analysis to their own situations by the formidabilty of the mathematical calculations. i am making the following small suggestion concerning the evaluation of the constant terms. a brief introduction to the subject of thin film coatings and their application to gear hobs and shaper cutters is followed by a detailed description of the chemical vapor deposition process and the physical vapor deposition process. advantages and disadvantages of each of these processes is discussed. emphasis is placed upon : application engineering of coated gear tools based on laboratory and field test results. recommendations are suggested for tool design improvements and optimization of gear cutting operations using coated tools. productivity improvements potentially available by properly utilizing coated tools are considered in terms of both tool cost and machining cost. new material technology allows for more efficient and flexible hobbing. in this paper a new method for the introduction of optimal modifications into gear tooth surfaces — based on the optimal corrections of the profile and diameter of the head cutter, and optimal variation of machine tool settings for pinion and gear finishing — is presented. the goal of these tooth modifications is the achievement of a more favorable load distribution and reduced transmission error. the method is applied to face milled and face hobbed hypoid gears. bevel gear manufacturers live in one of two camps : the face hobbing / lapping camp, and the face milling / grinding camp. the quality of the finished gear is influenced by the very first machining operations of the blank. since the gear tooth geometry is generated on a continuously rotating blank in hobbing or shaping, it is important that the timed relationship between the cutter and workpiece is correct. if this relationship is disturbed by eccentricities of the blank to its operating centerline, the generated gear teeth will not be of the correct geometry. during the blanking operations, the gear ' s centerline and locating surfaces are established and must be maintained as the same through the following operations that generate the gear teeth. indexable carbide insert ( ici ) cutting tools continue to play a pivotal role in gear manufacturing. by offering higher cutting speeds, reduced cycle times, enhanced coatings, custom configurations and a diverse range of sizes and capabilities, ici tools have proven invaluable for finishing and pre - grind applications. they continue to expand their unique capabilities and worth in the cutting tool market. nowadays, finish hobbing ( which means that there is no post - hobbing gear finishing operation ) is capable of producing higher quality gears and is growing in popularity. this article is part four of an eight - part series on the tribol


available with many as stock catalog products. helical gears can drive either nonparallel or parallel shafts. when these gears are used with nonparallel shafts, the contact is a point, and the design and manufacturing requirements are less critical than for gears driving parallel shafts. the forming of gear teeth has traditionally been a time - consuming heavy stock removal operation in which close tooth size, shape, runout and spacing accuracy are required. this is true whether the teeth are finished by a second forming operation or a shaving operation. in order to increase the load carrying capacity of hardened gears, the distortion of gear teeth caused by quenching must be removed by precision cutting ( skiving ) and / or grinding. in the case of large gears with large modules, skiving by a carbide hob is more economical than grinding when the highest accuracy is not required. high - speed machining using carbide has been used for some decades for milling and turning operations. the intermittent character of the gear cutting process has delayed the use of carbide tools in gear manufacturing. carbide was found at first to be too brittle for interrupted cutting actions. in the meantime, however, a number of different carbide grades were developed. the first successful studies in carbide hobbing of cylindrical gears were completed during the mid - 80s, but still did not lead to a breakthrough in the use of carbide cutting tools for gear production. since the carbide was quite expensive and the tool life was too short, a tin - coated, high - speed steel hob was more economical than an uncoated carbide hob. bodine electric co. of chicago, il., has a 97 - year history of fine - and medium - pitch gear manufacturing. like anywhere else, traditions, old systems, and structures can be beneficial, but they can also become paradigms and obstacles to further improvements. we were producing a high quality product, but our goal was to become more cost effective. carbide hobbing is seen as a technological innovation capable of enabling a dramatic, rather than an incremental, enhancement to productivity and cost savings. recent trends in gear cutting technology have left process engineers searching for direction about which combination of cutting tool material, coating, and process technology will afford the best quality at the lowest total cost. applying the new technologies can have associated risks that may override the potential cost savings. the many interrelated variables to be considered and evaluated tend to cloud the issue and make


, and process technology will afford the best quality at the lowest total cost. applying the new technologies can have associated risks that may override the potential cost savings. the many interrelated variables to be considered and evaluated tend to cloud the issue and make hobbing process development more difficult. increased productivity in roughing operations for gear cutting depends mainly on lower production costs in the hobbing process. in addition, certain gears can be manufactured by shaping, which also needs to be taken into account in the search for a more cost - effective form of production. traditionally, profile and lead inspections have been indispensable portions of a standard inspection of an involute gear. this also holds true for the worm of a worm gear drive ( ref. 1 ). but the inspection of the profile and the lead is rarely performed on a worm wheel. one of the main reasons is our inability to make good definitions of these two elements ( profile and lead ) for the worm wheel. several researchers have proposed methods for profile and lead inspections of a worm wheel using cnc machines or regular involute and lead inspections of a worm wheel using cnc machines or regular involute measuring machines. hu and pennell measured a worm wheel ' s profile in an " involute " section and the lead on the " pitch " cylinder ( ref. 2 ). this method is applicable to a convolute helicoid worm drive with a crossing angle of 90 degrees because the wheel profile in one of the offset axial planes is rectilinear. this straight profile generates an involute on the generated worm wheel. unfortunately, because of the hob oversize, the crossing angle between the hob and the worm wheel always deviates from 90 degrees by the swivel angle. thus, this method can be implemented only approximately by ignoring the swivel angle. another shortcoming of this method is that there is only one profile and one lead on each flank. if the scanned points deviated from this curve, it produced unreal profile deviation. octrue discussed profile inspection using a profile checking machine ( ref. 3 ). conical involute gears, also known as beveloid gears, are generalized involute gears that have the two flanks of the same tooth characterized by different base cylinder radii and different base helix angles. in the past, the blades of universal face hobbing cutters had to be resharpened on three faces. those three faces formed the active part of the


the same tooth characterized by different base cylinder radii and different base helix angles. in the past, the blades of universal face hobbing cutters had to be resharpened on three faces. those three faces formed the active part of the blade. in face hobbing, the effective cutting direction changes dramatically with respect to the shank of the blade. depending on the individual ratio, it was found that optimal conditions for the chip removal action ( side rake, side relief and hook angle ) could just be established by adjusting all major parameters independently. this, in turn, results automatically in the need for the grinding or resharpening of the front face and the two relief surfaces in order to control side rake, hook angle and the relief and the relief angles of the cutting and clearance side. quality gear manufacturing depends on controlled tolerances and geometry. as a result, ferritic nitrocarburizing has become the heat treat process of choice for many gear manufacturers. the primary reasons for this are : 1. the process is performed at low temperatures, i. e. less than critical. 2. the quench methods increase fatigue strength by up to 125 % without distorting. ferritic nitrocarburizing is used in place of carburizing with conventional and induction hardening. 3. it establishes gradient base hardnesses, i. e. eliminates eggshell on tin, tiain, crc, etc. in addition, the process can also be applied to hobs, broaches, drills, and other cutting tools. in 1961 i presented a paper, " calculating conjugate helical forms, " at the semi - annual meeting of the american gear manufacturers association ( agma ). since that time, thousands of hobs, shaper cutters and other meshing parts have been designed on the basis of the equations presented in that paper. this article presents the math of that paper without the formality of its development and goes on to discuss its practical application. this article summarizes the development of an improved titanium nitride ( tin ) recoating process, which has, when compared to conventional recoat methods, demonstrated tool life increases of up to three times in performance testing of hobs and shaper cutters. this new coating process, called super tin, surpasses the performance of standard tin recoating for machining gear components. super tin incorporates stripping, surface preparation, smooth coating techniques and polishing before and after recoating. the


, to auctions and into farmers ' back yards. the traditional way of controlling the quality of hypoid gears ' tooth flank form is to check the tooth flank contact patterns. but it is not easy to exactly judge the tooth flank form quality by the contact pattern. in recent years, it has become possible to accurately measure the tooth flank form of hypoid gears by the point - to - point measuring method and the scanning measuring method. but the uses of measured data of the tooth flank form for hypoid gears have not yet been well developed in comparison with cylindrical involute gears. in this paper, the tooth flank form measurement of generated face - milled gears, face - hobbed gears and formulate / generated gears are reported. the authors discuss the advantages and disadvantages of scanning and point - to - point measuring of 3 - d tooth flank forms of hypoid gears and introduce some examples of uses of measured data for high - quality production and performance prediction. the dictionary of american biography describes him as " one of the founders of the gear - cutting industry in the united state. " he built the first hobbing machine for cutting spur gears. he founded the companies that are now boston gear and philadelphia gear corp. imagine the $ 10 bill with the face of edwin r. fellows on it and on the back, a picture of his invention : the gear shaping machine. or the $ 5 bill with george b. grant and a picture of the first hobbing machine, which he built. when parts you manufacture pass through numerous processes such as deep hole drilling, machining, hobbing and grinding, a cmm is essential when your customers require 100 percent in - process and final inspection. there are several methods available for improving the quality of spur and helical gears following the standard roughing operations of hobbing or shaping. rotary gear shaving and roll - finishing are done in the green or soft state prior to heat treating. a treasure trove of gear and power components for aspiring engineers and dedicated hobbyists. dollhouses may be toys for children, but an old - time working miniature machine shop is the ultimate toy for a self - proclaimed hobby machinist like greg bierck. one of the major problems of plastic gear design is the knowledge of their running temperature. of special interest is the bulk temperature of the tooth to predict the fatigue life, and the peak temperature on the surface of the tooth to avert surface failure. this paper presents the results of an experimental method that uses an infrared radiometer to


