometres. backing windcounter - clockwise change of wind direction, in either hemisphere. beaufort scalewind force scale, original based on the state of the sea, expressed in numbers from 0 to 12. fetchdistance along a large water surface trajectory over which a wind of almost uniform direction and speed blows. fogsuspension of very small, usually microscopic water droplets in the air, generally reducing the horizontal visibility at the earth ' s surface to less than 1 km. frontthe interface or transition zone between air masses of different densities ( temperature and humidity ). gale force windwind with a speed between 34 and 47 knots. beaufort scale wind force 8 or 9. gustsudden, brief increase of the wind speed over its mean value. hazesuspension in the atmosphere of extremely small, dry particles which are invisible to the naked eye but numerous enough to give the sky an opalescent appearance. highregion of the atmosphere where the pressures are high relative to those in the surrounding region at the same level. hurricanename given to a warm core tropical cyclone with maximum surface winds of 118 km / h ( 64 knots ) or greater in the north atlantic, the caribbean, the gulf of mexico and in the eastern north pacific ocean. knotunit of speed equal to one nautical mile per hour. ( 1. 852 km / h ) land breezewind of coastal regions, blowing at night from the land towards a large water surface as a result of the nocturnal cooling of the land surface. line squallsquall which occurs in a line. lowregion of the atmosphere in which the pressures are lower then those of the surrounding regions at the same level. mistsuspension in the air of microscopic water droplets which reduce the visibility at the earth ' s surface. pressureforce per unit area exerted by the atmosphere on any surface by virtue of its weight ; it is equivalent to the weight of a vertical column of air extending above a surface of unit area to the outer limit of the atmosphere. ridgeregion of the atmosphere in which the pressure is high relative to the surrounding region at the same level. sea breezewind in coastal regions, blowing by day from a large water surface towards the land as a result of diurnal heating of the land surface. sea fogfog which forms in the lower part of a moist


region at the same level. sea breezewind in coastal regions, blowing by day from a large water surface towards the land as a result of diurnal heating of the land surface. sea fogfog which forms in the lower part of a moist air mass moving over a colder surface ( water ). sea statelocal state of agitation of the sea due to the combined effects of wind and swell. squallatmospheric phenomenon characterizes by an abrupt and large increase of wind speed with a duration of the order of minutes which diminishes suddenly. it is often accompanied by showers or thundershowers. storm force windwind with a wind speed between 48 and 63 knots. beaufort scale wind force 10 or 11. storm surgethe difference between the actual water level under influence of a meteorological disturbance ( storm tide ) and the level which would have been attained in the absence of the meteorological disturbance ( i. e. astronomical tide ). swellany system of water waves which has left its generating area. thunderstormsudden electrical discharge manifested by a flash of light and a sharp or rumbling sound. thunderstorms are associated with convective clouds and are, more often, accompanied by precipitation in the form of rain showers, hail, occasionally snow, snow pellets, or ice pellets. tropical cyclonegeneric term for a non - frontal synoptic scale cyclone originating over tropical or sub - tropical waters with organized convection and definite cyclonic surface wind circulation. tropical depressionwind speed up to 33 knots. tropical disturbancelight surface winds with indications of cyclonic circulation. tropical stormmaximum wind speed of 34 to 47 knots. troughan elongated area of relatively low atmospheric pressure. veeringclockwise change of wind direction, in either hemisphere. visibilitygreatest distance at which a black object of suitable dimensions can be seen and recognized against the horizon sky during daylight or could be seen and recognized during the night if the general illumination were raised to the normal daylight level. waterspouta phenomenon consisting of an often violent whirlwind revealed by the presence of a cloud column or inverted cloud cone ( funnel cloud ), protruding from the base of a cumulonimbus, and of a bush composed of water droplets raised from the surface of the sea. its behaviour is characterized by a tendency to dissipate upon reaching shore. wave heightvertical distance between the trough and crest of a wave. wave periodstime between the passage of two successive wave crests past a fixed point.


so write it offline in an editor ( e. g., notepad ) and paste it in your little post box, viz. : from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia this article is about the general notion of determinism in philosophy. for other uses, see determinism ( disambiguation ). not to be confused with fatalism, predeterminism, or predictability. determinism is a metaphysical philosophical position stating that for everything that happens there are conditions such that, given those conditions, nothing else could happen. " there are many determinisms, depending upon what pre - conditions are considered to be determinative of an event. " determinism throughout the history of philosophy has sprung from diverse considerations, some of which overlap. some forms of determinism can be tested empirically with ideas stemming from physics and the philosophy of physics. the opposite of determinism is some kind of indeterminism ( otherwise called nondeterminism ). determinism is often contrasted with free will. determinism often is taken to mean simply causal determinism, that is, basing determinism upon the idea of cause - and - effect. it is the concept that events within a given paradigm are bound by causality in such a way that any state ( of an object or event ) is completely determined by prior states. this meaning can be distinguished from other varieties of determinism mentioned below. the introduction of " cause - and - effect " introduces unnecessary complications related to what is meant by a ' cause ' and how the presence of a ' cause ' might be established, the interpretation of which varies from one physical theory to another. these complications are avoided by a more general formulation based upon connections between ' events ' supplied by a theory : " a theory is deterministic if, and only if, given its state variables for some initial period, the theory logically determines a unique set of values for those variables for any other period. " — ernest nagel, alternative descriptions of physical state p. 292 this quote replaces the idea of ' cause - and - effect ' with that of ' logical implication ' according to one or another theory that connects events. in addition, an ' event ' is related by the theory itself to formalized states described using the parameters defined by that theory. thus, the details of interpretation are placed where they belong, fitted to the context in which the chosen theory applies. other debates often concern the scope of determined systems, with some maintaining that


to formalized states described using the parameters defined by that theory. thus, the details of interpretation are placed where they belong, fitted to the context in which the chosen theory applies. other debates often concern the scope of determined systems, with some maintaining that the entire universe ( or multiverse ) is a single determinate system and others identifying other more limited determinate systems. for example, using the definition of physical determinism above, the limitations of a theory to some particular domain of experience also limits the associated definition of ' determinism ' to that same domain. there are numerous historical debates involving many philosophical positions and varieties of determinism. they include debates concerning determinism and free will, technically denoted as compatibilistic ( allowing the two to coexist ) and incompatibilistic ( denying their coexistence is a possibility ). determinism should not be confused with self - determination of human actions by reasons, motives, and desires. determinism rarely requires that perfect prediction be practically possible – merely predictable in theory. many philosophical theories of determinism frame themselves with the idea that reality follows a sort of predetermined path causal determinism is " the idea that every event is necessitated by antecedent events and conditions together with the laws of nature ". however, causal determinism is a broad enough term to consider that " one ' s deliberations, choices, and actions will often be necessary links in the causal chain that brings something about. in other words, even though our deliberations, choices, and actions are themselves determined like everything else, it is still the case, according to causal determinism, that the occurrence or existence of yet other things depends upon our deliberating, choosing and acting in a certain way ". causal determinism proposes that there is an unbroken chain of prior occurrences stretching back to the origin of the universe. the relation between events may not be specified, nor the origin of that universe. causal determinists believe that there is nothing uncaused or self - caused. historical determinism ( a sort of path dependence ) can also be synonymous with causal determinism. nomological determinism ( sometimes called ' scientific ' determinism, although that is a misnomer ) is the most common form of causal determinism. it is the notion that the past and the present dictate the future entirely and necessarily by rigid natural laws, that every occurrence results inevitably from prior events. quantum mechanics and


