{"text": "computer models how buds grow into leaves posted on march 02, 2012 at 08 : 24 : 51 am \" a bud does not grow in all directions at the same rate, \" said samantha fox from the john innes centre on norwich research park. \" otherwise leaves would be domed like a bud, not flat with a pointed tip. \" by creating a computer model to grow a virtual leaf, the bbsrc - funded scientists managed to discover simple rules of leaf growth. - advertisement - similar to the way a compass works, plant cells have an inbuilt orientation system. instead of a magnetic field, the cells have molecular signals to guide the axis on which they grow. as plant tissues deform during growth, the orientation and axis changes. the molecular signals become patterned from an early stage within the bud, helping the leaf shape to emerge. the researchers filmed a growing arabidopsis leaf, a relative of oil seed rape, to help create a model which could simulate the growing process. they were able to film individual cells and track them as the plant grew. it was also important to unpick the workings behind the visual changes and to test them in normal and mutant plants. \" the model is not just based on drawings of leaf shape at different stages, \" said professor enrico coen. \" to accurately recreate dynamic growth from bud to leaf, we had to establish the mathematical rules governing how leaf shapes are formed. \" with this knowledge programmed into the model, developed in collaboration with professor andrew bangham ' s team at the university of east anglia, it can run independently to build a virtual but realistic leaf. professor douglas kell, chief executive of bbsrc said : \" this exciting research highlights the potential of using computer and mathematical models for biological research to help us tackle complex questions and make predictions for the future. computational modelling can give us a deeper and more rapid understanding of the biological systems that are vital to life on earth. \" the model could now be used to help identify the genes that control leaf shape and whether different genes are behind different shapes. \" this simple model could account for the basic development and growth of all leaf shapes, \" said fox. \" the more we understand about how plants grow, the better we can prepare for our future - - providing food, fuel and preserving diversity. \"", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5170542056535649, "token_count": 467, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:48.183625"} {"text": "irish druids and old irish early religions of the one of the most philosophical statements from max muller is to this effect : \" whatever we know of early religion, we always see that it presupposes vast periods of an earlier development. \" this is exhibited in the history of all peoples that have progressed in civilization, though we may have to travel far back on the track of history to notice transformations of thought or belief. when the late dr. birch told us that a pyramid, several hundreds of years older than the great pyramid, contained the name of osiris, we knew that at least the osirian part of egyptian mythology was honoured some six or seven thousand years ago what the earlier development of religion there was, or how the conception of a dying and risen osiris arose, at so remote a period, may well excite our wonder. professor jebb writes - - \" there was a time when they ( early man ) began to speak of the natural powers as persons, and yet had not forgotten that they were really natural, powers, and that the persons ' names were merely signs? yet this goes on the assumption that religion - - or rather dogmas thereof - - sprang from reflections upon natural phenomena. in this way, the french author of sirius satisfied himself, particularly on philological grounds, that the idea, of god sprang from an association with thunder and the barking of a dog. we are assured by max muller, that religion is a word that has changed from century to century, and that \" the word rose to the surface thousands of years ago. \" taking religion to imply an inward feeling of reverence toward the unseen, and a desire to act in obedience to the inward law of right, religion has existed as long as humanity itself. what is commonly assumed by the word religion, by writers in general, is dogma or belief. the importance of this subject was well put forth by the great sanscrit scholar in the phrase, \" the real history of man is the history of religion. \" this conviction lends interest and weight to any investigations into the ancient religion of ireland ; though plowden held that \" few histories are so charged with fables as the annals of ireland. \" it was herder who finely said, \" our earth owes the seeds of all higher culture to a religious tradition, whether literary or oral. \" in proportion as the so - called supernatural gained an ascendancy, so was man really advancing from the materialism and brutishness of savagedom. lecky", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.513240794791495, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:48.193505"} {"text": "seeds of all higher culture to a religious tradition, whether literary or oral. \" in proportion as the so - called supernatural gained an ascendancy, so was man really advancing from the materialism and brutishness of savagedom. lecky notes \" the disposition of man in certain stages of society towards the miraculous. \" but was buckle quite correct in maintaining that \" all nature conspired to increase the authority of the imaginative faculties, and weaken the authority of the reasoning ones \"? it is not to be forgotten in our inquiry that, as faiths rose in the east, science has exerted its force in the west. fetishism can hardly be regarded as the origin of religion. as to those writers who see in the former the deification of natural objects, max muller remarks, \" they might as well speak of primitive men mummifying their dead bodies before they had wax to embalm them with. \" myth has been styled the basis of religion not less than of history ; but how was it begotten? butler, in english, irish, and scottish churches, writes - - \" to separate the fabulous from the probable, and the probable from the true, will require no ordinary share of penetration and persevering industry. \" we have certainly to remember, as one has said, that \" mythic history, mythic theology, mythic science, are alike records, not of facts, but beliefs. \" andrew lang properly calls our attention to language, as embodying thought,, being so liable to misconception and misinterpretation. names, connected with myths, have been so variously read and explained by scholars, that outsiders may well be puzzled. how rapidly a myth grows, and is greedily accepted, because of the wish it may be true, is exemplified in the pretty story, immortalized by music, of jessie of lucknow, who, in the siege, heard her deliverers, in the remote distance, playing \" the campbells are coming. \" there never was, however, a jessie brown there at that time ; and, as one adds, jessie has herself \" been sent to join william tell and the other dethroned gods and in the hibbert lectures, professor rhys observes, \" the greek myth, which distressed the thoughtful and pious minds, like that of socrates, was a survival, like the other scandalous tales about the gods, from the time when the ancestors of the greeks were savages. \" may it not rather have been derived by homer", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5373490054064436, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:48.195089"} {"text": "you have to like the attitude of thomas henning ( max - planck - institut fur astronomie ). the scientist is a member of a team of astronomers whose recent work on planet formation around tw hydrae was announced this afternoon. their work used data from esa \u2019 s herschel space observatory, which has the sensitivity at the needed wavelengths for scanning tw hydrae \u2019 s protoplanetary disk, along with the capability of taking spectra for the telltale molecules they were looking for. but getting observing time on a mission like herschel is not easy and funding committees expect results, a fact that didn \u2019 t daunt the researcher. says henning, \u201c if there \u2019 s no chance your project can fail, you \u2019 re probably not doing very interesting science. tw hydrae is a good example of how a calculated scientific gamble can pay off. \u201d i would guess the relevant powers that be are happy with this team \u2019 s gamble. the situation is this : tw hydrae is a young star of about 0. 6 solar masses some 176 light years away. the proximity is significant : this is the closest protoplanetary disk to earth with strong gas emission lines, some two and a half times closer than the next possible subjects, and thus intensely studied for the insights it offers into planet formation. out of the dense gas and dust here we can assume that tiny grains of ice and dust are aggregating into larger objects and one day planets. image : artist \u2019 s impression of the gas and dust disk around the young star tw hydrae. new measurements using the herschel space telescope have shown that the mass of the disk is greater than previously thought. credit : axel m. quetz ( mpia ). the challenge of tw hydrae, though, has been that the total mass of the molecular hydrogen gas in its disk has remained unclear, leaving us without a good idea of the particulars of how this infant system might produce planets. molecular hydrogen does not emit detectable radiation, while basing a mass estimate on carbon monoxide is hampered by the opacity of the disk. for that matter, basing a mass estimate on the thermal emissions of dust grains forces astronomers to make guesses about the opacity of the dust, so that we \u2019 re left with uncertainty \u2014 mass values have been estimated anywhere between 0. 5 and 63 jupiter masses, and that \u2019 s a lot of play. error bars like these have left us guessing about the properties of this disk. the new work takes a different", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5216884241897483, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:48.205210"} {"text": "re left with uncertainty \u2014 mass values have been estimated anywhere between 0. 5 and 63 jupiter masses, and that \u2019 s a lot of play. error bars like these have left us guessing about the properties of this disk. the new work takes a different tack. while hydrogen molecules don \u2019 t emit measurable radiation, those hydrogen molecules that contain a deuterium atom, in which the atomic nucleus contains not just a proton but an additional neutron, emit significant amounts of radiation, with an intensity that depends upon the temperature of the gas. because the ratio of deuterium to hydrogen is relatively constant near the sun, a detection of hydrogen deuteride can be multiplied out to produce a solid estimate of the amount of molecular hydrogen in the disk. the herschel data allow the astronomers to set a lower limit for the disk mass at 52 jupiter masses, the most useful part of this being that this estimate has an uncertainty ten times lower than the previous results. a disk this massive should be able to produce a planetary system larger than the solar system, which scientists believe was produced by a much lighter disk. when henning spoke about taking risks, he doubtless referred to the fact that this was only the second time hydrogen deuteride has been detected outside the solar system. the pitch to the herschel committee had to be persuasive to get them to sign off on so tricky a detection. but 36 herschel observations ( with a total exposure time of almost seven hours ) allowed the team to find the hydrogen deuteride they were looking for in the far - infrared. water vapor in the atmosphere absorbs this kind of radiation, which is why a space - based detection is the only reasonable choice, although the team evidently considered the flying observatory sofia, a platform on which they were unlikely to get approval given the problematic nature of the observation. now we have much better insight into a budding planetary system that is taking the same route our own system did over four billion years ago. what further gains this will help us achieve in testing current models of planet formation will be played out in coming years. the paper is bergin et al., \u201c an old disk that can still form a planetary system, \u201d nature 493 ( ( 31 january 2013 ), pp. 644 \u2013 646 ( preprint ). be aware as well of hogerheijde et al., \u201c detection of the water reservoir in a forming planetary system, \u201d science 6054 ( 2011 ), p. 338. the latter, many of whose", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5554059956156461, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:48.206525"} {"text": "( preprint ). be aware as well of hogerheijde et al., \u201c detection of the water reservoir in a forming planetary system, \u201d science 6054 ( 2011 ), p. 338. the latter, many of whose co - authors also worked on the bergin paper, used herschel data to detect cold water vapor in the tw hydrae disk, with this result : our herschel detection of cold water vapor in the outer disk of tw hya demonstrates the presence of a considerable reservoir of water ice in this protoplanetary disk, suf\ufb01cient to form several thousand earth oceans worth of icy bodies. our observations only directly trace the tip of the iceberg of 0. 005 earth oceans in the form of water vapor. clearly, tw hydrae has much to teach us. addendum : this jpl news release notes that although a young star, tw hydrae had been thought to be past the stage of making giant planets : \u201c we didn \u2019 t expect to see so much gas around this star, \u201d said edwin bergin of the university of michigan in ann arbor. bergin led the new study appearing in the journal nature. \u201c typically stars of this age have cleared out their surrounding material, but this star still has enough mass to make the equivalent of 50 jupiters, \u201d bergin said.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5332728037121146, "token_count": 277, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:48.207081"} {"text": "interviewing children about past events : evaluating the nichd interview protocol this study, conducted by the nichd in collaboration with lancaster university in lancaster, england, will evaluate the accuracy of information obtained from children using an adapted version of nichd ' s interview protocol. the nichd protocol was developed to help forensic interviewers obtain information from children who may be victims of or witnesses to a crime about their experiences. this study does not involve forensic interviews, but is designed to obtain information from children about an event that takes place at their school. the study will examine how children report a brief interaction with an unfamiliar adult, how the memory of the event changes over time, and how the use of different interview techniques can help children give a fuller and more accurate accounts of past experiences. children 5 and 6 years of age who attend local schools in the lancaster, england, area may be eligible for this study. participants will be told that they are going to have their pictures taken and will be escorted by a researcher to a room at the school with another researcher who is posing as a photographer. the \" photographer \" and the child will put on a costume, such as a pirate ' s outfit, over their street clothes, helping each other put on pieces of the costume. the photographer will take pictures of the child in the costume. they will each take off the costumes and the child will be told that he or she will receive the photographs at a later time. another researcher posing as a photographer will come into the room, interrupting the event, and begin to argue with the first photographer about who had booked the equipment. they will resolve the argument and apologize to the child for the interruption. about 6 weeks after the event, the children will be interviewed using the adapted version of nichd interview protocol. half will be interviewed first about the staged event ( the photo session ), followed by an interview about a fictitious event ( e. g., a class visit to the fire station ) that could plausibly have happened but did not. the other half of the children will be interviewed first about the fictitious event and then about the staged event. the children will be interviewed according to one of the following three procedures : - the nichd protocol preceded by a rapport - building phase that includes the rules of the interview and open - ended questions about the child and a recently experienced event - the nichd protocol preceded by a rapport - building phase that includes the rules of the interview and direct questions about the child and a recently experienced event, or - the nichd protocol preceded by the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5234431933156788, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:48.235713"} {"text": "questions about the child and a recently experienced event - the nichd protocol preceded by a rapport - building phase that includes the rules of the interview and direct questions about the child and a recently experienced event, or - the nichd protocol preceded by the rules of the interview and open - ended questions about the child, but no opportunity to practice talking about a recently experienced event. after the interviewer has elicited as much information as is likely to be gained from verbal questions, he or she will present the child with a line drawing of a gender neutral person and ask the child to indicate where the child was touched by the photographer and where the child touched the photographer. any child who provides a report of the fictitious event will be interviewed in the same way about the fictitious event. after 1 year, the children will be interviewed again in the same manner as the 6 - week interview. the interviews will be audio - and videotaped to record the kind of information the children talk about and compare it to what actually happened in the event. | official title : | | evaluating the nichd interview protocol in an analog study | | study start date : | | january 2004 | | estimated study completion date : | | october 2006 | the nichd interview protocol was designed to aid forensic interviewers in adhering to best standards of practice when interviewing children. field studies evaluating its use have demonstrated improvements in both interviewer behavior, and the amount and quality of information obtained from children, compared to interviews conducted prior to its implementation in test sites. because field studies were conducted in forensic settings, however, it has not been possible to evaluate the protocol ' s effect on the accuracy of information reported by children. this present study therefore aims to evaluate the accuracy of information obtained using the nichd interview protocol in an analog study. in addition the study is designed to explore children ' s willingness to provide details of a suggested, non - experienced event, and the effectiveness of including a human figure drawing as an auxiliary technique for eliciting further information. furthermore, we will explore the importance of the pre - substantive / rapport - building phase of interviews, and the impact this has on children ' s reports of experienced and suggested events. finally, we will explore the effectiveness of the interview protocol with children when a long delay has occurred between the event and the interview. children will take part, individually, in a staged event at their school, and approximately six weeks later, be interviewed at the university about what they experienced. in addition, children will be asked to talk about a suggested", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.54379811571332, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:48.237706"} {"text": "between the event and the interview. children will take part, individually, in a staged event at their school, and approximately six weeks later, be interviewed at the university about what they experienced. in addition, children will be asked to talk about a suggested fictitious event ( one that has not happened ). the order of the interviews will be counter - balanced across children and rapport - building conditions. some children will be interviewed with an open - ended script that includes practice in episodic memory, some with a script made up of direct questions, including a practice in episodic memory, and some with one that uses open - ended questions but does not provide practice in talking about an event from episodic memory. approximately one year later children will be interviewed again, so that we can examine children ' s reports in protocol interviews over a long delay. children ' s reports will be analyzed for both overall amount and accuracy of information reported, as well as in response to the different cues and props given in the course of the interview. it is not anticipated that the study will pose any risks to the children involved, and we expect that both the staged event and the interviews will be enjoyable and stimulating. we expect that the results of the study will provide further support for the use of nichd interview as a safe and effective means of interviewing children about past experiences. in addition to general information on children ' s eyewitness capabilities, the study is expected to supplement field studies by contributing knowledge about the accuracy of children ' s memory using the nichd interview protocol. | united states, maryland | | national institute of child health and human development ( nichd ) | | bethesda, maryland, united states, 20892 |", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5013326342597504, "token_count": 346, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:48.238545"} {"text": "the national science foundation available languages : english, spanish this classroom - tested learning module gives a condensed, easily - understood view of the development of atomic theory from the late 19th through early 20th century. the key idea was the discovery that the atom is not an \" indivisible \" particle, but consists of smaller constituents : the proton, neutron, and electron. it discusses the contributions of john dalton, j. j. thomson, ernest rutherford, and james chadwick, whose experiments revolutionized the world view of atomic structure. see related materials for a link to part 2 of this series. atomic structure, cathode ray experiment, electron, helium atom, history of atom, history of the atom, hydrogen atom, neutron, proton metadata instance created july 12, 2011 by caroline hall october 10, 2012 by caroline hall last update when cataloged : january 1, 2006 aaas benchmark alignments ( 2008 version ) 4. the physical setting 4d. the structure of matter 6 - 8 : 4d / m1a. all matter is made up of atoms, which are far too small to see directly through a microscope. 9 - 12 : 4d / h1. atoms are made of a positively charged nucleus surrounded by negatively charged electrons. the nucleus is a tiny fraction of the volume of an atom but makes up almost all of its mass. the nucleus is composed of protons and neutrons which have roughly the same mass but differ in that protons are positively charged while neutrons have no electric charge. 9 - 12 : 4d / h2. the number of protons in the nucleus determines what an atom ' s electron configuration can be and so defines the element. an atom ' s electron configuration, particularly the outermost electrons, determines how the atom can interact with other atoms. atoms form bonds to other atoms by transferring or sharing electrons. 10. historical perspectives 10f. understanding fire 9 - 12 : 10f / h1. in the late 1700s and early 1800s, the idea of atoms reemerged in response to questions about the structure of matter, the nature of fire, and the basis of chemical phenomena. 9 - 12 : 10f / h3. in the early 1800s, british chemist and physicist john dalton united the concepts of atoms and elements. he proposed two ideas that laid the groundwork for modern chemistry : first, that elements are formed from small, indivisible particles called atoms, which are identical for a given element but different from any other element ; and second, that chemical compounds are", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6475571219698604, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:48.249169"} {"text": "proposed two ideas that laid the groundwork for modern chemistry : first, that elements are formed from small, indivisible particles called atoms, which are identical for a given element but different from any other element ; and second, that chemical compounds are formed from atoms by combining a definite number of each type of atom to form one molecule of the compound. 9 - 12 : 10f / h4. dalton figured out how the relative weights of the atoms could be determined experimentally. his idea that every substance had a unique atomic composition provided an explanation for why substances were made up of elements in specific proportions. this resource is part of a physics front topical unit. topic : particles and interactions and the standard model unit title : history and discovery this classroom - tested learning module gives a condensed, easily - understood view of the development of atomic theory from the late 19th through early 20th century. the key idea was the discovery that the atom is not an \" indivisible \" particle, but consists of smaller constituents : the proton, neutron, and electron. it discusses the contributions of john dalton, j. j. thomson, ernest rutherford, and james chadwick, whose experiments revolutionized the world view of atomic structure. % 0 electronic source % a carpi, anthony % d january 1, 2006 % t visionlearning : atomic theory i % i visionlearning % v 2013 % n 21 may 2013 % 8 january 1, 2006 % 9 text / html % u http : / / www. visionlearning. com / library / module _ viewer. php? mid = 50 & l = disclaimer : compadre offers citation styles as a guide only. we cannot offer interpretations about citations as this is an automated procedure. please refer to the style manuals in the citation source information area for clarifications.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6073275281052724, "token_count": 371, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:48.250523"} {"text": "an electron is a subatomic particles of spin 1 / 2. it couples with photons and, thus, is electrically charged. it is a lepton with a rest mass of 9. 109 * 10 \u2212 31kg and an electric charge of \u2212 1. 602 * 10 \u2212 19 c, which is the smallest known charge possible for an isolated particle ( confined quarks have fractional charge ). the electric charge of the electron e is used as a unit of charge in much of physics. electron pairs within an orbital system have opposite spins due to the pauli exclusion principle ; this characteristic spin pairing allows electrons to exist in the same quantum orbital, as the opposing magnetic dipole moments induced by each of the electrons ensures that they are attracted together. current theories consider the electron as a point particle, as no evidence for internal structure has been observed. as a theoretical construct, electrons have been able to explain other observed phenomena, such as the shell - like structure of an atom, energy distribution around an atom, and energy beams ( electron and positron beams ). - \u2191 massimi, m. ( 2005 ). pauli ' s exclusion principle, the origin and validation of a scientific principle. cambridge university press. pp. 7 \u2013 8 - \u2191 mauritsson, j.. \" electron filmed for the first time ever \". lunds universitet. retrieved 2008 - 09 - 17. http : / / www. atomic. physics. lu. se / research / attosecond _ physics - \u2191 chao, a. w. ; tigner, m. ( 1999 ). handbook of accelerator physics and engineering. world scientific. pp. 155, 188. isbn 981 - 02 - 3500 - 3.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.7038073871102211, "token_count": 354, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:48.252562"} {"text": ". an alternative definition of \" carrying capacity \" is the number of human beings combined with the average per capita usage of resources which if exceeded even for a short period of time will result in the inability of the earth provide the resources necessary for civilization to continue causing a rapid and horrendous decline in the human population. while no one knows what the carrying capacity of the earth may be, it cannot be infinite - - it must be finite. no matter how much the average per capita usage of resources is reduced the earth could not support 1 trillion human beings. similarly, if the per capita usage of resources were increased such that each human being used 30 times the amount of resources used by the average american is highly unlikely that the earth could support 1 billion human beings. at present human population is growing. it is highly likely that the average per capita usage of resources will continue to increase due to the rapidly growing economies of india and china and the growing economies of many of the other nations of the world. therefore, a very strong case can be made that humanity will shortly exceed the carrying capacity of the earth, if humanity already has not exceeded that capacity. if humanity exceeds the carrying capacity and takes no immediate action to reduce the population and / or the usage of resources to reduce it ' s impact on the planet below carrying capacity, then humans will enter into a violent competitions for the resources necessary to survive and the horrors set forth in 1 ( a ) will occur. in simple terms, it will be each and every man / group / religion / nation / culture against every other man / group / religion / nation / culture in order to obtain resources which the earth can provide so that the individual survives - - pure violent darwinism. billions will die and die horribly and more importantly the catastrophe will use up and / or destroy any remaining resources such that civilization will be unable to restart forever or at least for thousands of years 2. does society, no matter how defined, have a right to limit the number of children a person produces by coercion or is the right to determine how many children a person produces absolute and society has no right to interfere with that decision? in considering this question limit yourself to the right i have set forth above and do not consider how that right could or would be enforced and whether enforcing that right would be harmful or beneficial to society. those questions and any and all others would have to be considered, evaluated and discussed only if the right to limit the number of children a person produces by coercion exists in society. as far as i", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5008141035626208, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:48.270843"} {"text": ". com ( it is spelled with a ' k \" and not a \" c \" ) - - pay particular attention to his book \" scarcity \". the reasons for your answers to these questions would be most appreciated. since no rational person would want to control population growth by the horrors set forth in paragraph 1 ( a ) above, there are in reality only two ways to control population growth / reduce population growth to zero / make it negative. no one can present a logically and factually supported case that the voluntary action ( as defined in paragraph 1 above ) of humanity will reduce population growth to zero prior to the commencement of the horrors described in paragraph 1 ( a ) with absolute certainty. in other words, there is some level of probability that if humanity were to limit itself to voluntary action to control population growth that action will fail and humanity will exceed the carrying capacity of the earth such that the horrors described in paragraph 1 ( a ) would occur. no one knows what is the chance of success or what is the chance of failure of voluntary action - - no one knows if the chance of success is 70 % and the chance of failure is 30 % or 80 / 20 or 60 / 40 or 50 / 50 or any other combination of numbers. however, there is a chance of failure and failure will lead to the collapse of society / the collapse of the social order / the destruction of civilization and to the horrors described in paragraph 1 ( a ). more importantly, there is a vastly greater chance of failure of voluntary action if population growth not only has to be reduced to zero but made negative to substantially reduce the human population from the current 7 billion or from the future 10 billion ( year 2100 ) to a much lower number in order for our species to survive for a reasonable period of time. a number of experts ( whatever the word \" expert \" means ) ( david pimental of cornell university and james lovelock of gaia fame, for example ) have presented factually and logically supported cases that the earth ' s carrying capacity is 2 billion or less of our species. humanity ignores at its peril the work of these experts. if the chance of success / failure is one set of numbers for voluntary action relating to reducing population growth zero, then there is a second set of numbers for success / failure in which the success side of the equation is substantially reduced and failure side of the equation is substantially increased in considering voluntary action in relation to population reduction. since chance of failure of voluntary action could result in the horrific deaths of billions, perhaps as many", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.505798000803154, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:48.273256"} {"text": "failure in which the success side of the equation is substantially reduced and failure side of the equation is substantially increased in considering voluntary action in relation to population reduction. since chance of failure of voluntary action could result in the horrific deaths of billions, perhaps as many as 9. 6 billion - - ( 10. 1 billion alive in 2100 less the possible carrying capacity of 0. 5 billion = reduction of 9. 6 billion ), the question becomes - - - - what level of possible failure of voluntary action is acceptable to humankind? of course, the number of horrific deaths could be substantially less than 9. 6 billion. however, since no one can guarantee with 100 % certainty that the voluntary action will not prevent a substantial number of horrific deaths, the leaders of humanity have a duty to convene one or more conferences of the best minds presently on our planet to evaluate and consider coercive population control. it cannot be denied that many arguments can be made against coercive population control - - - the experiment in india a number of years ago was a failure, humanity could equate coercive population control with the actions of adolph hitler or racists, it will take as long to impose coercive control as to make voluntary action successful and many others. coercive population control need not be discriminatory. if each couple in the entire world were limited to one child, no religion, group, nationality, race, culture, etc., would benefit at the expense of any other religion, group, nationality, race or culture. this essay is not intended discuss or debate the advantages / disadvantages, or the problems / benefits of coercive population control. rather, the purpose of this essay is to show that humanity must consider and evaluate coercive population control because there is a substantial, but undefined, risk that voluntary action will lead to the horrific deaths of a substantial number of human beings in the very near future - - - - probably before the year 2050 and almost certainly before the year 2100. jason g. brent email @ example. com comments are not moderated. please be responsible and civil in your postings and stay within the topic discussed in the article too. if you find inappropriate comments, just flag ( report ) them and they will move into moderation que.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5080947498339508, "token_count": 466, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:48.274195"} {"text": "use it or lose it? researchers investigate the dispensability of our dna | october 2, 2008 our genome contains many genes encoding proteins that are similar to those of other organisms, suggesting evolutionary relationships ; however, protein - coding genes account for only a small fraction the genome, and there are many other dna sequences that are conserved across species. what are these sequences doing, and do we really need them at all? in a study published online today in genome research ( www. genome. org ), researchers have delved into this mystery and found that evolution has actively kept them in our genome. before the human genome was sequenced, researchers estimated the genome might contain upwards of 140, 000 protein - coding genes, but surprisingly, sequencing revealed only about 20, 000, accounting for less than 2 % of the entire genome. previously, dr. gill bejerano of stanford university found that lurking within the other 98 % of the genome are stretches of sequences, known as ultraconserved elements, which are identical between humans and animals such as rodents and chickens, even though hundreds of millions of years of independent evolution separates them. other evidence has suggested that ultraconserved sequences can harbor critical functions, such as regulation of the activity of certain genes. yet research in this field has produced laboratory results that are seemingly in disagreement : some ultraconserved elements can be deleted from the mouse genome and produce no observable effect on mice. bejerano cautions that laboratory experiments such as these may not be able to detect slow evolutionary forces at work. \" with this in mind, we set out to examine the genomic data, much as someone would examine archaeological data, in search of similar deletion events that have happened naturally, and more importantly, were retained in the wild. \" \" an analogy i like to entertain is that of plate tectonics : a fraction of the phenomena may be strong enough to be directly measured by our instruments, but to appreciate its full magnitude we must dig into the geological record, \" said bejerano. \" this digging into the genomic record is what our current work was all about. bejerano and graduate student cory mclean studied the genomes of six mammals, investigating ultraconserved elements that are shared between primates and closely related mammals, were present in the ancestor of modern rodents, but have been lost in the rodent lineage more recently. the researchers found that the genomic evidence supports an important biological role for ultraconserved elements, as well as thousands of other non -", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5320003776107116, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:48.283322"} {"text": ", were present in the ancestor of modern rodents, but have been lost in the rodent lineage more recently. the researchers found that the genomic evidence supports an important biological role for ultraconserved elements, as well as thousands of other non - coding elements that are resistant to deletion. \" the functional importance of ultraconserved elements is reinforced by the observation that the elements are rarely lost in any species, \" said mclean. \" in fact, they are over 300 - fold less likely to be lost than genomic loci which evolve neutrally in our genome. \" bejerano explained that while loss of some elements may have a significant impact on the fitness of a species and the loss of other elements might be harder to detect in the laboratory, nearly all changes to these regions are picked up by evolution and swept out of the population. \" perhaps our most striking observation is one of sheer magnitude, \" bejerano said. \" our work highlights how essential these dozens of thousands of regions are to the natural evolution of a species even as their actual functions remain, at large, a mystery. \" scientists from stanford university ( stanford, ca ) contributed to this study. this work was supported by a stanford bio - x graduate fellowship and the edward mallinckrodt, jr. foundation. gill bejerano, ph. d. ( email @ example. com ; + 1 - 650 - 723 - 7666 ) has agreed to be contacted for more information. interested reporters may obtain copies of the manuscript from peggy calicchia, editorial secretary, genome research ( firstname. lastname @ example. org ; + 1 - 516 - 422 - 4012 ). about the article : the manuscript will be published online ahead of print on october 2, 2008. its full citation is as follows : mclean, c., and bejerano, g. dispensability of mammalian dna. genome res. doi : 10. 1101 / gr. 080184. 