temperature. of special interest is the bulk temperature of the tooth to predict the fatigue life, and the peak temperature on the surface of the tooth to avert surface failure. this paper presents the results of an experimental method that uses an infrared radiometer to measure the temperature variation along the profile of a plastic gear tooth in operation. measurements are made on 5. 08, 3. 17, 2. 54, 2. 12 mm module hob cut gears made from nylon 6 - 6, acetal and uhmwpe ( ultra high molecular weight polyethylene ). all the tests are made on a four square testing rig with thermoplastic / steel gear pairs where the plastic gear is the driver. maximum temperature prediction curves obtained through statistical analysis of the results are presented and compared to data available from literature. two major processes used for cutting gears, hobbing and shaping. this article describes advanced machine design and cutter materials for gear shaping. a universal gear is one generated by a common rack on a cylindrical, conical, or planar surface, and whose teeth can be oriented parallel or skewed, centered, or offset, with respect to its axes. mating gear axes can be parallel or crossed, non - intersecting or intersecting, skewed or parallel, and can have any angular orientation ( see fig. 1 ) the taper gear is a universal gear. it provides unique geometric properties and a range of applications unmatched by any other motion transmission element. ( see fig. 2 ) the taper gear can be produced by any rack - type tool generator or hobbing machine which has a means of tilting the cutter or work axis and / or coordinating simultaneous traverse and infeed motions. traditional methods of manufacturing precision gears usually employ either hobbing or shaper cutting. both of these processes rely upon generating the conjugate tooth form by moving the work - piece in a precise relation to the tool. recently, attention has been given to forming gear teeth in a single step. advantages to such a process include reduced production time, material savings, and improved performance characteristics. drawbacks include complicated tool designs, non - uniformity of gears produced throughout the life of the tooling, and lengthy development times. after shaping or hobbing, the tooth flanks must be either chamfered or duburred. here it is paramount that the secondary burr produced will not be formed into the flank, but to the face of the gear, because during hardening, the secondary burr will straighten up and, due to its extreme hardness, will


the jordan river, which cuts through israel and jordan, largely reflects the scarcity of water in the region. the above picture shows a rare flooding event in the jordan river in the winter of 2003 at the baptist site ( well - known in christianity ). just several months later, during the summer of 2003, the river was dry again, as shown below at a site close to abdalla bridge. courtesy of avner vengosh. data collected from more than 6, 000 selected sampling points reveal that more than 10 percent of the water resources in the mediterranean basin have boron levels exceeding 1 milligram per liter, the new e. u. drinking water standard. we found that the highest values of boron are in areas associated with geothermal activity, such as in tuscany, italy, and chalkidiki, greece. in addition, we discovered high boron levels in the groundwater basins in the central part of cyprus and in the southern coastal aquifer that is shared between israel and the gaza strip. in order to delineate the origin of boron and salinity in these groundwater basins, we investigated the chemical and isotopic compositions of the boron - contaminated groundwater. boron has two stable isotopes that are distributed unevenly among different geological materials and natural water resources. because different sources of water pollution have unique isotopic fingerprints, we were able to use the boron isotopes to identify clearly the source of the water contamination. for example, the boron isotopic ratios in seawater, wastewater and rocks vary significantly. thus, when groundwater is contaminated, the imprinted isotopic signature of these different sources is preserved, serving as a tracer for delineating their origin. similarly, the application of other isotopes such as oxygen, hydrogen and strontium provide a clue to the origin of the polluted water. by integrating these chemical tools, we discovered that the boron contamination in the mediterranean groundwater basins is derived primarily from natural processes. in the cornia basin in tuscany, we found that boron leaching from sediments into local groundwater is associated with seawater intrusion, reflecting a complex history of boron uptake and release by clay minerals. in western chalkidiki, the mixing of groundwater with underlying thermal water rich in boron caused the boron contamination. in cyprus, water - rock interaction is the main mechanism for the boron enrichment in the water. in the southern coastal aquifer of israel and the gaza strip, we discovered that boron pollution is associated with the


caused the boron contamination. in cyprus, water - rock interaction is the main mechanism for the boron enrichment in the water. in the southern coastal aquifer of israel and the gaza strip, we discovered that boron pollution is associated with the migration of saline groundwater from israel into the gaza strip. the chemical and isotopic compositions of the groundwater in these studies clearly indicate that the boron problem in the mediterranean water resources, on the whole, is derived from natural ( geogenic ) sources rather than anthropogenic ones. our results have several implications for the management of national and transboundary groundwater resources in the mediterranean basin and for the remediation of boron. perhaps most importantly, we are challenging the conventional perception that the boron contamination in these countries is a source of human pollution. for years, companies added boron to detergents because it is an excellent bleaching agent thus resulting in the formation of boron - rich sewage. moreover, similar to other inorganic ions, boron is not removed during standard sewage treatment processes and even treated wastewater typically has high boron concentrations. thus, as a precautionary measure, environmental regulators in both cyprus and israel have chosen a particular strategy to reduce boron contamination : mandating regulations that restrict the amount of boron that can be added to detergents. although the reduction in boron in treated sewage may prove to be beneficial for agriculture because there will be less boron contamination in the irrigation water, these regulations will have negligible effects for improving drinking water. for a country that soon will join the european union, such as cyprus, it will only be able meet its obligation to abide by e. u. standards for drinking water by pursuing an alternative strategy that calls for technological intervention to remove boron. to date, israel has yet to adopt an official drinking water standard for boron, despite the new proposals for desalination calling for 0. 5 milligrams per liter boron in desalinated water. thus, israel already faces a similar challenge to cyprus. in short, because boron contamination in all our investigated cases comes from natural geochemical background pollution and hence cannot be prevented, the only way to address the boron problem is through treatment of the drinking water. at present in italy and israel, water authorities mix the boron - rich water with high - quality water to reduce the level of boron in the water supplied for both drinking and agricultural purposes. however, the longevity of dilution as a solution is limited,


in italy and israel, water authorities mix the boron - rich water with high - quality water to reduce the level of boron in the water supplied for both drinking and agricultural purposes. however, the longevity of dilution as a solution is limited, primarily due to the diminishing amount of high - quality water that is available. as a result, our research has focused on the creation of alternative water resources, through the application of technological solutions such as improved desalination and the introduction of new techniques for boron removal from the water. reverse osmosis desalination has tremendous potential for a supply of new water for the 21st century, especially in areas of the world where water is scarce or the quality is inadequate. its widespread application, however, is hampered by the fact that reverse osmosis desalination does not remove boron sufficiently ( only 60 percent ). as a result, desalination of seawater does not reduce the boron level below the new standard for drinking water in the european union ( and will be also problematic for the non - european mediterranean countries adopting a similar drinking water standard for boron ). therefore, additional removal techniques must be introduced in order to bring boron levels down to drinking standards. different partners in the boremed project have developed several independent methodologies for removing boron from water. in cyprus, boremed partners have utilized boron - specific resins combined with a small - scale reverse osmosis to reduce the amount of boron in the groundwater for local users. in israel, boremed partners have succeeded in removing boron by optimization of reverse osmosis processes such as multi - step desalination. other partners from the netherlands have established a new method of boron removal through co - precipitation with hydroxides. in addition, a joint israeli - turkish team invented a new technique for boron removal through reacting seawater with fly ash and coal materials. this method is particularly useful in mediterranean countries such as turkey, where fly ash is abundant and cheap. each of the new different methodologies has its own benefits and costs. ultimately, the e. u. countries that face a boron problem will have to adopt one of these new technologies in order to be in compliance with the new drinking water standard for boron. through an integration of geochemistry, hydrogeology, numerical modeling and policy analysis, we also have devised a potential management solution to the water crisis in the gaza strip. the local aquifer underlying the gaza strip is perhaps one of the most stressed resources


integration of geochemistry, hydrogeology, numerical modeling and policy analysis, we also have devised a potential management solution to the water crisis in the gaza strip. the local aquifer underlying the gaza strip is perhaps one of the most stressed resources in the mediterranean basin in terms of water quantity and quality : chloride concentrations reach 1, 500 milligrams per liter ( six times the e. u. standard ) ; nitrate concentrations reach 400 milligrams per liter ( eight times the e. u. standard ) ; and boron concentrations reach 3. 5 milligrams per liter ( more than three times the e. u. standard ). over the past five decades, the amount of water pumped from the gaza aquifer has far exceeded the natural water replenishment. as the water level has declined, the water quality has become unsuitable for human consumption, owing to the high levels of salinity, boron and nitrate pollution. nevertheless, more than 1 million people depend entirely upon this aquifer for drinking and irrigation water. the boremed project has mapped boron distribution in groundwater from the southern mediterranean coastal aquifer and the gaza strip. the different colors represent boron concentration in milligrams per liter. in most parts of the aquifer and the gaza strip, the boron concentration exceeds the drinking standard of 1 milligram per liter for the european union. courtesy of avner vengosh. our chemical and isotopic data show that most of the salinity phenomenon in the gaza strip is derived from flow of natural saline groundwater from israel towards the gaza strip. as a result, the southern coastal aquifer does not resemble a classic upstream - downstream dispute over a transboundary aquifer : israels upstream pumping of the saline groundwater can potentially reduce the salinization rates of groundwater in the gaza strip rather than cause downstream harm. numerical simulation of different pumping scenarios confirms our hypothesis that increasing pumping along the gaza strip border combined with desalination and supply to the gaza strip, as well as moderate reduction of pumping within the gaza strip, would improve the water quality of groundwater there. moreover, our finding that the salinity problem in the gaza strip is partially natural de - politicizes the water issue and offers a practical solution for the water crisis in the gaza strip that has win - win benefits for both the palestinian territory and israel. clearing the way the promulgation of a new drinking water standard for boron in the european union has forced both e. u