misnomer ) is the most common form of causal determinism. it is the notion that the past and the present dictate the future entirely and necessarily by rigid natural laws, that every occurrence results inevitably from prior events. quantum mechanics and various interpretations thereof pose a serious challenge to this view. nomological determinism is sometimes illustrated by the thought experiment of laplace ' s demon. physical determinism holds holds that all physical events occur as described by physical laws. depending upon definitions, there is some room here for the view that not everything in the universe must be tied to some physical state, but that view is not usually emphasized by adherents of physical determinism because of the widely accepted scientific view that the operation of all physical systems ( often unnecessarily taken to mean everything ) can be explained entirely in physical terms, the assumed causal closure of physics. necessitarianism is very related to the causal determinism described above. it is a metaphysical principle that denies all mere possibility ; there is exactly one way for the world to be. leucippus claimed there were no uncaused events, and that everything occurs for a reason and by necessity. predeterminism is the idea that all events are determined in advance. the concept of predeterminism is often argued by invoking causal determinism, implying that there is an unbroken chain of prior occurrences stretching back to the origin of the universe. in the case of predeterminism, this chain of events has been pre - established, and human actions cannot interfere with the outcomes of this pre - established chain. predeterminism can be used to mean such pre - established causal determinism, in which case it is categorised as a specific type of determinism. it can also be used interchangeably with causal determinism - in the context of its capacity to determine future events. despite this, predeterminism is often considered as independent of causal determinism. the term predeterminism is also frequently used in the context of biology and hereditary, in which case it represents a form of biological determinism. fatalism is normally distinguished from " determinism ". fatalism is the idea that everything is fated to happen, so that humans have no control over their future. fate has arbitrary power, and need not follow any causal or otherwise deterministic laws. types of fatalism include hard theological determinism and the idea of predestination


fated to happen, so that humans have no control over their future. fate has arbitrary power, and need not follow any causal or otherwise deterministic laws. types of fatalism include hard theological determinism and the idea of predestination, where there is a god who determines all that humans will do. this may be accomplished either by knowing their actions in advance, via some form of omniscience or by decreeing their actions in advance. theological determinism is a form of determinism which states that all events that happen are pre - ordained, or predestined to happen, by a monotheistic deity, or that they are destined to occur given its omniscience. two forms of theological determinism exist, here referenced as strong and weak theological determinism. the first one, strong theological determinism, is based on the concept of a creator deity dictating all events in history : " everything that happens has been predestined to happen by an omniscient, omnipotent divinity ". the second form, weak theological determinism, is based on the concept of divine foreknowledge - " because god ' s omniscience is perfect, what god knows about the future will inevitably happen, which means, consequently, that the future is already fixed ". there exist slight variations on the above categorisation. some claim that theological determinism requires predestination of all events and outcomes by the divinity ( i. e. they do not classify the weaker version as ' theological determinism ' unless libertarian free will is assumed to be denied as a consequence ), or that the weaker version does not constitute ' theological determinism ' at all. with respect to free will, " theological determinism is the thesis that god exists and has infallible knowledge of all true propositions including propositions about our future actions ", more minimal criteria designed to encapsulate all forms of theological determinism. theological determinism can also be seen as a form of causal determinism, in which the antecedent conditions are the nature and will of god. logical determinism or determinateness is the notion that all propositions, whether about the past, present, or future, are either true or false. note that one can support causal determinism without necessarily supporting logical determinism and vice versa ( depending on one ' s views on the nature of time, but also randomness


the past, present, or future, are either true or false. note that one can support causal determinism without necessarily supporting logical determinism and vice versa ( depending on one ' s views on the nature of time, but also randomness ). the problem of free will is especially salient now with logical determinism : how can choices be free, given that propositions about the future already have a truth value in the present ( i. e. it is already determined as either true or false )? this is referred to as the problem of future contingents. adequate determinism focuses on the fact that, even without a full understanding of microscopic physics, we can predict the distribution of 1000 coin tosses often synonymous with logical determinism are the ideas behind spatio - temporal determinism or eternalism : the view of special relativity. j. j. c. smart, a proponent of this view, uses the term " tenselessness " to describe the simultaneous existence of past, present, and future. in physics, the " block universe " of hermann minkowski and albert einstein assumes that time is a fourth dimension ( like the three spatial dimensions ). in other words, all the other parts of time are real, like the city blocks up and down a street, although the order in which they appear depends on the driver ( see rietdijk – putnam argument ). adequate determinism is the idea that quantum indeterminacy can be ignored for most macroscopic events. this is because of quantum decoherence. random quantum events " average out " in the limit of large numbers of particles ( where the laws of quantum mechanics asymptotically approach the laws of classical mechanics ). stephen hawking explains a similar idea : he says that the microscopic world of quantum mechanics is one of determined probabilities. that is, quantum effects rarely alter the predictions of classical mechanics, which are quite accurate ( albeit still not perfectly certain ) at larger scales. something as large as an animal cell, then, would be " adequately determined " ( even in light of quantum indeterminacy ). nature and nurture interact in humans. a scientist looking at a sculpture after some time does not ask whether we are seeing the effects of the starting materials or environmental influences. although some of the above forms of determinism concern human behaviors and cognition, others frame themselves as an answer to the nature or nurture debate. they will suggest that one factor will entirely determine behavior. as scientific understanding has grown, however


influences. although some of the above forms of determinism concern human behaviors and cognition, others frame themselves as an answer to the nature or nurture debate. they will suggest that one factor will entirely determine behavior. as scientific understanding has grown, however, the strongest versions of these theories have been widely rejected as a single cause fallacy. in other words, the modern deterministic theories attempt to explain how the interaction of both nature and nurture is entirely predictable. the concept of heritability has been helpful to make this distinction. biological determinism, sometimes called genetic determinism, is the idea that each of our behaviors, beliefs, and desires are fixed by our genetic nature. behaviorism is the idea that all behavior can be traced to specific causes — either environmental or reflexive. this nurture - focused determinism was developed by john b. watson and b. f. skinner. cultural determinism or social determinism is the nurture - focused theory that it is the culture in which we are raised that determines who we are. environmental determinism is also known as climatic or geographical determinism. it holds the view that the physical environment, rather than social conditions, determines culture. supporters often also support behavioral determinism. key proponents of this notion have included ellen churchill semple, ellsworth huntington, thomas griffith taylor and possibly jared diamond, although his status as an environmental determinist is debated. a technological determinist might suggest that technology like the mobile phone is the greatest factor shaping human civilization. other ' deterministic ' theories actually seek only to highlight the importance of a particular factor in predicting the future. these theories often use the factor as a sort of guide or constraint on the future. they need not suppose that complete knowledge of that one factor would allow us to make perfect predictions. psychological determinism can mean that humans must act according to reason, but it can also be synonymous with some sort of psychological egoism. the latter is the view that humans will always act according to their perceived best interest. linguistic determinism claims that our language determines ( at least limits ) the things we can think and say and thus know. the sapir – whorf hypothesis argues that individuals experience the world based on the grammatical structures they habitually use. economic determinism is the theory which attributes primacy to the economic structure over politics in the development of human history. it is associated with the dialectical materialism of karl marx. technological determinism is a reductionist theory