108. about genome research : genome research ( www. genome. org ) is an international, continuously published, peer - reviewed journal published by cold spring harbor laboratory press. launched in 1995, it is one of the five most highly cited primary research journals in genetics and genomics. about cold spring harbor laboratory press : cold spring harbor laboratory press is an internationally renowned publisher of books, journals, and electronic media, located on long island, new york. it is a division of cold spring harbor laboratory, an innovator in life science research", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5269042023109556, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:48.284699"} {"text": "heat is a sad fact of life for current generation electronics. any android, iphone, or blackberry user can tell you that smartphones tend to get pretty hot at times. and by today ' s standards a balmy 85 degrees celsius, while hot enough to cook an egg, is a pretty \" good \" operating temperature for a high - powered pc graphics processing unit. but that could all soon change, according to the results of a new study by researchers at the university of illinois. examining graphene transistors, a team led by mechanical science and engineering professor william king [ profile ] and electrical and computer engineering professor eric pop [ profile ] made a remarkable discovery - - graphene appears to self - cool. i. what is graphene? graphene is somewhat like a miniature \" fence \" of carbon. the material consists of a single - atom thick layer composed of hexagonal units. at each point of the hexagon sits a carbon atom that is bonded to its three close neighbors. the material behaves like a semiconductor, despite being made of organic atoms. it offers remarkable performance at an incredibly small scale, thus the electronics industry views it as a potential material to power electronic devices of the future. a variety of methods exist for producing graphene. the earliest method was an exfoliation technique that involved stripping individual graphene layers off a layer of graphite ( the material found in pencil lead ) - - this technique ( as of 2008 ) cost as much as $ 100m usd to produce a single cubic centimeter of material. however, rapid advances in production have allowed manufacturers to begin scaling up production to the point where tons of exfoliated graphene can now be produced. techniques promise to drop the price even further. one method, epitaxial growth on silicon cost $ 100 per cubic centimeter in 2009. its limitation is that, obviously, it requires silicon ( eliminating some desirable properties like flexibility ). south korean researchers have tested another promising method, nickel metal transfer. graphene is fascinating from a physics perspective. in 2005 physicists at the university of manchester and the philip kim group from columbia university demonstrated that quasiparticles inside graphene were massless dirac fermions. these unusual particles help give rise to the material ' s unique characteristics. ii. graphene as a self - cooling device despite the extreme interest in the material, deal of mystery still surrounds graphene. because it is so extremely thin, it is difficult to test and measure accurately certain properties of the material. overcoming technical challenges,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5921509897686349, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:48.298447"} {"text": ". graphene as a self - cooling device despite the extreme interest in the material, deal of mystery still surrounds graphene. because it is so extremely thin, it is difficult to test and measure accurately certain properties of the material. overcoming technical challenges, the university of illinois team used an atomic force microscope tip as a temperature probe to make the first nanometer - scale temperature measurements of a working graphene what they found was that the resistive heating ( \" waste heat \" ) effect in graphene was weaker than its thermo - electric cooling effect at times. this is certainly not the case in silicon or other semiconductors where resistive heating far surpasses cooling effects. what this means is that graphene circuits may not get hot like traditional silicon - based ones. this could open the door to dense 3d chips and more. further, as the heat is converted back into electricity by the device, graphene transistors may have a two - fold power efficiency gain, both in ditching energetically expensive fans and by recycling heat losses into usable electricity. professor king describes, \" in silicon and most materials, the electronic heating is much larger than the self - cooling. however, we found that in these graphene transistors, there are regions where the thermoelectric cooling can be larger than the resistive heating, which allows these devices to cool themselves. this self - cooling has not previously been seen for graphene devices. \" professor pop adds, \" graphene electronics are still in their infancy ; however, our measurements and simulations project that thermoelectric effects will become enhanced as graphene transistor technology and contacts improve. \" a paper has been published [ full text ] in nanotechnology ' s most prestigious peer - reviewed journal, nature nanoscience. university of illinois graduate student kyle undergraduate feifei lian and postdoctoral researcher myung - ho bae [ profile ] are listed as co - authors on the paper. iii. what ' s next? the study should provide even more motivation for semiconductor manufacturing companies like intel, globalfoundries, and tmsc to lay down the process work necessary to mass - produce circuits based on graphene transistors, capacitors, etc. as for the university of illinois team, they plan to next use their new measurement technique to analyze carbon nanotubes and other novel structures that are of interest to future electronics applications. their work is funded via a grant from the air force office of scientific research and the office of naval research.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5975623474391711, "token_count": 509, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:48.304728"} {"text": "a new approach to improving system performance by terry costlow embedded. com ( 01 / 05 / 10, 08 : 20 : 00 pm est ) speed is a key element in most every electronic design. whether engineers are creating complex image processing applications or designing systems that extend battery life by working swiftly before returning to sleep mode, speed is a critical factor in a product ' s success. though hardware usually gets first consideration when design teams look for ways to improve speed, that ' s not usually the most effective path. it ' s fairly straightforward to run the features and functions of a product faster without making any hardware changes. streamlining software so it runs at optimal rates can bring significant improvements in a way that ' s so easy to implement units in the field can be enhanced. that ' s far more cost effective than redesigning hardware. three of the four basic components in system speed are in software : operating systems, compilers and application software. hardware is the critical fourth phase, but altering processors, memories, bus architectures and data channels is difficult. altering the operating system is also difficult once the os has been selected. that leaves optimizing the software that runs above the operating system as the most straightforward way to increase speed. applications packages, middleware and drivers take center stage when development teams focus on the features and functions that attract customers. but this software is typically overlooked when the focus shifts to performance. that ' s a mistake. significant performance increases can be achieved when acceleration techniques are applied to software that resides above the operating system. it ' s rare that speed can ' t be boosted by 20 percent ( or even doubled or quadrupled ) especially when utilizing an outside firm that specializes in software acceleration who can assist with streamlining programs. click here to read more...", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_computing", "similarity_score": 0.5183325029400526, "token_count": 358, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:48.342918"} {"text": "micro vs macro micro and macro are prefixes that are used before words to make them small or big respectively. this is true with micro and macroeconomics, micro and macro evolution, microorganism, micro lens and macro lens, micro finance and macro finance, and so on. the list of words that makes use of these prefixes is long and exhaustive. many people confuse between micro and macro despite knowing that these prefixes signify small and large respectively. this article takes a closer look at the two prefixes to find out their differences. to understand the difference between micro and macro, let us take up the example of micro and macro evolution. to signify evolution that takes place within a single species, the word microevolution is used whereas evolution that transcends the boundaries of species and takes place on a very large scale is termed as macroevolution. though the principles of evolution such as genetics, mutation, natural selection, and migration remain the same across microevolution as well as macro evolution, this distinction between microevolution and macroevolution is a great way to explain this natural phenomenon. another field of study that makes use of micro and macro is economics. while the study of the overall economy and how it works is called macroeconomics, microeconomics focuses on the individual person, company, or industry. thus, the study of gdp, employment, inflation etc. in an economy is classified under macroeconomics. microeconomics is the study of forces of demand and supply inside a particular industry effecting the goods and services. so it is macroeconomics when economists choose to concentrate upon the state of the economy in a nation whereas the study of a single market or industry remains within the realms of microeconomics. there is also the study of finance where these two prefixes are commonly used. thus, we have microfinance where the focus is upon the monetary needs and requirements of a single individual where there is also macro finance where financing by the banks or other financial institutions is of very large nature. micro and macro are derived from greek language where micro means small and macro refers to large. these prefixes are used in many fields of study such as finance, economics, evolution etc. where we have words like micro finance and macro finance, micro evolution and macro evolution etc. studying something at a small level is micro while studying it on a large scale is macro analysis. financing the needs of an individual may be micro financing whereas the financial needs of a builder requiring money for a", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5361196286015537, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:48.362055"} {"text": "presenting - ' amasia ', the next supercontinent! ever since earth has been in existence there have been the formation and breaking apart of many supercontinents - while pangaea, that existed between 150 - 300 million years ago is the most well - known, prior to that was nuna ( 1. 8 billion years ago ), rodina ( 1 billion years ago ) and many more that cannot be verified because 2 billion year - old rocks containing evidence of magnetic fields, are hard to find. and while most scientists are in agreement that rodina, nuna and pangaea did exist, there is very little consensus on the continents they comprised of - some experts believe that they were the same ones, while others think that the wandering landmasses reassembled on the opposite sides each time - about 180\u00b0 away from where the previous supercontinent had come together. now, a group of geologists led by yale university graduate student ross mitchell have a new theory - they think that each supercontinent came together about 90\u00b0 from its predecessor. that is, the geographic center of rodina was about 88\u00b0 away from the center of nuna, whilst the center of panagea, believed to have been located near modern - day africa, was about 88\u00b0 away from the center from its super giant predecessor, rodina. these calculations that were reported earlier this year were based not only on the paleolatitude ( the latitude of a place at some time in the past, measured relative to the earth ' s magnetic poles in the same period ) of the ancient supercontinents, but also, for the first time the paleolongitude, that ross measured by estimating how the locations of the earth ' s magnetic poles have changed through time. while the theory is interesting, what is even more so is that the team has also come up with a model of the next supercontinent. if their estimates are accurate, over the next few hundred million years, the tectonic plates under the americas and asia will both drift northward and merge. this means that modern day north and south america will come together and become one giant landmass, displacing the caribbean sea completely. a similar movement in eurasia ( australia and south eastern asia ) will cause the arctic ocean to disappear causing the continents to fuse with canada. the result? a ginormous continent that they call ' amasia '. the one thing that is not too clear is if antarctica will be part of this", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5260097158454561, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:48.377136"} {"text": "researchers at new jersey institute of technology ( njit ) have developed an inexpensive solar cell that can be painted or printed on flexible plastic sheets. \u201c someday, homeowners will even be able to print sheets of these solar cells with inexpensive home - based inkjet printers. consumers can then slap the finished product on a wall, roof or billboard to create their own power stations, \u201d said somenath mitra, ph. d., lead researcher, professor and acting chair of njit \u2019 s department of chemistry and environmental sciences. harvesting energy directly from abundant solar radiation using solar cells is increasingly emerging as a major component of future global energy strategy, mitra said. yet, when it comes to harnessing renewable energy, challenges remain. expensive, large - scale infrastructures, such as windmills or dams, are necessary to drive renewable energy sources, such as wind or hydroelectric power plants. purified silicon, also used for making computer chips, which continue to rise in demand, is a core material for fabricating conventional solar cells. however, the processing of a material such as purified silicon is beyond the reach of most consumers. \u201c developing organic solar cells from polymers, however, is a cheap and potentially simpler alternative, \u201d mitra said. \u201c we foresee a great deal of interest in our work because solar cells can be inexpensively printed or simply painted on exterior building walls and / or rooftops. imagine some day driving in your hybrid car with a solar panel painted on the roof, which is producing electricity to drive the engine. the opportunities are endless. \u201d the solar cell developed at njit uses a carbon nanotubes complex, which is a molecular configuration of carbon in a cylindrical shape. although estimated to be 50, 000 times smaller than a human hair, just one nanotube can conduct current better than any conventional electrical wire. mitra and his research team took the carbon nanotubes and combined them with tiny carbon fullerenes ( sometimes known as buckyballs ) to form snake - like structures. buckyballs trap electrons, although they can \u2019 t make electrons flow. add sunlight to excite the polymers, and the buckyballs will grab the electrons. nanotubes, behaving like copper wires, then will be able to make the electrons or current flow. \u201c someday, i hope to see this process become an inexpensive energy alternative for households around the world, \u201d mitra said. ec", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5394063283759128, "token_count": 488, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:48.420579"} {"text": "food systems are often described as comprising four sets of activities : those involved in food production, processing and packaging, distribution and retail, and consumption. all encompass social, economic, political, and environmental processes and dimensions. to analyze the interactions between global environmental change and food systems, as well as the tradeoffs among food security and environmental goals, a food system can be more broadly conceived as including the determinants ( or drivers ) and outcomes of these activities. the determinants comprise the interactions between and within biogeophysical and human environments that determine how food system activities are performed. these activities lead to a number of outcomes, some of which contribute to food security and others that relate to the environment and other societal concerns. these outcomes are also affected directly by the determinants. food security is the principal policy objective of a food system. food security outcomes are described in terms of three components and their subcomponents : food availability, i. e., production, distribution, and exchange ; food access, i. e., affordability, allocation, and preference ; and food use, i. e., nutritional and social values and safety. although the food system activities have a large influence on food security outcomes, these outcomes are also determined directly by socio - political and environmental drivers. these outcomes vary by historical, political, and social context. to capture these concepts holistically and to allow the analysis of impacts of global environmental change, adaptations, and feedbacks, a food system must include :", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5297601082228638, "token_count": 307, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:48.423618"} {"text": "a typical bpm uses a differential pressure sensor to measure cuff or arm pressure. as the output of this sensor lies within a few micro volts ( 30 - 50\u00b5v ), the output pressure signal has to be amplified using a high - gain instrumentation amplifier with a good common mode rejection ratio ( cmrr ). usually the gain and cmrr need to be around 150 and 100 db respectively. the frequency of oscillatory pulses in the pressure signal lies between 0. 3 - 11hz with an amplitude of a few hundred microvolts. these oscillations are extracted using band - pass filters with gain around 200 and cutoff frequency at 0. 3 - 11hz. a 10 - bit adc with a speed of 50 hz is used to digitize the pressure sensor and oscillatory signal. two timers are used to calculate the heart rate and implement safety timer functionality. a safety timer regulates the pressure kept on a subject \u2019 s arm for a certain period of time. this safety timer is a part safety regulation in aami standards. a microcontroller core calculates the systolic and diastolic pressures values using an oscillometric algorithm. the cuff is inflated and deflated using motors driven by pwms. a typical non - contact digital thermometer uses a transducer, also called a thermopile, consisting of a micro machine embedded membrane with thermocouples to measure thermocouple temperature and a thermistor to measure ambient temperature. the thermocouple generates a dc voltage corresponding to the temperature difference in its junctions. the output of the thermocouple is on the order of a few \u00b5v. the signal from the thermocouple is amplified using a low - noise precision amplifier. a voltage divider is constructed with the thermistor and external precision voltage reference. this voltage divider converts the change in thermistor resistance with respect to temperature to change in voltage. voltages from the thermocouple and thermistor are used to calculate the thermocouple and ambient temperatures. the temperature is obtained from voltages using a polynomial function given by the sensor manufacturer or through a look - up table with pre - stored readings. the ambient temperature is added to the thermocouple temperature to get the final temperature measurement. a segment lcd driver, rtc, push buttons, eeprom and usb are the other peripherals needed in both of the above applications.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5209704100914507, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:48.449960"} {"text": "arterial blood gases made easyby - iain hennessey, mbchb ( hons ), bsc ( hons ), mrcs, mmis, specialty registrar, paediatric surgery, manchester royal infirmary, manchester, uk - alan japp, mbchb ( hons ), bsc ( hons ), mrcp, clinical research fellow, department of cardiovascular research, university of edinburgh, uk arterial blood gas analysis plays an indispensable role in the assessment and management of patients with a huge range of acute medical and surgical problems. its importance as a key tool in the work - up of acutely unwell patients rivals that of the ecg and the chest x - ray. this book covers all aspects of the arterial blood gas in a simple, user - friendly manner. the first part explains the technique, the values obtained and common patterns of abnormalities, while the second part comprises a series of worked examples and case scenarios to allow the reader to put this system into practice. medical undergraduates at all stages of training, junior doctors in a & e, anaesthetics, surgery, acute medicine and respiratory medicine paperback, 152 pages published : september 2007 imprint : churchill livingstone - part 1 : the abg explained pulmonary gas exchange : the basics disorders of gas exchange acid base balance : the basics disorders of acid base balance abg sampling technique when and why is an abg required? making abg interpretation easy part 2 : the abg in practice the 2nd part of the book contains a series of 25 clinical scenarios each requiring interpretation of an arterial blood gas as the end point. each scenario comprises a 2 page spread. the first page includes information on history and examination findings, with or without other important test results. the opposing page shows the abg result in the style of a computer print - out and list a series of questions for the reader to answer. each scenario has a corresponding \" explanation \" page at the back of the book.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5123924551983492, "token_count": 395, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:48.462208"} {"text": "forest fire protection, \" explained nicolas raffalli of ceren. \" within the entente region we have an existing fire database called promethee, which is filled out either by firemen, forestry workers or policemen across the 13 departments making up the region. \" current methods of recording fire damage vary greatly by country or region. the purpose of this new service \u2013 part of a portfolio of earth observation services known as risk - eos \u2013 is to develop a standardised burn scar mapping methodology for use throughout europe, along with enabling more accurate post - fire damage assessment and analysis of vegetation re - growth and manmade changes within affected areas. \" we want to link up promethee with this burn scar mapping product from risk - eos to have a good historical basis of information, \" raffalli added. \" the benefit is that it makes possible a much more effective protection of the forest. \" characterising the sites of past fires to a more thorough level of detail should mean that service users can better forecast where fires are most likely to break out in future, a process known as risk mapping. having been validated and geo - referenced, burn scar maps can then be easily merged with other relevant geographical detail. the vast majority of fires are started by the actions of human beings, from discarding cigarette butts up to deliberate arson. checking burn scar occurrences against roads, settlements and off - road tracks is likely to throw up correlations. these can be extrapolated elsewhere to help identify additional areas at risk where preventative measures should be prioritised. and overlaying burn scar maps with a chart of forest biomass has the potential to highlight zones where new blazes would burn the fiercest. once such relatively fixed environmental elements, known as static risks, are factored in, other aspects that change across time \u2013 including temperature, rainfall and vegetation moisture \u2013 can be addressed. these variables are known as dynamic risks. at the end of the risk mapping process, the probability of fire breaking out in a particular place and time can be reliably calculated. the risk - eos burn scar mapping service began last year. the intention is to develop further fire - related services by the end of 2007, including daily risk maps combining eo with meteorological and vegetation data. another planned service will identify ' hot spots ' during fires, and map fire events twice a day, permitting an overall assessment of its development and the damage being done. a ' fires memory atlas ' set up at national or regional level will allow the routine sharing of all", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5060377135365727, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:48.500803"} {"text": "| \" money doesn ' t grow on trees \" = don ' t waste money because it isn ' t always easy to come by | \" watch how much you spend because money doesn ' t grow on trees. \" \" have a green thumb \" = special ability at making plants grow well \" she has a real green thumb for growing beautiful decorative trees. \" more of randall ' s favorite learning resources [ quiz script | text completion quiz ] recycling and protecting the environment is very important in our world today. now, you will listen to an award - winning essay on trees in which a girl explains why she loves trees? what ideas would you expect to hear in such an essay? | i. pre - listening exercises [ top ] | helpful tip : deforestation is a serious problem around the world, and planting new trees never seems to keep up with the demand. you can help by recycling paper and even just simply reusing paper for different purposes. | listen to the conversation by pressing the \" play audio \" button and answer the questions. press the \" final score \" button to check your quiz. | ii. listening exercises [ top ] | [ other audio options : play realmedia | play window media ] listen to the conversation again as you read the quiz script and do the text completion quiz. | iii. post - listening exercises [ top ] | what environmental problems can you think that pose great danger to nature and our world ( e. g., acid rain, deforestation, water pollution )? are these threats caused by human activity or by natural occurrences? what are some solutions to these problems? share your ideas on these important issues. now, write your opinions on a similar topic at randall ' s esl blog here. randall ' s sites : daily esl | esl blog | ezslang | train your accent | tips for students | hiking in utah", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5012455815083754, "token_count": 377, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:48.503911"} {"text": "this little led - lit cube is much more than just a paper lantern : it \u2019 s a translucent and flexible thin - film electronic circuit that hooks up a battery to an led, limber enough to be folded into an origami box. and the coolest thing about circuits like these? you can make them at home. in what follows, we combine basic electronics ( an led throwie ) and papercraft ( a traditional origami balloon ) to make what might be called an \u201c led foldie. \u201d the circuitry consists of aluminum foil traces, ironed onto adhesive paper such as freezer paper, photo mounting paper, or even a laser printed pattern. something constructed this way can then be folded so fit an led and battery to complete the circuit. the first step in designing a three - dimensional circuit like this is to see where the parts go. after that we will unfold the model, draw circuit paths between the points that we want to connect, and go from there. to get started, we first folded an origami balloon, and then inserted the components where we wanted them. the balloon has a convenient pocket on the side for a lithium coin cell, and a single hole that allows you to point an led into the interior of the balloon. ( and you can follow along with balloon folding in this flickr photo set. ) we marked up the locations of the battery and led terminals on the origami balloon \u2013 while still folded \u2013 and then unfolded our \u201c circuit board. \u201d at this point, we have the component locations marked, but no lines drawn between them. the next step is to add those circuitry lines ( circuit board wires, or traces ) between the battery and led. one thing to keep in mind for interfacing papercraft to electronics : it \u2019 s helpful if the circuit traces fold over the leads for the led in order to maintain good contact. after connecting the dots ( so to speak ) we have the resulting layout of our circuit. ( see pdf below as well. ) pretty simple here \u2013 only two wires! the two round pads contact the two sides of the battery, and the two angled pads contact the two leads of the led. the next step is to actually fabricate our circuit board. we \u2019 ve actually found two slightly different techniques that work well, so we \u2019 ll show you both. first is the \u201c freezer paper \u201d method ( which also works with sheets of dry mount adhesive ), where you laminate foil traces to the plastic - coated paper. second", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_entanglement", "similarity_score": 0.5106534516816045, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:48.509374"} {"text": "basal in morphology and harder to classify? if the latter, then why insist that the problem is now solved? 173 alan feduccia sets out an important fact concerning the dino - birds said to have been found in china : the \" feathers \" on the fossils said to be those of feathered dinosaurs are definitely not bird feathers. a considerable body of evidence shows that these fossil traces have nothing at all to do with bird feathers. he says this in an article published in the auk magazine : having studied most of the specimens said to sport protofeathers, i, and many others, do not find any credible evidence that those structures represent protofeathers. many chinese fossils have that strange halo of what has become known as dino - fuzz, but although that material has been \" homologized \" with avian feathers, the arguments are far less than convincing. 174 citing richard o. prum, one of the supporters of the dino - bird claims, as an example, feduccia goes on to mention the prejudiced approach so prevalent on the subject : prum ' s view is shared by many paleontologists : birds are dinosaurs ; therefore, any filamentous material preserved in dromaeosaurs must represent protofeathers. 175 latest research has dealt a severe blow to feathered dinosaur claims the fossilized structures referred to as dinosaur feathers were shown by theagarten ( solly ) lingham - soliar, a paleontologist from durban - westville university in south africa to be nothing more than decayed connective tissue. professor lingham - soliar performed an experiment by burying a dolphin in river mud, semi - permeable to air for a year. the reason a dolphin was selected was that its flesh is easy to analyze. at the end of this period, the professor examined the dolphin ' s bunches of collagen \u2014 which constitutes connective tissue in the bodies of most living things \u2014 under a microscope. according to him, the decayed collagen in the dolphin ' s body bore \" a striking resemblance to feathers. \" 1 the german magazine naturwissenschaften commented that : \" the findings throw serious doubt on the virtually complete reliance on visual image by supporters of the feathered dinosaur thesis and emphasize the need for more rigorous methods of identification using modern feathers as a frame of reference. \" 2 with this finding, it emerged that even a dolphin could leave behind traces of apparent feathers. this once again showed that there are no grounds for regarding extinct", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5358315313120594, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:48.544455"} {"text": "emphasize the need for more rigorous methods of identification using modern feathers as a frame of reference. \" 2 with this finding, it emerged that even a dolphin could leave behind traces of apparent feathers. this once again showed that there are no grounds for regarding extinct dinosaurs with \" feathers \" as proto - birds. 1. stephen strauss, \" buried dolphin corpse serves science, \" 11 november 2003 ; http : / / www. theglobeandmail. com / servlet / articlenews / tpstory / lac / 20031111 / udino11 / tpscience / according to feduccia, one factor that invalidates this preconception is the presence of these same traces in fossils that have no relationship with birds : most important, \" dino - fuzz \" is now being discovered in a number of taxa, some unpublished, but particularly in a chinese pterosaur and a therizinosaur, which has teeth like those of prosauropods. most surprisingly, skin fibers very closely resembling dino - fuzz have been discovered in a jurassic ichthyosaur and described in detail. some of those branched fibers are exceptionally close in morphology to the so - called branched protofeathers ( \" prum protofeathers \" \" ) described by xu. that these so - called protofeathers have a widespread distribution in archosaurs is evidence alone that they have nothing to do with feathers. 176 feduccia recalls that various structures found around these fossils and thought to belong to them, were later determined to consist of inorganic matter : one is reminded of the famous fernlike markings on the solnhofen fossils known as dendrites. despite their plantlike outlines, these features are now known to be inorganic structures caused by a solution of manganese from within the beds that reprecipitated as oxides along cracks or along bones of fossils. 177 the fossil beds preserve not only an indefinite structure such as dino - fuzz but also bird feathers. but all the fossils presented as feathered dinosaurs have been found in china. why should these fossils have not emerged from anywhere else in the world \u2014 feduccia draws attention to this intriguing state of affairs : one must explain also why all theropods and other dinosaurs discovered in other deposits where integument is preserved exhibit no dino - fuzz, but true reptilian skin, devoid of any featherlike material ( feduccia 1999 ), and why typically chinese dromaeosaurs preserving dino - fuzz do not normally preserve", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5385281892367347, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:48.545457"} {"text": "dinosaur, was introduced as an alleged dino - bird, the report admitted, \" feathers, however, have not yet been found. \" 182 despite this reservation, the media drew the animal as a feathered creature, and the missing details were added using plenty of creative imagination. the most evident objection to this so - called missing link is again, an error in dating. this alleged intermediate form fossil is 75 million years younger than archaeopteryx, itself a species of flying bird. this fossil is therefore a specimen that demolished the ancestral relationship claimed by evolutionists. in the same way that this fossil provides no evidence for evolution, it also demolished the ancestral relationship claimed by evolutionists. according to ohio university professor of zoology john ruben : a point that too many people always ignored, however, is that the most birdlike of the dinosaurs, such as bambiraptor and velociraptor, lived 70 million years after the earliest bird, archaeopteryx. so you have birds flying before the evolution of the first birdlike dinosaurs. we now question very strongly whether there were any feathered dinosaurs at all. what have been called feathered dinosaurs were probably flightless birds. 183 evolutionists use a few bird - like characteristics as grounds for their preconceived interpretations. yet the effort of building a line of descent based on similarities is full of contradictions that evolutionists cannot explain. whenever evolutionists construct an alleged evolutionary relationship between clearly different living things based on similar structures, they immediately close the subject by describing it as \" parallel evolution. \" they claim that living things with similar complex organs but with no ancestors in common, evolved independently. however, since they cannot account for the origin of these complex organs in even one living thing, their statements that these organs supposedly evolved several times presents a serious predicament. alan feduccia states that certain similarities between birds and dinosaurs do not show any evolutionary relationship between the two groups : bambiraptor is a small dinosaur, but it does have a number of birdlike features, as do many other forms. however there is nothing special about hollow bones, as some mammals and frogs have them. the problem, of course, is that bambiraptor is some 80 million years beyond archaeopteryx, and yet is claimed to be the dinosaur most close to bird ancestry. that alone should be a red flag, and a warning that the situation is far more complicated than suspected. 184 3 ) confuciusornis sanctus : identical to modern birds two", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5109662097871971, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:48.549570"} {"text": "the fossils protarch\u00e6opteryx robusta and caudipteryx zoui do not belong to dinosaurs, but to extinct flightless birds. the efforts to portray these creatures as dinosaurs is an example of evolutionists ' eagerness to produce evidence. in the summer of 1996, farmers working in the yixian formation found three separate turkey - sized fossils, so well preserved as to give genuine evidence of bird feathers. at first, ji qiang and his colleague ji shu - an concluded that these fossils must belong to a single species. noting their surprising similarity to archaeopteryx, they gave the creature the name protarchaeopteryx robusta. during his research in the autumn of 1997, philip currie concluded that these fossils belonged to two different species, neither of which resembled archaeopteryx. the second species was given the name caudipteryx zoui. 186 the discoveries of the protarch\u00e6opteryx robusta and caudipteryx zoui fossils were depicted as evidence that birds evolved from theropod dinosaurs. 187 the popular press stated that these fossils were definitely the so - called ancestors of birds. one commentator even wrote that the dinosaur - bird link was \" now pretty close to rock solid. \" 188 however, this certainty was again, only a biased interpretation. according to evolutionist claims, caudipteryx and protarchaeopteryx were small dinosaurs whose bodies were largely covered in feathers. but on their wings and tails were longer and more complex feathers, arranged like those in present - day birds. however, it is no surprise that these creatures should have feather arrangements similar to modern birds ', because their feathers are symmetrically shaped, as observed in present - day flightless birds. 189 therefore, the creatures in question are flightless birds, not dinosaurs. in severely criticizing the dino - bird dogma, larry martin and alan feduccia stated that these fossils were flightless bird species like the modern ostrich. 190 but adherents of the dino - bird theory are reluctant to accept this because they want to classify the creatures as dinosaurs, even though this fossil provides no support for evolutionist claims. indeed, this fossil represents a new contradiction to evolutionists ' alleged ancestral relationships. according to the evolutionist scenario, these dinosaurs and modern birds both have a special bone that lets them bend their wrists. again according to evolutionist claims, this feature enabled them to move their forefeet in a wide manner, to catch fleeing", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5095231924756641, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 8, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:48.552189"} {"text": ". according to the evolutionist scenario, these dinosaurs and modern birds both have a special bone that lets them bend their wrists. again according to evolutionist claims, this feature enabled them to move their forefeet in a wide manner, to catch fleeing prey with their long arms and gripping talons. this allegedly powerful beating movement represented an important part of the wingbeats the today ' s birds use to fly. however, such interpretations are scientifically invalid, because flight consists of far more complex actions than just wing beating : any forward beating movement gives rises to a counter impulse that propels the bird backward. for the purpose of flight, the main flight feathers are arranged at such an angle as to push the air back and propel the birds forwards. as in planes, the wings have a special aerofoil shape, which causes air to flow faster over the upper surface than the lower. this, according to the bernoulli principle, reduces air pressure on the upper surface and creates lift. this is the main factor in take - off, but there is also the question of newton ' s third law \u2014 the reaction to the air being propelled downward. ). 