teens using technology - backlit devices can impact on sleep new research from the lighting research center ( lrc ) at rensselaer polytechnic institute, new york, indicates that teenagers who use backlit technology, such as tablet devices, for two hours before bed, may have their sleeping patterns disrupted. at this time of year in australia, many teens are studying for their final hsc exams and using computers for extended periods. being aware of backlit technology ' s possible effects on sleep and melatonin release, may help parents advise their teens on how to ensure they get sufficient sleep. we know that sleep has an impact on learning and information retention so we ' ve written about this topic before. for more information on sleep and teens, please read : backlit devices may interrupt sleeping patterns the new lrc research shows that a two - hour exposure to electronic devices with self - luminous ' backlit ' displays causes melatonin suppression, which might lead to delayed bedtimes, especially in teens. “ our study shows that a two - hour exposure to light from self - luminous electronic displays can suppress melatonin by about 22 %. stimulating the human circadian system to this level may affect sleep in those using the devices prior to bedtime, ” said professor figueiro. and until manufacturers develop more “ circadian - friendly ” electronic devices that increase or decrease light exposure based on time of day, figueiro recommends " dimming these devices at night as much as possible in order to minimize melatonin suppression, and limiting the amount of time spent using these devices prior to bedtime. ” your teens might not want to hear this information during other times of the year when they want to play games on tablet - style devices but perhaps during final exam times, they ' ll be more receptive to this information. morning light helps teens sleep another field study by the lrc in 2010 indicated that teenagers are likley to have better sleep if they have more exposure to morning light. during term time, high schools have schedules requiring teenagers to be in school early in the morning, so teens often miss some morning light. however, during a study break, your teen has an opportunity to change this pattern and possibly benefit from more and better sleep. “ as teenagers spend more time indoors, they miss out on essential morning light needed to stimulate the body ’ s 24 - hour biological system, which regulates the sleep / wake cycle, ” said professor figueiro. in this study it was found that students who wore special glasses to prevent short - wavelength (


, whereas written information is seen as non - confrontational. the introduction of written information on storage and measurement to be given out at the time of dispensing of methadone may be one possible solution to ensuring that patients remain aware of the risks inherent in irresponsible custody of their methadone and what steps to take to reduce this risk. studies of the relative effectiveness of written versus verbal information on patient information retention and subsequent action do not, however, show any advantage of written over verbal presentation [ 13, 14 ]. the overall view is that providing the information in both forms provides a range of options which may match the patients ' preferred mode of receiving information. the provision of information on the safe storage of methadone is recalled by a minority of patients, and the vast majority of patients do not store their methadone in a locked cupboard or other secure location. the audit we have reported will be repeated following the provision of written information to patients in addition to verbal information at the point that they commence their methadone treatment. this will be reinforced at the point where patients transfer from supervised consumption at the pharmacy to home consumption as part of a progressive relaxation of restrictions in more stable patients. the author ( s ) declare that they have no competing interests. rnb conceived of the audit, devised the methodology and drafted the manuscript rm supervised the data collection and performed the telephone survey ns participated in the design of the study and performed the data analysis all authors read and approved the manuscript the authors extend their thanks to the patients and pharmacists who gave their time to contribute to the audit and to gretta bloor for micro - editing of the final version of the manuscript. bmj 1996, 313 : 1481. pubmed abstract bmj 1999, 318 : 329 - 330. pubmed abstract bmj 1991, 303 : 922 - 923. pubmed abstract bmj 1999, 318 : 1137. pubmed abstract hum toxicol 1987, 6 : 303 - 314. pubmed abstract


as minerals and water, functions within plants ' stems and roots. the reproductive system too has been specially designed in every species of plant. there are complex structures within each and every one of these mechanisms. and these mechanisms function in connection with one another. if one is missing, the others cannot carry out their tasks. as an example let us take a plant which just lacks a transport system. it is impossible for such a plant to carry out photosynthesis, because the vessels necessary to carry the essential water are missing. even if the plant managed to produce food, it would be unable to transport this to other parts of the body, and would eventually die. as in this example, all the systems present in a plant are obliged to function flawlessly. any flaws or defects in the existing structure will mean that the plant cannot carry out its functions, and this will result in the death of the plant and the disappearance of the species. when these structures are studied in detail and in depth in the chapters that follow, a most complex and quite flawless design will emerge. when the variety of plants in the world is considered and evaluated, these extraordinary structures seem even more striking. there are more than 500, 000 types of plant in the world. and each species possesses its own special planning within itself and features particular to that species. together with the same perfect basic systems found in all of them, there is also an unparalleled diversity in terms of reproductive systems, defence mechanisms, colour, and design. the only unchanging thing in all this is the reality that the parts of the plants ( leaves, roots, stems ) and many other mechanisms, must exist at once and with no defects so that the general system, the body, can function. modern scientists attribute to such systems an " irreducible complexity. " in the same way that a motor will not work if one of its cogs is missing, in plants the absence of just one system, or a single functional failure in any one of the parts of the system, will lead to the death of the plant. all of a plant ' s systems have this feature of irreducible complexity. the complex systems, which must all be present at the same time, and this unbelievable variety bring to mind the question : " how did these perfect systems in plants emerge? " once again, let us ask some questions to find the answer to this one. let us think how the functioning of the most important and best known of the mechanisms in plants, photosynthesis, and the transport systems linked


systems in plants emerge? " once again, let us ask some questions to find the answer to this one. let us think how the functioning of the most important and best known of the mechanisms in plants, photosynthesis, and the transport systems linked to it, came about. can the trees and flowers which we see all around us at all times have themselves formed such perfect systems as to bring about a phenomenon such as photosynthesis, some parts of which are still not fully understood, in their own bodies? did plants choose to use carbon dioxide ( co2 ), of the gases in the air, to produce food? did they themselves determine the amount of co2 they would use? could plants have designed those mechanisms which make up the root system and which enable them to take the materials necessary for photosynthesis from the soil? did plants bring about a transport system where different types of tubes are used for transporting nutrients and water? as ever, defenders of the theory of evolution searching for an answer to the question of how plants emerged have resorted to " chance " as their only remedy. they have claimed that from one species of plant which came about by chance, an infinite variety of plants have emerged, again by chance, and that features such as smell, taste, and colour, particular to each species, again came about by chance. but they have been unable to give any scientific proof of these claims. evolutionists explain moss turning into a strawberry plant, or a poplar, or a rose bush, by saying that conditions brought about by chance differentiated them. whereas when just one plant cell is observed, a system so complex will be seen as could not have come about by minute changes over time. this complex system and other mechanisms in plants definitively disprove the coincidence scenarios put forward as evolutionist logic. in this situation just one result emerges. every structure in plants has been specially planned and designed. and this shows us that there is a superior intelligence which drew up this flawless plan. and the owner of this superior intelligence, god, the lord of all the worlds, shows proofs of his flawless creation to human beings. god announces his dominion over living creatures and his incomparable creation in this verse :


walker - warburg syndrome is a congenital disorder of the central nervous system involving fatal neurological lesions. multiple malformations of the brain, eyes, and muscle tissue distinguish wws from similar malformation syndromes. it is also known by the acronym hard + / - e syndrome ( hydroencephalus, agyri, retinal dysplasia, plus or minus " e " for encephalocele ). affected individuals typically show a combination of severe brain, eye, and muscle defects. multiple malformations of the brain include type ii lissencephaly, a condition in which the brain lacks normal convolutions and is unusually smooth without folds. eighty - four percent of the babies with wws have macrocephaly ( an enlarged head ). in half of these cases, the macrocephaly is apparent at birth, and in a quarter of the cases it develops postnatally. hydrocephalus, or excessive accumulation of cerebrospinal fluid around the brain, occurs in 95 % of infants with wws. this fluid fills abnormally large ventricles or spaces in the brain. fifty percent of affected infants have an encephalocele, or gap in the skull that does not seal. the meninges or membranes that cover the brain may protrude through this gap. the formation of an encephalocele may be associated with the failure of the neural tube to close during development of the fetus. a malformed cerebellum characterizes the syndrome as well as distinct muscle abnormalities, including congenital muscular dystrophy. ocular defects occur in 100 % of infants with wws. the most common are abnormally small eyes and retinal abnormalities, which arise from the improper development of the light sensitive area at the back of the eye. cataracts may also be present and more than three quarters of the infants born with wws have a defect in the anterior chamber of the eye. wws syndrome leads to severely retarded mental development and is often lethal in infancy. wws is inherited in an autosomal recessive pattern. offspring of parents who have had one affected infant have a 25 % chance of having wws. the locations of the causitive genes remains unknown. wws is extremely rare. cases described in the literature cite siblings with wws born to consanguineous ( closely related ) parents as well as cases in families not known to be at risk. signs and symptoms clinical