shape of most hdtv monitors ( rectangular ). hdtvs have been manufactured in both 4 : 3 and 16 : 9 aspect ratios. widescreen is a term used for the 16 : 9 aspect ratio which is larger than the standard definition tv screen. - 1080p is the shorthand identification for a category of hdtv video modes. the number 1080 represents 1, 080 lines of vertical resolution ( 1, 080 horizontal scan lines ), while the letter p stands for progressive scan ( meaning the image is not interlaced ). the term usually assumes a widescreen aspect ratio of 16 : 9, implying a horizontal resolution of 1920 pixels. - 1080i is a ( hdtv ) video mode. the term usually assumes a widescreen aspect ratio of 16 : 9, implying a horizontal resolution of 1920 pixels and a frame resolution of 1920×1080 or about 2. 07 million pixels. - 720p is the shorthand name for a category of hdtv video modes. the number 720 stands for the 720 horizontal scan lines of display resolution ( also known as 720 pixels of vertical resolution ), while the letter p stands for progressive scan or non - interlaced. - 720 or 1080 lines of resolution from both the channel broadcast and the hdtv monitor ( note : a 480i dvd is not high definition, even though the image quality is considerably higher than a standard definition tv broadcast on a standard definition tv. ) - ability to display 16x9 aspect ratio pictures - y pb pr video component connections from the cable receiver to the hdtv - audio in the dolby digital ( ac - 3 ) format to support " 5. 1 " surround sound most hdtv monitors can display an sdtv ( 480i ) signal. if " sidebars " appear, you can press the settings button on the remote control twice to access the hdtv settings. then select the 480i stretch setting, which will stretch the 4 : 3 program to fill the entire screen area.


a consistent csg model is one which is made up of solid objects with no dangling surfaces. in rayshade, it is quite easy to construct inconsistent models, which will usually appear incorrect in the final images. in rayshade, csg is implemented by maintaining the tree structure of the csg operations. this tree is traversed, and the operators therein applied, on a per - ray basis. it is therefore difficult to verify the consistency of the model ` ` on the fly. ' ' one class of csg problems occur when surfaces of objects being operated upon coincide. for example, when subtracting a box from another box to make a square cup, the result will be wrong if the tops of the two boxes coincide. to correct this, the inner box should be made slightly taller than the outer box. a related problem that must be avoided occurs when two coincident surfaces are assigned different surface properties. it may seem that the union operator is unnecessary, since listing two objects together in an aggregate results in an image that appears to be the same. while the result of such a short - cut may appear the same on the exterior, the interior of the resulting object will contain extraneous surfaces. the following example show this quite clearly. difference box - 2 0 - 3 2 3 3 union / * change to list ; note bad internal surfaces * / sphere 2 1 0 0 sphere 2 - 1 0 0 end end rotate 1 0 0 - 40 rotate 0 0 1 50 the visual evidence of an inconsistent csg object varies depending upon the operator being used. when subtracting a consistent object from and inconsistent one, the resulting object will appear to be the union of the two objects, but the shading will be incorrect. it will appear to be inside - out in places, while correct in other places. the inside - out sections indicate the areas where the problems occur. such problems are often caused by polygons with incorrectly specified normals, or by surfaces that exactly coincide ( which appear as partial ` ` swiss cheese ' ' objects ). the following example illustrates an attempt to subtract a sphere from a pyramid defined using an incorrectly facing triangle. note that the resulting image obviously points to which triangle is reversed. name pyramid list triangle 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 triangle 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 triangle 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 triangle 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 / * wrong order * / end difference object pyramid scale 3 3 3 rotate 0 0 1 45


water creatures caught stealing dna tiny freshwater organisms that have a sex - free lifestyle, may have survived so well because they steal genes from other creatures, us scientists report. researchers from the harvard university in cambridge, massachusetts, have found genes from bacteria, fungi and even plants incorporated into the dna of bdelloid rotifers - minuscule animals that appear to have given up sex 40 million years ago. their report appears in this week ' s edition of science. sex is used by most life forms as a way of coping with changing circumstances, by allowing organisms to develop useful new genes and ditch harmful, mutated ones. the resilience of bdelloid and their sex - free lifestyle has stumped scientists. the team, headed by professor matthew meselson, looked at the dna of bdelloid rotifers to see how they manage to survive and evolve. it appears they overcome this hurdle by stealing dna from our organisms. " our result shows that genes can enter the genomes of bdelloids in a manner fundamentally different from that which, in other animals, results from the mating of males and females, " says meselson. " we found many genes that appear to have originated in bacteria, fungi, and plants. " the translucent, waterborne creatures, which range in size from 0. 1 to 1 millimetres long, lay eggs, but all their offspring are female. the researchers believe that when bdelloids dry out, they fracture their genetic material and rupture cellular membranes. when they rehydrate, they rebuild their genomes and their membranes, incorporating shreds of genetic material from other bdelloids and unrelated species in their vicinity. " these fascinating animals not only have relaxed the barriers to incorporation of foreign genetic material, but, more surprisingly, they even managed to keep some of these alien genes functional, " report co - author dr irina arkhipova says. according to the researchers, the next step is to determine whether bdelloid genomes also contain homologous genes imported from other bdelloids. meselson and his colleagues also hope to examine whether the animals actually use any of the hundreds of snippets of foreign dna they appear to vacuum up. understanding how the animals acquire and make use of these new genes could have implications for medicine. genetic mutations, which occur constantly in any living organism, underlie cancer, heart disease and various other diseases.


science fair project encyclopedia the sampling frequency or sampling rate defines the number of samples per second taken from a continuous signal to make a discrete signal. the inverse of the sampling frequency is the sampling period or sampling time, which is the time between samples. the sampling frequency can only be applied to samplers in which each sample is periodically taken. there is no rule that limits a sampler from taking a sample at a non - periodic rate. if a signal has a bandwidth of 100 hz then to avoid aliasing the sampling frequency must be greater than 200 hz. in some cases, it is desirable to have a sampling frequency more than twice the bandwidth so that a digital filter can be used in exchange for a weaker analog anti - aliasing filter. this process is known as oversampling. in digital audio, common sampling rates are : - 8, 000 hz - telephone, adequate for human speech - 11, 025 hz - 22, 050 hz - radio - 44, 100 hz - compact disc - 48, 000 hz - digital sound used for films and professional audio - 96, 000 or 192, 400 hz - dvd - audio, some lpcm dvd audio tracks, bd - rom ( blu - ray disc ) audio tracks, and hd - dvd ( high - definition dvd ) audio tracks in digital video, which uses a ccd as the sensor, the sampling rate is defined the frame / field rate, rather than the notional pixel clock. all modern tv cameras use ccds, and the image sampling frequency is the repetition rate of the ccd integration period. - 13. 5 mhz - ccir 601, d1 video - continuous signal vs. discrete signal - digital control - sample and hold - sample ( signal ) - sampling ( information theory ) - signal ( information theory ) the contents of this article is licensed from www. wikipedia. org under the gnu free documentation license. click here to see the transparent copy and copyright details


a unique synthesis of symbolism and substance, its occupant the embodiment of that work in progress called the united states and the chief magistrate with supervisory responsibility for all domestic and foreign policy, in effect an elected king and prime minister rolled into one. there was a sense at the time, since confirmed by most historians of the presidency, that no one else could have managed this political evolution so successfully, indeed that under anyone else the experiment with republican government would probably have failed at the start. eventually the operation of the federal government under the constitution would be described as “ a machine that ran itself. ” at the outset, however, the now venerable checks and balances of the constitution required a trusted leader who had internalized checks and balances sufficiently to understand both the need for executive power and the limitations of its effectiveness. he made the presidency a projection of himself. washington tried to step down after those first four years and, perhaps predictably, failed. his second term was increasingly full of rancor, with dramatic developments in europe and mounting tensions between jefferson and hamilton within his cabinet that together threatened to destroy all he had accomplished. but fierce though these conflicts were, they weren ’ t powerful enough to destroy the foundation that washington had built, and they haven ’ t managed to yet.