191 while refuting the theory of evolution ' s dino - bird claims, the world of science also confirms that living things are perfectly created. the attitude of evolutionist scientists clearly reveals that they are blindly devoted to the theory in question. in addition, the structure of a wing hypothesized to catch prey is very different from that created for beating in flight. a feathered wing is no advantage to a bird using its wings to catch prey, because a feathered wing ' s broad surface will only increase air resistance and make movement more difficult. if, the bird flapped for hunting, as evolutionists maintain then its wing structure should help the bird move forward by pushing air back. therefore, it would be a greater advantage for the bird ' s wings to let air pass through them, like a sieve or flyswatter. thus evolutionist accounts are full of illogicalities that conflict with their own claims. in addition to its feathers, caudipteryx has a series of other features showing it to be a bird \u2014 such as that it was carnivorous. caudopteryx was portrayed as a theropod since it was first unearthed, it was thought to be a carnivore. 192 but there were no teeth in its lower skull and lower jaw, and the first two fossil specimens contained the remains of crops that birds use for digesting plant", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5212310532043785, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 9, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:48.553891"} {"text": "of connecticut university had this to say : the stiff, bristlelike fibers that outline the fossils lack the detailed organization seen in modern feathers. 196 another important point is that sinosauropteryx had bellows - like lungs, like those in reptiles. according to many researchers, these show that the animal could not have evolved into modern - day birds with their high - performance lungs. 6 ) eoalulavis hoyasi shares with wing structure of modern - day birds the wing structure in eoalulavis hoyasi is also present in certain present - day flying birds. the feathers on this bird ' s wing contain a small bunch of feathers attached to the \" finger \". when the bird wishes to slow down or descend to earth, it decreases the angle of the wing to the horizon. this allows air to flow over the wing ' s top surface and to stop without falling. another fossil to demolish evolutionist claims was eoalulavis hoyasi. this, estimated at some 120 million years old, is older than all the known theropod specimens. nonetheless, wing structure in eoalulavis hoyasi is identical to some modern - day flying birds. this proves that vertebrates identical in many respects to modern birds were flying 120 million years ago. 197 any suggestion that theropods, which appeared after this creature, were the ancestors of birds is clearly irrational. this bird ' s wing has a bunch of small feathers attached to the \" finger. \" recognizable as the alula, this structure is a basic feature of many birds alive today and consisting of several feathers that permits the bird to engage in various maneuvers during flight. but it had never before been encountered in a fossil bird from the mesozoic. this new bird was given the name eoalulavis hoyasi, or \" ancient bird with an alula. \" 198 its presence shows that this bird, the size of a chaffinch, was able to fly and maneuver as well as modern - day birds. the alula functions like the wing flap on an airplane. when the bird wants to reduce its speed or landing, it increases of its wing to the horizon. the drag produced by this wing position helps the bird to slow down. but when the angle between the direction of the air flow and the wing surface gets too steep, turbulence over the wing increases until the bird loses the lift necessary to maintain flight. like an airplane under similar circumstances, the bird is in danger of stalling in midair.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5034485401102334, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 11, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:48.557394"} {"text": "between the direction of the air flow and the wing surface gets too steep, turbulence over the wing increases until the bird loses the lift necessary to maintain flight. like an airplane under similar circumstances, the bird is in danger of stalling in midair. the alula now enters the equation. by raising this small appendage, the bird creates a slot between it and the main part of the wing, similar to what happens when a pilot deploys a craft ' s wing flaps. the slot allows air to stream over the main wing ' s upper surface, easing turbulence and allowing the bird ( or plane ) to brake without stalling. 199 birds 120 million years ago were using the same technology as that employed present. this realization added yet another insuperable difficulty facing the theory of evolution. 7 ) unenlagia comahuensis : a dino - bird based on artists ' imaginations fernando e. novas of the argentine museum of natural sciences in buenos aires and pablo f. puerta of the paleontology museum in trelew announced a new fossil, said to be 90 million years old, in the 22 may, 1997, edition of nature magazine, under the caption \" missing link. \" 200 they named this fossil unenlagia comahuensis, meaning \" half - bird from north - west patagonia. \" this fossil, discovered in argentina ' s patagonia region, consisted of more than 20 pieces of the creatures leg, rib and shoulder bones. based on these fragments, artists drew a creature complete with a neck, jaw and tail \u2014 and subsequently announced that this fossil was an intermediate stage in the transition from dinosaurs to birds. however, unenlagia comahuensis is manifestly a dinosaur, in many respects. in particular, certain features of its skull and the bone formations behind its eyes closely resemble those of theropods. there is also no evidence at all that it bore feathers. evolutionist scientists, however, claimed that by raising its forearms, it could make similar movements to those used by birds for flying. but clearly, these prejudiced guesses and assumptions cannot be regarded as definitive proof. on account of its different features, lawrence m. witmer of ohio university describes this creature as a genuine \" mosaic \". 201 alan feduccia also states that unenlagia comahuensis cannot be a missing link between dinosaurs and birds, emphasizing that it lived 55 million years after archaeopteryx. 202 as feduccia stressed in a 1996 article written together with", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.521441866993076, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 12, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:48.558887"} {"text": "air pollution is a broad term applied to all chemical and biological agents that modify the natural characteristics of the atmosphere. some definitions also consider physical perturbations such as noise pollution, heat, radiation or light pollution as air pollution. some definitions include the term harmful as a requisite to consider a change to the atmosphere as pollution. the sources of air pollution are divided in two groups : anthropogenic ( caused by human activity ) and natural. natural sources include : anthropogenic sources are mostly related to burning different kinds of fuel. they include : - volcanic activity - dust from natural sources, usually large areas of land with little or no vegetation - gases, such as methane, emitted by the digestion of animals, usually cattle. - smoke from wildfires. - dust and chemicals from farming, especially of erodible land, see dust bowl - industrial activity in general. - vehicles with internal - combustion engines. - stoves and incinerators, specially coal ones. - paint fumes, or other toxical vapors. contaminants of air can be divided in particles and gases. particles are classified by their sizes. a usual division is in pm10 and pm2. 5. pm10 are particles whose size is less than 10 microns ( 0. 01 mm ) ; they are dangerous to humans because they can be breathed and reach the lungs. pm2. 5 are particles whose size is less than 2. 5 microns ( 0. 0025 mm ), and they are even more dangerous because they can pass the alveoli and reach the blood. important pollutant gases include : the worst single incident of air pollution to occur in the united states occurred in donora, pennsylvania in late october, 1948 - davis, devra, when smoke ran like water : tales of environmental deception and the battle against pollution, basic books, 2002, hardcover, 316 pages, isbn 0 - 465 - 01521 - 2", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5555619850925202, "token_count": 395, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:48.569585"} {"text": "donald ervin knuth knuth, donald ervin ( noth, k\u0259noth\u02c8 ) [ key ], 1938 \u2013, american mathematician and computer scientist, b. milwaukee, wis., grad. case institute of technology ( b. s. and m. s., 1960 ) and california institute of technology ( ph. d., 1963 ). while still a graduate student, knuth was contracted to write a book about the construction of computer compilers ( see programming language ). what he wrote instead turned into his monumental series the art of computer programming ( 3 vol., 1968 \u2013 ), an overview of programming algorithms, each described with mathematical rigor, that has been translated into six languages. disappointed with the state of computer typesetting, knuth developed a typesetting program that has become the standard for mathematics and physics. he taught at the california institute of technology from 1962 until 1968, when he joined the faculty at stanford univ., becoming professor emeritus in 1993. his writings include surreal numbers ( 1974 ), literate programming ( 1992 ), and digital typography ( 1999 ). the columbia electronic encyclopedia, 6th ed. copyright \u00a9 2012, columbia university press. all rights reserved. see more encyclopedia articles on : computers and computing, biographies", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5278787245674147, "token_count": 261, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:48.574298"} {"text": "math is the basis for music, but for those of us who aren \u2019 t virtuosic at either, the connection isn \u2019 t always easy to grasp. which is what makes the videos of vi hart, a \u201c mathemusician \u201d with a dedicated youtube following, so wonderful. hart explains complex phenomena - - from cardioids to carl gauss - - using simple ( and often very ) funny means. as maria popova pointed out yesterday, hart \u2019 s latest video is a real doozy. in it, she uses a music box and a mobius strip to explain space - time, showing how the two axes of musical notation ( pitch and tempo ) correspond to space and time. using the tape notation as a model for space - time, she cuts and folds it to show the finite ways you can slice and dice the axes. then, she shows us how you can loop the tape into a continuous strip of twinkling notes : if you fold space - time into a mobius strip, you get your melody, and then the inversion, the melody played upside down. and then right side up again. and so on. so rather than folding and cutting up space - time, just cut and tape a little loop of space - time, to be played over, and over. it \u2019 s a pretty magical observation, and it makes even me - - the prototypical math dunce - - wish i \u2019 d tried harder. yet there \u2019 s still time : hart works for the khan academy, a nonprofit that offers free educational videos about math, biology, and more. check it out. [ h / t brain pickings ]", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.6192425809128357, "token_count": 334, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:48.587814"} {"text": "the colors are the different echo intensities ( reflectivity ) measured in dbz ( decibels of z ) during each elevation scan. \" reflectivity \" is the amount of transmitted power returned to the radar receiver. reflectivity ( designated by the letter z ) covers a wide range of signals ( from very weak to very strong ). so, a more convenient number for calculations and comparison, a decibel ( or logarithmic ) scale ( dbz ), is used. the dbz values increase as the strength of the signal returned to the radar increases. each reflectivity image you see includes one of two color scales. one scale ( far left ) represents dbz values when the radar is in clear air mode ( dbz values from - 28 to + 28 ). the other scale ( near left ) represents dbz values when the radar is in precipitation mode ( dbz values from 5 to 75 ). notice the color on each scale remains the same in both operational modes, only the values change. the value of the dbz depends upon the mode the radar is in at the time the image was created. the scale of dbz values is also related to the intensity of rainfall. typically, light rain is occurring when the dbz value reaches 20. the higher the dbz, the stronger the rainrate. depending on the type of weather occurring and the area of the u. s., forecasters use a set of rainrates which are associated to the dbz these values are estimates of the rainfall per hour, updated each volume scan, with rainfall accumulated over time. hail is a good reflector of energy and will return very high dbz values. since hail can cause the rainfall estimates to be higher than what is actually occurring, steps are taken to prevent these high dbz values from being converted to rainfall.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.552579290530071, "token_count": 372, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:48.589899"} {"text": "it is from the traditional family that we absorb those universal ideals and principles which are the teaching of jesus, the bedrock of our religious faith. we are taught the difference between right and wrong, and about the law, just punishment and discipline. what do you first do when you learn to swim? you make mistakes, do you not? and what happens? you make other mistakes, and when you have made all the mistakes you possibly can without drowning - and some of them many times over - what do you find? that you can swim? well - life is just the same as learning to swim! do not be afraid of making mistakes, for there is no other way of learning how to live! the past is for learning from and letting go. you can ' t revisit it. it vanishes. every human being is born an heir to an inheritance to which he can succeed only in a process of learning. we pay a heavy price for our fear of failure. it is a powerful obstacle to growth. it assures the progressive narrowing of the personality and prevents exploration and experimentation. there is no learning without some difficulty and fumbling. if you. i used to think that prayer should have the first place and teaching the second. i now feel it would be truer to give prayer the first, second, and third places, and teaching the fourth. i am not afraid of storms, for i am learning how to sail my ship. on any longer view, man is only fitfully committed to the rational to thinking, seeing, learning, knowing. believing is what he \\ ' s really proud of. racing is a process of learning where the edge lies. the soul of man is nourished by learning, as the body is by food. it is because modern education is so seldom inspired by a great hope that it so seldom achieves great results. the wish to preserve the past rather than the hope of creating the future dominates the minds of those who control the teaching of the young. curiosity is the wick in the candle of learning. teaching is the greatest act of optimism the whole art of teaching is only the art of awakening the natural curiosity of young minds for the purpose of satisfying it afterwards. if we value independence, if we are disturbed by the growing conformity of knowledge, of values, of attitudes, which our present system induces, then we may wish to set up conditions of learning which make for uniqueness, for self - direction, and for self - initiated learning. the praises of others may be of use", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5352515607170382, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:48.594553"} {"text": ", of values, of attitudes, which our present system induces, then we may wish to set up conditions of learning which make for uniqueness, for self - direction, and for self - initiated learning. the praises of others may be of use in teaching us, not what we are, but what we ought to be. liberty without learning is always in peril and learning without liberty is always in vain whenever you make a mistake or get knocked down by life, don ' t look back at it too long. mistakes are life ' s way of teaching you. your capacity for occasional blunders is inseparable from your capacity to reach your goals. no one wins them all, and your failures, when they happen, are just part of your growth. shake off your blunders. how will you know your limits without an occasional failure? never quit. your turn will come. don ' t look for more honor than your learning merits. you can teach a student a lesson for a day ; but if you can teach him to learn by creating curiosity, he will continue the learning process as long as he lives. i am learning all the time. the tombstone will be my diploma. the most useful piece of learning for the uses of life is to unlearn what is untrue. learning is a treasure that will follow its owner everywhere. anyone who stops learning is old, whether at twenty or eighty. the only kind of learning which significantly influences behavior is self - discovered or self - appropriated learning - truth that has been assimilated in experience.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5506573306340905, "token_count": 316, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:48.595278"} {"text": "and wind aloft forecasts. if the forecasts are bang - on, that means the model of the atmosphere is accurate and the other forecasts should be pretty good. if the wind forecast is incorrect, then the other forecasts might be too. generally, a wind that is more southerly or easterly than forecast means the surface weather will be worse than forecast. a stronger wind than forecast means that the low pressure area causing the wind is stronger than forecast. wind shear is important, too. defined as a change in direction and / or velocity over distance or height, wind shear can result in enthusiastic turbulence and can create low - altitude hazards around airports. there is always wind shear in frontal zones and where areas of strong wind ( jet streams, streaks or cores ) aloft interact with areas of lighter winds. temperature & dewpoint : this is really basic, but these items give clues to a lot of things. we learn early and often that if they are close, the flying weather suffers. they are especially important as the day is ending and beginning, when a small spread can result in rapidly deteriorating weather after sunset, or fog at and just after sunrise. if there is a big difference in the temperature and dewpoint ahead of and behind a cold front, there is probably a lot of action in the frontal zone. also, if the temperature aloft is warmer than forecast, that means more moisture. the ability of the atmosphere to hold moisture doubles with every 11 degrees celsius rise in temperature. that is why, when the talking heads say a heavy rain would have been so much snow, they don ' t know what they are talking about.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5101461353673824, "token_count": 333, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:48.604945"} {"text": ". | | % m | | month number ( 01? 12 ). | | % m | | minute ( 00? 59 ). | | % p | | am / pm indicator. | | % s | | seconds ( 00? 59 ). | | % u | | week of year ( 00? 52 ) when sunday starts the week. | | % w | | weekday number ( sunday = 0 ). | | % w | | week of year ( 01? 52 ) when monday starts the week. | | % x | | locale specific date format ( e. g., feb 19 1997 ). | | % x | | locale specific time format ( e. g., 20 : 10 : 13 ). | | % y | | year without century ( 00? 99 ). | | % y | | year with century ( e. g. 1997 ). | | % z | | time zone name. | table 13 - 3. unix - specific clock formatting keywords. | % d | | date as % m / % d / % y ( e. g., 02 / 19 / 97 ). | | % e | | day of month ( 1? 31 ), no leading zeros. | | % h | | abbreviated month name. | | % n | | inserts a newline. | | % r | | time as % i : % m : % s % p ( e. g., 02 : 39 : 29 pm ). | | % r | | time as % h : % m ( e. g., 14 : 39 ). | | % t | | inserts a tab. | | % t | | time as % h : % m : % s ( e. g., 14 : 34 : 29 ). | the clock clicks command returns the value of the system ' s highest resolution clock. the units of the clicks are not defined. the main use of this command is to measure the relative time of different performance tuning trials. the following command counts the clicks per second over 10 seconds, which will vary from system to system : example 13 - 1 calculating clicks per second. set t1 [ clock clicks ] after 10000 ; # see page 218 set t2 [ clock clicks ] puts \" [ expr ( $ t2 - $ t1 ) / 10 ] clicks / second \" = > 1001313 clicks / second the clock scan command parses a date string and returns a seconds", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5178094026179443, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:48.667462"} {"text": "a recursive function typically contains a conditional expression which has three parts : recursive functions can be much simpler than any other kind of function. indeed, when people first start to use them, they often look so mysteriously simple as to be incomprehensible. like riding a bicycle, reading a recursive function definition takes a certain knack which is hard at first but then seems simple. there are several different common recursive patterns. a very simple pattern looks like this : ( defun name - of - recursive - function ( argument - list ) \" documentation... \" ( if do - again - test body... ( name - of - recursive - function next - step - expression ) ) ) each time a recursive function is evaluated, a new instance of it is created and told what to do. the arguments tell the instance what to do. an argument is bound to the value of the next - step - expression. each instance runs with a different value of the next - step - expression. the value in the next - step - expression is used in the do - again - test. the value returned by the next - step - expression is passed to the new instance of the function, which evaluates it ( or some transmogrification of it ) to determine whether to continue or stop. the next - step - expression is designed so that the do - again - test returns false when the function should no longer be repeated. the do - again - test is sometimes called the stop condition, since it stops the repetitions when it tests false.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5149444809332389, "token_count": 326, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:48.673220"} {"text": "scientists at the ucl institute of child health ( ich ) have developed a new gene therapy that could have the potential to save the lives of children with a life threatening tumour called neuroblastoma. the technique, which uses novel tumour - homing nanoparticles has proved to be effective in a first stage trial in which researchers successfully targeted the tumours in a mouse model. the details of the study are published online today in the international journal biomaterials. stephen hart, reader in molecular genetics at the ich, explains : \u201c it has long been a major technical challenge for medical researchers to use gene therapy to target this type of tumour, particularly when the cancer has spread. now with the development of these novel nanoparticles in our laboratory, we \u2019 ve been able to deliver the genes to where they are needed, via an intravenous injection. \u201d neuroblastoma is one of the most aggressive malignancies, affecting around 100 children each year in britain. new treatments are urgently needed to tackle the disease, which is often fatal. two thirds of children have widespread disease at diagnosis, making treatment even more challenging for specialist clinicians. \u201c in the mouse tumour model we have demonstrated that the nanoparticles can home in on tumours after injection into the blood stream, avoiding the liver, lung and spleen, organs that might otherwise remove the particles from the circulation. we have then used the nanoparticles to deliver a cargo of anti - tumour genes, which in turn stimulated the mouse \u2019 s immune cells to attack and destroy the tumour. we observed that tumour growth was slowed significantly and in a third of mice, tumours were eradicated completely, surviving long - term. \u201d \u201c these nanoparticles are composed of peptides ( small pieces of protein ) and liposomes ( fatty globules ), as well as the therapeutic genes. although similar to artificial viruses, the nanoparticles are safe and non - infectious. \u201d dr penelope brock, consultant oncologist at great ormond street hospital said : \u201c this is an extremely exciting breakthrough with enormous promise for improving clinical care of children and adolescents suffering from a very aggressive disease. i look forward to seeing results of early phase clinical trials. \u201d dr hart continues, \u201c we now need to study the efficacy, safety and side - effects of the nanoparticles and hope that in the future our findings will translate into a viable treatment for some of the most challenging cases", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5025496147476918, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:48.676267"} {"text": "high selection pressure on domestic cattle has led to an undesirable increase in inbreeding, as well as to the deterioration of some functional traits which are indirectly selected. semen stored in a cryobank may be a useful way to redirect selection or limit the loss of genetic diversity in a selected breed. the purpose of this study was to analyse the efficiency of current cryobank sampling methods, by investigating the benefits of using cryopreserved semen in a selection scheme several generations after the semen was collected. the theoretical impact of using cryopreserved semen in a selection scheme of a dairy cattle breed was investigated by simulating various scenarios involving two negatively correlated traits and a change in genetic variability of the breed. our results indicate that using cryopreserved semen to redirect selection will have an impact on negatively selected traits only if it is combined with major changes in selection objectives or practices. if the purpose is to increase genetic diversity in the breed, it can be a viable option. using cryopreserved semen to redirect selection or to improve genetic diversity should be carried out with caution, by considering the pros and cons of prospective changes in genetic diversity and the value of the selected traits. however, the use of genomic information should lead to more interesting perspectives to choose which animals to store in a cryobank and to increase the value of cryobank collections for selected breeds. within the context of farm animal biotechnologies, cryopreservation is one of the most useful tools for selection improvement, dissemination of genetic progress and ex situ conservation. in its global plan of action, the fao recommended the implementation of ex situ programmes to complement in situ conservation of animal genetic resources. it was also suggested that cryopreserved bio - specimens could be used as a backup material to redirect the selection scheme of a given breed, if needed [ 2, 3 ]. consequently, several gene banks have been created with different strategies and policies that vary with the breed, species, and country concerned [ 4, 5 ] and methods have been proposed to use ex situ genetic resources to optimise the management of genetic diversity in endangered breeds. breeds with large populations are subject to high selection pressures and have rates of inbreeding greater than the desired values. in these cases, the use of stored semen from male ancestors has seldom been investigated, although breeding organisations could be interested in doing so. for instance, in the dairy cattle breed ab", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5404343162396138, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:48.725900"} {"text": "and have rates of inbreeding greater than the desired values. in these cases, the use of stored semen from male ancestors has seldom been investigated, although breeding organisations could be interested in doing so. for instance, in the dairy cattle breed abondance ( a local selected breed in the french northern alps ), the semen of a bull born in 1977 ( called naif ), which was rarely used in the 1980 ' s, was used from 2004 to 2007, to produce 20 young bulls in order to reintroduce some genetic variability in the breed. depending on the country, different strategies have been implemented to sample individuals for national collections. in the netherlands, most of the tested bulls are sampled for preservation in the gene bank, while in the usa, the selection of animals for cryopreservation is aimed at optimizing genetic diversity within the collection, by sampling animals from clusters determined through computed genealogical relationships. in france, based on the idea that individuals sampled for a cryobank should be as diverse as possible and carry special genotypes, regulations have been implemented to conserve frozen sperm from three main origins : ( i ) animals from endangered breeds, ( ii ) original animals from non - endangered breeds ( with either extreme positive or negative estimated breeding values ( ebv ), carrying rare alleles or representing rare pedigree lines ), and ( iii ) representative animals from non - endangered breeds. the purpose of this study was to analyse the efficiency of current cryobank sampling methods by investigating the benefits of using cryopreserved semen in a selection scheme several generations after the semen was collected. based on simulations, we examined two situations in which cryopreserved sperm was used ( 1 ) to redirect the selection goal, by including a trait which, in the past, had shown a negative correlated selection response ( e. g. fertility in dairy cattle ), and ( 2 ) to limit the loss of genetic diversity in the breed. the impact of using cryopreserved sperm was measured by estimating the evolution of two negatively correlated traits and the evolution of the breed ' s genetic diversity, assessed through pedigree information. a simplified cattle breed was simulated with 13 discrete generations, each consisting of 100 males and 10000 females. in each generation, 10 bulls and 50 cows were chosen as parents of the male progeny, and 20 bulls and 10000 cows were chosen as parents of the female progeny ( with no selection on the dam to dam path ). mating", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5212713116801762, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:48.727861"} {"text": "females. in each generation, 10 bulls and 50 cows were chosen as parents of the male progeny, and 20 bulls and 10000 cows were chosen as parents of the female progeny ( with no selection on the dam to dam path ). mating was random resulting in random variation of progeny size among parents, i. e. the sire and dam of a given newborn were randomly chosen in the corresponding lists of parents. simulation of genetic values and ebv we considered two traits a and b. trait a corresponded to a production trait which had been recently and intensively selected and improved ( such as milk production in dairy cattle ). trait b corresponded to a functional trait which had deteriorated because of a negative correlation with trait a ( e. g. fertility or longevity ). the genetic standard deviation of each trait ( \u03c3a and \u03c3b, respectively ) was set to 1 and the correlation between traits ( \u03c1 ) was set to - 0. 3. for each trait, an additive polygenic model was assumed and the simulation of correlated genetic values was based on the bivariate normal distribution ( see, e. g. ). at generation 0 ( base population ), genetic values for trait a were randomly and independently drawn from a n ( 0, 1 ) distribution. for a given individual ( i ), the genetic value for trait b ( bi ) was generated from its value for trait a ( ai ) : where \u03b2i is a n ( 0, 1 ) random number independent of ai. in the following generations, genetic values of individual i were simulated from the genetic values of its sire ( ap and bp ) and its dam ( am and bm ), taking into account the parent ' s coefficients of inbreeding ( fp and fm, resp. ) [ 12, 13 ] : in these equations, \u03b3i and \u03b4i are two numbers randomly drawn from a n ( 0, 1 ) bivariate normal distribution with a correlation equal to \u03c1. ebv were directly simulated from genetic values, assuming an evaluation procedure leading to an accuracy ( cd = square of the correlation between the ebv and the true genetic value ) equal to 0. 6 for bulls and 0. 4 for cows, whatever the trait and the generation considered. therefore, the ebv of a given individual for trait a ( ebvai ) and for trait b ( ebvbi ) were computed as follows : where \u03b5i and are two independent numbers drawn from a n ( 0, 1 ) distribution. finally,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.530325578323698, "token_count": 511, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:48.729284"} {"text": "of a given individual for trait a ( ebvai ) and for trait b ( ebvbi ) were computed as follows : where \u03b5i and are two independent numbers drawn from a n ( 0, 1 ) distribution. finally, a total merit index ( tmii ) was computed, weighting the two ebv by wa and wb = 1 - wa, respectively : sampling and use of cryopreserved semen simulations comprised two stages. during stage 1 ( generations 0 to 8 ), the lists of parents were selected based on their ebv for trait a only, without considering the evolution of the genetic mean for trait b or the average coefficient of inbreeding. during stage 2 ( generations 9 to 12 ), the bulls were also used to improve trait b or to introduce genetic diversity in the breed. during stage 1, the semen of some bulls was sampled and cryopreserved if the animals fulfilled one of the three following conditions, which correspond to the current sampling rules of the french national cryobank for type \" ii \" ( original bulls ) : - ( i ) ebva is three standard deviations above or below the mean of the generation, - ( ii ) ebvb is two standard deviations above the mean of the generation ( trait b is considered as a functional trait and for functional traits, only animals above the average are considered ), - ( iii ) the bull is a sire of sires with no male offspring selected after the evaluation process ( these bulls were actually selected with one generation lag ). to check the validity of this elaborate sampling method, we tested a simpler sampling method ( similar to the one used in the netherlands ), where the semen of all young bulls is stored in the cryobank. in the simulations performed here, we investigated the impact of a one - time use ( i. e. during a single generation ) of cryopreserved semen. at generation 9, four bulls with cryopreserved semen were selected ( hereafter referred to as ' cryobank bulls ' ), these bulls fulfilling one of the following conditions either ( i ) they are the best cryobank bulls for the tmii or ( ii ) they have the lowest average kinship with the existing population ( males and females taken together ). we studied the impact of various selection orientations ( use of cryopreserved semen, conservation of male lines, etc. ) only on the male path, because applying the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5353194094939385, "token_count": 511, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:48.732360"} {"text": "average kinship with the existing population ( males and females taken together ). we studied the impact of various selection orientations ( use of cryopreserved semen, conservation of male lines, etc. ) only on the male path, because applying the above conditions on the female path would be much more restrictive, less effective, and would require a larger amount of semen, all the more since the number of doses is generally limited in cryobanks ( 200, in france ). for these reasons, we considered that cryobank bulls were used only to procreate young bulls for progeny testing. the 9th generation of young bulls was then generated using either the bulls from the cryobank or the group of 10 sires selected as described in previous sections. depending on the scenario ( see following section ), 0, 40 or 80 individuals ( among the 100 newborn bull calves ) were sired randomly by one of the four selected cryobank bulls. simulation scenarios and results six simulation scenarios were completed with two main options ( table 1 ). table 1. description of simulation scenarios firstly, in scenario \" b \", emphasis was put on the selection of both traits b and a. to achieve this goal, three methods were compared : - b1 : at generation 9, the four bulls with the highest tmi ( wb = 0. 5 ) were used to sire 40 % of the young bulls, while the selection criterion during stage 2 remained unchanged ( improving ebva ). the other young bulls were sired by bulls randomly sampled within the group of 10 sires ; - b2 : at generation 9, no cryobank bull was used, and during stage 2, tmi ( wb = 0. 5 ) was used as the selection criterion instead of ebva ; - b3 : at generation 9, the four cryobank bulls with the highest tmi were used to sire 40 % of the young bulls, and during stage 2, tmi was used as the selection criterion instead of ebva. to test more or less drastic selection changes, scenario b3 was tested with an increasing weight given to trait b ( wb increasing from 0. 5 to 1 ). secondly, in scenarios \" d \", emphasis was put on genetic variability while trait a remained the breeding goal. three methods were also compared : - d1 : at generation 9, the four cryobank bulls having the lowest kinship with the existing population ( scenario b1 ) were used to sire 40 % of the young bulls ; -", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5300061635037788, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:48.733464"} {"text": "remained the breeding goal. three methods were also compared : - d1 : at generation 9, the four cryobank bulls having the lowest kinship with the existing population ( scenario b1 ) were used to sire 40 % of the young bulls ; - d2 : at generation 9, no cryobank bull was used, while during stage 2, the progenies on the sire to sire path were given the same size i. e. for each sire of sires, 10 male offspring were created among which those with the two best ebva became the sires of dams and that with the best ebva became a sire of sires ; - d3 : at generation 9, the four cryobank bulls having the lowest kinship with the existing population ( scenario b1 ) were used to sire 40 % of the young bulls, while during stage 2, selection was used to equalise progeny sizes on the sire to sire path. simulations were performed with 1000 runs for each scenario. for each generation, individual inbreeding coefficients and genetic values were computed and averaged for the entire male and female populations. the individual coefficients of kinship were also computed and averaged over males only and over the entire populations. the proportion of genes originating from cryobank bulls was computed on the basis of the gene dropping procedure ( one locus averaged over the 1000 runs ). stage 1 : evolution of selected traits, diversity loss, and sampling of cryobank bulls as expected, the results of the different scenarios did not differ significantly for generations 0 to 8 given that in stage 1, the conditions were the same whatever the option chosen, ( here we present results averaged over the 1000 runs of one scenario only ). with the parameters chosen for the simulation, each sire of sires had on average 10 male offspring ( across sires standard deviation s. d. = 2. 9 ) and each sire of dams had on average 500 female offspring ( across sires s. d. = 21. 6 ). as expected ( see figure 1 ), selection on trait a during stage 1 led to a major increase in the mean of this trait ( + 6. 