theologist, as they present to us the last reflex of the ideas which prevailed in iran during the five centuries which preceded and the seven which followed the birth of christ, a period which gave to the world the gospels, the talmud, and the qur ’ an. persia, it is known, had much influence on each of the movements which produced, or proceeded from, those three books ; she lent much to the first heresiarchs, much to the rabbis, much to mohammed. by help of the parsi religion and the avesta, we are enabled to go back to the very heart of that most momentous period in the history of religious thought, which saw the blending of the aryan mind with the semitic, and thus opened the second stage of aryan thought. inquiries into the religion of ancient persia began long ago, and it was the old foe of persia, the greek, who first studied it. aristotle 5, hermippus 6 ; and many others 7 wrote of it in books of which, unfortunately, nothing more than a few fragments or merely the titles have come down to us. we find much valuable information about it, scattered in the accounts of historians and travellers, extending over ten centuries, from herodotus down to agathias and procopius. it was never more eagerly studied than in the first centuries of the christian era ; but that study had no longer anything of the disinterested and almost scientific character it had in earlier times. religious and philosophic sects, in search of new dogmas, eagerly received whatever came to them bearing the name of zoroaster. as xanthus the lydian, who is said to have lived before herodotus, had mentioned zoroastrian λογια 8, there came to light, in those later times, scores of oracles, styled λογια τοu ζωροαστρου, or ' oracula chaldaica sive magica, ' the work of neo - platonists who were but very remote disciples of the median sage. as his name had become the very emblem of wisdom, they would cover with it the latest inventions of their ever - deepening theosophy. zoroaster and plato were treated as if they had been philosophers of the same school, and hierocles expounded their doctrines in the same book. proclus collected seventy tetrads of zoroaster and wrote commentaries on them 9 ; but we need hardly say that zoro


difference is just a proof of the two systems being independent of one another. kleuker pointed out the incorrectness of the statement ; but, being unable to account for the identity of the words, he flatly denied it. kleuker was more successful in the field of philology : he showed, as anquetil had done, that zend has no arabic elements in it, and that pahlavi itself, which is more modern than zend, does not contain any arabic, but only semitic words of the aramean dialect, which are easily accounted for by the close relations of persia with aramean lands in the time of the sassanian kings. he showed, lastly, that arabic words appear only in the very books which parsi tradition itself considers modern. another stanch upholder of the avesta was the numismatologist tychsen, who, having begun to read the book with a prejudice against its authenticity, quitted it with a conviction to the contrary. ' there is nothing in it, ' he said, ' but what befits remote ages, and a man philosophising in the infancy of the world. such traces of a recent period as they fancy to have found in it, are either understandings, or belong to its later portions. on the whole there is a marvellous accordance between the zend - avesta and the accounts of the ancients with regard to the doctrine and institutions of zoroaster. plutarch agrees so well with the zend books that i think no one will deny the close resemblance of doctrines and identity of origin. add to all this the incontrovertible argument to be drawn from the language, the antiquity of which is established by the fact that it was necessary to translate a part of the zend books into pahlavi, a language which was obsolete as early as the time of the sassanides. lastly, it cannot be denied that zoroaster left books, which were, through centuries, the groundwork of the magic religion, and which were preserved by the magi, as shown by a series of documents from the time of hermippus. therefore i am unable to see why we should not trust the magi of our days when they ascribe to zoroaster those traditional books of their ancestors, in which nothing is found to indicate fraud or a modern hand 21. ' two years afterwards, in 1793, was published in paris a book which, without directly dealing with the avesta, was


to zoroaster those traditional books of their ancestors, in which nothing is found to indicate fraud or a modern hand 21. ' two years afterwards, in 1793, was published in paris a book which, without directly dealing with the avesta, was the first step taken to make its authenticity incontrovertible. it was the masterly memoir by sylvestre de sacy, in which the pahlavi inscriptions of the first sassanides were deciphered for the first time and in a decisive manner. de sacy, in his researches, had chiefly relied on the pahlavi lexicon published by anquetil, whose work vindicated itself - - better than by heaping up arguments - - by promoting discoveries. the pahlavi inscriptions gave the key, as is well known, to the persian cuneiform inscriptions, which were in return to put beyond all doubt the genuineness of the zend language. tychsen, in an appendix to his commentaries, pointed to the importance of the new discovery : ' this, ' he writes, ' is a proof that the pahlavi was used during the reign of the sassanides, for it was from them that these inscriptions emanated, as it was by them - - nay, by the first of them, ardeshir babagan - - that the doctrine of zoroaster was revived. one can now understand why the zend books were translated into pahlavi. here, too, everything agrees, and speaks loudly for their antiquity and genuineness. ' about the same time sir william jones, then president of the royal asiatic society, which he had just founded, resumed in a discourse delivered before that society the same question he had solved in such an off - hand manner twenty years before. he was no longer the man to say, ' sied - il a un homme ne dans ce siecle de s ’ infatuer de fables indiennes? ' and although he had still a spite against anquetil, he spoke of him with more reserve than in 1771. however, his judgment on the avesta itself was not altered on the whole, although, as he himself declared, he had not thought it necessary to study the text. but a glance at the zend glossary published by anquetil suggested to him a remark which makes sir william jones, in spite of himself, the creator of the comparative grammar of sanskrit and zend. ' when i perused the zend glossary, ' he writes,


glossary published by anquetil suggested to him a remark which makes sir william jones, in spite of himself, the creator of the comparative grammar of sanskrit and zend. ' when i perused the zend glossary, ' he writes, ' i was inexpressibly surprised to find that six or seven words in ten are pure sanscrit, and even some of their inflexions formed by the rules of the vyacaran 22, as yushmacam, the genitive plural of yushmad. now m. anquetil most certainly and the persian compiler most probably, had no knowledge of sanscrit, and could not, therefore, have invented a list of sanscrit words ; it is, therefore, an authentic list of zend words, which has been preserved in books or by tradition ; it follows that the language of the zend was at least a dialect of the sanscrit, approaching perhaps as nearly to it as the pracrit, or other popular idioms, which we know to have been spoken in india two thousand years ago 23. ' this conclusion, that zend is a sanskrit dialect, was incorrect, the connection assumed being too close ; but it was a great thing that the near relationship of the two languages should have been brought to light. in 1798 father paulo de st. barthelemy further developed jones ' s remark in an essay on the antiquity of the zend language 24. he showed its affinity with the sanskrit by a list of such zend and sanskrit words as were least likely to be borrowed, viz. those that designate the degrees of relationship, the limbs of the body, and the most general and essential ideas. another list, intended to show, on a special topic, how closely connected the two languages are, contains eighteen words taken from the liturgic language used in india and persia. this list was not very happily drawn up, as out of the eighteen instances there is not a single one that stands inquiry ; yet it was a happy idea, and one which has not even yet yielded all that it promised. his conclusions were that in a far remote antiquity sanskrit was spoken in persia and media, that it gave birth to the zend language, and that the zend - avesta is authentic : ' were it but a recent compilation, ' he writes, ' as jones asserts, how is it that the oldest rites of the parsis, that the old inscriptions of the persians, the accounts of the zoroastrian religion in the


the explanation of zend forms. thus he succeeded in tracing the general outlines of the zend lexicon and in fixing its grammatical forms, and founded the only correct method of interpreting the avesta. he also gave the first notions of a comparative mythology of the avesta and the veda, by showing the identity of the vedic yama with the avesta yima, and of traitana with thraetaona and feridun. thus he made his ' commentaire sur le yasna ' a marvellous and unparalleled model of critical insight and steady good sense, equally opposed to the narrowness of mind which clings to matters of fact without rising to their cause and connecting them with the series of associated phenomena, and to the wild and uncontrolled spirit of comparison, which, by comparing everything, confounds everything. never sacrificing either tradition to comparison or comparison to tradition, he knew how to pass from the one to the other, and was so enabled both to discover facts and explain them. at the same time the ancient persian inscriptions at persepolis and behistun were deciphered by burnouf in paris, by lassen in bonn, and by sir henry rawlinson in persia. thus was revealed the existence, at the time of the first achæmenian kings, of a language closely connected with that of the avesta, and the last doubts as to the authenticity of the zend books were at length removed. it would have required more than an ordinary amount of scepticism to look still upon the zend as an artificial language, of foreign importation, without root in the land where it was written, and in the conscience of the people for whom it was written, at the moment when a twin language, bearing a striking likeness to it in nearly every feature, was suddenly making itself heard from the mouth of darius, and speaking from the very tomb of the first achæmenian king. that unexpected voice silenced all controversies, and the last echoes of the loud discussion which had been opened in 1771 died away unheeded 31. click on footnote numbers to return to the text above 1 at the battle of nihavand ( 642 a. c. ) 2 ahura mazda. 3 they settled first at sangan, not far from daman ; thence they spread over surat, nowsari, broach, and kambay ; and within the last two centuries they have settled at bombay, which now contains the bulk of