the life - giving ideas of chemistry are not reducible to physics. or, if one tries to reduce them, they wilt at the edges, lose not only much of their meaning, but interest too. and, most importantly, they lose their chemical utility — their ability to relate seemingly disparate compounds to each other, their fecundity in inspiring new experiments. i ' m thinking of concepts such as the chemical bond, a functional group and the logic of substitution, aromaticity, steric effects, acidity and basicity, electronegativity and oxidation - reduction. as well as some theoretical ideas i ' ve been involved in personally — through - bond coupling, orbital symmetry control, the isolobal analogy. consider the notion of oxidation state. if you had to choose two words to epitomize the same - and - not - the - same nature of chemistry, would you not pick ferrous and ferric? the concept evolved at the end of the 19th century ( not without confusion with " valency " ), when the reality of ions in solution was established. as did a multiplicity of notations — ferrous iron is iron in an oxidation state of + 2 ( or is it 2 +? ) or fe ( ii ). schemes for assigning oxidation states ( sometimes called oxidation numbers ) adorn every introductory chemistry text. they begin with the indisputable : in compounds, the oxidation states of the most electronegative elements ( those that hold on most tightly to their valence electrons ), oxygen and fluorine for example, are – 2 and – 1, respectively. after that the rules grow ornate, desperately struggling to balance wide applicability with simplicity. the oxidation - state scheme had tremendous classificatory power ( for inorganic compounds, not organic ones ) from the beginning. think of the sky blue color of chromium ( ii ) versus the violet or green of chromium ( iii ) salts, the four distinctly colored oxidation states of vanadium. oliver sacks writes beautifully of the attraction of these colors for a boy starting out in chemistry. and not only boys. but there was more to oxidation states than just describing color. or balancing equations. chemistry is transformation. the utility of oxidation states dovetailed with the logic of oxidizing and reducing agents — molecules and ions that with ease removed or added electrons to other molecules. between electron transfer and proton transfer you have much of reaction chemistry. i want to tell you how this logic leads to quite


. people in the trade will recognize that i ' m talking about " mulliken population analysis " or " natural bond analysis " or richard bader ' s beautifully worked out scheme for dividing up space in a molecule. what about experiment? is there an observable that might gauge a charge on an atom? i think photoelectron spectroscopies ( esca or auger ) come the closest. here one measures the energy necessary to promote an inner - core electron to a higher level or to ionize it. atoms in different oxidation states do tend to group themselves at certain energies. but the theoretical framework that relates these spectra to charges depends on the same assumptions that bedevil the definition of a charge on an atom. an oxidation state bears little relation to the actual charge on the atom ( except in the interior of the sun, where ligands are gone, there is plenty of energy, and you can have iron in oxidation states up to + 26 ). this doesn ' t stop the occasional theoretician today from making a heap of a story when the copper in a formal cu ( iii ) complex comes out of a calculation bearing a charge of, say, + 0. 51. nor does it stop oxidation states from being just plain useful. many chemical reactions involve electron transfer, with an attendant complex of changes in chemical, physical and biological properties. oxidation state, a formalism and not a representation of the actual electron density at a metal center, is a wonderful way to " bookkeep " electrons in the course of a reaction. even if that electron, whether added or removed, spends a good part of its time on the ligands. but enough theory, or, as some of my colleagues would sigh, anthropomorphic platitudes. let ' s look at some beautiful chemistry of extreme oxidation states. incredible, but true recently, a young polish postdoctoral associate, wojciech grochala, led me to look with him at the chemical and theoretical design of novel high - temperature superconductors. we focused on silver ( ag ) fluorides ( f ) with silver in oxidation states ii and iii. the reasoning that led us there is described in our forthcoming paper. for now let me tell you about some chemistry that i learned in the process. i can only characterize this chemistry as incredible but true. ( some will say that i should have known about it, since it was hardly hidden, but the fact is i didn ' t. ) here is what ag ( ii


in the process. i can only characterize this chemistry as incredible but true. ( some will say that i should have known about it, since it was hardly hidden, but the fact is i didn ' t. ) here is what ag ( ii ), unique to fluorides, can do. in anhydrous hf solutions it oxidizes xe to xe ( ii ), generates c6f6 + salts from perfluorobenzene, takes perfluoropropylene to perfluoropropane, and liberates irf6 from its stable anion. these reactions may seem abstruse to a nonchemist, but believe me, it ' s not easy to find a reagent that would accomplish them. ag ( iii ) is an even stronger oxidizing agent. it oxidizes mf6 – ( where m = pt or ru ) to mf6. here is what neil bartlett at the university of california at berkeley writes of one reaction : " samples of agf3 reacted incandescently with metal surfaces when frictional heat from scratching or grinding of the agf3 occurred. " ag ( ii ), ag ( iii ) and f are all about equally hungry for electrons. throw them one, and it ' s not at all a sure thing that the electron will wind up on the fluorine to produce fluoride ( f – ). it may go to the silver instead, in which case you may get some f2 from the recombination of f atoms. not that everyone can ( or wants to ) do chemistry in anhydrous hf, with f2 as a reagent or being produced as well. in a recent microreview, thomas o ' donnell says ( with some understatement ), "... this solvent may seem to be an unlikely choice for a model solvent system, given its reactivity towards the usual materials of construction of scientific equipment. " ( and its reactivity with the " materials of construction " of human beings working with that equipment! ) but, o ' donnell goes on to say, "... with the availability of spectroscopic and electrochemical equipment constructed from fluorocarbons such as teflon and kel - f, synthetic sapphire and platinum, manipulation of and physicochemical investigation of hf solutions in closed systems is now reasonably straightforward. " for this we must thank the pioneers in the field — generations of flu


as teflon and kel - f, synthetic sapphire and platinum, manipulation of and physicochemical investigation of hf solutions in closed systems is now reasonably straightforward. " for this we must thank the pioneers in the field — generations of fluorine chemists, but especially bartlett and boris zemva of the university of ljubljana. bartlett reports the oxidation of agf2 to agf4 – ( as kagf4 ) using photochemical irradiation of f2 in anhydrous hf ( made less acidic by adding kf to the hf ). and zemva used kr2 + ( in krf2 ) to react with agf2 in anhydrous hf in the presence of xef6 to make xef5 + agf4 –. what a startling list of reagents! to appreciate the difficulty and the inspiration of this chemistry, one must look at the original papers, or at the informal letters of the few who have tried it. you can find some of neil bartlett ' s commentary in the article that wojciech and i wrote, and in an interview with him. charge it, please chemists are always changing things. how to tune the propensity of a given oxidation state to oxidize or reduce? one way to do it is by changing the charge on the molecule that contains the oxidizing or reducing center. the syntheses of the silver fluorides cited above contain some splendid examples of this strategy. let me use bartlett ' s words again, just explaining that " electronegativity " gauges in some rough way the tendency of an atom to hold on to electrons. ( high electronegativity means the electron is strongly held, low electronegativity that it is weakly held. ) it ' s easy to make a high oxidation state in an anion because an anion is electron - rich. the electronegativity is lower for a given oxidation state in an anion than it is in a neutral molecule. that in turn, is lower than it is in a cation. if i take silver and i expose it to fluorine in the presence of fluoride ion, in hf, and expose it to light to break of f2 to atoms, i convert the silver to silver ( iii ), agf4 -. this is easy because the ag ( iii ) is in an anion. i can then pass in boron trifluoride and precipitate silver