7 initial genetic standard deviation ) from generation 0 to 8, while at the same time, the mean of b decreased to a lesser extent ( - 2 initial genetic standard deviation ). the average coefficient of inbreeding increased simultaneously. young bulls were slightly more inbred than cows, as they originated from a smaller number of sires and dams. in parallel ( generation 0 to 8 )", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5235657153314743, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:48.734769"} {"text": "- 2 initial genetic standard deviation ). the average coefficient of inbreeding increased simultaneously. young bulls were slightly more inbred than cows, as they originated from a smaller number of sires and dams. in parallel ( generation 0 to 8 ), the average coefficient of kinship among the young bulls and among the entire population increased to 8. 1 % and 6. 9 %, respectively. figure 1. changes in genetic values ( a ) and in genetic diversity ( b ) ( scenario b1 ). dotted lines : young bulls ; solid lines : whole population ; red : trait a, blue : trait b ; green : average between a and b ; purple : inbreeding f ; pink : kinship \u03c6. an average of 31 cryobank bulls was sampled per replicate, 58 % being sampled because of outstanding ebvb ( see table 2 ). table 2 shows that cryobank bulls chosen for their genetic diversity were generally born earlier than others, which can be explained by the fact that they were chosen with one generation lag compared to other sampling procedures. table 2. average number and birth generation of bulls selected for conservation stage 2 in scenarios b : change in breeding goals as shown in figure 1, introducing cryobank bulls with exceptional tmi without changing the selection criterion during stage 2 ( scenario b1 ) had a temporary impact on traits a and b as well as on the diversity indicators of the young bulls. at the whole population level, the impact was negligible, since young bulls sired by cryobank bulls were rarely subsequently selected as sires : three generations after introduction ( generation 12 ), the cryobank contribution to genetic diversity was less than 3 % ( table 3 ). table 3. origin and impact of cryobank bulls used in the different scenarios when tmi was used as a selection criterion ( considering wb = 0. 5 ), without using cryobank bulls ( scenario b2 ), there was a per generation increase in the mean of trait b from generation 9 on ( b1 : - 0. 3 vs b2 : + 0. 4 ), while the genetic gain for trait a decreased ( b1 : + 1. 0 vs b2 : + 0. 4, see additional file 1 ). the change in breeding goals had no impact on diversity indicators. additional file 1. changes in genetic values ( a ) and in genetic diversity ( b ) ( scenario b2 ). the data represent the simulation results for scenario b2. dotted lines : young bulls ; solid", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5231825990905288, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:48.735967"} {"text": "goals had no impact on diversity indicators. additional file 1. changes in genetic values ( a ) and in genetic diversity ( b ) ( scenario b2 ). the data represent the simulation results for scenario b2. dotted lines : young bulls ; solid lines : whole population ; red : trait a ; blue : trait b ; green : average between a and b ; purple : inbreeding f ; pink : kinship \u03c6. format : pdf size : 58kb download file this file can be viewed with : adobe acrobat reader combining the use of cryobank bulls and tmi as a selection criterion ( scenario b3 for wb = 0. 5 ) resulted in a slight but significant ( p < 0. 001 ) reduction in average kinship ( - 0. 3 % between scenario b2 and b3, with 40 % of the males from generation 9 sired by cryobank bulls, see additional file 2 ). concerning the selected traits, the genetic gain for trait a decreased slightly when cryobank bulls were used ( - 0. 12 between scenarios b2 and b3, p < 0. 001 ), while the genetic gain for trait b increased slightly ( + 0. 06 between scenarios b2 and b3, p = 0. 02 ). these tendencies increased slightly when 80 % of the males from generation 9 were sired by cryobank bulls ( see additional file 2 ). according to the results from table 3, cryobank bulls contributed to 6. 5 % of the diversity three generations after their introduction. it should be noted that the cryobank bulls used were generally sampled in recent generations, their average birth generation being 6. 6 ( table 3 ). additional file 2. changes in genetic values ( a ) and in average kinship ( b ) when trait b was added to selection goals. the data represent the simulation results when selection is redirected with a new trait accounting for 50 % of the total merit index and when the use of semen from cryobank bulls is increased. scenario b3 and whole population are considered with the weight wb given to trait b accounting for 50 % of the total merit index and an increased use of the semen from cryobank bulls. brown : no cryobank bull is used ( scenario b2 ) ; red : cryobank bulls are used to produce 40 % of sons ( scenario b3 ) ; yellow : cryobank bulls are used to produce 80 % of sons ; o : genetic value for", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.532272293399831, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 7, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:48.737601"} {"text": "is used ( scenario b2 ) ; red : cryobank bulls are used to produce 40 % of sons ( scenario b3 ) ; yellow : cryobank bulls are used to produce 80 % of sons ; o : genetic value for trait a ; \u2666 : genetic value for trait b ; dotted line : average genetic value between a and b ; x : kinship \u03c6. format : pdf size : 57kb download file this file can be viewed with : adobe acrobat reader as a result of the increased weight of trait b within tmi ( see figure 2 ), there was a per generation increase in genetic gain for trait b, while there was a slightly lower increase or even a decrease in genetic gain for trait a, as well as in average kinship, when trait b accounted for more than 80 % of ebv. when only trait b was taken into account for tmi, the genetic value of traits a and b reached 4. 7 and 1. 37, respectively at generation 12 ( versus 8. 4 and - 0. 41 respectively when wb = 0. 5 ), while average kinship reached 8. 9 % at generation 12 ( versus 11. 9 % when wb = 0. 5 ). figure 2. changes in genetic values ( a ) and in average kinship ( b ), when trait b was added to selection goals. scenario b3 and whole population are considered with the weight wb of trait b increasing for computation of the total merit index. black : wb = 0 ( scenario b1 ) ; brown : wb = 0. 5 ; red : wb = 0. 6 ; orange : wb = 0. 7 ; green : wb = 0. 8 ; light blue : wb = 0. 9 ; dark blue : wb = 1 ; o : genetic value for trait a ; \u2666 : genetic value for trait b ; x : kinship \u03c6. stage 2 in scenarios d : improvement in genetic diversity as shown in figure 3, the use of cryobank bulls with a minimised kinship with the current generation ( scenario d1 ), had no impact if the selection policy was not modified, since none of the offspring of the cryobank bulls were selected as sires. equalising progeny sizes on the sire to sire path alone ( scenario d2 ) decreased diversity a little less ( in generation 12, \u03c6 = 12 % for scenario d1 and \u03c6 = 11 % for scenario d2 ), with an almost negligible impact on genetic progress. combining this option with the introgression of", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5425814125584565, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 8, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:48.739021"} {"text": ") decreased diversity a little less ( in generation 12, \u03c6 = 12 % for scenario d1 and \u03c6 = 11 % for scenario d2 ), with an almost negligible impact on genetic progress. combining this option with the introgression of cryobank bulls ( scenario d3 ) resulted in a significant reduction in average kinship ( - 2 % in comparison to d1 ). under such a scenario, the genetic mean of trait b also increased slightly ( + 0. 3 between scenario d1 and d3, p < 0. 001 ), while that of trait a and the average of both traits decreased slightly ( - 0. 08 and - 0. 02 respectively, between scenarios d1 and d3, p < 0. 001 ). it should be noted that most of the cryobank bulls used originated from the founder population, their average birth generation being 0. 3 ( table 3 ). figure 3. changes in genetic values ( a ) and in average kinship ( b ), when the aim was to manage genetic diversity. the whole population is considered brown : no change in selection ; cryobank bulls used to produce 40 % of male offspring ( scenario d1 ) ; red : conservation of male lines ( scenario d2 ) ( curve overlapping the preceding one ) ; yellow : conservation of male lines and cryobank bulls used to produce 40 % of male offspring ( scenario d3 ) ; o : genetic value for trait a ; \u2666 : genetic value for trait b ; dotted line : average genetic value between a and b ; x : kinship \u03c6. modifying which bulls entered the cryobank by preserving semen for all the young bulls did not significantly alter the results of scenarios b3 and d3, either for the selected traits or for kinship evolution ( data not shown ). it should be noted that in this case, the average birth generation of the cryobank bulls used was 7, in scenario b3 ( instead of 6. 6, in the first cryobank sampling method ), and 0, in scenario d3 ( instead of 0. 3, in the first cryobank sampling method ). in this study, we assessed the impacts of using cryopreserved bull semen either to redirect selection or to improve the genetic variability of a selected cattle breed. simulation parameters were chosen as a compromise between realism in the scenarios, their applicability, and the simplicity of the model. for instance, with respect to the choice of population size, a", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5395731139651367, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 9, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:48.740102"} {"text": "or to improve the genetic variability of a selected cattle breed. simulation parameters were chosen as a compromise between realism in the scenarios, their applicability, and the simplicity of the model. for instance, with respect to the choice of population size, a breed with 20 breeding males and 10000 potential dams could be considered quite small, especially with reference to the fao endangerment status. in our simulation, sires and dams were randomly chosen from lists of reproducers. this differs significantly from what occurs in real breeds, in which an unbalanced use of reproducers is frequently the case, leading to a reduced size of the effective population. in terms of effective size, our breed would correspond to a much larger population with a similar inbreeding rate per generation ( 1. 07 % ) to that found in real dairy cattle breeds e. g.. concerning sampling conditions in the simulations, as mentioned above, the procedure chosen to select bulls for cryopreservation is similar to that currently applied in france. this choice was made to test if bulls selected this way could be effectively used in a selected breed. compared to the case in which all young bulls are sampled for cryopreservation ( which corresponds more or less to the current procedure in the netherlands ), the results were basically the same. this shows that the french sampling procedure is reasonably efficient to select useful bulls, and could be applied in situations when only a limited number of semen samples can be stored in a cryobank ( for financial reasons, for instance ). one of the main conclusions of this study is that using cryopreserved semen is relevant for a breed for which major changes in selection objectives or practices are considered. since genetic progress is rapid in dairy cattle breeds ( e. g. ), a bull for which semen has been stored for a few generations, is likely to have a lower genetic value than current bulls, if the selection goals remain the same. thus the latter ' s offspring may not be used, as illustrated by scenarios b1 and d1, and using cryobank bulls is then meaningless. the results of scenario b3 demonstrate that using cryobank bulls has a significant impact on the selected traits and on genetic diversity only if a relatively large change is implemented in the selection programme ( i. e. introducing a new trait formerly negatively selected but subsequently accounting for more than 50 % of ebv ). under that scenario, when trait b accounted for less than 70 % of ebv, the cryob", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5408826536588109, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 10, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:48.742304"} {"text": "the selection programme ( i. e. introducing a new trait formerly negatively selected but subsequently accounting for more than 50 % of ebv ). under that scenario, when trait b accounted for less than 70 % of ebv, the cryobank bulls selected were those more recently collected, since they generally had a higher value for trait a than older cryobank bulls, which compensated for a slightly lower value for trait b. when trait b accounted for 80 % or more of ebv, most of the cryobank bulls finally used, originated from generation 0 ( data not shown ), which explains the sudden decrease in average kinship after introgression of the cryobank bulls ( see figure 2 ). therefore if managers of a selection scheme want to redirect breeding goals, using cryobank bulls is viable only if the breeding goals are subjected to a major modification ( i. e. if the weight of the new trait accounts for more than 50 % of ebv ). our results also indicate that cryobank bulls that have been sampled for functional traits with high ebv will tend to be used more frequently than other cryobank bulls, independently of the aim. if the objective is to introduce genetic diversity into the breed, using cryobank bulls appears to be a valid choice. however, it is imperative that other measures are also taken to guaranty that genes are spread within the breed i. e. either conserving male lines ( scenario d3 ), when their use is promoted among breeders, or setting up more restrictive and effective breeding schemes. several methods of varying complexity have been proposed to minimise kinship, or to maximise breeding values for a predefined inbreeding rate, or to minimise average kinship for a desired average ebv, usually by optimising the contribution of reproducers. on the one hand, decreasing inbreeding in a selected breed may improve selected traits ; for instance, it has been shown that in holstein cattle, milk production ( over 305 days ) can decrease by about 20 litres per 1 % inbreeding increase. on the other hand, using semen from cryobank bulls has a negative impact on previously selected traits, as illustrated by our simulations. in the case of local breeds, in which genetic progress is not as effective as in breeds with a larger population size, the difference in ebv between current bulls and bulls from earlier generations should be minimised. this could lead", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5553330985183691, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 11, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:48.743268"} {"text": "our simulations. in the case of local breeds, in which genetic progress is not as effective as in breeds with a larger population size, the difference in ebv between current bulls and bulls from earlier generations should be minimised. this could lead to an effective use of cryobank bulls to reintroduce diversity without overly affecting selected traits. as an illustration in the abondance breed, one of the male offspring of the bull born in 1977 was found to have quite a high ebv ( vaccin, born in 2003, ), and was therefore recently confirmed as a sire of dams. among all the sires of dams, this bull shared the lowest average kinship with the 2004 - 2007 female cohorts ( 4. 6 % vs. 6. 5 % on average, personal communication ). the impact of using this bull on the genetic variability of the breed remains to be assessed. based on our results, using semen from cryobank bulls should be useful either to introduce drastic changes in selection goals or to reintroduce genetic diversity within a given population. however, it is important to carefully assess the pros and cons of the potential changes in genetic diversity and values of the selected traits. our simulations were based on a classic quantitative selection scheme. recent progress in genomic tools should make it possible to identify semen from cryobank bulls that share specific alleles or qtl of interest for selection. this could then be taken into account when choosing cryobank bulls as well as how they will be used. using such reproducers should be investigated in further studies, which opens exciting perspectives for an improved exploitation of cryobank collections. the authors declare that they have no competing interests. ev, cdb and gl jointly conceived the design of the study and discussed the results. gl wrote and checked the simulation program. gl wrote the first draft of the manuscript, which was then modified by cdb and ev. all authors read and approved the final manuscript. this study was funded by the bureau des ressources genetiques ( brg ) ( contract 2007 - 14 \" cryositu \" ). the authors wish to thank emilie setlakwe, daphne goodfellow and helene hayes for linguistic revision. verrier e, danchin - burge c, moureaux s, ollivier l, tixier - boichard m, boichard d, maignel mj, bidanel jp, clement f", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5343710467405405, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 12, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:48.744230"} {"text": "revision. verrier e, danchin - burge c, moureaux s, ollivier l, tixier - boichard m, boichard d, maignel mj, bidanel jp, clement f : what should be preserved : genetic goals and collection protocols for the french national cryobank. in proceedings of the workshop on cryopreservation of animal genetic resources in europe : 23 february 2003 ; paris. edited by planchenault d. bureau des ressources genetiques ; 2003 : 79 - 89. gandini g, oldenbroek k : strategies for moving from conservation to utilisation. in utilisation and conservation of farm animal genetic resources. edited by oldenbroek k. wageningen : wageningen academic publishers ; 2007 : 29 - 54. genet res 2002, 80 : 27 - 30. pubmed abstract danchin - burge c, hiemstra sj : cryo - preservation of domestic animal species in france and the netherlands : experience, similarities and differences. in proceedings of the workshop on cryopreservation of animal genetic resources in europe : 23 february 2003 ; paris. edited by planchenault d. bureau des ressources genetiques ; 2003 : 15 - 28. livest sci 2009, 120 : 196 - 203. publisher full text livest prod sci 1984, 11 : 37 - 48. publisher full text theor appl genet 1989, 77 : 142 - 148. publisher full text philipsson j, forabosco f, jakobsen jh : monitoring sustainability of international dairy breeds. [ http : / / www - interbull. slu. se / bulletins / bulletin40 / philipsson. pdf ] webcite cooperative d ' elevage et d ' insemination animale de haute - savoie [ http : / / www. ceia74. fr / index / genetiquelait. php? race = 12 ] webcite", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5256310634054868, "token_count": 414, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 13, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:48.745146"} {"text": "hemoglobin is a crystallizable, conjugated protein consisting of an iron - containing pigment ( called heme or hematin ) and a simple protein, globin. in the lungs, it combines readily with oxygen to form a loose, unstable compound called oxyhemoglobin, a process called oxygenation. in the tissues of the body, where oxygen tension is low and carbon dioxide tension is high, oxyhemoglobin liberates its oxygen in... a swedish study has shown that teaching type 2 diabetes patients about their disease results in greater decreases in the hemoglobin a1c... read more \u00bb you may have been told that you need to lower your ldl ( bad ) cholesterol levels, and increase your hdl ( good ) cholesterol levels. while... read more \u00bb so you don \u2019 t have diabetes. should you still be worried about having an elevated risk of alzheimer \u2019 s disease? a new study out of the... read more \u00bb diabetes is much more prevalent in african - americans than other groups of people, and unfortunately if you already have diabetes you are... read more \u00bb source : adam encyclopedia of complicationshigh blood pressure and heart diseaseall patients with diabetes and high blood pressure should adopt lifestyle changes. these include... read more \u00bb", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5763859955869013, "token_count": 276, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:48.778817"} {"text": "| this is a measure of the brightness of a celestial object. the lower the value, the brighter the object, so magnitude - 4 is brighter than magnitude 0, which is in turn brighter than magnitude + 4. the scale is logarithmic, and a difference of 5 magnitudes means a brightness difference of exactly 100 times. a difference of one magnitude corresponds to a brightness difference of around 2. 51 ( the fifth root of 100 ). the system was started by the ancient greeks, who divided the stars into one of six magnitude groups with stars of the first magnitude being the first ones to be visible after sunset. in modern times, the scale has been extended in both directions and more strictly defined. examples of magnitude values for well - known objects are ; | sun | | - 26. 7 ( about 400 000 times brighter than full moon! ) | | brightest iridium flares | | - 8 | | venus ( at brightest ) | | - 4. 4 | | international space station | | - 2 | | sirius ( brightest star ) | | - 1. 44 | | limit of human eye | | + 6 to + 7 | | limit of 10x50 binoculars | | + 9 | | limit of hubble space telescope | | + 30 |", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5953025238896807, "token_count": 256, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:48.784746"} {"text": "- hhmi news - scientists & research - janelia farm - science education - resources & publications noscripttags. include a link to bypass the detection if you wish. investigate the specks, flecks, and particles in the air \u2014 with airborne junk detectors you can easily make. directions are in this activity from hhmi \u2019 s cool science for curious kids. involve children in collecting leaves, rocks, and other natural items, and use the collections to teach children math and science skills. this resource from oregon state university tells you what to do. use the insect fact sheet in this middle school curriculum from clemson university to help children identify and classify insects they might find outdoors. taking a \u201c virtual \u201d field trip is almost as good as being outdoors. explore a cove forest and a salt marsh with this program from clemson university. the hhmi bulletin is now available for your ipad \u2014 inspiring stories, beautiful art, and more. read. play. listen. learn about the innovative work of biomedical researchers and science educators worldwide supported by the howard hughes medical institute. look for the free app in the itunes app store. what is cool science? at cool science, we entertain questions of all kinds ( ask a scientist ). we encourage young scientists to get their hands dirty - virtually ( curious kids ). we offer high school and college students new approaches to cutting - edge science topics ( biointeractive ). we provide educators with a host of innovative resources they can use in their classrooms ( for educators ). we reveal what it takes to become a scientist ( becoming a scientist ). and we showcase an undergraduate science discovery project that may one day change the way science is taught ( sea ). we invite you to explore the many cool features of cool science. image : university of washington help children study plants and animals in local outdoor settings by adapting some of the activities from this curriculum developed by oregon state university. use these yale university activities \u2014 which require simple, inexpensive, and easily obtainable materials \u2014 to help children learn about volcanoes, magnetism, and other topics. when it \u2019 s too hot to be outdoors, educators, older students, and parents can try their hand at this visual and motor test that involves learning a new motor skill. this activity is from hhmi \u2019 s biointeractive.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5571698454323932, "token_count": 463, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:48.787174"} {"text": "into leds that are cheaper for u. s. customers. just as important, fixture designers have been linking those leds to wireless controls in ways that adjust output to actual lighting needs. japan now expects to fully replace cfls by 2030, with a large fraction of illumination supplied by an entirely new technology \u2014 organic leds. to save air - conditioning energy and peak power, japanese offices and homes now operate at higher thermostat settings. the ever - creative fashion designers in tokyo have developed new textiles and clothing styles to help the japanese keep their cool at higher indoor temperatures. those highly breathable fabrics will no doubt soon appear in american specialty stores and then perhaps in walmart. japanese consumers are also buying pv to reduce their demand for grid - supplied electricity. this won \u2019 t lower the price of pv \u2014 that \u2019 s mostly determined by china \u2014 but you may eventually see new types of installations or components. japanese utilities typically require pv users to install batteries ; this raises the price but it is also stimulating different types of pv packages and connected appliances. there are dozens of other energy - saving gadgets, ranging from clever to silly, some of which will successfully cross the pacific. a political deadlock prevents japan from committing to either a nuclear or a renewables solution. the central government and industry leaders believe in nuclear power as the only feasible choice, while much of the public has lost faith in the utilities and the institutions that regulate them. many of the same trends are visible in the united states. but one thing is clear : the japanese crisis will be the mother of many new and ingenious ways to save electricity. - first page - previous page enter your comments in the box below : ( please note that all comments are subject to review prior to posting. )", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.508829173205968, "token_count": 357, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:48.801193"} {"text": "analyzing combustion analyzers just talking about co can be confusing. although the terms used in this article are defined in the sidebar ( see \u201c terminology \u201d ), co can be deadly, and so i want to emphasize the basic information. test equipment can provide great information, but only if the operator understands what that information means. first, it is important to understand the difference between ambient carbon monoxide ( co ) and co air free or coaf ( also known as co undiluted and undiluted co ), which is a value calculated either manually or by the combustion analyzer. ambient co is the co that is in the air that occupants breathe. ambient co should be measured and monitored during the entire building analysis in order to protect the health and safety of the occupants and the analysts. coaf is the co that is present during the incomplete burning of the fuel in a combustion appliance. coaf comes from the combustion process and is generally measured before the exhaust gases have a chance to combine with dilution air introduced into the vent by a draft diverter. for most home assessments ( including bpi ), the probe of the analyzer must be inserted into the heating appliance exhaust air, before or upstream of the draft diverter, so that the co will not have combined with dilution air. this will provide what bpi defines as an undiluted sample. the coaf value on the combustion analyzer should be used. be certain to insert the probe in the correct location in the combustion appliance. most of the product manuals describe how to accomplish this. another serious issue that we should address is the effect of nitrogen oxides ( primarily no and no2 ) on the coaf reading. the electrochemical sensors that are used in these devices are targeted for co, but they can react with other gases, such as nitrogen oxides. this may generate an additive output, giving an elevated reading of co. the testo 327 - 1 described below has a nitrogen oxide filter built into it. bacharach advises adding nitrogen oxide filter or nox scrubber to the input, and one can be added to the uei input hose as well. ( see \u201c did this at home \u201d for more on the benefit of a nox scrubber. ) combustion analyzers were developed for boiler and furnace technicians, who use the information to adjust the appliance properly, and the analyzers provide a great deal of information \u2014 most of which is not required by bpi, resnet, or most weatherization protocols", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5084509286025872, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:48.813862"} {"text": "be a great starting place for a moderately priced way to take both required co readings. an infrared printer is available from bacharach, but the basic analyzer comes with a hard carrying case, hose, and manual. bacharach fyrite tech60 the tech60 measures these exhaust gas components : o2, stack temperature, ambient temperature, and co. then it uses that information to calculate steady - state combustion efficiency, co2, excess air, and co air free. it is a true starter combustion analyzer ; it \u2019 s not meant to be used as an ambient co monitor for personal safety. as the manual points out, \u201c this analyzer does not have an audible alarm, and is not intended to be used as a safety device. \u201d the input hose and the thermocouple connect to the bottom of the analyzer. on the front panel there are a two - line display and six control push buttons. these buttons turn the analyzer on and off, scroll up and down through the display screens, enter the run mode, toggle the backlight on and off, and hold or freeze the display. ( the hold button will also turn off the pump. ) for performing coaf analysis, the probe should be in fresh air when the analyzer is turned on, despite the confusing line in the instructions that says the \u201c probe must be located in the area containing the burner \u2019 s combustion air supply, \u201d by which they mean \u201c fresh air. \u201d if you choose to set the fuel, f1 displayed on the screen equals natural gas, f2 equals # 2 oil, f3 equals propane, and f4 equals kerosene. after turning the analyzer on and allowing it to warm up in fresh air, insert the probe into the correct location on the combustion appliance to get the coaf reading. the accompanying manual provides graphics of a variety of appliances, showing where the probe should be inserted on each one. the display screen will display co in ppm on the top line and percent o2 on the bottom line. scrolling through the other display screens will provide stack temperature, efficiency, ambient temperature, and co air free. when the test is finished, if the co level is above 50 ppm, the analyzer will not turn off. the pump continues to run and the screen displays pur6 co ( which looks sort of like purge co ) until the level drops below 50 ppm. the purging process can be bypassed by pressing the on / off switch a second time", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5165059957203262, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:48.817933"} {"text": ". the pump continues to run and the screen displays pur6 co ( which looks sort of like purge co ) until the level drops below 50 ppm. the purging process can be bypassed by pressing the on / off switch a second time. like the monoxor iii, the tech60 comes with complete instructions for calibrating and replacing the filter and sensors at the back of the manual. a nox scrubber could be added to reduce elevated readings. kits are available that include the infrared printer, hard case, and a protective rubber \u201c boot \u201d or sleeve. did this at home i tested the uei c75 and the testo 327 - 1 on my own oil - fired boiler. the majority of measurements from the two analyzers were very similar. the coaf readings differed, however. the testo 327 - 1 measured 6 ppm and the uei c75 measured 37 ppm co. when i added a nox scrubber to the uei c75 hose, the co reading dropped to 5 ppm, clearly indicating to me the need for the nox scrubber. i have repeated these tests in other houses with the bacharach combustion analyzer, and have had similar results. in my case, neither of the original readings posed a problem, but in other circumstances these variations could cause the appliance to be out of tolerance. at 26 ppm, for example, the bpi building analyst standard states, \u201c recommend that the co problem be fixed. \u201d this might mean calling a service technician to service a problem that doesn \u2019 t exist, resulting in an unnecessary cost to the homeowner. the low additional cost of adding a nox scrubber makes it prudent to do so. the uei c75 combustion analyzer measures o2, co, and flue temperature and uses that information to calculate co2, steady - state combustion efficiency, co air free, and the amount of excess air. the temperature sensor and the flue gas probe plug into sockets in the bottom of the analyzer. on the face of the unit, there are a two - line display, four buttons, and a selector dial. the buttons allow the operator to turn the unit on and off, toggle the backlight, use the optional printer, turn the internal pump on and off, and hold the readings. the analyzer in its protective covering is relatively heavy, and the pump is also somewhat noisy, but the pump can be shut off with the push of a button, although it won", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5010951370872646, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:48.818957"} {"text": "appreciated. it will allow you to gather all the information necessary to perform diagnostic analysis on a combustion system. it \u2019 s an investment. it can measure draft pressure as well as co. it can also provide stack temperature, percent co2, percent efficiency, percent excess air, percent o2, ambient temperature, and delta temperature. the 327 is a solid - feeling device with strong magnets on the back of the case that allow it to be mounted on the side of most combustion appliances. the probes attach to connectors on the bottom of the analyzer. along with the connectors there is a temperature sensor permanently mounted in a \u201c cage, \u201d and there are sockets for the flue gas probe, gas outlet, pressure input, and ac power input. the on / off switch is on the top of the housing, and eight push buttons are located on the face. three orange buttons have variable functions, with their functions displayed on different screens of the display. the ( up ) and ( down ) buttons scroll the display. there is a button to toggle the backlight on and off, a menu button, and an esc button to cancel an operation. with the analyzer fully charged, the probe needs to be connected before the 327 is switched on. the manual says, \u201c any connected probe must be in the open air during the zeroing phase! [ emphasis theirs ] \u201d the zeroing or start - up process takes 30 seconds. pushing the menu button allows one to scroll through measuring, adjust, setup, mode, fuel select, and diagnostic menus. pushing the middle orange button under ok when measuring is displayed moves to the next menu level, cycling through flue gas, draft, co - airfree, smoke / oil, diff prs, delta temp, and ambient co. to measure the coaf, select flue gas and read the ppm co - af line. here you can also choose the type of fuel ; choices are oil # 2, nat gas, bioheat5, propane, oil # 5, oil # 6, kerosene, or wood. if you are only interested in coaf, you can use any of these fuels, because the co level will be the same for any of them. the beauty of this is that if you are testing in a combustion appliance zone ( caz ) with a gas water heater and an oil - fired boiler, there is no need to change the settings. you can set up the display screen on the 327", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5162089513087664, "token_count": 510, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:48.820854"} {"text": "this is that if you are testing in a combustion appliance zone ( caz ) with a gas water heater and an oil - fired boiler, there is no need to change the settings. you can set up the display screen on the 327 so that the displays are in the sequence you want. for example, i have mine reading \u00baf t stac ( stack temperature ) first, then ppm co, pa draft, ppm co - af, % eff, and then a bunch of other stuff. performing a typical home energy assessment requires testing for co in the ambient air and in the exhaust products of combustion. co ambient is the co that is present in the air that is not contained in the combustion equipment. it is the co that the occupants are likely to be breathing. co air free or co - af or coaf is a mathematical calculation of the amount of co in a sample of air with the percent of oxygen removed. it is equal to co ppm x ( [ 20. 9 ] / [ 20. 9 \u2013 o2 ] ) the combustion analyzers make that calculation after the operator takes a \u201c clean - air \u201d sample ( generally outside ). the coaf is the value that most combustion safety programs ( including bpi ) are looking for ( along with the co ambient value ). an interesting feature of the 327 is the draft measurement process. a bar graph is displayed on the screen indicating the highest flue gas temperature corresponding to the highest draft rate. moving the probe moves the line on the bar graph. the physical opening in the probe should be oriented across the flow to allow for maximum airflow across the sensor. all of this information can be printed out on the optional, infrared connected printer. the basic 327 comes with the analyzer, flue gas probe, and charger. options include a hard case, ir printer, smoke pump, digital smoke spot meter, adapter for pressure readings, air temperature probe, flexible flue gas probe, and 9 - foot hose extension. the testo 327 is capable of providing a lot more information than just coaf. the instructions are based on german documents and don \u2019 t always clearly translate into english, but there is good information on the web, including instructional webinars from tool suppliers like trutech tools that specifically teach how to use the testo 327. testing for co may be one of the most complicated tasks the building analyst faces. the four analyzers described in this article have been developed to do more complex things, like combustion analysis and system", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5049681477256512, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 7, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:48.822993"} {"text": ". strategic framework and guidelines for the list of wetlands of international importance : the cop considered annex b on wednesday, and a contact group was established. in the contact group on friday, several parties examined criterion 1 for designating ramsar sites, and debated whether to add a new criterion on cultural values, with most opposing. on saturday, delegates suggested using the term \u201c near \u201d instead of \u201c most \u201d natural wetlands, and on monday, after lengthy debates, delegates reached compromise text regarding artificial wetlands. an integrated framework for the ramsar convention \u2019 s water - related guidance : on tuesday, 15 november, the secretariat introduced annexes c, ci and cii, which contain an integrated framework and guidelines for the convention \u2019 s water - related ecosystems. the cop adopted the annexes with minor amendments. ecological \u201c outcome - oriented \u201d indicators for assessing the implementation effectiveness of the ramsar convention : on tuesday, 15 november, the secretariat introduced annex d, containing suggested amendments following informal discussions with interested parties raised in the plenary session under agenda item ix ( report of the strp chair ). the cop adopted the annex as amended. an integrated framework for wetland inventory assessment and monitoring : on tuesday, 15 november, the secretariat introduced annexes e and ei containing a framework and guidelines for the rapid assessment of inland, coastal and marine wetland biodiversity. the cop adopted the annexes without amendment. final resolution : in this final resolution, the cop : the final text of annex a requests the strp to report to cop10 on the harmonization of definitions and terms related to ecosystem benefits / services. the definition of ecological character, including the phrase \u201c at a given point in time, \u201d underscores that the concerned party provide the ecological character of a site at the time of designation to the list. a change in ecological character of a listed site should be assessed against the baseline status presented in the ramsar information sheet ( ris ) and the time of designation for the list. \u201c ecological character \u201d is defined as the human - induced adverse alteration of any ecosystem component, process and / or ecosystem benefit / service. annex b defines wetlands using article 1. 