- hhmi news - scientists & research - janelia farm - science education - resources & publications browse all resources by typeanimation ( 3 ) book / manual ( 4 ) cd ( 1 ) classroom activity ( 12 ) college course ( 6 ) curriculum ( 11 ) game ( 1 ) kit ( 1 ) lab ( 9 ) lesson plan ( 5 ) publication ( 23 ) software ( 3 ) tutorial ( 5 ) video ( 24 ) website ( 47 ) wiki ( 2 ) by topicbiochemistry ( 14 ) biodiversity ( 3 ) bioengineering ( 3 ) bioethics ( 3 ) bioinformatics ( 8 ) biology ( 104 ) biotechnology ( 9 ) cell biology ( 3 ) chemistry ( 17 ) earth science ( 1 ) ecology ( 9 ) engineering ( 1 ) evolution ( 10 ) general science ( 15 ) genetics ( 29 ) genomics ( 13 ) immunology ( 2 ) infectious diseases ( 1 ) life science ( 65 ) mathematics ( 9 ) medicine ( 6 ) microarrays ( 5 ) microbiology ( 3 ) molecular biology ( 34 ) neuroscience ( 7 ) physics ( 5 ) plants ( 2 ) professional development ( 35 ) research methods ( 12 ) science communication ( 2 ) systems biology ( 1 ) by grade levelk - 16 ( 1 ) 4 - 8 ( 1 ) k - 5 ( 6 ) medical school ( 6 ) k - 3 ( 2 ) k - 8 ( 2 ) k - 12 ( 9 ) 6 - 8 ( 18 ) 9 - 12 ( 52 ) college ( 101 ) graduate ( 21 ) folded - list study tool this article describes the folded - list study technique, a method designed by professor of biology paul heideman at the college of william and mary, to give students a fast and efficient way to learn, recall, and apply key science concepts. ( it is designed to be used in conjunction with the “ minute sketch ” tool, which is available within this database. ) this document explains the method : using a blank piece of paper folded lengthwise into four sections, students create one column for words and one for sketches or images. in the words column, they write the term or phrase for the first key concept. in the next column, they create a simple sketch to represent the concept. they keep adding words and sketches until the page is filled ( although, over time, they should be able to condense all the essential material from one entire lecture on the top half of one sheet ). next, students fold the earlier columns behind and engage in repeated sketching and


until the page is filled ( although, over time, they should be able to condense all the essential material from one entire lecture on the top half of one sheet ). next, students fold the earlier columns behind and engage in repeated sketching and writing of these concepts in columns three and four. the recopying and rethinking of these concepts engages a student ’ s motor memory and visual cortex. dr. heideman says that his method forces students to extract the essentials from a large amount of material and learn the key concepts as sequential events. it is an active - learning method that engages students ’ attention and allows them to review material quickly and to assess how much they have accomplished within a given time. dr. heideman says the method can be applied to other study techniques, such as concept mapping. program director : margaret somosi saha, ph. d. award years : 1989, 1998, 2002, 2006 summary : the college of william and mary is a public research university in williamsburg, virginia. its hhmi - funded educational initiatives emphasize the importance of interdisciplinary and integrative approaches to education and research. they include : - the development of a biological mathematics program ( which includes substantial curricular changes and the addition of new faculty positions ), the strengthening of the interdisciplinary neuroscience major, and the establishment of a new undergraduate applied science minor. - the enhancement of both introductory biology and chemistry and upper - level immunology, molecular genetics, physiology, and neurophysiology laboratories through new equipment and expanded laboratory exercises. - the hhmi freshman research program in biology and chemistry and related sciences, which allows participating students to conduct independent research with a faculty mentor very early in their college careers — as freshmen. many of these students have the opportunity to continue their research during the following summer and throughout the next three years. - student participation in the national genomics research initiative ( ngri ), a national experiment in both research and education sponsored by hhmi ’ s science education alliance. through this initiative, groups of freshmen at selected colleges participate in an authentic research experience — integrated into an introductory laboratory course — on the genetics of phages or bacteriophages ( viruses that infect bacteria ). freshmen in the college of william and mary ’ s program discovered a new life form, a bacteriophage they named crimd. - the expansion of a summer fellowship program to include students at thomas nelson community college and three neighboring hbcu — hampton university, norfolk state university, and virginia state


a new life form, a bacteriophage they named crimd. - the expansion of a summer fellowship program to include students at thomas nelson community college and three neighboring hbcu — hampton university, norfolk state university, and virginia state university. students in this program have the option of continuing their research project throughout the academic year and receive an hourly stipend and weekend transportation and carpooling. - partnerships with hampton university, norfolk state university, and virginia state university to enable faculty to work together with research students at both the home campus and the college of william and mary. the objective and anticipated outcomes are to establish lasting collaborations that improve opportunities for publication and the development of ideas for competitive grant proposals, either independently or in collaboration with faculty from the college of william and mary. - the saturday and summer enrichment programs, which allow young children with high abilities to explore specialized areas of science, mathematics, and the arts and humanities. - the science training and research program ( star ), a four - week residential summer enrichment program that serves high - school juniors from disadvantaged backgrounds. the program, which offers core science and mathematics courses and an opportunity to visit research centers and laboratories, is designed to introduce students to the world of science, research, and technology. - a series of “ update courses ” tailored to help middle and high - school teachers develop both a knowledge base and practical experience with topics — such as microbiology and molecular biotechnology — that are the stated components of the standards of learning for the commonwealth of virginia. participants also help design teaching modules that help integrate the science topics into the classroom.


we think of the five senses as exclusive to living things processing sights and sounds requires eyes, ears and, most important, a brain — right? but what if your hardware shared your senses? in the era of cognitive computing, systems learn instead of passively relying on programming. as a result, emerging technologies will continue to push the boundaries of human limitations to enhance and augment our senses with machine learning, artificial intelligence ( ai ), advanced speech recognition and more. no need to call for superman when we have real super senses at hand. this year ibm presents the 5 in 5 in five sensory categories, through innovations that will touch our lives and see us into the future. from ibm ' s chief innovation officer read what he says about the 5 in 5 the poll is closed, but you can follow up and continue the discussion on ibm ' s people for a smarter planet facebook page. touch : you will be able to touch through your phone in the 1970s, when a telephone company encouraged us to " reach out and touch someone, " it had no idea that a few decades later that could be more than a metaphor. infrared and haptic technologies will enable a smart phone ' s touchscreen technology and vibration capabilities to simulate the physical sensation of touching something. so you could experience the silkiness of that catalog ' s egyptian cotton sheets instead of just relying on some copywriter to convince you. associate director, ibm research, retail analytics sight : a pixel will be worth a thousand words recognition systems can pinpoint a face in a crowd. in the future, computer vision might save a life by analyzing patterns to make sense of visuals in the context of big data. in industries as varied as healthcare, retail and agriculture, a system could gather information and detect anomalies specific to the task — such as spotting a tiny area of diseased tissue in an mri and applying it to the patient ' s medical history for faster, more accurate diagnosis and treatment. senior manager, intelligent information management hearing : computers will hear what matters before the tree fell in the forest, did anyone hear it? sensors that pick up sound patterns and frequency changes will be able to predict weakness in a bridge before it buckles, the deeper meaning of your baby ' s cry or, yes, a tree breaking down internally before it falls. by analyzing verbal traits and including multi - sensory information, machine hearing and speech recognition could even be sensitive enough to advance dialogue across languages and cultures. ibm research scientist taste : digital taste buds will help you eat smarter the challenge of providing food — whether it '


almost one million school children think professor green is a scientist, says study almost one million school children aged five to 16 think rapper professor green is a scientist, according to research. children are more familiar with mark zuckerberg, the creator of facebook ( 68 % correctly identified him ), than physicist albert einstein who discovered the theory of relativity ( only 45 % correctly identified him ), the poll by haier home appliances reveals. although one in five children ( 19 % ) know and love tv professor brian cox, a large proportion are unable to identify a number of significant, heavyweight names from the world of science and innovation, including charles darwin ( 63 % unable to identify ), louis pasteur ( 75 % ), thomas edison ( 62 % ) and isaac newton ( 61 % ). despite spending an average 17 hours and 34 minutes in front a tv screen every week, almost half ( 45 % ) do not know that john logie baird invented the television. in fact, a quarter of eight - year - olds think david cameron invented it ( 23. 83 % ). other key findings from the survey are : : around a third five - year - olds ( 35 % ) think boris johnson discovered gravity : : almost a quarter of eight - year - olds ( 22 % ) think stephen hawking is a hairdresser : : around a fifth of seven - year - olds ( 22 % ) believe thomas edison created facebook : : nearly a tenth of children ( 8 % ) think charles darwin was a reality tv star : : around one in 20 school children ( 6 % ) believe the x factor judge tulisa contostavlos created penicillin. around a third of key stage three pupils ( 35 % ) do not know that isaac newton discovered gravity, despite energy transfer and physical processes being part of the school curriculum. jeff moody, sales and marketing director of haier home appliances uk, said : " it is eye opening to discover that children of today are more aware of popular figures like mark zuckerberg than men and women who have made iconic discoveries and inventions that have revolutionised the modern world. " at haier, we put science at the very heart of everything we do and we passionately believe the future of innovation lies in the scientific interest and imagination of the next generation. " the research was commissioned as part of haier ' s let children dream campaign and supports its partnership with the science museum and its children ' s create it drawing wall where children are encouraged to dream up and draw their ideas and inventions. : : hai