to atoms, i convert the silver to silver ( iii ), agf4 -. this is easy because the ag ( iii ) is in an anion. i can then pass in boron trifluoride and precipitate silver trifluoride, which is now a much more potent oxidizer than agf4 - because the electronegativity in the neutral agf3 is much higher than it is in the anion. if i can now take away a fluoride ion, and make a cation, i drive the electronegativity even further up. with such a cation, for example, agf2 +, i can steal the electron from ptf6 - and make ptf6.... this is an oxidation that even kr ( ii ) is unable to bring about. simple, but powerful reasoning. and it works. a world record? finally, a recent oxidation - state curiosity : what is the highest oxidation state one could get in a neutral molecule? pekka pyykko and coworkers suggest cautiously, but i think believably, that octahedral uo6, that is u ( xii ), may exist. there is evidence from other molecules that uranium 6p orbitals can get involved in bonding, which is what they would have to do in uo6. what wonderful chemistry has come — and still promises to come — from the imperfect logic of oxidation states! © roald hoffmann i am grateful to wojciech grochala, robert fay and debra rolison for corrections and comments. thanks to stan marcus for suggesting the title of this column.


diagnosing mesothelioma : mris magnetic resonance imaging ( mri ) is one of several imaging techniques that doctors use to detect, stage and evaluate the progression of mesothelioma. these non - invasive scans use magnets and radio waves to help doctors visualize a patient ’ s organs, tissues, bones and tumors. many radiologists consider mris ideal for viewing the anatomical structures of the chest and abdomen – including the pleura and peritoneum, where mesothelioma tumors most commonly develop. the first commercial mri units emerged in the 1980s. since then, the technology has advanced considerably. modern mri units use superconductor magnets and coils to produce a constant magnetic field, as well as radiofrequency energy to measure signals from the nuclei of hydrogen atoms inside the body. computers inside the scanner register these signals and turn them into images. most modern units also include a shield, which prevents the scanner from picking up interference from outside signals sources like televisions and radio stations. mris work by aligning the water molecules in your body. radio waves then cause these aligned particles to emit signals, which register on the scanner. the images reflect the amount of activity that is occurring in each internal structure. each mri - generated image shows a thin slice of the body. the mri process the entire mri process takes about an hour or two to complete. the scan itself takes between 30 and 60 minutes, but the appointment also includes pre - scan positioning and other preparation activities. once patients arrive at the mri center and fill out their paperwork, they must remove all metal objects from their bodies. the strong magnets in an mri scanner can attract zippered clothing, jewelry, watches, belts, keys and credit cards. implanted medical devices that contain metal may also cause complications with the scan. next, patients will put on a hospital gown and ear plugs. fast factsome mri scans use a contrast dye to improve image detail. the most common dye is gadolinium, which is safe and effective for most patients with properly functioning kidneys. this magnetic metal ion can visually enhance lesions on mri images, indicating growths that may be mesothelioma tumors. for contrast - enhanced mris, patients will receive an injection of a contrast dye. this makes certain areas show up more clearly on the test. after the injection, patients lie down on the imaging table. the technologist then arranges a coil around the part of the body that is being imaged. for pl


a contrast dye. this makes certain areas show up more clearly on the test. after the injection, patients lie down on the imaging table. the technologist then arranges a coil around the part of the body that is being imaged. for pleural mesothelioma, this will be the chest. for peritoneal mesothelioma, it will be the abdomen. once the technician positions the patient ’ s body correctly for the exam, the patient and table are slid into a tube - like opening in the mri machine. during the scan, the machine makes repetitive knocking sounds as the magnetic field gradients turn on and off. the test itself is painless. patients should try not to move during the scan, but they can communicate with their technician via microphone if they feel scared or claustrophobic. patients can leave the mri center immediately after the scan. a post - processing technologist will then highlight abnormal areas on the images. once the final images are ready for review, a radiologist interprets the results and provides the patient ’ s primary doctor with a report. from there, the physician can examine the scan on a computer monitor, send them electronically to the rest of the treatment team or print them out for the patient ’ s medical records. mri side effects patients occasionally experience minor side effects after an mri scan. | magnetophosphenes ( brief flashes of light across the retina ) | | vertigo / dizziness | | metallic taste in the mouth | | nausea | | physical burns or burning sensations ( extremely rare ) | mris do not place patients at risk for radiation - induced damage. because mris do not use ionizing radiation, most doctors prefer mris for patients who need routine imaging scans. the u. s. food and drug administration ( fda ) concludes that as long as the field strengths are kept below 2. 0 tesla, mris are safe for repeated use. mris for diagnosing mesothelioma tumors magnetic resonance imaging currently plays a limited role in diagnosing mesothelioma. when doctors do prescribe mri scans to diagnose the disease, they often use them to complement ct scan results. mri - generated images can help differentiate between normal tissue and tumor tissue, which cannot be determined with a ct scan alone. mri scans produce a visual representation of differences is signal intensity between cancerous and noncancerous tissues. because cancerous tissues emit more intense signals than surrounding healthy tissue, malignant mesothelioma tissues appear as


a ct scan alone. mri scans produce a visual representation of differences is signal intensity between cancerous and noncancerous tissues. because cancerous tissues emit more intense signals than surrounding healthy tissue, malignant mesothelioma tissues appear as white spots on the scan results with varying brightness. the difference between malignant and noncancerous tissue is even more pronounced in contrast - enhanced mris. to arrive at a mesothelioma diagnosis, radiologists usually inspect mri - generated images for a mass on the pleura, which encases the lungs. these masses often emit signals of intermediate intensity. the fluid located between the lungs and pleura can also indicate mesothelioma, as areas of pleural fluid with very intense signals sometimes surround pleural masses. mri scans are generally superior to ct scans for characterizing pleural fluid as benign or malignant. | chest wall infiltration | | mediastinal pleural involvement | | circumferential pleural thickening | | nodularity | | other irregular changes in pleural tissue | features such as bilateral pleural involvement, pleural shrinkage, pleural effusions and pleural calcifications may also show up on mri - generated images. these features may suggest mesothelioma, but cannot be used to make a definitive diagnosis. mris for staging mesothelioma tumors most studies indicate that mris and ct scans are equally effective for accurately staging malignant mesothelioma tumors. while mris are less effective at detecting lymph node involvement, they are generally superior at detecting the extent of a tumor ’ s invasion of other local structures – one of the key steps in staging a mesothelioma tumor. when radiologists use mris to stage a mesothelioma tumor, they look for the following features : - loss of normal fat planes - extension into mediastinal fat - tumor growth that encases more than half the circumference of an organ or mediastinal structure radiologists can exclude patients as good surgical candidates if an mri scan shows mediastinal or full - thickness pericardial involvement, diffuse or multifocal chest wall disease or involvement of the diaphragm or spine. by revealing the stage of a mesothelioma tumor, mri images can help doctors determine whether or not the patient is a good candidate for invasive surgery. mris are especially useful for detecting two