1 of the convention, which includes artificial ones. it highlights artificial ramsar sites as having international importance for biodiversity. it notes, however, this should not justify the destruction or modification of \u201c near - natural \u201d wetlands. the annex also states that a wetland should be considered of international importance if it has a unique example of a \u201c near \u201d natural wetland type or if it regularly supports one percent of the population of", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.501881159657787, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 11, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:48.947651"} {"text": "proposed language specifying the framework is a \u201c working tool \u201d and that the standing committee will carry out the review. new zealand called for design of a simplified cop10 national reporting format harmonized with other relevant conventions and agreements. delegates debated including as a key result area assessment of the unfccc implementation on wetlands, agreeing this would be considered by the standing committee. the cop adopted the resolution with these amendments. the earth negotiations bulletin \u2019 s coverage of these discussions can be found at : http : / / www. iisd. ca / vol17 / enb1721e. html. final resolution : in the final resolution ( cop9 dr9 rev. 1 ), the cop accepts the annexed framework for the implementation of the convention \u2019 s strategic plan 2003 - 2008 in the 2006 - 2008 period. the resolution instructs the standing committee to : develop and implement a comprehensive, inclusive process for development of the 2009 - 2014 strategic plan for cop10 ; use the framework to design a simplified cop10 national report framework, taking into account the resolution on synergies with other conventions and collaboration and harmonization of national reporting, and urges parties, the standing and strp committees, the secretariat and iops to use the 2003 - 2008 strategic plan and its appendices as a renewed challenge to promote, implement and monitor the convention \u2019 s performance, including through the application of \u201c outcome - oriented \u201d indicators for the convention \u2019 s implementation. the framework outlines the convention \u2019 s goals and the key result areas and key performance indicators. the role of the convention in natural disaster prevention, mitigation and adaptation : on friday, bridgewater noted the relevance of this draft resolution ( cop9 dr10 ) following the asian tsunami and recent hurricanes. proposals included : paragraphs on impacts of extreme climatic events and mobilizing resources to restore affected wetlands ; renaming the resolution to reflect the role of ramsar in mitigating impacts associated with natural phenomena ; reference to \u201c affected people \u201d instead of \u201c local communities and indigenous people \u201d ; and paragraphs emphasizing pre - disaster planning. on tuesday, delegates reviewed the revised draft resolution. wetlands international, supported by switzerland, austria, belgium, costa rica and the netherlands, proposed changing the resolution \u2019 s title to reflect natural phenomena induced or exacerbated by human activities. japan supported deleting a paragraph on establishing mechanisms for emergency assessment. switzerland, supported by belgium and albania, proposed reference to ecosystem \u201c services \u201d instead of \u201c benefits. \u201d suriname suggested including both services and benefits. armenia proposed a separate clause", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5102908656319141, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 17, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:48.956603"} {"text": "identification of biosphere reserves. it further encourages coordinating approaches with the cbd, through, inter alia, criteria for identifying wetlands of international importance, and implementing the cbd \u2019 s programmes of work on marine and coastal biodiversity and protected areas. managing wetlands and waterbirds in response to highly pathogenic avian influenza ( hpai ) : on thursday, the secretariat circulated an information text on avian flu for consultations. delegates discussed this issue in regional meetings on thursday. on saturday afternoon, the contact group, chaired by david stroud ( uk ), met to further consider a draft resolution ( cop9 dr25 ). participants agreed to add a new operative paragraph underlining the importance of developing and implementing national contingency or action plans. in deleting the paragraph on developing guidelines for landscape planning, the group added paragraphs requesting the strp to provide relevant input related to practical measures to reduce the risk of disease transmission between wild and domesticated birds to agencies developing contingency and wetland management plans and to assist in sharing information. on monday, the contact group met in the evening to consider the resolution \u2019 s first revision. several amendments were suggested, including : adding the word \u201c captive \u201d before the word \u201c birds ; \u201d deleting a paragraph on providing information on instances of waterbird mortality to national authorities ; and requesting a report on the secretariat and strp \u2019 s work with relevant agencies at cop10. during the closing plenary on tuesday afternoon, chair stroud submitted a second revision for consideration by the cop. in response to the russian federation \u2019 s concern about the phrase \u201c considerable misinformation \u201d regarding the risks posed by avian flu, the secretary general suggested to replace it with \u201c misunderstanding in some countries. \u201d the convention on migratory species praised the cop \u2019 s work on avian flu. in response to peru \u2019 s intervention, delegates agreed to change the title of the draft resolution to \u201c hpai and its consequences for wetlands and waterbirds and their management and conservation for the benefit of human well - being. \u201d the draft resolution was adopted as amended. final resolution : in the final resolution ( cop9 dr25 rev. 2 ), the cop calls for fully integrated approaches to address avian flu, and requests the convention \u2019 s continued participation in the scientific task force on avian influenza. the cop also : underlines the importance of developing and implementing national contingency or action plans related to the potential risk of disease transmission, and the need for national preparedness to instances of detection of hpai in", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5043639506793859, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 28, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:48.973110"} {"text": "one of the basic tenets of teaching is that the student must learn the basics and foundation of a subject in order for them to master it eventually and reach full human potential. new research from the university of missouri supports this notion, revealing that kids who understood numbers and quantity in the first grade were more likely to get good grades in math when they hit fifth grade. \u201c this study reinforces the idea that math knowledge is incremental, and without a good foundation, a student won \u2019 t do well because the math gets more complex, \u201d said researcher david geary. \u201c the kids that can go back and forth easily and quickly in translating numerals, the number five, for example, into quantities and in breaking complex problems into smaller parts had a very good head start. \u201d the study involved 177 elementary school students from kindergarten. researchers hope to follow the group until they reach 10th grade algebra classes in an attempt to gain a deeper understanding of how kids learn, especially when it comes to math. additionally, the findings may help educators discover better methods of teaching. personal growth activities such as studying, doing homework and attending school are integral to a young person ' s development and can even set them on the right path toward a fulfilled life. philosopher, educator and trailblazer ilchi lee believes that human potential is limitless and that individuals can push the boundaries of their abilities with practice and hard work. results of this study support such thoughts, providing further proof that the brain works gradually. students may want to consider ridding their minds of distractions and negativity before engaging in study sessions or attending class in order to reap the full benefits of education.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5516604455783963, "token_count": 334, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:48.997411"} {"text": "that give us herbs and spices. the delicately drawn, 2 - color illustrations clearly show the parts of the plants that give us edible leaves, seeds, stems, bark, bulbs, and berries. create an aromatic and tasty exercise by having the children pair real herbs and spices with these cards ( 4\u00bd \u201d x 6\u00bc \u201d ). plants we eat ( pk9 ) learn more about food plants and their different edible parts. this set classifies 18 plant foods into six groups : roots, stems, leaves, flowers, fruits, and seeds. a duplicate set of 18 labeled picture / definition cards ( 6 \" x 6 \" ) shows plants in their growing stage with only their \u201c food \u201d portion in color. one set of picture / definition cards is spiral bound into 6 control booklets that include definitions of the root, stem, leaf, flower, fruit, and seed. the other set of picture / definition cards are to be cut apart for 2 or 3 - part matching exercises. plant description cards can be used for \u201c who am i? \u201d games with our plant picture cards or with real foods. both cards and booklets are laminated. plants we eat replicards ( pk9w ) six replicards are photocopied to produce worksheets for an extension exercise using our set plants we eat ( pk9 ). children color and label the worksheets, which illustrate three plant examples for each of the following groups : roots, stems, leaves, flowers, fruits, and seeds. the plants we eat booklets serve as controls. after worksheets ( 8\u00bd \u201d x 11 \" ) are colored and labeled, they can be cut apart, stapled together, and made into six take - home booklets. these booklets may generate lively family dinner - table discussions : \u201c a potato is a what? \u201d plants - who am i? ( wp ) this beginning activity for lower elementary strengthens both reading and listening skills, and provides children with simple facts about 10 plants. the set consists of duplicate, labeled picture cards with descriptive text and features plants different from those in the first knowledge : plant stories ( see below ). the set of cards with text ending in \u201c who am i? \u201d is cut apart into 10 picture cards, 10 plant name cards, and 10 text cards. the other set is left whole. cards are used for picture - to - text card matching exercises and for playing the \u201c who am i \u201d game. cards measure 6\u00bd \u201d x 4 \" and are in full color", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5102653922672562, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:49.008343"} {"text": "cards, and 10 text cards. the other set is left whole. cards are used for picture - to - text card matching exercises and for playing the \u201c who am i \u201d game. cards measure 6\u00bd \u201d x 4 \" and are in full color and laminated. first knowledge : plant stories ( pk7 ) this set consists of 19 duplicate plant picture / text cards. one set is cut apart for 3 - part matching activities, and the other set is placed in the green, 6 - ring mini - binder labeled plants. the teacher has the option of changing the cards in the binder as needed. the children can match the 3 - part cards ( 6 \" x 3\u00be \u201d ) to the cards in the binder, practice reading, learn about the diverse characteristics of these plants, and then play \u201c who am i? \u201d the eight angiosperms picture cards can be sorted beneath two cards that name and define monocots and dicots. these activities prepare children for later work with our plant kingdom chart & cards ( see below ), which illustrates the same plants. plant kingdom chart and cards ( pk6 ) our 4 - color plastic paper chart and cards represents the current classification of the plant kingdom ( not illustrated here ) \u2013 the same as is used in secondary and college level biology courses. this classification organizes the plant kingdom in a straightforward manner with simple definitions and examples under each heading. firs the plants are categorized as either nonvascular plants ( bryophytes ) or vascular plants. then the vascular plants are divided into two groups : seedless plants or seed plants. seed plants are divided into two groups : gymnosperms and angiosperms with sub - categories. nineteen picture cards ( 2\u00bc \u201d x 3 \" ) illustrate the currently recognized phyla of the plant kingdom. children match the 19 plant picture cards to the pictures on the chart ( 18 \" x 32 \" ). text on the back of the picture cards describes each plant. advanced students can recreate the chart with the title cards provided, using the chart as a control of error. background information is provided. parts of a mushroom parts of a gilled mushroom are highlighted and labeled on six 2 - color cards ( 3 \" x 5 \" ). photocopy the replicard ( 8\u00bd \u201d x 11 \" ) to make quarter page worksheets. the child colors and labels the worksheets, using the picture cards as a guide. completed worksheets can be stapled together to make a booklet for \u201c", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5060832109784619, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:49.009775"} {"text": "imagineyou \u2019 re at the helm of a 747 commercial airliner, cruising over the rocky mountains. alone in the cockpit, you \u2019 re on your third cup of coffee, having long since resorted to taping your eyelids open to keep from falling asleep. you \u2019 re exhausted. above your head, one of the vast constellation of instruments surrounding you begins to flash rhythmically. looks kind of serious, doesn \u2019 t it? you try to slap yourself awake and think, think! maybe that light knows something you don \u2019 t. maybe those other silent instruments should be registering distress. is there a dead fuse somewhere? are we all going to die? in a panic, you bank hard left and smash into the mountains. this may be how the brain tends to malfunction when it hasn \u2019 t gotten enough sleep \u2014 it freaks out over the unimportant details. we believe this now because of research conducted by the team of hans van dongen at washington state university spokane over the last three years \u2014 the results of which were published earlier this year. granted, van dongen, the principal investigator in the study, wasn \u2019 t researching pilots, specifically. ( and, yes, the faa takes precautions to keep drowsy pilots away from the yoke \u2014 if not away from their laptops ). but the work that van dongen and his crew of researchers and students conducted has overturned the common wisdom about sleeplessness \u2014 the old thinking that it impaired the brain \u2019 s ability to make decisions based on input, to strategize, to execute. the study introduced groups of four nominally paid volunteers at a time to the university \u2019 s sleep lab \u2014 an apartment - like space with couches and food and beds, but no natural light, television or internet. each volunteer was hooked up to a battery of electrodes that monitor brain waves and other vital signs. then they were tucked into bed for the first two nights. following the second night, they were kept awake for the next 62 hours. throughout this time, the four volunteers were tested for various cognitive functions. in one task, subjects had to decode numbers and letters. another was something like scattergories, in which subjects had to name, for example, as many animals that begin with \u201c b \u201d as possible. a third tested their scanning working memory by having them memorize a series of letters and then asking if certain other letters were in that original series. what they found was surprising. while the sleepless subjects did lousy on most of the tasks, they", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.541816615368401, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:49.055427"} {"text": "a box girder bridge is a bridge in which the beams are made up of box shaped girders. the box girders consist of concrete, steel or a combination of both. most of the modern elevated structures are built on the basis of the box girder bridge. most of us have travel on the box girder bridges regularly. the most common examples are the flyovers and the structures built for light rail transport. they can sustain heavy weight and hence used in the construction of flyovers. these are used to construct crossways for pedestrians. box girders are used on cable styled bridges and other forms but generally they are a form of beam bridges. the support beams of the girders are tightly coupled together to form a hollow box. this hollow box can have the shape of a rectangle, tightly coupled triangles or trapezium. the box girder bridges offer a stronger support for bridges constructed with an arch. the most famous bay bridge in california, connecting san francisco and oakland is a classic example of the box girder bridge. the box girder bridges are made of prefabricated steel which are manufactured in the factory and assembled onsite. the girders can also be made up ( edit : these are still being made so i think it should be are made of than can also be made of ) of high performance, prestressed, reinforced concrete or a mixture of both concrete and steel. both the girders and bridges can be manufactured elsewhere and installed at a different place as they are prefabricated. that is the beauty of this construction. the bridge can be installed in its position by incremental launching. huge cranes are used to place the new segments onto the completed portions of the bridge until the whole structure is completely assembled. box girder bridges have a number of key advantages when compared to the i - beam girders. box girders offer better resistance to torsion. this is beneficial especially for a curved bridge. larger girders and stronger flanges can be used as this allows for a longer span between the support posts that hold the bridge. the huge hollow boxes can be used to place the water lines, telephone cables and other utility lines. box girders are more expensive to fabricate and difficult to maintain because of the need of a confined space inside the box. there were major disasters that occurred when the west gate bridge of australia and cleddau bridge of uk collapsed. but these disasters gave rise to a new design in the box girder bridges", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5029339982945531, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:49.059794"} {"text": "the current surface analysis map shows current weather conditions, including frontal and high / low pressure positions, satellite infrared ( ir ) cloud cover, and areas of precipitation. a surface weather analysis is a special type of weather map that provides a view of weather elements over a geographical area at a specified time based on information from ground - based weather stations. weather maps are created by plotting or tracing the values of relevant quantities such as sea level pressure, temperature, and cloud cover onto a geographical map to help find synoptic scale features such as weather fronts. the first weather maps in the 19th century were drawn well after the fact to help devise a theory on storm systems. after the advent of the telegraph, simultaneous surface weather observations became possible for the first time, and beginning in the late 1840s, the smithsonian institution became the first organization to draw real - time surface analyses. use of surface analyses began first in the united states, spreading worldwide during the 1870s. use of the norwegian cyclone model for frontal analysis began in the late 1910s across europe, with its use finally spreading to the united states during world war ii. surface weather analyses have special symbols which show frontal systems, cloud cover, or other important information. for example, an h may represent high pressure, implying good and fair weather. an l on the other hand may represent low pressure, which frequently accompanies precipitation. various symbols are used not just for frontal zones and other surface boundaries on weather maps, but also to depict the present weather at various locations on the weather map. areas of precipitation help determine the frontal type and location.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5162599880072716, "token_count": 317, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:49.074939"} {"text": "and prognostications for one who becomes ill and for one who is born on that day. close to this is a greek text published in catalogus codicum astrologorum graecorum ( xi / 1, pp. 134 - 44 ; this text cites melampus, for whom see the lunarium conflated from melampus and another \u201c egyptian \u201d book in viii / 4, pp. 105 - 07 ). reflecting to some extent the contents of the andarz of adurbad is an arabic bookattributed to imam ja\u02bffar al - sadeq ( see sezgin, gas vii, pp. 323 - 24, 373 ). it is also very close in content to the chapter of the mandaean book of the zodiac referred to above ; but in addition contains parts of the associations of the thirty days of the month with stories from the old testament found in many similar byzantine hemerologies ( catalogus iii, pp. 32 - 39, x, pp. 121 - 26, ascribed to david and solomon, 196 - 200, 243 - 47, xi / 2, pp. 157 - 62 ). the mandaean and the byzantine hemerologies along with ja\u02bffar al - sadeq \u2019 s ketab all share a common source. also attributed to ja\u02bffar al - sadeq are the short hemerologies which, like the second mesopotamian text ( labat, 1943 ), do little more than indicate that the day is favorable or unfavorable ( see, e. g., ruska, ii, pp. 35 - 36 ; for similar works in syriac and greek, see budge, ii, pp. 557 - 59 ; ccag 8 / 4, pp. 102 - 04 ). ebied and young ( p. 296, n. 3 ) mention a long hemerology in arabic attributed to daniel, salman the persian, and ja\u02bffar al - sadeq, which, they say, has a number of features reflecting zoroastrian concepts. they state that they are preparing an edition ; it seems not yet to have appeared. 2. the second type of elections originated in india, where it is the basic form of their science of catarchic astrology ( muhurtasastra ) ; there the operative variable is the naksatra in which the moon is located ( pingree, jyotihsastra, chap. 6, pp. 101 - 09", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5028314963703269, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:49.089176"} {"text": "tamara of pseudo - ptolemy ; he had undertaken this work at the request of baha\u02be - al - din mohammad joveyni ( storey, ii, pp. 36 - 37 ). andarz i adurbad imahraspandan in j. m. jamasp - asana, ed., the pahlavi texts contained in the codex mx i, bombay, 1897. e. a. w. budge, the syriac book of medicines, 2 vols., london, 1913. catalogus codicum astrologorum graecorum, 12 vols. in 20 parts, brussels, 1898 - 1954. f. h. cramer, astrologyin roman law and politics, philadelphia, 1954. e. s. drower, the book of thezodiac, london, 1949. t. fahd, \u201c ikhtiyarat \u201d in ei \u00b2 iii, pp. 1063 - 64. w. b. henning, \u201c an astrological chapter of the bundahishn, \u201d jras, 1942, pp. 229 - 48. imam ja\u02bffar al - sadeq, ketab ektiarat ayyam al - sahr, ed. and tr. r. y. ebied and m. j. l. young as a treatise on hemerology ascribed to ga\u02bffar al - sadiq, arabica 23, 1976, pp. 296 - 307. r. labat, hemerologies et menologies d \u2019 assur, paris, 1939. idem, un almanach babylonien ( vr 48 - 49 ), paris 1943. d. n. mackenzie, \u201c zoroastrian astrology in the bundahisn, \u201d bso ( a ) s 27, 1964, pp. 511 - 29. d. pingree, jyotihsastra, wiesbaden, 1981. idem, \u201c masha\u02beallah. greek, pahlavi, arabic, and latin astrology, \u201d forthcoming in arabic science and philosophy. e. reiner, astral magic in babylonia, philadelphia, 1995. j. ruska, arabische al - chemisten ii. ga\u02bffar al - sadiq, der sechste imam, heidelberg, 1924, pp. 35 - 36. sezgin, gas vii, pp. 32 - 38, 49 - 50, 80 - 87, 125 - 28, 324 - 25. r. c. zaehner, the teachings of", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5035370895470602, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:49.094707"} {"text": "breakthroughs bring the next two major leaps in computing power into sight breakthroughs might make quantum computing, replacement for silicon practical within a decade one of the best things about covering technology is that you ' re always on the edge of a completely new generation of stuff that will make everything completely different than it ever was before, even before the last generation made everything different. \" completely different \" always seems pretty much the same, with a few more complications, higher costs and a couple of cool new capabilities, of course. unless you look back a decade or two and see that everything is completely different from the way it was then \u2026 must be some conceptual myopia that keeps us in happy suspense over the future, nostalgic wonder at the past and bored annoyance with the present. the next future to get excited about is going to be really cool, though. you know how long scientists have been working on quantum computers that will be incomparably more powerful than the ones we have now because don ' t have to be built on a \" bit \" that ' s either a 1 or a zero? they would use a piece of quantum data called a qubit ( or qbit, consistent with everything in the quantum world, the spelling wants to be two things at once ), that can exist in several states at the same time. that would turn the most basic function in computing from a toggle switch to a dial with many settings. multiply the number of pieces of data in the lowest - level function of the computer and you increase its power logarithmically. making it happen has been a trick ; they ' ve been under development for 20 years and probably won ' t show up for another 10. teams of austrian scientists may cut that time down a bit with a system they developed they say can create digital models of quantum - computing systems to make testing and development of both theory and manufacturing issues quicker and easier. they did it the same way lord of the rings brought gollum to life : putting a living example in front of cameras and taking detailed pictures they could use to recreate the image in any other digital environment. rather than an actor, the photo subject was a calcium atom, drastically cooled to slow its motion, then manipulated it using lasers, putting it through a set of paces predicted by quantum - mechanical theory, and recorded the results. abstracting those results lets the computer model predict the behavior of almost any other quantum particle or environment, making it possible to use the quantum version of a cad / cam system to develop and test new", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_computing", "similarity_score": 0.6195495396485462, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:49.100617"} {"text": "by quantum - mechanical theory, and recorded the results. abstracting those results lets the computer model predict the behavior of almost any other quantum particle or environment, making it possible to use the quantum version of a cad / cam system to develop and test new approaches to the systems that will actually become quantum computers, according to a paper published in the journal science by researchers from the university of innsbruck and the institute for quantum optics and quantum information ( iqoqi ). far sooner than quantum computers will blow our digitized minds, transistors made from grapheme rather than chunkier materials will allow designers to create processors far more dense \u2013 and therefore more potentially powerful \u2013 than anything theoretically possible using silicon and metallic alloys we rely on now. graphene is a one - atom - thick layer of carbon that offers almost no resistance to electricity flowing through it, but doesn ' t naturally contain electrons at two energy levels, as silicon does. silicon transistors flip on or off by shifting electrons from one energy level to another. even silicon doesn ' t work that way naturally. it has to be \" doped \" with impurities to change its properties as a semiconductor. for graphene to work the same way, researchers have to add inverters that that mimic the dual energy levels of silicon. so far they only work at 320 degrees below zero fahrenheit ( 77 degrees kelvin ). researchers at purdue ' s birck nanotechnology center built a version that operates at room temperature, removing the main barrier to graphene as a practical option for computer systems design the researchers, led by doctoral candidate hong - yan chen presented their paper at the device research conference in santa barbara. calif. in june to publicize their results with the inverter. real application will have to wait for chen or others to integrate the design into a working circuit based on graphene rather than silicon. systems built on graphene have the potential to boost the computing power of current processors by orders of magnitude while reducing their size and energy use, but only if they operate in offices not cooled to 77 degrees kelvin. it will still be a few years before graphene starts showing up in airline magazines, let alone in it budgets. we ' ll probably be tired of them, too, by the time quantum computers show up, but there ' s just no satisfying some people. read more of kevin fogarty ' s coreit blog and follow the latest it news at itworld. follow kevin on twitter at @ kevinfogarty. for the latest it news, analysis", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.6553249091288375, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:49.102602"} {"text": "poultices, brandy, chloride of lime and ammonia were all that medicine could then offer annie when she started to sicken. none had any effect on her worsening bouts of vomiting and delirium until annie \u201c expired without a sigh \u201d on april 23, 1851, darwin recalled. \u201c we have lost the joy of the household and the solace of our old age. \u201d keynes argues persuasively that annie \u2019 s death had a considerable impact on darwin \u2019 s thinking. \u201c in her last days, he had watched as her face was changed beyond recognition by the emaciation of her fatal illness. you could only understand the true conditions of life if you held on to a sense of the true ruthlessness of natural forces. \u201d thus darwin \u2019 s eyes had been opened to the unforgiving processes that drive evolution. \u201c we behold the face of nature bright with gladness, \u201d he wrote years later. \u201c we do not see, or we forget, that the birds which are idly singing around us mostly live on insects or seeds, and are thus constantly destroying life, or we forget how largely these songsters, or their eggs, or their nestlings, are destroyed by birds or beasts of prey. \u201d or as he wrote elsewhere : \u201c all nature is war. \u201d this pitiless vision \u2014 which stressed blind chance as the main determiner in the struggle for survival and the course of evolution \u2014 was upsetting for victorians who put such faith in self - help and hard work. nevertheless, this is the version of natural selection that has since been supported by a century and a half of observation and which is now accepted by virtually every scientist on earth. i t has not been a happy process, of course. even today, natural selection holds a special status among scientific theories as being the one that it is still routinely rejected and attacked by a significant \u2014 albeit small \u2014 segment of society, mainly fundamentalist christians and muslims. such individuals tend to have few views on relativity, the big bang, or quantum mechanics, but adamantly reject the idea that humanity is linked to the rest of the animal world and descended from ape - like ancestors. \u201c twenty years ago, this was not a problem, \u201d says steve jones, a professor of genetics at university college london. \u201c today, i get dozens of students who ask to be excused lectures on evolution because of their religious beliefs. they even accuse me of telling lies when i say natural selection is backed by the facts. so i ask if they believe in mendel \u2019", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5178741217048018, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:49.112982"} {"text": "\u201c today, i get dozens of students who ask to be excused lectures on evolution because of their religious beliefs. they even accuse me of telling lies when i say natural selection is backed by the facts. so i ask if they believe in mendel \u2019 s laws of genetics? they say yes, of course. and the existence of dna? again, yes. and genetic mutations? yes. the spread of insecticide resistance? yes. the divergence of isolated populations on islands? yes. and do you accept that 98 percent of dna is shared by humans and chimps? again yes. so what is wrong with natural selection? it \u2019 s all lies, they say. it beats me, frankly. \u201d this dismay is shared by dawkins. \u201c these people claim the world is less than 10, 000 years old, which is wrong by a great many orders of magnitude. earth is several billion years old. these individuals are not just silly, they are colossally, staggeringly ignorant. i am sure sense will prevail, however. \u201d and jones agrees. \u201c it \u2019 s a passing phase. in 20 years, this nonsense will have gone. \u201d natural selection is simply too important for society to live without it, he argues. it is the grammar of the living world and provides biologists with the means to make sense of our planet \u2019 s myriad plants and animals, a view shared by attenborough whose entire life on earth programs rests on the bed - rock of darwinian thinking. \u201c opponents say natural selection is not a theory supported by observation or experiment ; that it is not based on fact ; and that it cannot be proved, \u201d attenborough says. \u201c well, no, you cannot prove the theory to people who won \u2019 t believe in it any more than you can prove that the battle of hastings took place in 1066. however, we know the battle happened then, just as we know the course of evolution on earth unambiguously shows that darwin was right. \u201d", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5120625380426764, "token_count": 405, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:49.113894"} {"text": "the court proclaimed that a new month had begun. even if the court knew by its own calculations that the new moon was scheduled to appear on a certain day, but due to weather conditions it was not seen, they did not declare the new moon until the next day when witnesses arrived. it was conceivable that the new month would be delayed a day. also the courts were empowered to add an extra month to the yearly cycle to insure that the holiday of passover would be in the spring. for this purpose they would add another month to the yearly cycle. the year would then have thirteen months ( as in this year 2000, or as we say, 5760 ). since the spotting of the moon and declaration of the new month had ramifications as to when the jewish holidays would be, many tried to thwart the actions of the courts in order to prevent the jews from observing their holidays. aside from dishonest ' witnesses ', the ancient greeks, during the time of chanukah, tried to prevent the jews from declaring new months through various decrees. this was in hopes to prevent the jews from observing their holidays. in addition, during the time after the first exile, when many jews still resided in babylon, the courts set up a relay system of lighting fires on the tops of mountains. in this manner the declaration of the month was related quickly to the jews in the diaspora so that they could observe the festival of passover and the holy fast of yom kippur in its proper time. the samaritans, who inhabited the mountainous area, would lite fires in order to confuse the jews in the diaspora. the courts were then obligated to send out messengers to bring the news to those jews who lived so far away. although the new moon is not a ' religious ' holiday, it does have religious significance. the day, during the time of the holy temple, was marked with an additional sacrifice. today, a special prayer called \" hallel, \" or praise, is said and many have the custom to eat something special in honor of the new month. in olden times, we had a court that would declare the new month according to the sightings. this court was made up of judges who were empowered through a direct chain from moses. this was a requirement. today, no one has such authority to declare a new month. thanks to the farsightedness of rabbi hillel the prince, who was the last of the princes from the house of david, we have a", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5102826721354279, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:49.152687"} {"text": "me and my mom are having an agrument about how to solve this problem. 