how does it work? read on for a thrilling example scenario! ( alternatively, skip to step 10 to find out how i made it. ) step 1 : a text - based adventure in 3d printing and alcoholism you try to get up, but your stomach climbs up your throat and tries to smother your brain. you lie back down. > drink the water. you are too far away from the water and you lack the coordination required to crawl. you doze off again, in the hope that sleep will somehow solve your predicament. you wake some time later. your head still aches. the hedgehog in your mouth has been joined by its unruly, even less healthy family. > remove the hedgehog. the hedgehog is not a literal hedgehog. it began as a simile then became a metaphor while you were napping. it represents dehydration and regret. you lurch to your feet and, after swaying on the spot for over a minute, you manage to remain upright. after another minute, so does the room. > drink the water. you drink the stale water. it feels pure and cleansing. there is not enough of it. > go to the bathroom. you stagger to the bathroom. there is a sink, a mirror, a toothbrush and a toilet which has been soiled in an unholy manner. > use the sink. you put your lips over the faucet and fumble for the taps. the water is warm, but still good. you drink until you are dizzy. the vile taste in your mouth remains. > brush your teeth. you squeeze toothpaste along the entire length of the toothbrush and, on your third attempt, insert the head of the brush into your mouth. you brush gingerly. with nothing better to occupy your mind for two minutes, you try to make sense of what happened last night. you draw blanks. you glance in the mirror. a message is printed on your forehead. > read the message.


hearing loss in adults what is it? hearing loss is a decrease in the ability to perceive sounds. it can be partial or total, sudden or gradual, temporary or permanent. it can affect one ear or both. in general, the risk of hearing loss increases with age. sound enters the ear and strikes the eardrum. this causes the eardrum to vibrate. the eardrum ' s vibrations are amplified through the middle ear by three tiny bones. inside the ear, the vibrations are transformed into nerve impulses. these nerve impulses travel to the brain, where they are interpreted as sounds. the outer ear and middle ear conduct sound. any injury to this part of the hearing pathway is called conductive hearing loss. sensorineural hearing loss is injury to the inner ear, eighth cranial nerve and brain. these structures produce, transmit and interpret nerve impulses. some of the most important causes of hearing loss in adults are : - middle ear disease. a bacterial infection of the middle ear can : - injure the eardrum - disrupt the middle - ear bones - cause fluid buildup - noise. loud sounds can injure delicate cells within the ear. this is a form of sensorineural hearing loss. noise - induced hearing loss can happen because of a single brief burst of an extremely loud sound. it more often results from long - term exposure to loud sounds of slightly lower intensity. - otosclerosis. an abnormal overgrowth of one or more bones in the middle ear prevents the small bones from moving normally. this is a type of conductive hearing loss. otosclerosis often runs in families. - acoustic neuroma. this noncancerous tumor grows on part of the eighth cranial nerve. this nerve carries signals to the brain. acoustic neuroma often causes dizziness and equilibrium problems in addition to gradual hearing loss. - meniere ' s disease. this typically causes dizziness, hearing loss, ringing in the ears ( tinnitus ), and a sensation of fullness or stuffiness in one or both ears. meniere ' s disease occurs when excess fluid causes swelling in the inner ear. - trauma. many types of accidents can cause hearing loss. hearing loss can result when the eardrum is injured from the force of an explosion. or it can result from a q - tip that ruptures the eardrum during an attempt to clean the ear canal. - sudden sensorineural hearing loss. this is a medical emergency. a person loses hearing over a period of three days or less


intellectual property : what is it? why is it important to you leslie s. marell, esq. leslie s. marell, esq., law office of leslie s. marell, hermosa beach, ca 90254, 310 - 372 - 8663, email @ example. com 84th annual international conference proceedings - 1999 what is intellectual property? " intellectual property " is a generic term used to describe products of the human intellect that have economic value. computer software is one of the many forms of intellectual property. other examples include books, music, movies, artwork, designs and other works of authorship, names, logos, as well as certain inventions. intellectual property is " property " because a body of laws has been created that gives owners of such works legal rights similar in some respects to those given to owners of real estate or tangible personal property ( such as cars ). intellectual property may be owned and bought and sold the same as other types of property. but in many important respects, ownership of intellectual property is very different from ownership of a house or a car. definitions. basic definitions are required before we can deal with the real business world issues involving intellectual property law. the principal types of intellectual property legal protection are listed and defined below : trademark and trade name - patent. patent law protects inventions. patent protection is available for any new and useful process, machine, method of manufacture, composition of matter, or any new, useful improvement. by filing for and obtaining a patent from the u. s. patent and trademark office, an inventor is granted a monopoly on the use and commercial exploitation of an invention, for 20 years from the date of filing the application. in the u. s. patents are awarded to the first to invent. when multiple inventors file applications to patent the same invention, the u. s. patent office must decide who was the first inventor. therefore, it is important that the engineers maintain development records establishing the events surrounding the invention process in order to prove the date of invention. invention records may also be useful to challenge the validity of another ' s patent. - copyright. a copyright provides protection for a limited time to authors for their " original works of authorship fixed in any tangible medium of expression. " copyrights extend only to the expression of creations of the mind, not to the ideas themselves. the federal law governing copyrights expressly excludes from copyright protection " any idea, procedure, process, system, method of operation, concept, principle or discovery. " in other words,


of creations of the mind, not to the ideas themselves. the federal law governing copyrights expressly excludes from copyright protection " any idea, procedure, process, system, method of operation, concept, principle or discovery. " in other words, a pure idea, such as a plan to create an innovative software program, cannot be copyrighted, no matter how original or creative it is. copyright protection begins when the work is created. this means that there does not have to be a copyright notice, publication of the work or registration to secure the copyright. it is, of course, advisable to take these measures. - ownership of copyright. as a general rule, the creator of a work owns the copyright. the person who owns the copyright also automatically owns the exclusive rights to it and the rights to prevent others from copying, distributing, or preparing works based on the copyrighted materials. - works for hire : employees and independent contractors. works for hire are an important exception to the general rule that a person owns the copyright in a work he or she has created. if a work was created by an employee as part of his or her job, the law considers the product a work for hire, and the employer will own the copyright. if the creator is an independent contractor, the works will be considered works for hire only if : ( 1 ) the parties have signed a written agreement stating that the work will be a work for hire ; and ( 2 ) the work is commissioned as a contribution to a collective work, a supplementary work, an instructional text, answer material for a test, an atlas, motion picture, or an audiovisual work. thus, unless there is a contractual agreement to the contrary, and the work fits within one of the above categories the independent contractor owns the copyright. - creations by an independent contractor. the copyright developed by an independent contractor is owned by the independent contractor unless the contractor has signed an agreement to the contrary. the contract must state that the contractor conveys the copyright ownership in all works created under the contract to the engaging party. - trade secret. all that is necessary for something to be protectable as a trade secret is that ( 1 ) it gives the owner a competitive advantage ; ( 2 ) it is treated as a secret by the owner ; and ( 3 ) it is not generally known in the industry or business. a trade secret may be lost if the owner fails to identify it or take reasonable steps to protect it. otherwise, trade secret protection is perpetual. the fundamental question of trade secret law


( 3 ) it is not generally known in the industry or business. a trade secret may be lost if the owner fails to identify it or take reasonable steps to protect it. otherwise, trade secret protection is perpetual. the fundamental question of trade secret law is, what is protectable? clear examples are discoveries, ideas, designs, and specifications. however, even the way you use knowledge and information or the assembly of information itself may be a trade secret even if everything you consider important for your secret is publicly available information. an example of this is supplier and customer lists. - trademark. patent, copyright and trade secret laws do not protect names, titles or phrases. a trademark is any word, name, logo or other symbol adopted and used by a person, manufacturer or merchant group that identifies and distinguishes its goods from those manufactured or sold by others. - license vs. sale. a license is an agreement between the owner of the intellectual property ( the licensor ) and a third party ( the licensee ) which gives permission to the licensee to use the technology in a manner that would otherwise be reserved exclusively to the licensor, as owner. for example, the licensor of the software program will convey a right to the licensee to use the program and reproduce the program under certain defined circumstances. the licensee is restricted in his or her use of the program and does not receive any ownership rights to the software. by contrast, a sale involves the transfer of an ownership interest in the property. in the case of mass marketed shrink wrap software, the buyer is purchasing a copy of the copyrighted program. however, the buyer is not purchasing an ownership interest in the intellectual property itself. the buyer is restricted by copyright law from reproducing the software ( except for backup copies ) or making derivative works. practical applications. with basic definitions in place, let us turn to some practical issues that arise in business with frequency and involve intellectual property law. - independent contractors : who owns the intellectual property? many companies turn to outside consultants to develop software, etc whether alone or in combination with company employees. from a technical and business standpoint, this may be the most practical approach. but is can raise the important legal issue of who owns the intellectual property rights to the work created? since an independent contractor is not an employee, the copyright in the software created by the independent contractor does not automatically belong to the company, as it likely would under the " work for hire " principles applicable to employees. instead of owning the copyright, the company