involvement of the diaphragm or spine. by revealing the stage of a mesothelioma tumor, mri images can help doctors determine whether or not the patient is a good candidate for invasive surgery. mris are especially useful for detecting two primary features of patients who are unlikely to benefit from an aggressive operation : chest wall invasion and involvement of the diaphragm. in one study, mris detected diaphragmatic spread with 82 percent accuracy, while ct scans detected the same condition with only 55 percent accuracy. mris are useful for staging mesothelioma with the tnm system. some studies suggest that mri scans can differentiate between t3 and t4 disease, but not earlier stages like t1 and t2. one study found that mris understaged half of the mesothelioma tumors by failing to detect pericardial invasion, which advances tumors from stage t2 to stage t3. however, the same mris were effective at detecting involvement of the internal pericardium, which also advances tumors from stage t3 to t4. the study correctly identified all of the tumors that were stage t3 or lower ( while excluding the t4 tumors ) with a positive predictive value of 100 percent. mris for evaluating response to treatment oncologists consider the mri an accurate and reproducible technique for evaluating patient response to mesothelioma treatment. when evaluating the mri scan results of mesothelioma patients undergoing treatment, radiologists often measure the tumor from several separate sites. this helps account for the rind - like growth pattern of the cancer. the primary measurement that the doctors look for is an increase or decrease in pleural thickness. fast factin one study of 50 mesothelioma patients, mri scans correctly categorized the tumor response in 92 percent of patients. if there is no visible disease on the post - treatment imaging scan, doctors call this complete response. if there is a 30 percent decrease in the sum of linear tumor measurements, they generally refer to that as a partial response to treatment. if the mri indicates a size increase of at least 20 percent ( or shows a newly developed lesion ), the disease is considered progressive. doctors may prescribe lung spirometry tests when using mris as another way to evaluate treatment response. patients whose mris indicate a partial or complete response to mesothelioma treatment often display simultaneous improvements in lung function, which can be measured with a spirometer. when doctors study mri results to determine


with an expressive communication disability, and may then need to seek approval for each proposed diagnostic strategy before the actual evaluation. modifications to the proposed plan may be suggested by either attorney or the judge. experts in litigation today must be familiar with the origin and significance of the daubert case ( bernstein & hartsell, 2005 ). this 1993 landmark decision ( daubert v. merrell dow pharms., 509 u. s. 579, 113 s. ct. 2786, 125 l. ed. 2d 469 ) resulted in specific instructions for expert testimony introduced into the courtroom. basically, daubert ' s rule established requirements for admissibility of expert testimony, including whether or not the employed technique has been peer - reviewed and published, has a known error rate, can be tested, and is a generally accepted practice within the field. as expert witnesses, slps need to prepare for testimony with the understanding that their scientific knowledge will be tested by the opposing attorney, challenged regarding peer reviews and publications, and examined for potential errors and general acceptance by their own scholarly community. every word and comma in their expert reports will be scrutinized. although slps may feel confident in their professional knowledge base and clinical skills in aac, writing and defending the expert report within the legal system is very different from preparing a clinical report for a public school or medical facility. to prepare a report for testimony, slps need to translate their clinical knowledge into a legally useful form without using jargon, and to follow the rules, roles, and procedures for written reports according to legal tradition. these evaluations and reports must be precise so as not to introduce any reasonable doubt. failure to understand the purpose and use of a written report may result in a damaging cross - examination and may undermine the slp ' s credibility. one example of potential difficulty is establishing a legal capacity for expressive communication when that expression is an alternative form to speech. as yet, there is no legal definition of " capacity " for testimony if not through speech. the definition of " capacity " is important — a client must be judged to have the " capacity " to participate, because a legal case may set a precedent. when assistive technologies, such as speech - generating devices ( sgds ) or voice output communication aids ( vocas ), are introduced, the question arises : does the legal capacity ( or definition of expressive communication competence ) shift when an sgd is used? in other words, if an individual communicates through technology, is the individual legally


asia news network we know asia better publication date : 04 - 09 - 2012 with health and wellness gaining prominence in people ’ s wish lists, there is now a growing awareness of healthier choices. here are more answers for your myriad of options. pick a wellness plan that will suit you best. please explain — what ’ s all the fuss over over nitrates and nitrites? multiple choice : which meal would you consider supportive of brain health? a ) scrambled eggs cooked in butter plus a generous topping of cheese and sour cream b ) green salad with lean chicken or turkey ham topped with low - fat caesar salad dressing. a is the healthier meal. for one, eggs are nutritious and are considered brain food. vegetables are very good for you ; however, we do not know about the toppings. perhaps the ham is laced with preservatives and additives, including aspartame and nitrite. by itself, nitrite isn ’ t so bad. but when it is eaten, it can transform into nitrosamine compounds, considered potent cancer - causing chemicals. this occurs when a chemical reaction happens between nitrate ( added to food ) and amines ( found in protein that is present in the body ). added to processed foods, this chemical, also known as sodium nitrite or potassium nitrite, prevents the contamination of foods by controlling the toxin production of clostridium botulinum ( which causes botulism ). in the us, these chemicals are allowed to be used, setting the limit to one part nitrite to 120 parts per million. nitrates for fertilisers are suspected to enter the food and water supply. and this is why proper farming is a big issue. nitrite and nitrosamine are linked with increased cancer of the colon, lung, pancreas, liver, etc. how to neutralise nitrite poisoning? take megadoses of vitamin c and e, beta - carotene and flavonoids. visit your dentist how do i cure bad breath? would you believe that billions of bacteria, fungi, viruses and parasites live in our mouths? it ’ s true. there are over 600 species of bacteria that claim our mouths as their home. an overgrowth of bacteria leads to tooth decay and gum disease. it could, one day, lead to tooth loss. if you are brushing, flossing and gargling regularly, then you shouldn ’ t have a real problem. but if you don ’


smoke signals, drum telegraphs, and the marathon runner are all examples of man ’ s effort to conquer the tyranny of distance. however, the first truly successful solution to the problem of rapidly transmitting language across space was the frenchman claude chappe ’ s optical telegraph. chappe ' s chain of stone towers, topped by 10 - ft. poles and 14 - ft. pivoting cross members, and spaced as far apart as the eye could see, was first demonstrated to the public in march of 1791 on the champs elysees. chappe created a language of 9, 999 words, each represented by a different position of the swinging arms. when operated by well - trained optical telegraphers, the system was extraordinarily quick. messages could be transmitted up to 150 miles in two minutes. eventually the french military saw the value of chappe ’ s invention, and lines of his towers were built out from paris to dunkirk and strasbourg. within a decade, a network of optical telegraph lines crisscrossed the nation. when napoleon seized power in 1799, he used the optical telegraph to dispatch the message, “ paris is quiet and the good citizens are content. ” renovated in 1998, the optical telegraph next to the rohan castle in saverne functioned as part of the strasbourg line from 1798 until 1852. it is one of several remaining relay points in the system that can still be visited today.