27 / ( 5 + 4 ) * 19 = she says the answer is 57 and i say the answer is 6 with a remainder of 9.. can you please tell me who is right. thank you. i need help labeling complements in my sentences. i am not sure if i am doing this correctly or not. could you please check to see if i have the following parts of speech labeled correctly? i must identify the subject, verb and complements. i must determinit if the complement... what is a vibration? what is the relationship between period and frequency? summer assignment : would you say do you know who will replace erica and _ i _ next week? which word would you put in place if i is the wrong pronoun? me or myself, maybe? i have an english 10 summer assignment about grammar and such. one of the questions is : in the following sentence, which words are verbs? melissa was worried about her job interview. a. was, worried b. worried c. worried, about i know that it ' s not c., and i don ' t thin... what is the kcalorie value of a meal supplying 110g of carbs, 25g of protein, 20g of fat, and 5g of alcohol? please help show work yes those are the answers i got too! i just wanted to see if i was right.. thanks ( daddy warbucks employs workers in his perfectly competitive factory. mr. smith employs workers in his monopolistic factory as the only producer of the thing you really want. given the following information, determine how many workers each firm will employ : the weekly salary... chemical reaction formulas of : 1. ) fe + h2so4 2. ) fes + h2so4 3. ) cs2 + s what happens if you heat jic and iron together? what happens if you heat jic and iron sulphide together / for further reading", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5168931662621927, "token_count": 417, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:49.155191"} {"text": "safe, painless sound waves off organs to create an image of their structure. an abdominal ultrasound can create images of the entire urinary tract. the procedure is performed in a health care provider \u2019 s office, outpatient center, or hospital by a specially trained technician, and the images are interpreted by a radiologist \u2014 a doctor who specializes in medical imaging ; anesthesia is not needed. the images can show the location of any stones. this test does not expose children to radiation, unlike some other imaging tests. although other tests are more useful in detecting very small stones or stones in the lower portion of the ureter, ultrasound is considered by many health care providers to be the best screening test to look for stones. - computerized tomography ( ct ) scans use a combination of x rays and computer technology to create threedimensional ( 3 - d ) images. a ct scan may include the injection of a special dye, called contrast medium. ct scans require the child to lie on a table that slides into a tunnel - shaped device where the x rays are taken. the procedure is performed in an outpatient center or hospital by an x - ray technician, and the images are interpreted by a radiologist ; anesthesia is not needed. ct scans may be required to get an accurate stone count when children are being considered for urologic surgery. because ct scans expose children to a moderate amount of radiation, health care providers try to reduce radiation exposure in children by avoiding repeated ct scans, restricting the area scanned as much as possible, and using the lowest radiation dose that will provide the needed diagnostic information. - x - ray machines use radiation to create images of the child \u2019 s urinary tract. the images can be taken at an outpatient center or hospital by an x - ray technician, and the images are interpreted by a radiologist ; anesthesia is not needed. the x rays are used to locate many kinds of stones. a conventional x ray is generally less informative than an ultrasound or ct scan, but it is less expensive and can be done more quickly than other imaging procedures. how are kidney stones in children treated? the treatment for a kidney stone usually depends on its size and what it is made of, as well as whether it is causing symptoms of pain or obstructing the urinary tract. small stones usually pass through the urinary tract without treatment. still, children will often require pain control and encouragement to drink lots of fluids to help move the stone along. pain control may consist of oral or", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.511302837348226, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:49.200814"} {"text": "caster semenya, the south african runner who won the women \u2019 s 800 - meter race at the world track championships in berlin last month, has been unofficially declared intersexed. if she is, it means that she was born with some discrepancy between her external genitals, internal sex anatomy ( ovaries or testes and her hormones and chromosomes ). the international association of athletic federations ( iaaf ) will not make its official ruling as to whether it considers semenya a woman until november, but an increasing number of news outlets around the world have reported that she \u2019 s \u201c a hermaphrodite. \u201d what does this mean, exactly? the media \u2019 s terminology itself reflects the ignorance and confusion surrounding intersex. doctors and lay people no longer use the word hermaphrodite because it is vague, demeaning and sensationalistic. \u201c hermaphrodite \u201d continues to conjure images of mythical creatures, perhaps even monsters and freaks. it \u2019 s thus not surprising that most have rejected the label. historically, hermaphrodite has been one of the more neutral descriptors of those born with atypical sex development. derogatory terms such as \u201c freak of nature, \u201d \u201c hybrid, \u201d \u201c impostor, \u201d \u201c sexual pervert, \u201d and \u201c unfortunate creature \u201d pervade early american medical literature. in one standard 19th - century text on malformations, one doctors referred to \u201c these mortifying and disgusting imperfections. \u201d intersex bodies have always aroused suspicion. but many people \u2019 s distrust of them has not been limited to the playing fields, nor is it new. throughout american history, doctors and lay people in authority have assumed that those born with atypical bodies were dishonest and fraudulent ( say, in illegally voting when the franchise was limited to men ), or were seeking illegal sexual relations. these authorities persistently tried to define ambiguous bodies as either male or female. yet over the years doctors \u2019 evaluations of intersex bodies have shifted. in the 1920s and 1930s, for example, a person with a female - appearing body would have been counseled to undergo surgery in order to appear more like a man because of her internal testes, particularly if doctors discovered that she was sexually attracted to women. in the 1940s, doctors turned to the new field of psychology to guide their decisions and determined that it was more sensible to let such an individual continue living as a woman, if she so chose.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5128798111371362, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:49.218582"} {"text": "introduction to layout designing. hello, & welcome back to firewire, your friendly guide to the exciting world of web - design & web - solutions! while developing a website or any design we have to take some precautions of aesthetic aspect. behind every good design there is a good layout. in case, we are wondering about how to move ahead we must know the basics of the layout. means arrangement of different objects in different media, which conveys your message easily to the viewer. here are some basic points for designing a good layout. to create a good layout you must have a good observation : to see layouts around you, observe all the objects such as tress, flowers, mountains, animals, pets, childrens etc. minutely. refer to magazines, books, advertisement etc. and try to understand how graphics are and what color schemes have been used? why and which type of fonts have been used? why and how do they give treatment to the images? lot of observation you come to know what is good and what is bad. to increase the power of observation you have to create an idea or mental picture of the object or the situation exactly as you want. this will help you in designing. actually it is a never - ending process. sense : many times good layouts get spoiled because of the wrong selection of color schemes. in real sense, color scheme is a good weapon to enhance a layout. if you use colors carefully you can make wonders out of it. a color depends on the viewability. in case, female related subjects the colors normally used are pink, lavender, light blue and peach. children related subjects the colors generally used is warm yellow, sky blue, orange, red, leaf green and violet. for medical related subjects the colors is sea green, turquoise blue, dull and grey shades. nature related subjects, cool color schemes are preferred as against that social institutes you can use warm color schemes like red, black, bright yellow etc. color schemes may vary according to the subject. for ready availability of color schemes you can visit the initially you can even start with color books, which are readily available in the market, as they contain various color schemes for various purposes. sense : after color schemes, the one and only tool to express your emotions perfectly and properly is the \" font \".", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5071781869459435, "token_count": 467, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:49.224434"} {"text": "linux bridge + firewall mini - howto version 1. 2. 0 - 3. 1 software - 3. 2 prior reading. - 3. 3 boot configuration - 3. 4 kernel configuration - 3. 5 network addresses - 3. 6 network routing - 3. 7 card configuration - 3. 8 additional routing - 3. 9 bridge configuration - 3. 10 try it out - 3. 11 checks - 4. 1 software and reading - 4. 2 preliminary checks - 4. 3 default rule - 4. 4 holes per address - 4. 5 holes per protocol - 4. 6 checks a bridge is an intelligent connecting wire betwen two network cards. a firewall is an intelligent insulator. you might want a bridge if you have several computers : - to save the price of a new hub when you just happen to have an extra ethernet card available. - to save the bother of learning how to do ip - forwarding and other tricks when you _ have _ two cards in your computer. - to avoid maintenance work in the future when things change around! ` ` several computers ' ' might be as few as three if those are routing or bridging or just moving around the room from time to time! you also might want a bridge just for the fun of finding out what it does. 2 was what i wanted a bridge for. you want a firewall if - you are trying to protect your network from external accesses, or - you are trying to deny access to the world outside from your network. curiously, i needed 2 here too. policy at my university presently is that we should not act as internet service providers to undergraduates. i started out bridging the network cards in a firewalling machine and ended up firewalling without having cut the bridge. it seems to work and is more flexible than either configuration alone. i can take down the firewall and keep bridging or take down the bridge when i want to be more circumspect. i would guess that the bridge code lives just above the physical device layer and the firewalling code lives one layer higher up, so that the bridging and firewalling configurations effectively act as though they are running connected together ` ` in sequence ' ' and not ` ` in parallel ' ' ( ouch! ). diagram : - > bridge - in - > firewall - in - > kernel - > firewall - out - > bridge - out - > there is no other way to explain how one machine can be a ` `", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5029501358310933, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:49.312506"} {"text": "( ouch! ). diagram : - > bridge - in - > firewall - in - > kernel - > firewall - out - > bridge - out - > there is no other way to explain how one machine can be a ` ` conductor ' ' and an ` ` insulator ' ' at the same time. there are a few caveats but i ' ll come to those later. basically you must route packets that you want to firewall. anyway, it all seems to work together nicely for me. here is what you do... get the bridge configuration utility from alan cox ' s home pages. this is the same reference as in chris ' document. i just didn ' t realize that it was an ftp and not an http url... read the multiple ethernet howto for some advice on getting more than one network card recognized and configured. yet more details of the kind of boot magic that you may need are in the boot prompt howto. you may be able to get away without the net - 2 howto. it is a good long read and you will have to pick from it the details you need. the reading material above will tell you that you need to prepare the kernel to recognize a second ethernet device at boot up by adding this to your / etc / lilo. conf, and then re - run lilo : append = \" ether = 0, 0, eth1 \" note the \" eth1 \". \" eth0 \" is the first card. \" eth1 \" is the second card. you can always add the boot parameters in your response to the line that lilo offers you. this is for three cards : linux ether = 0, 0, eth1 ether = 0, 0, eth2 i use loadlin to boot my kernel from dos : loadlin. exe c : \\ vmlinuz root = / dev / hda3 ro ether = 0, 0, eth1 ether = 0, 0, eth2 note that this trick makes the kernel probe at bootup. that will not happen if you load the ethernet drivers as modules ( for safety since the probe order can ' t be determined ) so if you use modules you will have to add the appropriate irq and port parameters for the driver in your / etc / conf. modules. i have at least alias eth0 3c509 alias eth1 de620 options 3c509 irq = 5 io = 0", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5033668229154494, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:49.319063"} {"text": "for connecting to the net so you need an address and you need to make sure that you have the loopback device configured in the normal way so that your software can talk to the places they expect to be able to talk to. if loopback is down the name resolver or other net sevices might fail. see the net - 2 - howto, but your standard configuration should already have done this bit : ifconfig lo 127. 0. 0. 1 route add - net 127. 0. 0. 0 you will have to give addresses to your network cards. i altered the / etc / rc. d / rc. inet1 file in my slackware ( 3. x ) to setup two cards and you should also essentially just look for your net configuration file and double or treble the number of instructions in it. suppose that you already have an address at ( that is in the private net reserved address space, but never mind - it won ' t hurt anybody if you use this address by mistake ) then you probably already have a line like ifconfig eth0 192. 168. 2. 100 netmask 255. 255. 255. 0 metric 1 in your configuration. the first thing you are going to probably want to do is cut the address space reached by this card in half so that you can eventually bridge or firewall the two halves. so add a line which reduces the mask to address a smaller number of machines : ifconfig eth0 netmask 255. 255. 255. 128 try it too. that restricts the card to at most the address space between. 0 and. 127. now you can set your second card up in the other half of the local address space. make sure that nobody already has the address. for symmetry i set it at 228 = 128 + 100 here. any address will do so long as it is not in the other card ' s mask, and even then, well, maybe. avoid special addresses like. 0,. 1,. 128 etc. unless you really know what you are doing. ifconfig eth1 192. 168. 2. 228 netmask 255. 255. 255. 128 metric 1 that restricts the second card to addresses between. 128 and. 255. this is where i have to announce the caveats in the bridging + firewalling scheme : you cannot firewall packets which are not routed. no routes, no firewall. at least this appears to be true in", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5188540010489836, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:49.324674"} {"text": "and. 255. this is where i have to announce the caveats in the bridging + firewalling scheme : you cannot firewall packets which are not routed. no routes, no firewall. at least this appears to be true in the 2. 0. 30 and more recent kernels. the firewalling filters are closely involved with the ip - forwarding code. that does not mean that you cannot bridge. you can bridge between two cards and firewall them from a third. you can have only two cards and firewall both of them against an outside ip such as a nearby router, provided that the router is routed by you to exactly one of the cards. in other words, since i will be doing firewalling, so i want to precisely control the physical destination of some packets. i have the small net of machines attached to a hub hanging off eth0, so i configure a net there : route add - net 192. 168. 2. 128 netmask 255. 255. 255. 128 dev eth0 the 128 would be 0 if i had a full class c network there. i don ' t, by definition, since i just halved the address space. the \" dev eth0 \" is not necessary here because the cards address falls within the mask, but it may be necessary for you. one might need more than one card holding up this subnet ( 127 machines on one segment, oh yeah ) but those cards would be being bridged under the same netmask so that they appear as one to the routing code. on the other card i have a line going straight through to a big router that i trust. client 129 _ _ | _ _ client 1 \\. 0. 128 | / net 1 client 2 - - - hub - eth0 - kernel - eth1 - hub - router - - - net 2 client 3 _ _ /. 100. 228. 2 | \\ _ _ net 3 | client 254 i attach the address of the router to that card as a fixed ( \" static \" ) route because it would otherwise fall within the first cards netmask and the kernel would be thinking wrongly about how to send packets to the big router. i will want to firewall these packets and that is another reason fow wanting to route them specifically. route add 192. 168. 2. 2 dev eth1 i don ' t need it, since i don ' t have any more machines in that half", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5218141086577168, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:49.328998"} {"text": "- based attenuation - - the strengthening or weakening of a sound ' s dynamic level as it approaches or leaves the listener. - position - based panning - - the location of a sound is calculated relative to the listener, not merely shifting between speakers. - doppler effects - - the perceived rise and fall of a sound ' s pitch as a source approaches and leaves the listener. - sound radiation - - control of a sound ' s dispersion through the acoustic field. openal resources on - line the author would like to thank joseph i. valenzuela, michael vance, bernd kreimeier, fotis hadginikos, and derrick story for their vast assistance. this series of articles could not have been written without their help. the iasig level 2 guidelines specify a set of environment parameters for reverberation. work has already begun to incorporate those parameters into the openal api. the current openal api reference can be found in the openal / docs directory, but it is in sgml format. you will need the docbook tools to compile the api documentation into readable html. the reference documentation is also available on - line here. i should emphasize that the documentation is directed only to developers at this time. as an open source project with corporate blessings, openal seems assured of widespread implementation. it offers an open source solution to the problem of highly portable cross - platform support for 3d audio in games and other multimedia applications, making it of great interest to developers and end - users alike. even while the 1. 0 specification is being ratified, some developers are already employing openal ' s services. openal is not without its contenders, but those solutions are proprietary or locked into a single architecture. openal is already a working multi - platform interface for audio ( especially 3d audio ) services, and with hardware acceleration, openal could revolutionize computer audio in the same way as opengl revolutionized computer graphics, an exciting prospect indeed. as a final reminder, please note that openal is a community effort, and community involvement is encouraged. see the openal web site for complete details on getting involved in the project. in the last article we will take a deeper look at the internals of the api, but first we ' ll discuss 3d audio and then see what real - world applications have already employed the openal specification. discuss this article in the o ' reilly network linux forum. return to the linux devcenter.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5613189984321509, "token_count": 505, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:49.422076"} {"text": "the given value ( or the default ) does not match the \" long \" block size of the device, the appropriate btl is deduced from the error response and printed ( to stderr ). the idea is that the user will retry this utility with the correct transfer length. if a defective block is found and its contents, if any, has been retrieved then \" sg _ reassign \" could be used to map out the defective block. associated with such an action the number of elements in the \" grown \" defect list could be monitored ( with \" sg _ reassign - - grown \" ) as the disk could be nearing the end of its useful lifetime. various numeric arguments ( e. g. lba ) may include multiplicative suffixes or be given in hexadecimal. see the \" numeric arguments \" section in the sg3 _ utils ( 8 ) man page. as a data point, fujitsu uses a 54 byte ecc ( per block ) which is capable of correcting up to a single burst error or 216 bits \" on the fly \". [ information obtained from mav20xxrc product manual. ] the exit status of sg _ read _ long is 0 when it is successful. otherwise see the sg3 _ utils ( 8 ) man page.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5001801309377264, "token_count": 268, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:49.476726"} {"text": "the patrick administration has been working to enhance its long - term financial planning based on best practices prescribed by the government finance officers association ( gfoa ). best practices include the use of a sound conceptual approach, ensuring that near - term decisions measure long - term impacts, and developing a solution framework that is aligned with policy goals. the commonwealth has implemented a conceptual approach of \u201c structural balance \u201c that is designed to delineate among different causes of fiscal imbalance. the application of this approach identifies three critical challenges facing the commonwealth : a remaining structural deficit due to the significant reduction in tax revenue since the recession, cost inflation on safety net and health care programs, and the need to improve policy measures to address economic volatility. each of these challenges is a central feature of our fy12 budget proposal as further described in the conclusion to this section. structural balance approach and analysis the goal of structural balance is to base spending on policy priorities and a predictable level of sustainable revenue. our supporting analysis includes a five - year forecast for revenue and spending based on historical trends as well as the outlook for the state economy. the forecast includes a projection of tax revenue, based on input from local economists, that also provides the basis to develop an estimated long - term trend - line for tax revenue. the forecast indicates that the state economy will be below trend during a four year recovery period beginning in fiscal year 2012 before reaching a \u201c steady - state \u201d level of long - term tax revenue growth of approximately 5 % in 2016. the imputed trend - line was developed using the tax revenue figures from 2016 and discounting revenue back by the estimated 5 % annually. a similar approach was taken to develop a pre - recession revenue trend - line and select results of this analysis are highlighted in the exhibit below. ( note : the time horizon in the exhibit has been truncated in order to emphasize the key findings discussed below ). the results of this analysis provide three useful insights into our near - term fiscal challenges. first, tax revenue in fy07 ( i. e. pre - recession ) was approximately $ 2 billion greater than the then current trend - line. second, the impact of the recession on this trend - line after fy09 was a significant downward shift of an additional $ 2 billion. finally, the outlook for the economy suggests that recovery in tax revenue will be only modest : approximately $ 500 million based on the difference between the trend and forecast for tax revenue in fy12. the combined impact of these effects is that the fy12 budget will", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5307388116107712, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:49.503365"} {"text": "fragile x syndrome ( cont. ) a variety of professionals can help individuals with fragile x and their families deal with symptoms of the disorder. such assistance is usually most effective when provided by health care professionals experienced with fragile x. - speech - language therapists can help people with fragile x to improve their pronunciation of words and sentences, slow down speech, and use language more effectively. they may set up social or problem - solving situations to help a child practice using language in meaningful ways. for the minority of children who fail to develop functional speech, this type of specialist may work with other specialists to design and teach nonverbal ways of communication. for example, some children may prefer to use small picture cards arranged on a key ring to express themselves ; or they may learn to use a hand - held computer that is programmed to \" say \" words and phrases when a single key is pressed. - occupational therapists help find ways to adjust tasks and conditions to match a person ' s needs and abilities. for example, this type of therapist might teach parents to swaddle or massage their baby who has fragile x to calm him or her. or the therapist might find a specially designed computer mouse and keyboard or a pencil that is easier for a child with poor motor control to grip. at the high school level, an occupational therapist can help a teenager with fragile x identify a job, career, or skill that matches his or her interests and individual capabilities. 17 - physical therapists design activities and exercises to build motor control and to improve posture and balance. they can teach parents ways to exercise their baby ' s muscles. at school, a physical therapist may help a child who is easily over - stimulated or who avoids body contact to participate in sports and games with other children. - behavioral therapists try to identify why a child acts in negative ways and then seek ways to prevent these distressing situations, and to teach the child to cope with the distress. this type of specialist also works with parents and teachers to find useful responses to desirable and undesirable behavior. during puberty, rising and changing hormone levels can cause adolescents to become more aggressive. a behavioral therapist can help a teenager recognize his or her intense emotions and teach healthy ways to calm down. the services of these specialists may be available to pre - school and school - aged children, as well as to teens, through the local public school system. in a school setting, several specialists often work together to assess each child ' s particular strengths and weaknesses, and to plan a program that is specially tailored", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_computing", "similarity_score": 0.5034415627381084, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:49.560631"} {"text": "of organic matter such as vegetation, or chemical reactions with some sulfur - containing minerals in the soil and rock, may naturally create hydrogen sulfide in gas in groundwater. as groundwater moves through soil and rock formations containing minerals of sulfate, some of these minerals dissolve in the water. a unique group of bacteria, called \" sulfur bacteria \" or \" sulfate - reducing bacteria \" can change sulfate and other sulfur containing compounds, including natural organic materials, to hydrogen sulfide gas. how is hydrogen sulfide gas produced in a water heater? a water heater can provide an ideal environment for the conversion of sulfate to hydrogen sulfide gas. the water heater can produce hydrogen sulfide gas in two ways - creating a warm environment where sulfur bacteria can live, and sustaining a reaction between sulfate in the water and the water heater anode. a water heater usually contains a metal rod called an \" anode, \" which is installed to reduce corrosion of the water heater tank. the anode is usually made of magnesium metal, which can supply electrons that aid in the conversion of sulfate to hydrogen sulfide gas. the anode is 1 / 2 to 3 / 4 inches in diameter and 30 to 40 inches long. how can i find the source of a hydrogen sulfide problem, and what can i do to eliminate it? the odor of hydrogen sulfide gas can be detected in water at a very low level. smell the water coming out of the hot and cold water faucets. determine which faucets have the odor. the \" rotten egg \" smell will often be more noticeable from the hot water because more of the gas is vaporized. your sense of smell becomes dulled quickly, so the best time to check is after you have been away from your home for a few hours. you can also have the water tested for hydrogen sulfide, sulfate, sulfur bacteria, and iron bacteria at an environmental testing laboratory. the cost of testing for hydrogen sulfide ranges from $ 20 to $ 50 depending on the type of test. - if the smell is only from the hot water faucet the problem is likely to be in the water heater. - if the smell is in both the hot and cold faucets, but only from the water treated by a water softener and not in the untreated water the problem is likely to be sulfur bacteria in the water - if the smell is strong when the water in both the hot and cold faucets is first turned on, and it diminishes or goes away after", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5109120644627008, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:49.628359"} {"text": "sources & references according to the american psychiatric association, a phobia is an uncontrollable, irrational, and persistent fear of a specific object, situation, or activity. the fear experienced by people with phobias can be so great that some individuals go to extreme lengths to avoid the source of their fear. one extreme response to the source of a phobia can be a panic attack. every year, approximately 19 million americans experience one or more phobias that range from mild to severe. phobias can occur in early childhood, but usually are first evident between the ages of 15 and 20 years. they affect both genders equally, although men are more likely to seek treatment for phobias. research suggests that both genetic and environmental factors contribute to the onset of phobias. specific phobias have been associated with a fearful first encounter with the phobic object or situation. the question still exists, however, whether this conditioning exposure is necessary or if phobias can develop in genetically predisposed individuals. | specific phobia | | what is specific phobia? | specific phobia is characterized by extreme fear of an object or situation that is not harmful under general conditions. examples may include a fear of the following : - flying ( fearing the plane will crash ) - dogs ( fearing the dog will bite / attack ) - closed - in places ( fear of being trapped ) - tunnels ( fearing a collapse ) - heights ( fear of falling ) what are the characteristics of specific phobia? people with specific phobias know that their fear is excessive, but are unable to overcome their emotion. the disorder is diagnosed only when the specific fear interferes with daily activities of school, work, or home life. approximately 19 million american adults ages 18 to 54, in a given year, have some type of specific phobia. there is no known cause, although they seem to run in families and are slightly more prevalent in women. if the object of the fear is easy to avoid, people with phobias may not feel the need to seek treatment. sometimes, however, they may make important career or personal decisions to avoid a situation that includes the source of the phobia. treatment for specific phobia there is currently no proven drug treatment for specific phobias, however, in some cases, certain medications may be prescribed to help reduce anxiety symptoms before someone faces a phobic situation. when phobias interfere with a person ' s life, treatment can help,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5385046803027908, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:49.638628"} {"text": "proven drug treatment for specific phobias, however, in some cases, certain medications may be prescribed to help reduce anxiety symptoms before someone faces a phobic situation. when phobias interfere with a person ' s life, treatment can help, and usually involves a kind of cognitive - behavioral therapy called desensitization or exposure therapy. in this, patients are gradually exposed to what frightens them until the fear begins to fade. relaxation and breathing exercises also help to reduce anxiety symptoms. | social phobia | | what is social phobia? | social phobia is an anxiety disorder in which a person has significant anxiety and discomfort related to a fear of being embarrassed, humiliated, or scorned by others in social or performance situations. even when they manage to confront this fear, persons with social phobia usually : - feel very anxious before the event / outing - feel intensely uncomfortable throughout the event / outing - have lingering unpleasant feelings after the event / outing social phobia frequently occurs with the following : - public speaking - meeting people - dealing with authority figures - eating in public - using public restrooms what are the characteristics of social phobia? although this disorder is often thought of as shyness, the two are not the same. shy people can be very uneasy around others, but they do not experience the extreme anxiety in anticipating a social situation, and, they do not necessarily avoid circumstances that make them feel self - conscious. in contrast, people with social phobia are not necessarily shy at all, but can be completely at ease with some people most of the time. most people experiencing social phobia will try to avoid situations that provoke dread or otherwise cause them much distress. diagnosing social phobia social phobia is diagnosed when the fear or avoidance significantly interferes with normal, expected routines, or is excessively upsetting. social phobia disrupts normal life, interfering with career or social relationships. it often runs in families and may be accompanied by depression or alcoholism. social phobia often begins around early adolescence or even younger. approximately 15 million american adults ages 18 to 54 experience social phobia in a given year. treatment for social phobia people who suffer from social phobia often find relief from their symptoms when treated with cognitive - behavioral therapy, or medications, or a combination of the two. | agoraphobia | | what is agoraphobia? | agoraphobia is a greek word that literally means \" fear of the marketplace", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5272897250130864, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:49.640039"} {"text": "symptoms when treated with cognitive - behavioral therapy, or medications, or a combination of the two. | agoraphobia | | what is agoraphobia? | agoraphobia is a greek word that literally means \" fear of the marketplace. \" this anxiety disorder involves the fear of experiencing a panic attack in a place or situation from which escape may be difficult or embarrassing. the anxiety associated with agoraphobia is so severe that panic attacks are not unusual, and individuals with agoraphobia typically try to avoid the location or cause of their fear. agoraphobia involves fear of situations such as, but is not limited to, the following : - being alone outside his or her home - being at home alone - being in a crowd - traveling in a vehicle - being in an elevator or on a bridge people with agoraphobia typically avoid crowded places like streets, crowded stores, churches, and theaters. what are the characteristics of agoraphobia? most people with agoraphobia develop the disorder after first suffering a series of one or more panic attacks. the attacks occur randomly and without warning, and make it impossible for a person to predict what situations will trigger the reaction. this unpredictability of the panic causes the person to anticipate future panic attacks and, eventually, fear any situation in which an attack may occur. as a result, they avoid going into any place or situation where previous panic attacks have occurred. people with the disorder often become so disabled that they literally feel they cannot leave their homes. others who have agoraphobia, do go into potentially \" phobic \" situations, but only with great distress, or when accompanied by a trusted friend or family member. persons with agoraphobia may also develop depression, fatigue, tension, alcohol or drug abuse problems, and obsessive disorders, making seeking treatment crucial. approximately 1. 8 million american adults ages 18 to 54 experience agoraphobia in a given year. click here to view the online resources of mental health disorders", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5551760434170779, "token_count": 412, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:49.640985"} {"text": "how would our lives be different if we could only buy foods native to new york state? this and similar questions are the focus of a museum - wide quest where students work in teams to gather data about the things they use each day. after collecting the data, each team creates a graphic representation of its findings and leads a discussion about interdependence around the globe. please divide your students into three different research teams and assign each team at least one chaperon or teacher. each team will be going to a separate area of the museum to gather data : the \u201c foods \u201d team will work in super kids market ; the \u201c fashions \u201d team in the museum \u2019 s collections ; and the \u201c fads \u201d team in timelab. after collecting data, each team will prepare a brief presentation to share its findings. all three groups will gather together for the presentations. lesson extensions for before or after your visit the following activities are designed for your class to enjoy before or after your museum visit. familiarizing students with the lesson concepts can enrich your museum experience. how do the choices we make reflect the concept of globalization? review maps of the united states and the world prior to your visit. here \u2019 s one way to do that : post the four cardinal directions in your room : north, south, east, and west. give each student an index card and the instruction to write the name of one of the 50 states on the card. when everyone is ready, ask students to stand where they think their state would be if the room was the u. s. allow students to make adjustments to their positions after talking with each other. provide a real map for students to use as a reference if needed. once in position, ask students to describe their thinking in deciding where to stand. do the same thing using continents, oceans, and countries with a map of the world. ask students to spend one week keeping a \u201c globalization journal. \u201d they should record each piece of evidence they see to suggest that globalization is occurring. this evidence may appear in items they have at home or have seen at stores ; things they \u2019 ve heard about in news stories ; music they listen to ; food they eat at restaurants ; holiday customs their family has adopted ; or other sources. some examples of what they might find include : - imported cheese in the grocery store - imported cds in a music store - a television program produced in another country - a television news story about international business or another topic related to globalization post a large map of the world in the classroom. invite students", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5385322975759684, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:49.643839"} {"text": "recovery is a process, beginning with diagnosis and eventually moving into successful management of your illness. successful recovery involves learning about your illness and the treatments available, empowering yourself through the support of peers and family members, and finally moving to a point where you take action to manage your own illness by helping others. untreated mental illness : a needless human tragedy severe mental illnesses are treatable disorders of the brain. left untreated, however, they are among the most disabling and destructive illnesses known to humankind. millions of americans struggling with severe mental illnesses, such as schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and major depression, know only too well the personal costs of these debilitating illnesses. stigma, shame, discrimination, unemployment, homelessness, criminalization, social isolation, poverty, and premature death mark the lives of most individuals with the most severe and persistent mental illnesses. mental illness recovery : a reality within our grasp the real tragedy of mental illness in this country is that we know how to put things right. we know how to give people back their lives, to give them back their self - respect, to help them become contributing members of our society. nami ' s in our own voice, a live presentation by consumers, offers living proof that recovery from mental illness is an ongoing reality. science has greatly expanded our understanding and treatment of severe mental illnesses. once forgotten in the back wards of mental institutions, individuals with brain disorders have a real chance at reclaiming full, productive lives, but only if they have access to the treatments, services, and programs so vital to recovery. - newer classes of medications can better treat individuals with severe mental illnesses and with far fewer side effects. eighty percent of those suffering from bipolar disorder and 65 percent of those with major depression respond quickly to treatment ; additionally, 60 percent of those with schizophrenia can be relieved of acute symptoms with proper medication. - assertive community treatment, a proven model treatment program that provides round - the - clock support to individuals with the most severe and persistent mental illnesses, significantly reduces hospitalizations, incarceration, homelessness, and increases employment, decent housing and quality of life. - the involvement of consumers and family members in all aspects of planning, organizing, financing, and implementing service - delivery systems results in more responsiveness and accountability, and far fewer grievances. resources for recovery", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5187377965993711, "token_count": 474, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:49.660810"} {"text": "joined : 16 mar 2004 | posted : tue aug 04, 2009 2 : 40 pm post subject : immune responses jolted into action by nanohorns | the immune response triggered by carbon nanotube - like structures could be harnessed to help treat infectious diseases and cancers, say researchers. the way tiny structures like nanotubes can trigger sometimes severe immune reactions has troubled researchers trying to use them as vehicles to deliver drugs inside the body in a targeted way. white blood cells can efficiently detect and capture nanostructures, so much research is focused on allowing nanotubes and similar structures to pass unmolested in the body. but a french - italian research team plans to use nanohorns, a cone - shaped variety of carbon nanotubes, to deliberately provoke the immune system. they think that the usually unwelcome immune response could kick - start the body into fighting a disease or cancer more effectively. to test their theory, alberto bianco and helene dumortier at the cnrs institute in strasbourg, france, in collaboration with maurizio prato at the university of trieste, italy, gave carbon nanohorns to mouse white blood cells in a petri dish. the macrophage cells ' job is to swallow foreign particles. after 24 hours, most of the macrophages had swallowed some nanohorns. but they had also begun to release reactive oxygen compounds and other small molecules that signal to other parts of the immune system to become more active. the researchers think they could tune that cellular distress call to a particular disease or cancer, by filling the interior of nanohorns with particular antigens, like ice cream filling a cone. \" the nanohorns would deliver the antigen to the macrophages while also triggering a cascade of pro - inflammatory effects, \" dumortier says. \" this process should initiate an antigen - specific immune response. \" \" there is still a long way to go before this interesting approach might become safe and effective, \" says ruth duncan at cardiff university, uk. \" safety would ultimately depend on proposed dose, the frequency of dose and the route of administration, \" she says. dumortier agrees more work is needed, but adds that the results so far suggest that nanohorns are less toxic to cells than normal nanotubes can be. \" no sign of cell death was visible upon three days of macrophage culture in the presence of nanohorns, \" dumortier says. recent headline - grabbing results suggest that nanotubes", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5691427421200518, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:49.667312"} {"text": "in this study, ni and cu nanowire arrays and ni / cu superlattice nanowire arrays are fabricated using standard techniques such as electrochemical deposition of metals into porous anodic alumina oxide templates having pore diameters of about 50 nm. we perform optical measurements on these nanowire array structures. optical reflectance ( or ) of the as - prepared samples is recorded using an imaging spectrometer in the wavelength range from 400 to 2, 000 nm ( i. e., from visible to near - infrared bandwidth ). the measurements are carried out at temperatures set to be 4. 