performance. - employee issues : confidentiality ; ownership ; nonsolicitation ; noncompete - confidentiality. the issue of confidential information and the employee ' s responsibility is two pronged. the first prong relates to that confidential information which the employee either develops or learns in the course of his or her employment with the company. in general, state laws provide that an employee may not, either during or after his employment, divulge or use trade secrets which were developed by him during his employment or divulged to him by his employer, even absent an express agreement. the rationale is that a employee is in a relationship of trust and confidence with the company. in addition, most companies require that their employees sign an agreement which acknowledges that the employee will maintain the confidentiality of the company ' s trade secret information both during and after employment. the problematic aspect of this issue is raised when the employee wants to go to work for a competitor of the employer. the employee should be aware that under appropriate circumstances, the ex - employer may prevent the employee from going to work at a competitor if the following three factors are found to exist : ( 1 ) the former employee has knowledge of the first employer ' s trade secrets ; ( 2 ) the employee ' s new job duties ( and the products and technology he is working on ) are so similar to those in the former position that it would be extremely difficult for him not to rely on or use the first employer ' s trade secrets ; and ( 3 ) the former employee and the new employer cannot be depended upon to avoid using the trade secret information. the second prong relates to that confidential information provided by a third party to the employee ' s company. in those cases in which the employer signs a non - disclosure agreement to maintain the trade secrets of a third party, the employee - as an agent of the recipient company - is bound to the non - disclosure agreement and must abide by the confidentiality provisions. failure to do so may subject both the company and the employee to damages. - ownership of intellectual property. if a work was created by an employee as part of his or her job, the law considers the product a work for hire, and the employer will own the intellectual property rights to that work, as explained above. a work for hire is defined as " a work made by an employee within the scope of his or her employment ". in many instances, the courts have considered the intellectual property rights to a product developed by the employee to belong to the employer when the employee


ecosys ( economy, ecology and systems ) technology developing products that are kind to the environment – while still being highly economical to run – was the fundamental thinking behind the development of ecosys. kyocera introduced the cartridge - free ecosys printer concept in 1992 as a means of reducing total cost of ownership ( tco ), while improving the printer ’ s environmental impact. conventional printers use an imaging cartridge that integrates a photoreceptor drum, developer and toner into a single, disposable unit. when the toner is depleted, the entire cartridge is disposed of and replaced with a new unit. in contrast, ecosys printers feature a durable imaging system based on kyocera ’ s patented amorphous silicon print drum, a combination of ceramic and metal. with a surface that is second only to diamond in hardness, kyocera ’ s durable print drum is guaranteed up to 500, 000 pages on some series models. that ’ s because tiny ceramic particles embedded in kyocera ’ s toner continually polish and recondition the drum during normal printing, virtually eliminating the need for replacement of the drum and other cartridge components ( a task which is typically performed many times over the life of a conventional printer ). the result is printers and copiers which create less waste and have a lower comparable cost per print and less downtime, making them up to 50 % less expensive to operate than comparative models and much more reliable. conventional toner kit kyocera ecosys toner kit


who have been outcast by their village for religious reasons. if only the two groups could have met in a spirit of compromise, they might have been able to live peacefully together. but the british insistence on domination, and the igbo fear and rejection of their people who convert to christianity, spell doom for umuofia. each side fears the other, and, like okonkwo, each side is so fearful of appearing weak that it will resort to violence to keep the upper hand. achebe shows that the coming of europeans to africa was not light coming to darkness, or pure evil destroying a people ; it was two imperfect societies set on a collision course from which neither could emerge whole again. achebe wrote things fall apart in english. the decision was controversial amongst african writers at the time, some of whom wanted to promote native african languages, while others accepted english. if achebe wrote in english, he was using the language of the colonizer, a non - african voice, to tell an african story, once again. but if he wrote in igbo, he was limiting the potential audience for the novel to a single group of people in nigeria. in an essay called " the african writer and the english language, " achebe describes the problem : for an african writing in english is not without its serious setbacks. he often finds himself describing situations or modes of thought which have no direct equivalent in the english way of life. caught in that situation he can do one of two things. he can try and contain what he wants to say within the limits of conventional english or he can try to push back those limits to accommodate his ideas... i submit that those who can do the work of extending the frontiers of english so as to accommodate african thought - patterns must do it through their mastery of english and not out of innocence. in other words, african writers can use english to change it, and turn it into a language of african experience and not just english experience. achebe changed english by infusing it with igbo syntax, usage, and vocabulary so that while things fall apart is clearly written in english, it is a new kind of english that serves an igbo purpose. - mr. brown - the first white missionary to arrive in umuofia, mr. brown is respectful and patient, never attacking clan customs or religion directly. his early success is endangered by his ill health. - the district commissioner - the highest english official in the region arrives with the missionaries and oversees the fall of the villages


from the ' lectric law library ' s stacks search the library since the early part of this century, the federal courts have attempted to limit the uncertainty surrounding novel scientific evidence by establishing an evidentiary standard of reliability for scientific proof. frye v. u. s., 293 f. 1013 ( d. c. cir. ' 23 ), provided the standard that governed the introduction of expert evidence for more than half a century. the courts have also embraced procedures, including various forms of discovery providing for mandatory disclosure of witnesses " who may be used at trial to present evidence under rules 702, 703, or 705, " and requiring submission of written reports by expert witnesses, which give the parties and the courts greater opportunities to test the reliability of novel expert testimony. the standard of reliability for expert testimony and the applicable procedures in federal courts in the years proceeding the landmark 1993 daubert case had undergone significant change. as judge learned hand in " historical and practical considerations regarding expert testimony ", 15 harv. l. rev. 40 ( 1901 - 02 ) observed at the beginning of this century, expert evidence must be reliable in order to have some " possible weight " on an issue and be admitted for consideration by a trier of fact. absent reliability, the evidence would not be relevant to the inquiry. in frye, the court of appeals considered an appeal from a trial court ' s refusal to admit the resultsof a test based on systolic blood pressure, offered to prove the truthfulness of a defendant in a murder prosecution. in an oft - quoted passage, the court crafted a standard to determine whether scientific evidence was sufficiently reliable to warrant consideration by a trier of fact : just when a scientific principle or discovery crosses the line between the experimental and demonstrable stages is difficult to define. somewhere in this twilight zone the evidential forces of the principle must be recognized, and while courts will go a long way in admitting expert testimony deduced from a well - recognized scientific principle of discovery, the thing from which the deduction is made must be sufficiently established to have gained general acceptance in the particular field in which it belongs. frye contemplated two stages for acceptance of new science. first, the scientific community develops a theory and determines its reliability using scientific method. this stage required experimentation with the new science ' s methodology and publication of the results for scrutiny and approval by the scientific community. second, once the new science became " demonstrable, " based on acceptance in the scientific community, the court could permit its


stage required experimentation with the new science ' s methodology and publication of the results for scrutiny and approval by the scientific community. second, once the new science became " demonstrable, " based on acceptance in the scientific community, the court could permit its use as evidence in the courtroom. without explanation, the court of appeals chose " general acceptance " in the relevant scientific community as the standard for governing the admission of novel scientific evidence. under frye, the party proffering novel scientific evidence must show general acceptance by offering scientific publications, judicial decisions, evidence of practical use, or testimony by scientists on their peers ' position regarding the evidence in question. many courts, faced with determining the admissibility of a wide array of scientific evidence, favored the frye standard. often, new scientific evidence failed to survive this demanding standard. for example, mccormick on evidence reports : polygraphy, graphology, hypnotic and drug induced testimony, voice stress analysis, voice spectrograms, ion microprobe mass spectroscopy, infrared sensing of aircraft, retesting of breath samples for alcohol content, psychological profiles of battered women, and child abusers, post traumatic stress disorder as indicating rape, astronomical calculations, and blood group typing, all have fallen prey to [ frye ' s ] influence. many rationales have been offered to support the use of the frye standard as a means of excluding evidence. the justifications included : that the standard guaranteed a minimum number of knowledgeable experts ; that it promoted uniformity of decisions ; that it eliminated the need for time consuming hearings on admissibility ; and, most importantly, that it assured a method by which those best qualified to assess the validity of scientific evidence would effectively determine its admissibility. the general acceptance test of frye became the " dominant standard for determining the admissibility of novel scientific evidence at trial. " indeed, professor clark ' s testimony in briggs that the doll tests were " generally accepted as indications of the child ' s sensitivity to race as a problem " was calculated to satisfy frye. nonetheless, as justice blackmun noted in daubert, the merits and application of frye were extensively debated by commentators. professor mccormick was one of the primary critics of frye prior to the adoption of the federal rules of evidence. in 1972, he wrote : " general scientific acceptance " is a proper condition for taking judicial notice of scientific facts, but not a criterion for the admissibility of scientific evidence. any relevant conclusions which are supported by a qualified expert witness should be received unless there