logging in or signing up an introduction to greek mythology jhurley download post to : url : related presentations : share add to flag embed email send to blogs and networks add to channel uploaded from authorpoint lite insert youtube videos in powerpont slides with as desktop copy embed code : embed : flash ipad copy does not support media & animations wordpress embed customize embed url : copy thumbnail : copy the presentation is successfully added in your favorites. views : 2428 category : education license : all rights reserved like it ( 0 ) dislike it ( 0 ) added : july 19, 2012 this presentation is public favorites : 2 presentation description why study greek myths? comments posting comment... premium member presentation transcript powerpoint presentation : an introduction greek mythology greek mythologypowerpoint presentation : essential questions : why do myths endure? how is greek mythology evident in our world today? what allusions are there to these stories? what is the origin of greek mythology? powerpoint presentation : what is a myth? a myth is a story, created collectively by a whole people or society over a period of time once believed to be true, that embodies some of the wisdom and truth valued by that society. these stories may help to explain why the world works the way it does, to provide a rationale for customs and observances, to establish set rituals for ceremonies, and to predict what happens to individuals after death. alert : on the test! powerpoint presentation : types of myths cosmic myths concern creation and the end of the world. theistic myths concern gods such as zeus or athena. hero myths concern individuals such as heracles, perseus, and achilles. place / object myths concern items or places such as the golden fleece ; the trojan warpowerpoint presentation : who created myths? ancient greeks, romans, aztecs, ancient egyptians, norse vikings, north american indians, chinese, inhabitants of india — every ancient civilization — developed a system of mythology to explain their world. many answer questions such as : who am i? what is this world around me? why am i here? what is the purpose of life? powerpoint presentation : purposes of mythology myths grant continuity and stability to a culture. myths present guidelines for living. myths justify a culture ’ s activities. myths give meaning to life. myths explain the unexplainable. myths offer role models. alert : on the test! powerpoint presentation : legacy of the ancient greeks greek empire 2500 years ago science and mathematics : aristotle


culture ’ s activities. myths give meaning to life. myths explain the unexplainable. myths offer role models. alert : on the test! powerpoint presentation : legacy of the ancient greeks greek empire 2500 years ago science and mathematics : aristotle, archimedes system of medicine philosophy shaped western civilization and thought arts, drama, poetry, sculpture, literature, architecture law, government, democracy developed in athens military tacticspowerpoint presentation : map of ancient greece important cities mt. olympus troy delphi thebes athens sparta cretepowerpoint presentation : influence of the romans in the last century before the birth of christ, the roman empire expanded and became more powerful than greece. the romans were greatly influenced by the greeks and linked the greek stories to their own gods until both mythologies were almost the same. therefore, there are both latin and greek names for the gods. for example : zeus ( greek ) is also jupiter ( roman / latin ). powerpoint presentation : the ancient soap opera storytellers would tell these stories in the theater. this story telling is an example of “ oral tradition. ” each time a story was retold, new details would be added. stories of the iliad and the odyssey, both epics of adventure and war, took 24 hours to read. people would bring food and drink and stay for entire performances. powerpoint presentation : why study mythology? read very interesting, fun, and engaging stories see how less sophisticated people attempted to deal with questions and problems of their world detect allusions to greek mythology in writers such as shakespeare to the present identify allusions to greek myths in modern products, vocabulary, and businesses recognize common archetypes in literature? you do not have the permission to view this presentation. in order to view it, please contact the author of the presentation.


let ’ s talk art " the way a child thinks about her art is more important than the way you think about it, " says herbert. " never impose limitations and never say, ' i ' m not good at this. ' it introduces fear. never evaluate a preschooler ' s music, art, or dance. make observations from fact. say, ' there is a red circle, ' or ' see these three red lines. ' evaluating may inhibit creativity or discourage a child. " the concept of children understanding art in their own way is not new. charlotte mason, a liberal - thinking educator in the late 1800s, wrote in her book home education, " we cannot measure the influence that one or another artist has upon the children ' s sense of beauty, upon his power of seeing, as in a picture, the common sights of life ; he is enriched more than we know in having really looked at a single picture. " parents cannot travel inside their child ' s brain and ensure that all the educational efforts they make are learned, stored, and applied appropriately. they can be certain, though, that introducing art and music, which have struck emotional chords in humans worldwide for centuries, will enrich an education. the developing mind of a child will soak up whatever it is surrounded with, so why not provide the best history and culture we have to offer?


books & music food & wine health & fitness hobbies & crafts home & garden news & politics religion & spirituality travel & culture tv & movies absolute beginners - autumn skies as the long days of summer slip away and skies darken earlier each evening, the first stars of autumn come into view. the centerpiece of the autumn sky is a starry square called the great square of pegasus. in mid - october it lies almost overhead from mid - northern latitudes around 10 pm. pegasus was the winged horse of greek mythology, and the great square represents the front half of the body of pegasus. four stars mark the corners of the square, boxing in an area of sky so large that you need to hold both hands out at armis length to cover it. sports fans in north america might think of it as a baseball diamond rather than a square. you should be able to find the square without much difficulty, but your star chart can help if you need to orient yourself. ( for help, see " absolute beginners e start observing. " there is a link at the end of this article. ) looking at the square, imagine a line from the right - hand side of the square down towards the southern horizon and youill come to a bright star called fomalhaut. fomalhaut is part of the constellation of piscis austrinus, the southern fish. in 2008, astronomers released photographs taken by the hubble space telescope showing a planet in orbit around fomalhaut. returning to the square, imagine a line upwards from the left side. this will lead you to the w - shaped constellation of cassiopeia, one of the easiest star patterns to recognize. continue the line northwards for the same distance to see the north pole star, polaris. although astronomers talk of the great square of pegasus, these days only three of its stars officially belong to that constellation. in ancient times, one star was shared with neighboring andromeda, marking her head. when, in 1930, astronomers came to define official boundaries for the constellations, they ended the practice of sharing stars. andromeda kept her head but pegasus lost a corner of its square. andromeda represents the unfortunate daughter of queen cassiopeia. she was chained to a rock in sacrifice to a sea monster to atone for the sins of her boastful mother. however, youill need a good imagination to see andromeda as more than a couple of crooked lines of stars leading away from the upper left corner of


i have been enjoying reading all the posts on this thread.... thank you for sharing your work. i have one question. if as you say : " all the letters of the hebrew alphabet are contained in the letter bet ", why is it that the modern form of its shape is different from its ancient form? i would think that the original forms of the hebrew letters would be where design would be found if it were there. we know that the meanings of the letters did not change, but their shapes did... your welcome rose! for starters let me just say this : there is no linguist in the world that can confidently tell anyone where language or written writing originally came from. they cannot truly tell you that so and so writing came before so and so writing. all they can do is surmise. now, i will tell you from lengthy study that all written writing compiled from every known alphabet ( even chinese ) can all be linked to the hebrew block style of writing that first appeared when moses came down from mount sinai with the 10 commandments. we can see similarity in these letters even to cuneiform which is said to be the oldest. so what i estimate happened was that adam and eve originally spoke this language, and the 7th generation from them which was enoch ( who was recorded in his book as well as the book of jubilees and additionally the dead sea scrolls ) who was the first scribe of written writing which was shown to him by g - dis appointed angel ' uriel '. enoch calls these ' ketav einayim ' ( eye writings ). now through the centuries these letters became mottled and distorted ( but we can still see the similarities ). then the letters were revised again ( in their proper forms ) when moses came down from mount sinai. in my book i have a whole chapter called ' language similarities ' in which i reveal how all the alphabetical letters that are found in every single alphabet ever found in the world are still nonetheless the same hebrew letters. hebrew was the original primordial language! - always has, and always will be.