2, 70, 150, and 200 k and at room temperature. we find that the intensity of the or spectrum for nanowire arrays depends strongly on the temperature. the strongest or can be observed at about t = 200 k for all samples in visible regime. the or spectra for these samples show different features in the visible and near - infrared bandwidths. we discuss the physical mechanisms responsible for these interesting experimental findings. this study is relevant to the application of metal nanowire arrays as optical and optoelectronic devices. keywords : nanowire array ; optical properties ; visible and near - infrared ; temperature dependence in recent years, quasi one - dimensional ( 1d ) nanostructured materials have received much attention attributed to their interesting physical properties in sharp contrast to the bulk ones and to the potential applications as electronic, magnetic, photonic, and optoelectronic devices [ 1 - 4 ]. from a viewpoint of physics, the basic physical properties of nanostructured materials differ significantly from those of bulk materials with the same chemical components. in particular, quantum confinement effects can be observed in the dimensionally reduced nanomaterial systems. therefore, nanowires have been a major focus of research on nanoscaled materials which can be taken as a fundamental building block of nanotechnology and practical nanodevices. it should be noticed that metal nanowires have displayed unique optical and optoelectronic properties due to surface plasmon resonance ( spr ) which is a resonant oscillation of the conducting electrons within the metallic nanostructures. the spr effect in nanowire structures can cause a tremendous enhancement of the electromagnetic near - field in the immediate vicinity of the particles and can give rise to enhanced scattering and absorption of light radiation. the spr in metal nanowires and related phenomena ( such as the surface - enhanced raman spectroscopy, nonlinear optic response, plas", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6099373861538191, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:49.711136"} {"text": "- field in the immediate vicinity of the particles and can give rise to enhanced scattering and absorption of light radiation. the spr in metal nanowires and related phenomena ( such as the surface - enhanced raman spectroscopy, nonlinear optic response, plasmonic excitation, to mention but a few ) contributes greatly to their promising applications in biosensors, optical devices, and photonic and plasmonic devices [ 5 - 8 ]. moreover, metal nanowire wave guides can excite and emit terahertz ( 1012 hz or thz ) surface plasmon polaritons, which can fill the gap of terahertz electronics and optoelectronics. on the other hand, superlattice nanowires have even richer physical properties owing to further quantum confinement of electron motion along the wire direction. they have been proposed as advanced electronic device systems to observe novel effects such as giant magnetoresistance and even high thermoelectric figure of merit [ 10, 11 ]. furthermore, with the rapid development of nanotechnology, it is now possible to fabricate nanowire arrays and superlattice nanowire arrays [ 12, 13 ]. one of the major advantages to apply nanowire arrays and superlattice nanowire arrays as optic and optoelectronic devices is that the optical response of the array structures can be tuned and modulated via varying sample parameters such as the diameter of the wire and the pattern of the array structure. due to potential applications of the nanowire arrays and superlattice nanowire arrays as optical devices, it is of importance and significance to examine their basic optical properties. in this article, we present a detailed experimental study on the optical properties of three kinds of nanowire array structures such as ni and cu nanowire arrays and ni / cu superlattice nanowire arrays. we would like to examine how these advanced nanostructured material systems can respond to light radiation, how their optical properties depend on temperature and radiation wavelength, and why the optical properties of the nanowire arrays differ from those observed in bulk materials. samples and measurements in this study, three kinds of nanowire array structures are fabricated, including ni arrays, cu arrays, and ni / cu superlattice arrays. samples are prepared by direct current electrodeposition [ 14 - 16 ] of metal into the holes of porous anodic alumina membrane ( paam ) with the pore size of about 50 nm. noteworthy is the diameter", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6050266454361306, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:49.712883"} {"text": "is used for the detection of 400 - to 800 - nm wavelength regime, and the ingaas photodetector is employed for the measurement of 1 - to 2 - \u03bcm wavelength regime. for measurements in the visible regime, the temperatures are set at 4. 2, 70, 150, and 200 k and at room temperature. the change of temperature is achieved in an oxford cooling system. the measurements in the near - infrared regime are undertaken at room temperature. results and discussion the or spectra for ni and cu nanowire arrays and ni / cu superlattice nanowire arrays are shown in figure 2 in visible bandwidth for different temperatures at 4. 2, 70, 150, 200, and 297 k, respectively. as can be seen, the intensity of or in nanowire array structures depends strongly on temperature. when temperature ( t ) < 200 k, the intensity of or for a ni nanowire array sample increases with temperature. when t > 200 k, the or intensity decreases with increasing temperature. the strongest or can be observed at about 200 k. a similar phenomenon can be found for a ni / cu superlattice nanowire array sample. in contrast, the or spectra for cu nanowire arrays ( see figure 2c ) show different temperature dependence. with increasing temperature, the intensity of or for a cu nanowire array first decreases in the 4. 2 - to 70 - k regime, then increases in the 70 - to 200 - k regime, and decreases again when t > 200 k. again, the strongest or for cu nanowire arrays can be observed at about t = 200 k. these experimental findings suggest that 200 k is an appropriate temperature for the enhancement of optical reflection from cu, ni, and ni / cu superlattice nanowire array structures. this can provide a basis for further investigation into other optical properties such as optical absorption and emission from metal nanowire arrays in visible regime. we find that when t > 200 k, the or spectrum for ni / cu superlattice nanowire array lies between those for cu and ni nanowire arrays. however, at lower temperatures ( e. g., at 150 k ), the intensity of the or spectrum for ni / cu superlattice nanowire array is lower than those for cu and ni nanowire arrays. figure 2. the spectra of optical reflection for nanowire arrays measured at different temperatures of 4. 2, 70, 150, 200, and 297 k as indicated. the results for a ni nanowire array ( a ), a", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6165711362439397, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:49.792247"} {"text": "nanowire arrays. figure 2. the spectra of optical reflection for nanowire arrays measured at different temperatures of 4. 2, 70, 150, 200, and 297 k as indicated. the results for a ni nanowire array ( a ), a ni / cu superlattice nanowire array ( b ), and a cu nanowire array ( c ) are shown. in figure 3, the or spectra are shown at room temperature for three metal nanowire array samples in visible and near - infrared bandwidths. in the visible regime ( see figure 3a ), two relatively wide reflection peaks can be observed for all samples at about 500 to 650 nm and 650 to 700 nm, respectively. the 650 - to 700 - nm peaks for the three samples appear at almost the same position ( at about 667 nm ), while the 500 - to 650 - nm ones redshift slightly with respect to that of the incident light source. the peak position of the light source is at about 554 nm, whereas the peaks for cu and ni / cu superlattice nanowire arrays are at about 585 nm and that for ni nanowire arrays is at about 600 nm. it should be noted that the visible light source provided by the tungsten halogen lamp has two main peaks in the 400 - to 800 - nm wavelength regime. the intensity of infrared light source given by the si carbide rod decreases when the radiation wavelength approaches 2 \u03bcm. the variation of the intensity of the light sources is enhanced via measurement systems. we notice that ni nanowire arrays reflect more strongly the visible light ; cu nanowire arrays reflect relatively weakly, and the or spectrum for ni / cu superlattice nanowire arrays is just in between them. in the near - infrared range of 1, 000 to 2, 000 nm ( see figure 3b ), the peaks of or spectra for cu nanowire arrays and ni / cu superlattice nanowire arrays are at about 1, 808 nm, and ni nanowire arrays and light source are at about 1, 727 nm. the or spectra for nanowire arrays redshift slightly with respect to the spectrum of the light source. in contrast to the visible regime, the cu nanowire array reflects more strongly the infrared radiation than ni nanowire array. interestingly, the or spectrum for ni / cu superlattice nanowire array is below that for ni nanowire array when radiation wavelength is less than 1, 730 nm, and it is located in between the or spectra for ni", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6161640395168817, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:49.800292"} {"text": "arrays do. because the quantum confinement effect affects mainly the electronic states in different bands in the array structure, the main features of or due to interband electronic transition does not change very significantly. this is why ni nanowire arrays can reflect more strongly the visible radiation than cu arrays can, as shown in figure 3a and similar to the case for bulk materials. moreover, our results show that in the visible regime and when t > 200 k, the or spectrum for ni / cu superlattice nanowire arrays lies between those for cu and ni nanowire arrays. however, at relatively lower temperatures ( e. g., at 150 k ), the intensity of the or spectrum for ni / cu superlattice nanowire array is lower than those for cu and ni nanowire arrays. we believe that this may have resulted from different features of the phonon modes and electron - phonon scattering in nanowire and superlattice nanowire structures. in superlattice nanowire systems formed by different host materials, the phonon modes can be quantized and the conducting electrons are confined along the wire direction. the quantized phonon modes can weaken the electron - phonon scattering because a scattering event requires momentum and energy conservation. on the other hand, the localized electrons can interact more strongly with phonons. our results suggest that when t > 200 k, the former case is dominant, and when t 150 k, the latter effect is stronger. in this study, cu, ni, and ni / cu nanowire arrays have been fabricated using state - of - the - art nanotechnology. the optical measurements on these nanowire arrays have been carried out in visible and near - infrared bandwidths for different temperatures. we have found that the optical reflection spectra of these samples depend strongly on temperature and on radiation wavelength. in particular, ( 1 ) the strongest or in the visible regime can be observed at about 200 k for all samples, and ( 2 ) the or for cu nanowire arrays show a different dependence on temperature and radiation wavelength from that for ni nanowire arrays. these results indicate that the surface plasmon resonances induced by inter - and intraband electronic transitions, the electron - phonon interaction, and the quantum confinement effect can play important roles in affecting optical properties of the metal nanowire array structure. we hope that the interesting experimental findings from this study can provide an in - depth understanding of optical properties of cu and ni nanowire arrays and cu / ni superlattice nano", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6302140106913676, "token_count": 511, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 7, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:49.814062"} {"text": "important roles in affecting optical properties of the metal nanowire array structure. we hope that the interesting experimental findings from this study can provide an in - depth understanding of optical properties of cu and ni nanowire arrays and cu / ni superlattice nanowire arrays and can provide a physical base for the application of metal nanowire arrays as advanced optical and optoelectronic devices. the authors declare that they have no competing interests. wx proposed the research work, coordinated the collaboration, and carried out the analyses of experimental results. yyz designed the experiment and experimental setup, carried out the measurements, and drafted the manuscript. shx and gtf fabricated the nanowire and superlattice nanowire array samples. ymx and jgh participated in experimental measurements, results and discussion, and analyses. all authors read and approved the final manuscript. this work was supported by the national natural science foundation of china ( grant no. 10974206 ), department of science and technology of yunnan province, and by the chinese academy of sciences. j crystal growth 2003, 254 : 14. publisher full text j appl phys 2002, 91 : 4590 - 4594. publisher full text appl surf sci 2008, 255 : 1901. publisher full text surf coat technol 2010, 205 : 2432 - 2437. publisher full text c r physique 2008, 9 : 215 - 231. publisher full text appl phys lett 1994, 65 : 2484. publisher full text appl phys lett 1994, 65 : 3019. publisher full text nano lett 2002, 2 : 83. publisher full text", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5951130389304189, "token_count": 334, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 8, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:49.815913"} {"text": "assists the reader to follow the line of argument | | the production of grammatically correct, structurally sound and meaningful sentences | | the use of correct and appropriate punctuation to aid the reading of the text | | the accuracy of spelling and the difficulty of the words used the narrative writing marking guide ( used in 2008 - 2010 ) is also available. use of formulaic structures beginning writers can benefit from being taught how to use structured scaffolds. one such scaffold that is commonly used is the five paragraph argument essay. however, when students becomes more competent, the use of this structure can be limiting. as writers develop their capabilities they should be encouraged to move away from formulaic structures and to use a variety of different persuasive text types, styles and language features, as appropriate to different topics. students are required to write their opinion and to draw on personal knowledge and experience when responding to test topics. students are not expected to have detailed knowledge about the topic. students should feel free to use any knowledge that they have on the topic, but should not feel the need to manufacture evidence to support their argument. in fact, students who do so may undermine the credibility of their argument by making statements that are implausible. example topics and different styles : city or country ( see example prompt ) a beginning writer could write their opinion about living in either the city or country and give reasons for it. a more capable writer might also choose to take one side and argue for it. however, this topic also lends itself to a comparative style response from a more capable writer. it can be argued there are benefits and limitations to living in the city and living in the country. a writer could also choose to introduce other options, for example living in a large country town that might have the benefits of city and rural life. positions taken on this topic are likely to elicit logical, practical reasons and anecdotes based on writers \u2019 experiences. books or tv ( see example prompt ) a beginning writer could write about their opinion of one aspect and give reasons for it. however, this topic lends itself to a comparative style response from a more capable writer. it can be argued there are benefits and limitations to both books and tv. the reasons for either side of the topic are likely to elicit logical, practical reasons and personal anecdotes based on the writer ' s experiences of both books and tv. it is cruel to keep animals in cages and zoos ( see example prompt ) a beginning writer could take on one side", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5033021613247457, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:49.830281"} {"text": "atomic oxygen, a corrosive space gas, finds many applications on earth. an atomic innovation for artwork oxygen may be one of the most common substances on the planet, but recent space research has unveiled a surprising number of new applications for the gas, including restoring damaged artwork. it all started with a critical problem facing would - be spacecraft : the gasses just outside the earth \u2019 s atmosphere are highly corrosive. while most oxygen atoms on earth \u2019 s surface occur in pairs, in space the pair is often split apart by short - wave solar radiation, producing singular atoms. because oxygen so easily bonds with other substances, it is highly corrosive in atomic form, and it gradually wears away the protective layering on orbiting objects such as satellites and the international space station ( iss ). to combat this destructive gas, nasa recreated it on earth and applied it to different materials to see what would prove most resistant. the coatings developed through these experiments are currently used on the iss. during the tests, however, scientists also discovered applications for atomic oxygen that have since proved a success in the private sector. breathing new life into damaged art in their experiments, nasa researchers quickly realized that atomic oxygen interacted primarily with organic materials. soon after, they partnered with churches and museums to test the gas \u2019 s ability to restore fire - damaged or vandalized art. atomic oxygen was able to remove soot from fire - damaged artworks without altering the paint. it was first tested on oil paintings : in 1989, an arson fire at st. alban \u2019 s episcopal church in cleveland nearly destroyed a painting of mary magdalene. although the paint was blistered and charred, atomic oxygen treatment plus a reapplication of varnish revitalized it. and in 2002, a fire at st. stanislaus church ( also in cleveland ) left two paintings with soot damage, but atomic oxygen removed it. buoyed by the successes with oil paints, the engineers also applied the restoration technique to acrylics, watercolors, and ink. at pittsburgh \u2019 s carnegie museum of art, where an andy warhol painting, bathtub, has been kissed by a lipstick - wearing vandal, a technician successfully removed the offending pink mark with a portable atomic oxygen gun. the only evidence that the painting had been treated \u2014 a lightened spot of paint \u2014 was easily restored by a conservator. a genuine difference - maker when the successes in art restoration were publicized, forensic analysts who study documents became curious about using atomic oxygen to detect forge", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.537077026801291, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:49.836331"} {"text": "is light made of waves, or particles? this fundamental question has dogged scientists for decades, because light seems to be both. however, until now, experiments have revealed light to act either like a particle, or a wave, but never the two at once. now, for the first time, a new type of experiment has shown light behaving like both a particle and a wave simultaneously, providing a new dimension to the quandary that could help reveal the true nature of light, and of the whole quantum world. the debate goes back at least as far as isaac newton, who advocated that light was made of particles, and james clerk maxwell, whose successful theory of electromagnetism, unifying the forces of electricity and magnetism into one, relied on a model of light as a wave. then in 1905, albert einstein explained a phenomenon called the photoelectric effect using the idea that light was made of particles called photons ( this discovery won him the nobel prize in physics ). [ what ' s that? your physics questions answered ] ultimately, there ' s good reason to think that light is both a particle and a wave. in fact, the same seems to be true of all subatomic particles, including electrons and quarks and even the recently discovered higgs boson - like particle. the idea is called wave - particle duality, and is a fundamental tenet of the theory of quantum mechanics. depending on which type of experiment is used, light, or any other type of particle, will behave like a particle or like a wave. so far, both aspects of light ' s nature haven ' t been observed at the same time. but still, scientists have wondered, does light switch from being a particle to being a wave depending on the circumstance? or is light always both a particle and a wave simultaneously? now, for the first time, researchers have devised a new type of measurement apparatus that can detect both particle and wave - like behavior at the same time. the device relies on a strange quantum effect called quantum nonlocality, a counter - intuitive notion that boils down to the idea that the same particle can exist in two locations at once. \" the measurement apparatus detected strong nonlocality, which certified that the photon behaved simultaneously as a wave and a particle in our experiment, \" physicist alberto peruzzo of england ' s university of bristol said in a statement. \" this represents a strong refutation of models in which the photon is either a wave or a particle. \" peruzzo", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6754210650255893, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:49.928724"} {"text": "a wave and a particle in our experiment, \" physicist alberto peruzzo of england ' s university of bristol said in a statement. \" this represents a strong refutation of models in which the photon is either a wave or a particle. \" peruzzo is lead author of a paper describing the experiment published in the nov. 2 issue of the journal science. the experiment further relies on another weird aspect of quantum mechanics \u2014 the idea of quantum entanglement. two particles can become entangled so that actions performed on one particle affect the other. in this way, the researchers were able to allow the photons in the experiment to delay the choice of whether to be particles or waves. mit physicist seth lloyd, who was not involved in the project, called the experiment \" audacious \" in a related essay in science, and said that while it allowed the photons to delay the choice of being particles or waves for only a few nanoseconds, \" if one has access to quantum memory in which to store the entanglement, the decision could be put off until tomorrow ( or for as long as the memory works reliably ). so why decide now? just let those quanta slide! \" - twisted physics : 7 mind - blowing findings - quantum weirdness goes big \u2013 molecules act like waves | video - wacky physics : the coolest little particles in nature \u00a9 2012 livescience. com. all rights reserved.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_entanglement", "similarity_score": 0.6805393647765329, "token_count": 289, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:49.931606"} {"text": "dementia and the sniff magnitude test sniff test may signal disorders \u2019 early stages by elizabeth svoboda published : august 14, 2007 the sniff magnitude test, developed with the aid of a $ 1. 3 million grant from the national institutes of health, consists of a nasal tube called a cannula attached to a plastic container about the size and shape of a coffee thermos. chemical vapors inside the canister are released through the tube, exposing subjects to a series of smells, some more objectionable than others. \u201c people describe some of the smells as skunky or sewerlike, \u201d said jason bailie, a university of cincinnati graduate student working on the test. \u201c there \u2019 s also one that smells like banana. \u201d as patients take whiffs of each new fragrance, sensors in the thermos unit measure the negative pressure the inhalations produce. the size and intensity of these sniffs turn out to be important gauges of olfactory ability. after detecting a strong or disagreeable odor, people with a normal sense of smell take very small sniffs to avoid smelling it. subjects with an impaired sense of smell, on the other hand, continue taking deep whiffs, because the scent does not register in their brains. the cincinnati team \u2019 s efforts have piqued the interest of other researchers, including dr. doty and alan hirsch of the smell and taste research and treatment foundation, who is using the sniff test in his clinical practice. \u201c they \u2019 ve chosen some very good odors that stimulate the olfactory system effectively, \u201d dr. doty said. \u201c this is a very novel approach \u2014 it just needs to be tested more broadly. \u201d still, dr. doty added, the sniff magnitude test may not be the ideal way to assess every patient with cognitive deficits. \u201c very early in life, we make a connection between an odor and its source, \u201d he said. \u201c we give it a name. if the connection between the name of an odor and the odor itself is what \u2019 s breaking down in an alzheimer \u2019 s patient, this test might not be as helpful, \u201d because it does not tell evaluators how a patient identifies and categorizes smells. the sniff magnitude test is likely to raise red flags only if an impending cognitive disorder directly affects a patient \u2019 s olfactory abilities. [... read the full article... ]", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5049094029712734, "token_count": 487, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:49.952808"} {"text": "suddenly on march 24, 1877 in his home in langport, somerset, england, at the age of 51. bagehot was a person with a whole variety of interests. he wrote on the topics of economics, politics, law, literature, and so forth. he remains most famous however for his three books : the english constitution ( 1867 ), physics and politics ( 1872 ), and lombard street ( 1873 ). in addition to these volumes, he commanded substantial influence through his editorship of the economist. the english constitution in 1867, bagehot wrote the english constitution which explored the constitution of the united kingdom, specifically the functioning of the british parliament and the british monarchy, and the contrasts between british and american government. bagehot revealed how the parliament operated as it were \" behind a curtain, \" hidden from public knowledge. he divided the constitution into two components : - the dignified \u2013 symbolic side of the constitution, and - the efficient - the real face of the constitution, the way things actually work and get done. instead of describing the constitution from the point of the law, as a lawyer would, bagehot focused on the practical implications of the constitution, as experienced by the common man. the book soon became widely popular, ensuring bagehot worldwide fame. he criticized american presidential system, claiming that it lacked flexibility and accountability. while in the english parliament real debates took place, after which changes could take place, in the american congress debates had no power, since the president made the final decision. in bagehot ' s view : a parliamentary system educates the public, while a presidential system corrupts it. ( the english constitution 1867 ) he also criticized the way american presidents are chosen, saying : under a presidential constitution the preliminary caucuses that choose the president need not care as to the ultimate fitness of the man they choose. they are solely concerned with his attractiveness as a candidate. ( the english constitution, 1867 ) physics and politics bagehot wrote physics and politics in 1872, in which he tried to apply the principles of evolution to human societies. the subtitle of the book reads : thoughts on the application of the principles of \" natural selection \" and \" inheritance \" to political society. the book represented a pioneering effort to make a relationship between the natural and the social sciences. bagehot explained the functioning of the market, and how it affects the behavior of the people. for example, he believed that people tend to invest money when the mood of the market is positive, and restrain from it when", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5289882362939665, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:49.989831"} {"text": "and the social sciences. bagehot explained the functioning of the market, and how it affects the behavior of the people. for example, he believed that people tend to invest money when the mood of the market is positive, and restrain from it when it comes to a negative phase. in this book bagehot also reflected on the psychology of politics, especially on the personality of a leader. he stressed two things as essential for leadership : the personality of a leader and his motivation. bagehot believed that motivation played one of the key roles in good leadership, and that the personality of a leader often counted more than the policy he endorsed : it is the life of teachers which is catching, not their tenets. \u201d ( physics and politics 1872 ) bagehot claimed that the personal example of the leader sets the tone for the whole governance. that is why \u201c character issues \u201d are so important for any government. character \" issues \" still play an important role in deciding the potential candidate for any leadership position in today \u2019 s modern world. bagehot coined the expression \" the cake of custom, \" denoting the sets of customs that any society is rooted in. bagehot believed that customs develop and evolve throughout human history, with the best organized groups overthrowing the poorly organized groups. in this sense bagehot \u2019 s views are a clear example of cultural selection, closer to lamarckian than darwinian evolution. the central problem in his book was to understand why europeans could break away from tradition and \u201c the cake of custom \u201d and instead focus on progress and novelty. he saw tradition as important in keeping societies cohesive, but also believed that diversity was essential for progress : the great difficulty which history records is not that of the first step, but that of the second step. what is most evident is not the difficulty of getting a fixed law, but getting out of a fixed law ; not of cementing ( as upon a former occasion i phrased it ) a cake of custom, but of breaking the cake of custom ; not of making the first preservative habit, but of breaking through it, and reaching something better. ( physics and politics 1872 ) in his famous lombard street ( 1873 ), bagehot explained the theory behind the banking system, using insights from the english money market. as with his analysis of the english constitution six years earlier, bagehot described the english banking system through the eyes of a simple person, as experienced in everyday life. bagehot showed that the english money system was solely relying", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5665836464097118, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:49.990973"} {"text": "english money market. as with his analysis of the english constitution six years earlier, bagehot described the english banking system through the eyes of a simple person, as experienced in everyday life. bagehot showed that the english money system was solely relying on the central bank, the bank of england. bagehot had warned that the whole reserve was in the central bank, under no effectual penalty of failure. he proposed several ideas how to improve that system. bagehot \u2019 s work can be closely associated with the english historicist tradition. he did not directly oppose classical economics, but advocated for its reorganization. he claimed that economics needed to incorporate more factors in its theory, such as cultural and social factors, in order to be more accurate in theorizing about economic processes. bagehot was one of the first to study the relationship between physical and social sciences from a sociological perspective. in his contributions to sociological theory through historical studies, bagehot may be compared to his contemporary henry maine. he also developed a distinct theory of central banking, many points of which continue to be valued. with his analysis of english and united states political systems in the english constitution, bagehot influenced woodrow wilson to write his congressional government. in honor of his achievements and his work as its editor, the economist named its weekly column on british politics after him. every year the british political studies association awards the walter bagehot prize for the best dissertation in the field of government and public administration. - bagehot, walter. 1848. review of mill ' s principles of political economy. prospective review, 4 ( 16 ), 460 - 502. - bagehot, walter. 1858. estimates of some englishmen and scotchmen. london : chapman and hall. - bagehot, walter. 1875. a new standard of value. the economist, november 20. - bagehot, walter. 1879. literary studies. london : longmans, green and co. - bagehot, walter. 1998. ( original 1880 ). economic studies. augustus m kelley pubs. isbn 0678008523 - bagehot, walter. 2001. ( original 1867 ). the english constitution. oxford university press. isbn 0192839756 - bagehot, walter. 2001. ( original 1873 ). lombard street : a description of the money market. adamant media corporation. isbn 140210006x - bagehot, walter. 