, he wrote : " general scientific acceptance " is a proper condition for taking judicial notice of scientific facts, but not a criterion for the admissibility of scientific evidence. any relevant conclusions which are supported by a qualified expert witness should be received unless there are other reasons for exclusion. particularly, probative value may be overborne by the familiar dangers of prejudicing or misleading the jury.... if the courts used this approach, instead of repeating a supposed requirement of " general acceptance " not elsewhere imposed, they would arrive at a practical way of utilizing the results of scientific advances. charles t. mccormick, evidence sec. 203, at 491 ( 2d ed. ' 72 ) the fed. r. evid., effective july 1, 1975, provided the first modern and uniform set of evidence rules for the trial of civil and criminal cases in the federal courts. rule 702, which governs the admission of expert testimony, does so in terms that do not expressly address reliability : if scientific, technical, or other specialized knowledge will assist the trier of fact to understand the evidence or to determine a fact in issue, a witness qualified as an expert by knowledge, skill, experience, training, or education, may testify thereto in the form of an opinion or otherwise. the advisory committee on evidence, appointed by the supreme court, formulated the language which congress adopted as rule 702. rule 702 and the accompanying advisory committee note echo mccormick ' s criticism of frye. reliability should depend on relevance rather than the general acceptance of scientific evidence. fed. r. evid. 401 defines " relevant evidence " as " evidence having any tendency to make the existence of any fact that is of consequence to the determination of the action more probable or less probable than it would be without the evidence. ". rule 403 provides that relevant evidence " may be excluded if its probative value is substantially outweighed by the danger of unfair prejudice, confusion of the issues, or misleading the jury, or by considerations of undue delay, waste of time, or needless presentation of cumulative evidence. " rule 702 incorporates a relevancy requirement by permitting the introduction of scientific evidence which " will assist the trier of fact to understand the evidence or to determine a fact in issue. " surprisingly, the advisory committee note made no mention of frye. instead, the committee quoted professor mason ladd : there is no more certain test for determining when experts may be used than the common sense inquiry whether the untrained layman would


confuse the jury. " in 1985, the 3rd circuit decided u. s. v. downing, 753 f. 2d 1224 ( 3d cir. ' 85 ), the most significant precursor to daubert. in downing, the court considered the admissibility of expert testimony concerning the reliability of eyewitness identification. the court concluded that the language and spirit of the fed. r. evid., in addition to the experience of the courts in attempting to apply frye, suggested that an approach more flexible than the general acceptance test for the admissibility of novel scientific evidence was appropriate. downing instructed the district courts to undertake a preliminary inquiry as to the soundness of the theory or technique on which proffered scientific evidence was based. this inquiry was to include consideration of the risk that the jury would be overwhelmed, confused or misled and assessment of the materiality of the evidence to the issue in dispute. the third circuit envisioned a multi - factored analysis of the reliability of the evidence. the court permitted, but did not require, the identification of a relevant scientific community and a determination of the degree of acceptance within that community. in language reminiscent of frye, the court suggested that in many cases, the general acceptance factor was likely to be decisive. additional factors that district courts could consider included the novelty of the technique and its relationship to established modes of scientific analysis, the existence of specialized literature dealing with the technique, the likelihood that the scientific basis of the new technique has been exposed to critical scientific scrutiny, the qualifications and professional stature of the expert witness, and the potential and actual non - judicial uses of the scientific technique. according to downing, district courts should also focus on the risk of error, both the frequency with which the method leads to erroneous results and the type of error generated by the technique. finally, the district courts should consider whether the expert testimony had been offered in earlier cases to support or dispute the merits of a particular procedure. the downing opinion noted that " other factors could be added to the list. " the third circuit ' s articulation of a clear alternative to frye set the stage for the supreme court ' s resolution in daubert of the conflict among the circuits over the appropriate standard of reliability for scientific evidence under rule 702. the cases decided after the adoption of rule 702, but prior to daubert, reflected the different approaches of the courts described in the preceding section. occasionally, courts would restate and apply the frye general acceptance test. some courts


rights. appellants, a dairy farmer and his wife, were convicted of willfully holding two retarded farm workers in involuntary servitude and of conspiring to deprive the workers of their constitutional right to be free from involuntary servitude154 as guaranteed by the thirteenth amendment. the couple ' s son was also convicted on the conspiracy charge. the kozminskis argued on appeal that the district court erred in admitting expert psychological testimony to show that the two victims were detained against their will. a psychologist testified that the victims ' limited mental ability, combined with the psychological pressures exerted on them by the conditions at the dairy farm, created an " involuntary conversion " to complete dependency. the 6th circuit, sitting en banc, held that the district court improperly admitted this evidence. the court explained : " for expert testimony to be admissible under rule 702, a fourpart test must be met : ( 1 ) a qualified expert ; ( 2 ) testifying on a proper subject ; ( 3 ) in conformity to a generally accepted explanatory theory ; ( 4 ) the probative value of which outweighs any prejudicial effect. " according to the 6th circuit, the only arguably relevant theory shown to have general acceptance by the trial testimony was the " captivity syndrome " associated with the brainwashing of prisoners of war. the appellate court was not satisfied that any established theory existed to support a conclusion that the kozminskis ' actions resulted in complete dependency on the part of the victims : " as bad as conditions on the kozminski ' s dairy farm are alleged to be, they fall short of those found in a chinese prison camp. accordingly, captivity syndrome is inapplicable as a matter of law given the facts of this case. " because frye ' s requirement of a generally accepted explanatory theory was not met, the court held the testimony inadmissible under rule 702. a concurring opinion in kozminski cited frye and emphasized the need to protect a defendant in a criminal case against scientific evidence which may bear an " aura of special reliability and trustworthiness, " even when it is based on an unproved hypothesis which has yet to obtain any degree of acceptance in its field. id. at 1199 ( krupansky, j., concurring ). a dissenting opinion urged that the frye test should not be applicable to the testimony because it was properly categorized


obtain any degree of acceptance in its field. id. at 1199 ( krupansky, j., concurring ). a dissenting opinion urged that the frye test should not be applicable to the testimony because it was properly categorized as " other specialized " rather than " scientific " knowledge under rule 702, and as such, could be based on a subjective assessment of the victims and their conditions of confinement. id. at 1215 ( guy, j., dissenting ). the dissent, noting the abandonment of frye by the second and third circuits, also argued that the majority ' s concern with the reliability of the expert testimony could be better addressed under rule 403, which permits the exclusion of relevant evidence if its probative value is substantially outweighed, inter alia, by the danger of unfair prejudice, confusion of the issues, or misleading the jury. id. at 1214. spencer v. general elec., 688 f. supp. 1072 ( e. d. va. ' 88 ), typifies the third approach mentioned above, where the court attempts its own assessment of the scientific reliability of proffered expert testimony. spencer involved a title vii sexual harassment claim and state tort claims against a former supervisor and employer brought by an employee claiming to be a victim of rape and other sexual misconduct. at trial, the plaintiff attempted to introduce the testimony of a forensic psychiatrist that plaintiff suffered from post traumatic stress disorder ( ptsd ) as proof that the rape actually occurred. ultimately, the district court held the testimony inadmissible for this purpose. noting that ptsd is a condition recognized in psychiatry as the emotional reaction to traumatic events, such as rape, the court cited the american psychiatric assn., diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders for the proposition that ptsd may be caused by a variety of traumatic events outside the range of common experiences, such as military combat, bombing, torture, airplane crashes, or rape. in the case of rape, the condition is sometimes labeled rape trauma syndrome ( rts ). the court concluded, however, that evidence of ptsd or rts was not a scientifically reliable means of proving that a rape occurred : " evidence of ptsd occasioned by rape "... " is not a scientifically reliable means of proving that a rape occurred. ptsd is simply a diagnostic category created by psychiatrists ; it is a human construct, an artificial classification of certain behavioral patterns. rts was developed by rape counselors as


" is not a scientifically reliable means of proving that a rape occurred. ptsd is simply a diagnostic category created by psychiatrists ; it is a human construct, an artificial classification of certain behavioral patterns. rts was developed by rape counselors as a therapeutic tool to help identify, predict, and treat emotional problems experienced by the counselor ' s clients or patients. it was not developed or devised as a tool for ferreting out the truth in cases where it is hotly disputed whether the rape occurred. unlike fingerprints, blood tests, and lie detector tests, rts was not devised to determine the ' truth ' or accuracy of a particular past event - - i. e., whether, in fact, a rape in the legal sense occurred. "... " the scientific evaluation of rape trauma syndrome has not reached a level of reliability that surpasses the quality of common sense evaluation present in jury deliberations. " while the district court made its own determination of the reliability of the proffered evidence, its opinion did not completely ignore frye. the court questioned several authorities which had admitted ptsd or rts evidence under the frye test based on findings that the disorders were " generally accepted to be a common reaction to sexual assault. " the court opined that the relevant issue was not whether rape victims may display certain symptoms, but whether diagnosis of ptsd or rts provided scientifically reliable proof that an alleged victim was raped. thus, the court believed that, under frye, the evidence should not be admitted for this purpose. after trial, the district court held that the employee failed to prove by a preponderance of evidence that the alleged sexual assaults and rape took place. the evidence issue was not raised on appeal, and the 4th circuit affirmed. spencer v. general elec, supra. the court ' s exclusion of the psychiatric evidence of ptsd to corroborate the plaintiff ' s testimony that she was raped, on grounds that such evidence was irrelevant, seems questionable. the diagnosis of the plaintiff with a disorder that experts recognize as affecting persons who have suffered significant trauma subsequent to the date of the alleged incident was relevant because it tended to support her testimony that she had indeed been raped. such evidence is relevant even if the diagnosis standing alone did not show the cause of the condition. the court ' s evidentiary ruling in spencer has not been cited by any other federal court. nonetheless, the decision illustrates the types of issues which a court following the third line of authority must address in an effort