quantum time waits for no quantum theory, also quantum mechanics, in physics, a theory based on using the concept of the quantum unit to describe the dynamic properties of subatomic particles and the interactions of matter and radiation. the foundation was laid by the german physicist max planck, who postulated in 1900 that energy can be emitted or absorbed by matter only in small, discrete units called quanta. fundamental to the development of quantum mechanics was the uncertainty principle, formulated by the german physicist werner heisenberg in 1927, which states that the position and momentum of a subatomic particle cannot be specified simultaneously. spectral lines of atomic hydrogen : when an electron makes a transition from one energy level to another, the electron emits a photon with a particular energy. these photons are then observed as emission lines using a spectroscope. the lyman series involves transitions to the lowest or ground state energy level. to the second energy level are called the balmer series. these transitions involve frequencies in the visible part of the spectrum. in this frequency range each transition is characterized by a in the 18th and 19th centuries, newtonian, or classical, mechanics appeared to provide a wholly accurate description of the motions of bodies — for example, planetary motion. in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, however, experimental findings raised doubts about the completeness of newtonian theory. among the newer observations were the lines that appear in the spectra of light emitted by heated gases, or gases in which electric discharges take place. model of the atom developed in the early 20th century by the english physicist ernest rutherford, in which negatively charged electrons circle a positive nucleus in orbits prescribed by newton ’ s laws of motion, scientists had also expected that the electrons would emit light over a broad frequency range, rather than in the narrow frequency ranges that form the lines in a spectrum. another puzzle for physicists was the coexistence of two theories of light : the corpuscular theory, which explains light as a stream of particles, and the wave theory, which views light as electromagnetic waves. a third problem was the absence of a molecular basis for in his book elementary principles in statistical mechanics ( 1902 ), the american mathematical physicist j. willard gibbs conceded the impossibility of framing a theory of molecular action that reconciled thermodynamics, radiation, and electrical phenomena as they were then understood. at the turn of the century, physicists did not yet clearly recognize that these and other difficulties in physics were in any way related. the first development that led to the solution of these difficulties


, radiation, and electrical phenomena as they were then understood. at the turn of the century, physicists did not yet clearly recognize that these and other difficulties in physics were in any way related. the first development that led to the solution of these difficulties was planck ’ s introduction of the concept of the quantum, as a result of physicists ’ studies of blackbody radiation during the closing years of the 19th century. ( the term blackbody refers to an ideal body or surface that absorbs all radiant energy without any reflection. ) a body at a moderately high temperature — a " red heat " — gives off most of its radiation in the low frequency ( red and infrared ) regions ; a body at a higher temperature — " white heat " — gives off comparatively more radiation in higher frequencies ( yellow, green, or blue ). during the 1890s physicists conducted detailed quantitative studies of these phenomena and expressed their results in a series of curves or graphs. the classical, or prequantum, theory predicted an altogether different set of curves from those actually observed. what planck did was to devise a mathematical formula that described the curves exactly ; he then deduced a physical hypothesis that could explain the formula. his hypothesis was that energy is radiated only in quanta of energy hu, where u is the frequency and h is the quantum action, now known as the next important developments in quantum mechanics were the work of german - born american physicist and nobel laureate albert einstein. he used planck ’ s concept of the quantum to explain certain properties of the photoelectric effect — an experimentally observed phenomenon in which electrons are emitted from metal surfaces when radiation falls on these surfaces. according to classical theory, the energy, as measured by the voltage of the emitted electrons, should be proportional to the intensity of the radiation. the energy of the electrons, however, was found to be independent of the intensity of radiation — which determined only the number of electrons emitted — and to depend solely on the frequency of the radiation. the higher the frequency of the incident radiation, the greater is the electron energy ; below a certain critical frequency no electrons are emitted. these facts were explained by einstein by assuming that a single quantum of radiant energy ejects a single electron from the metal. of the quantum is proportional to the frequency, and so the energy of the electron depends on the frequency. in 1911 rutherford established the existence of the atomic nucleus. he assumed, on the basis of experimental evidence obtained from the scattering of alpha particles by the nuclei of gold atoms, that every atom consists of a


the energy of the electron depends on the frequency. in 1911 rutherford established the existence of the atomic nucleus. he assumed, on the basis of experimental evidence obtained from the scattering of alpha particles by the nuclei of gold atoms, that every atom consists of a dense, positively charged nucleus, surrounded by negatively charged electrons revolving around the nucleus as planets revolve around the sun. electromagnetic theory developed by the british physicist james clerk maxwell unequivocally predicted that an electron revolving around a nucleus will continuously radiate electromagnetic energy until it has lost all its energy, and eventually will fall into the nucleus. thus, according to classical theory, an atom, as described by rutherford, is unstable. this difficulty led the danish physicist niels bohr, in 1913, to postulate that in an atom the classical theory does not hold, and that electrons move in fixed orbits. every change in orbit by the electron corresponds to the absorption or emission of a quantum of radiation. the application of bohr ’ s theory to atoms with more than one electron proved difficult. the mathematical equations for the next simplest atom, the helium atom, were solved during the 1910s and 1920s, but the results were not entirely in accordance with for more complex atoms, only approximate solutions of the equations are possible, and these are only partly concordant the french physicist louis victor de broglie suggested in 1924 that because electromagnetic waves show particle characteristics, particles should, in some cases, also exhibit wave properties. this prediction was verified experimentally within a few years by the american physicists clinton joseph davisson and lester halbert germer and the british physicist george paget thomson. that a beam of electrons scattered by a crystal produces a diffraction pattern characteristic of a wave ( see diffraction ). the wave concept of a particle led the austrian physicist erwin schrodinger to develop a so - called wave equation to describe the wave properties of a particle and, more specifically, the wave behavior of the electron in the hydrogen atom. although this differential equation was continuous and gave solutions for all points in space, the permissible solutions of the equation were restricted by certain conditions expressed by mathematical equations called eigenfunctions ( german eigen, " own " ). the schrodinger wave equation thus had only certain discrete solutions ; these solutions were mathematical expressions in which quantum numbers appeared as parameters. ( quantum numbers are integers developed in particle physics to give the magnitudes of certain characteristic quantities of particles or systems. ) schrodinger equation was solved for the hydrogen atom and


; these solutions were mathematical expressions in which quantum numbers appeared as parameters. ( quantum numbers are integers developed in particle physics to give the magnitudes of certain characteristic quantities of particles or systems. ) schrodinger equation was solved for the hydrogen atom and gave conclusions in substantial agreement with earlier quantum theory. moreover, it was solvable for the helium atom, which earlier theory had failed to explain adequately, and here also it was in agreement with experimental evidence. the solutions of the schrodinger equation also indicated that no two electrons could have the same four quantum numbers — that is, be in the same energy state. rule, which had already been established empirically by austro - american physicist and nobel laureate wolfgang pauli in 1925, is called the exclusion principle. what is matter in the 20th century, physicists discovered that matter behaved as both a wave and a particle. austrian physicist and nobel prize winner erwin schrodinger discussed this apparent paradox in a lecture in geneva, switzerland, in 1952. a condensed and translated version of his lecture appeared in scientific american the following what is matter? the wave - particle dualism afflicting modern physics is best resolved in favor of waves, believes the author, but there is no clear picture of matter on which physicists can agree fifty years ago science seemed on the road to a clear - cut answer to the ancient question which is the title of this article. it looked as if matter would be reduced at last to its ultimate building blocks — to certain submicroscopic but nevertheless tangible and measurable particles. but it proved to be less simple than that. today a physicist no longer can distinguish significantly between matter and something else. we no longer contrast matter with forces or fields of force as different entities ; we know now that these concepts must be merged. it is true that we speak of " empty " space ( i. e., space free of matter ), but space is never really empty, because even in the remotest voids of the universe there is always starlight — and that is matter. besides, space is filled with gravitational fields, and according to einstein gravity and inertia cannot very well be separated. thus the subject of this article is in fact the total picture of space - time reality as envisaged by physics. we have to admit that our conception of material reality today is more wavering and uncertain than it has been for a long time. we know a great many interesting details, learn new ones every week. but to construct a clear, easily comprehensible