2001. ( original 1877 ). some articles on the depreciation of", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5244137318124465, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:49.991995"} {"text": "coastal clash : defining public property and the history of the public trust doctrine \" coastal clash \" is a one - hour documentary focusing on the urbanization of california ' s coastline. the activities and lesson plans for the film \" coastal clash \" target students at the high school level and align with the california state standards for government. in this lesson plan, students will do research and group work related to the concept of the public trust doctrine. enhancing modern languages teaching : student participation and motivation enhancing modern languages teaching : student participation and motivation the icarus syndrome : a history of american hubris the icarus syndrome tells a tale as old as the greek \u2013 a story about the seductions of success. in conversation with associate professor brendan o ' connor from the us studies centre, peter beinart portrays three extraordinary generations : the progressives... ( running time 60 : 06 ) oberlin history as american history this site offers exhibits that tell about the lives and histories of the people of oberlin, ohio. the website features the story of an amistad captive, oberlin women and the struggle for equality, and the city ' s cooperative tradition. it also includes city maps and pictures, letters and essays related to the city ' s founding and development, newspaper articles regarding the niagara movement, and census data. ancient and medieval philosophy, fall 2006 this course will concentrate on major figures and persistent themes in ancient and medieval philosophy. a balance will be sought between scope and depth, the latter ensured by a close reading of selected texts. ancient wisdom and modern love, spring 2007 built around plato ' s symposium, shakespeare ( including a midsummer night ' s dream ), catholic writings ( including humanae vitae ), and several movies, this course explores the nature of romance and erotic love. we will examine such topics as sexuality, marriage, and procreation with an eye towards how we can be better at being in love. the course generally tries to integrate the analytic approach of philosophy with the imaginative approach of literature. medicine and public health in american history, fall 2007 this course offers an introduction to differing conceptions of disease, health, and healing throughout american history, the changing role and image of medicine and medical professionals in american life, and the changing social and cultural meanings and entanglements of medical science and practice throughout american history. creating people centred schools : section two, school organization : a brief history this provides an overview of organizational styles and the importance of cultures as well as structures in organizational models and change. welsh history and its sources this unit is a teaching and", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5156613398494632, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.019180"} {"text": "the caribbean. the site, launched in january 2010, provides a virtual archive of over 200 primary sources along with introductions based on the latest scholarly findings. \" according to the site, it \" is organized into topics that are organized approximately chronologically, but each one stands alone. the archive, or database of primary sources, is designed in a modular fashion, so viewers from east asia in world history this site is designed as a resource site for teachers of world history, world geography, and world cultures. it provides background information and curriculum materials, including primary source documents for students. the material is arranged in 14 topic sections. the topics and the historical periods into which they are divided follow the national standards in world history and the content outline for the advanced placement course in world history. seventeen moments in soviet history begins with the bolshevik seizure of power in 1917 & ends with the dissolution of the soviet union in 1991. it includes the kronstadt uprising ( 1921 ), the death of lenin ( 1924 ), the liquidation of the kulaks as a class ( 1929 ), the year of the stakhanovite ( 1936 ), the end of rationing ( 1947 ), the virgin lands campaign ( 1954 ), khrushchev ' s secret speech ( 1956 ), the first cosmonaut ( 1961 ), the intervention in czechoslovakia ( 1968 ), & chernobyl ( 1986 ). ( neh ) the mongols in world history a sophisticated web site on the history and impact of the mongols. separate pages deal with such topics as the nature of nomadic life, key figures, the mongol conquests, and the impact of the mongols on china and the world. an image gallery and set of historical maps as well as other class materials and readings add to the value of the site. that one of the leading experts on the mongols, morris rosabe, was a consultant gives the site much creditability. a radically modern approach to introductory physics volume 2 this is the second part ( chapters 13 - 24 ) of a pdf textbook for a one - year introductory physics course. the text was developed out of an alternate beginning physics course at new mexico tech designed for students with a strong interest in physics. a broad outline of the text is as follows : newton ' s law of gravitation ; forces in relativity ; electromagnetic forces ; generation of electromagnetic fields ; capacitors, inductors, and resistors ; measuring the very small ; atoms ; the standard mode ; atomic mactutor history of mathematics archive an award - winning site concerning the history of", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5394479201970616, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.021400"} {"text": "ice core gateway : vostok ice core co2 data the vostok ice core has a long record of global carbon dioxide concentrations, with variations caused by factors other than photosynthesis and human activity. ice core data sets from three different authors are available for download. users can also link to other noaa paleoclimate projects and information. phases of the moon this site contains a series of visualizations of the sun, moon and earth system and how they relate to the changing face of the moon. animations are in the form of java applets, forms for field observation of the moon, and a collection of exercises and pdf versions of background material. there are practice questions and quizzes that discuss the animations. planetary climate exercise this ms word document explains roles for a planetary climate role - playing exercise dealing with the atmospheres of venus and the earth. roles include experts on coal, carbon dioxide, heat balance, spectroscopy, atmospheric transmission and the water cycle. starting out with earth history this activity asks students to place 6 - 10 events in earth history on a timeline, first working in small groups and then as a class. then, through questions, important points such as how certain events are dated, where humanity fits in, and so forth, can be brought up. the starting point website builds a context for the exercise by detailing the learning goals, teaching notes and materials ( downloadable ), and additional resources. japan ' s nuclear policy ambassador ryukichi imai - journalist, nuclear engineer, and general manager at japan atomic power company - was japanese ambassador to the united nations disarmament conference from 1982 to 1987. in this video segment, imai explains why he believes that japan will never embark on a nuclear - weapons program. he also predicts that, while japan stands alone in its reliance on nuclear energy, rising energy prices - even post - chernobyl - will revive worldwide interest in nuclear power. in the interview he co from mutual assured destruction to star wars caspar weinberger served as u. s. president ronald reagan ' s secretary of defense from 1981 to 1987. in this video segment, weinberger explains how deployment of the mx missile stopped the soviet union from believing it could successfully launch a first strike, which he feels is ' the essence of deterrence. ' a better alternative to ' mutual assured destruction, ' he argues, is the strategic defense initiative, the reagan administration ' s hotly contested proposal to design space - based weapons that cou bruce kent, ordained a catholic minister in 1958, became general secretary", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5259471012176111, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.029342"} {"text": "la ltima investigacin de nasa con la instruccin. pasados asuntos incluyen buck rogers, cuidado!, adis a la mir, despus de tres intentos, se retira la nia?, y ms. robotics with the xbc controller this course offers a brief history of robotics, and a definition of robot and robotics. the course includes an introduction to ic and the xbc, downloading firmware, updating the bitstream, and ic environment and simulator. it concludes with an activity building a demo - bot. earth ' s magnetic field the poetry website explores solar storms and how they affect us, space weather, and the northern lights. a 64 - page workbook of hands - on activities examines earth ' s magnetosphere. create a classroom magnetometer. solve the space science problem of the week. foilsim : basic aerodynamics software this is an interactive simulation software that determines the airflow around various shapes of airfoils. this is is a primer on scientific efforts to understand the origin, evolution, and fate of the universe. among the questions it explores : what types of matter and energy fill the universe? what is the age and shape of the universe? how rapidly is it expanding? the website examines the big bang theory, as well as tests and limitations of the theory. center for educational resources ( ceres ) project this is an extensive library of on - line and interactive k - 12 science education materials for teaching astronomy. the site contains both classroom science projects and reference materials.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5798674532727641, "token_count": 317, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.034850"} {"text": "biomass technology analysis conducting full life - cycle assessments for biomass products, including electricity, biodiesel, and ethanol, is important for determining environmental benefits. nrel analysts use a life - cycle inventory modeling package and supporting databases to conduct life - cycle assessments. these tools can be applied on a global, regional, local, or project basis. integrated system analyses, technoeconomic analyses, life - cycle assessments ( lcas ), and other analysis tools are essential to our research and development efforts. they provide an understanding of the economic, technical, and even global impacts of renewable technologies. these analyses also provide direction, focus, and support to the development and commercialization of various biomass conversion technologies. the economic feasibility and environmental benefits of biomass technologies revealed by these analyses are useful for the government, regulators, and the private sector. technoeconomic analyses ( teas ) are performed to determine the potential economic viability of a research process. evaluating the costs of a given process compared to the current technology can assess the economic feasibility of a project. these analyses can be useful in determining which emerging technologies have the highest potential for near -, mid -, and long - term success. the results of a tea are also useful in directing research toward areas in which improvements will result in the greatest cost reductions. as the economics of a process are evaluated throughout the life of the project, advancement toward the final goal of commercialization can be measured. teas performed in previous years have determined the technical and economic feasibility of various biomass - based systems, including : - direct combustion - gasification combined cycle power systems nrel ' s analysis capabilities include proficiency with the following software packages : | aspen plus\u00a9 | | models continuous processes to obtain material and energy balances | | gatecycle\u2122 | | performs detailed steady - state and off - design analyses of thermal power systems | | questimate\u00a9 | | performs detailed process plant cost estimates | | matlab\u00ae and mathcad\u00ae | | perform numeric calculations and mathematical solutions | | crystal ball\u00ae | | operates within microsoft excel\u00ae and incorporates uncertainties in forecasting analysis results | life - cycle assessment ( lca ) is an analytic method for identifying, evaluating, and minimizing the environmental impacts of emissions and resource depletion associated with a specific process. when such an assessment is performed in conjunction with a technoeconomic feasibility study, the total economic and environmental benefits and drawbacks of a process can be quantified. material and energy balances are used to quantify the emissions, resource depletion, and energy consumption", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5168112457497672, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.051559"} {"text": "is performed in conjunction with a technoeconomic feasibility study, the total economic and environmental benefits and drawbacks of a process can be quantified. material and energy balances are used to quantify the emissions, resource depletion, and energy consumption of all processes, including raw material extraction, processing, and final disposal of products and by - products, required to make the process of interest operate. the results of this inventory are then used to evaluate the environmental impacts of the process so efforts can focus on mitigation. lca studies have been conducted on the following systems : - biomass - fired integrated gasification combined - cycle system using a biomass energy crop - pulverized coal boiler representing an average u. s. coal - fired power plant - cofiring biomass residue with coal - natural gas combined - cycle power plant - direct - fired biomass power plant using biomass residue - anaerobic digestion of animal waste biofuels production technologies : - ethanol from corn stover - comparison of biodiesel and petroleum diesel used in an urban bus hydrogen production technologies : - natural gas - hydrogen production for these analyses, the software package used to track the material and energy flows between the process blocks in each system was tools for environmental analysis and management ( team\u00ae ). learn more about our biomass capabilities and current projects in this area. access more information on all of our staff analysts", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5187985853057651, "token_count": 277, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.052265"} {"text": "algorithm positions solar trackers, movie stars march 30, 2011 math and programming experts at a federal laboratory took an algorithm used to track the stars and rewrote its code to precisely follow the sun, even taking into consideration the vagaries of the occasional leap second. now, the algorithm and its software are helping solar power manufacturers build more precise trackers, orchards to keep their apples spotless and movie makers to keep the shadows off movie stars. the solar position algorithm ( spa ) was developed at the u. s. department of energy ' s national renewable energy laboratory to calculate the sun ' s position with unmatched low uncertainty of + / - 0. 0003 degrees at vertex, in the period of years from - 2000 to 6000 ( or 2001 b. c. until just short of 4, 000 years from now ). that ' s more than 30 times more precise than the uncertainty levels for all other algorithms used in solar energy applications, which claim no better than + / - 0. 01 degrees, and are only valid for a maximum of 50 years. and those uncertainty claims cannot be validated because of the need to add an occasional leap second because of the randomly increasing length of the mean solar day. the spa does account for the leap second. that difference in uncertainty levels is no small change, because an error of. 01 degrees at noon can throw calculations off by 2 or 3 percent at sunrise or sunset, said nrel senior scientist ibrahim reda, the leader on the project. \" every uncertainty of 1 percent in the energy budget is millions of dollars uncertainty for utility companies and bankers, \" reda said. \" accuracy is translated into dollars. when you can be more accurate, you save a lot of money. \" \" siemens industry inc. uses nrel ' s spa in its newest and smallest s7 - 1200 compact controller, \" says paul ruland of siemens industry, inc. \" siemens took that very complex calculation, systemized it into our code and made a usable function block that its customers can use with their particular technologies to track the sun in the most efficient way. the end result is a 30 percent increase in accuracy compared to other technologies. \" science, engineering and math all add to breakthroughs an algorithm is a set of rules for solving a mathematical problem in a finite number of steps, even though those steps can number in the hundreds or thousands. nrel is known more for its solar, wind, and biofuel researchers than for its work in advanced math. but algorithms are key to so many scientific", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.517190089803523, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.060135"} {"text": "a finite number of steps, even though those steps can number in the hundreds or thousands. nrel is known more for its solar, wind, and biofuel researchers than for its work in advanced math. but algorithms are key to so many scientific and technological breakthroughs today that a scientist well - versed in the math of algorithms is behind many of nrel ' s big innovations. since spa was published on nrel ' s website, more than 4, 000 users from around the world have downloaded it. in the european union, for the past three years, it has been the reference algorithm to calculate the sun ' s position both for solar energy and atmospheric science applications. it has been licensed to, and downloaded by, major u. s. manufacturers of sun trackers, military equipment and cell phones. it has been used to boost agriculture and to help forecast the weather. archaeologists, universities and religious organizations have employed spa, as have other national laboratories. fewer dropped cell - phone calls billions of cell - phone calls are made each day, and they stay connected only because algorithms help determine exactly when to switch signals from one satellite to another. cell - phone companies can use the spa to know exactly the moments when the phone, satellite, and the bothersome sun are in the same alignment, vulnerable to disconnections or lost calls. \" the cell phone guys use spa to know the specific moment to switch to another satellite so you ' re not disconnected, \" said reda, who has a master ' s degree in electrical engineering / measurement from the university of colorado. \" think of how many millions of people would be disconnected if there ' s too much uncertainty about the sun ' s position. \" from a tool for solar scientists to widespread uses spa sprang from nrel ' s need to calibrate solar measuring instruments at its solar radiation research laboratory. \" we characterize the instruments based on the solar angle, \" reda said. \" it ' s vital that instruments get a precise read on the amount of energy they are getting from the sun at precise solar angle. \" that will become even more critical in the future when utilities add more energy garnered from the sun to the smart grid. \" the smart grid has to know precisely what your budget is for each resource you are using \u2014 oil, coal, solar, wind, \" reda said. making an astronomy algorithm one for the sun reda borrowed from the \" astronomical algorithms, \" which is based on the variations seculaires des orbites planetaires theory ( vsop8", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5582260861321857, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.061204"} {"text": "slowing down, meaning the solar day is getting just a tiny bit longer. but it ' s not doing so at a constant rate. \" it happens in unpredictable ways, \" reda said. sometimes a leap second is added every year ; sometimes there isn ' t a need for another leap second for three or four years. for example, the international earth rotation and reference systems service ( iers ) added six leap seconds over the course of seven years between 1992 and 1998, but has added just one extra second since 2006. the algorithm calculates exactly when to add a leap second because included in its equations are rapid, monthly, and long - term data on the solar day provided by iers, reda and andreas said. \" iers receives the data from many observatories around the world, \" reda added. \" each observatory has its own measuring instruments to measure the earth ' s rotation. a consensus correction is then calculated for the fraction of second. as long as we know the time, and how much the earth ' s rotation has slowed, we know the sun ' s position precisely. \" that precision has proved useful in unexpected fields. practical uses in agriculture, movie making one person who bought a license for the spa software has an apple orchard, and wanted to keep the black spots off the apples that turn off finicky consumers, thus making wholesale buyers hesitate, reda said. the black spots appear when too much sun hits a particular apple, a particular tree or a particular row of trees in an orchard. the spots can be prevented by showering the apples with water, but growers don ' t want to use more water than necessary. spa ' s precise tracking of the sun tells the grower exactly when the automatic sprinkler should spray for a few moments on a particular set of trees, and when it ' s ok to shut off that sprayer and turn on the next one. spa communicates with the sprinkler system so, \" instead of spraying the whole orchard, the spray moves minute by minute, \" reda said. \" he takes our tool and plugs it into the software that controls the sprinkler system. and he saves a lot of water. \" religious groups with traditions of praying at a particular time of day even have turned to spa to help with precision. a movie - camera manufacturer has purchased the spa software to help cinematographers combat the precious waste of money when shadows disrupt outdoor shooting. \" they have cameras on those big cranes and booms, and typically", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5479061739143711, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.063682"} {"text": "tuberculosis ( tb ) is a chronic bacterial infection that usually infects the lungs, although other organs such as the kidneys, spine, or brain are sometimes involved. tb is primarily an airborne disease. there is a difference between being infected with the tb bacterium and having active tuberculosis disease. there are three important ways to describe the stages of tb. they are as follows : - exposure. this occurs when a person has been in contact with, or exposed to, another person who is thought to have or does have tb. the exposed person will have a negative skin test, a normal chest x - ray, and no signs or symptoms of the disease. - latent tb infection. this occurs when a person has the tb bacteria in his or her body, but does not have symptoms of the disease. the infected person ' s immune system walls off the tb organisms, and they remain dormant throughout life in 90 percent of people who are infected. this person would have a positive skin test but a normal chest x - ray. - tb disease. this describes the person who has signs and symptoms of an active infection. the person would have a positive skin test and a positive chest x - ray. the predominant tb bacterium is mycobacterium tuberculosis ( m. tuberculosis ). many people infected with m. tuberculosis never develop active tb and remain in the latent tb stage. however, in people with weakened immune systems, especially those with hiv ( human immunodeficiency virus ), tb organisms can overcome the body ' s defenses, multiply, and cause an active disease. tb affects all ages, races, income levels, and both genders. those at higher risk include the following : - people who live or work with others who have tb - medically underserved populations - homeless people - people from other countries where tb is prevalent - people in group settings, such as nursing homes - people who abuse alcohol - people who use intravenous drugs - people with impaired immune systems - the elderly - health care workers who come in contact with high - risk populations the following are the most common symptoms of active tb. however, each individual may experience symptoms differently. - cough that will not go away - chest pain - loss of appetite - unintended weight loss - poor growth in children - coughing blood or sputum - chills or night sweats the symptoms of tb may resemble other lung conditions or medical problems. consult a physician for a diagnosis. the tb bacterium is spread through the air when an infected person coughs, snee", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5325801957290427, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.075480"} {"text": "larger scale processing such as tea and coffee production, processors offer training and an extension service to address problems with the crop as they arise throughout the growing season. although this may be beyond the resources of small scale processors, more limited types of assistance may include purchasing tools, fertilizer or other requirements in bulk with the savings being passed on to farmers. alternatively, part - payment for the crop can be made in advance so that farmers can buy inputs without the need for credit and the consequent indebtedness. the advantages to the processor are greater control over the quality of raw materials and the varieties that are planted, some control over the amounts supplied and an advance indication of likely raw material costs which assists in both financial control and production planning ( sections 2. 3. 4 and 2. 7. 1 ). the advantage to the farmer is the security of having a guaranteed market for the crop at a known price, together with any other incentives that may be offered by processors. however, this type of arrangement can only operate successfully when both processors and farmers honour their side of the agreement. in the authors experience, there have been a number of occasions when these forms of agreement have been tried, but have failed because one party breaks their part of the contract. typically, this can be farmers who sell part of their crop to traders at each end of the season, when the price is higher than that offered by the processor. the expected volume of crop is not then available to the processor and planned production capacity cannot be achieved, seriously damaging both sales and cashflow. alternatively, the processor delays payment to farmers, resulting in the need for them to take another loan and greater indebtedness. the processor may also fail to buy the agreed amount of crop and farmers are left to find alternative markets without the option of supplying traders who may refuse to buy it or may offer an insignificant price. a slightly different approach is that in which a processor takes a greater degree of control over production of the crop and specifies the types of fruit or vegetable to be grown, supplies seeds and other inputs, even including labour. in effect farmers are paid by the processor for the use of their land. although this involves greater organisational complexity and higher operating costs for the processor, the benefits of an assured supply of raw materials having the correct qualities for processing may outweigh the disadvantages, particularly in situations where the demand for a crop outstrips the supply. a further development of the approach is for the processor to rent or buy land and set up a separate operation to", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5188945304723713, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.119493"} {"text": "the department of energy ( doe ) is committed to expanding the conversation on energy issues and upholding open government principles of transparency, participation and collaboration. one of the key ways we seek to accomplish this is through the use of social media. \" social media \" is a broad term for the wide spectrum of interactive and user - driven content technologies ( i. e., social networks, blogs, wikis, podcasts, online videos, etc ). like many government agencies, the department is exploring how best to use social media to accomplish our mission, engage the public in discussion, include people in the governing process and collaborate internally and externally. the office of digital strategy and communications ( formerly the new media office ) in the office of public affairs is leading the department ' s social media efforts. the purpose of this document is to provide guidance on how to take advantage of these social media platforms by defining the broad department of energy vision and strategy for social media use, detailing the means by which to contribute to the department ' s social media presence, outlining the various rules of the road for utilizing social media in the government space and last but not least, sharing best practices for various social media tools. it ' s worth noting that while the primary focus of this guidance is on external facing social media, many of the principles and requirements outlined below can be used as a roadmap for inward facing social media activities. vision and strategy \" the department of energy has an urgent role to play in creating a new, clean energy economy that will spark job creation and reduce our dependence on oil, while cutting our greenhouse gas emissions. the department will also meet its critical responsibilities of reducing nuclear dangers and environmental risks. the foundation of all our work is a commitment to lead the world in science, technology and engineering. \" - secretary steven chu the department of energy ' s mission is to become the \" department of innovators \" and discover the solutions to power and secure america ' s future now. we ' re building the new clean energy economy, reducing nuclear dangers and environmental risk and expanding the frontiers of knowledge with innovative scientific research. the objective of the digital office in public affairs is not only to communicate our mission online but also to develop and foster relationships with the public, outside stakeholders and each other around that mission. with that focus, the primary goals of the digital office are to amplify the department ' s message, promote transparency and accessibility and provide services and engagement opportunities. social media is integral to achieving these goals, providing the platform for real - time conversation, collaboration", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5795860289354526, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.129841"} {"text": "focus, the primary goals of the digital office are to amplify the department ' s message, promote transparency and accessibility and provide services and engagement opportunities. social media is integral to achieving these goals, providing the platform for real - time conversation, collaboration and idea sharing. you know how the saying goes - our whole is much greater than the sum of our parts. the entire department benefits from a strong enterprise brand. and in many ways, that enterprise brand and culture of brand cultivation already exists throughout the department, powered by the office of public affairs. we ' re just extending it online and into the social media sphere. the digital office in the office of public affairs is responsible for managing department ' s enterprise brand online, including social media. leading by example, this office will push the department into new social media spaces and drive innovation and online communication programming in this arena. offices and labs across the department should help build the enterprise brand by contributing content and ideas to the digital office. a strong, well developed, supported and executed enterprise social media brand is the primary tier of the department ' s social media strategy. the digital office also serves as a support center for driving the second core component of the department ' s social media strategy : empowering social media innovation across the department. program offices, field offices and labs are encouraged to take full advantage of the opportunities social media offers. the digital office provides clear guidance on how to do so - - assisting with compliance of federal rules regulating social media in government, sharing social media best practices and helping offices develop and execute high quality social media strategies. contributing to the department of energy enterprise social media accounts the foundation of the department of energy enterprise social media brand is our mission - and the work being done everyday across the department to achieve that mission drives the content for our social media accounts. offices and labs are enthusiastically encouraged to contribute to our enterprise social media accounts and share what they ' re doing to achieve our mission. these contributions are integral to the success of our enterprise brand. one of the primary reasons department of energy enterprise social media accounts were established was to break down some of the resource and regulatory barriers for communicating in this sphere. in that spirit, it ' s also simple to contribute to our core enterprise accounts : youtube, flickr, twitter and facebook. just submit your suggestion to the digital office in the office of public affairs via the department of energy social media hub ( http : / / energy. gov / socialmedia ) and a member of the digital office will follow - up as needed within a reasonable timeframe.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5078815729277231, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.131026"} {"text": "suggestion to the digital office in the office of public affairs via the department of energy social media hub ( http : / / energy. gov / socialmedia ) and a member of the digital office will follow - up as needed within a reasonable timeframe. establishing an official doe social media account to streamline the process of social media account creation, a dedicated department of energy social media hub ( http : / / energy. gov / socialmedia ) has been developed to empower program offices and labs to review the social media and application vendors with whom we currently have gsa approved terms of service and request permission to create a new account or verify an existing one. all social media sites require active oversight to ensure proper management. department personnel should take these commitments into account when weighing whether to create a new social media presence. before requesting an account, personnel should consult with the appropriate actors within their program office or lab to ensure that the proper authorizations and procedures are in place. this includes reaching out to supervisors and the point of contact for records management, privacy, communications / new media and the program ' s representative from general counsel. to be granted an account or have your current account recognized by the department, fill out the social media request form that includes fields such as : for all requests - name of the person submitting the request - title of the person submitting the request / office - contact e - mail - contact phone number - are you authorized to make this request? - social media application ( s ) you want to utilize - existing account? ( y / n ) - justification for needing an account - proposed or current account username / url - proposed or current account bio - criteria for following others, friending others, etc. - content and feedback strategy - staff management plan, including post frequency - sample post ( if applicable ) for new accounts only - desired launch date - roll - out plan for existing accounts only - length of existence - have you completed a privacy impact assessment ( pia )? - are you currently covered under doe ' s amended terms of service? - what is your current records process? the digital office in the office of public affairs will assess and respond to requests within a reasonable time period. the digital office approves accounts and will assist as needed with implementation and compliance. accounts that consistently fail to meet the best practices outlined in this document are subject to review by the digital office, who will work with supervisors in that program office or lab to determine appropriate next steps. you can also use the online form to request that the department pursue a", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5025763413709503, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.132259"} {"text": "our online presences. to that end, the department does not pre - moderate users ' comments on our enterprise accounts. this means that users ' comments are automatically published, but they may be removed by a department of energy official if they violate our commenting policy. comments may be removed from department of energy blogs or social media accounts : - contain obscene, indecent, or profane language ; - contain threats or defamatory statements ; - contain hate speech directed at race, color, sex, sexual orientation, national origin, ethnicity, age, religion, or disability ; - contain sensitive or personally identifiable information ; and / or - promote or endorse specific commercial services or products. all department of energy generated content is subject to the national archives and records administration ( nara ) for retention, storage and publication. federal records management policies regarding social media are still evolving. the cio has issued interim guidance for the department of energy regarding the management of social media records. we can expect additional updates to these policies as our work continues to evolve in the social media sphere. for specific questions regarding records management, contact the records management officer assigned to your office. access to and use of social media the department of energy encourages the responsible use of social media consistent with current laws, policies and guidance that govern information and information technology. department organizations will not arbitrarily ban access or the use of social media. department of energy personnel are encouraged to access and contribute content on social media sites in their official capacity. however, personnel should obtain supervisory approval prior to creating or contributing significant content to external social media sites or to engaging in recurring exchanges with the public. employees are subject to the applicable standards of conduct for employees of the executive branch ( 5 c. f. r. part 2635 ) and the hatch act ( 5 u. s. c. 7321 - 7326 ) which governs partisan political activity of executive branch employees. personnel are encouraged to review the office of special counsel ' s \" frequently asked questions regarding social media and the hatch act \" for further guidance or contact the office of the assistant general counsel for general law ( gc - 77 ). non - public, sensitive, personally identifiable information ( pii ) and classified information should not be disclosed on public social media platforms. personal use of social media while on government time is subject to doe order 203. 1, limited personal use of office equipment including information technology, which provides guidance on \" appropriate and inappropriate \" use of government resources. if you have questions about this section, please contact gc", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5120754241658663, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.135191"} {"text": "media while on government time is subject to doe order 203. 1, limited personal use of office equipment including information technology, which provides guidance on \" appropriate and inappropriate \" use of government resources. if you have questions about this section, please contact gc - 77. security requirements and risk management the federal cio council ' s guidelines for secure use of social media by federal departments and agencies outlines recommendations for using social media technologies in a manner that minimizes risk while also embracing the opportunities these technologies provide. federal government information systems are targeted by persistent, pervasive, aggressive threats. in order to defend against rapidly evolving social media threats, department of energy program offices, laboratories, and sites should include a defense - in - depth, multi - layered risk management approach, addressing risks to the user, risks to the department and risks to the federal infrastructure. organizations should incorporate risk mitigation strategies such as ( 1 ) controlled access to social media, ( 2 ) user awareness and training, ( 3 ) user rules of behavior, ( 4 ) host and / or network controls and ( 5 ) secure configuration of social media software to determine overall risk tolerance for use of social media technologies. cyber security personnel should be consulted before the implementation of any social media technology to provide the opportunity for incorporation of the new technology into current risk management framework. in addition, cyber security should help determine secure technical configurations and monitor published vulnerabilities in social media software. for questions regarding cyber security, contact your security officer. in the event of an emergency, social media tools should be utilized in accordance with the forthcoming emergency public affairs plan, which calls for a coordinated messaging effort between the headquarters office of public affairs and any programs, sites or facilities that may be involved : \" when department of energy headquarters or a doe site / facility declares an emergency, it is expected to meet the public information obligations of the department of energy orders, guidance and requirements and the comprehensive emergency management plans developed by each site. this guidance and requirement includes the timely provision of media informational materials to the public affairs staff at department headquarters. every effort should be made by the designated public affairs officers at the site level to consult with the headquarters public affairs office on the initial dissemination of information to the public and media. from the doe o 151. 1c \" comprehensive emergency management system \" : \" initial news releases or public statements must be approved by the cognizant field element official responsible for emergency public information review and dissemination. following initial news releases and public statements, updates must be coordinated with the doe / n", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5173551567561139, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.136670"} {"text": "\" almanac \" \u2014 the word comes from the arabic al - manakh, meaning \" the calendar, \" earlier \" the weather, \" deriving ultimately from ma -, \" a place, \" and nakha, \" to kneel, \" or a place where camels kneel, a seasonal stopping place, a camp or settlement. coming as it does from a nomadic human society, it is a fitting word as we talk about our bird life, and their travels and destinations, all as they are influenced by the season of the year. in order to understand the vital interplay of time and space as they determine which birds they ' ll bring us, let us first set aside time to deal with space. for birds, ohio ' s longitude has less to do with time, except as it determines the diurnal rhythms of night and day, and as it figured eons ago in the shifting of continents, where our present longitude marks our place between mountain ranges, at the edge of the feathering - out of the great prairies and the great forests, and consequently midway between the great north - and southbound rivers of birds in the mississippi and atlantic flyways. our latitude, by contrast, is all about time for birds \u2014 their seasonal movements north and south, their life cycles along the way, the timing of migrations and even vagrancy, the changing length of daylight and the intensity of earth ' s magnetic fields, even their habitats as developed in the topography of our land as formed by mile - high glaciers moving latitudinally thousands of years ago, forming our plains and hills, lake erie, and the ohio river. survival for birds means successful breeding, and for this success timing is everything. for migrants, early arrival at the breeding grounds is balanced against the risk of arriving too soon to find adequate food ; attempting a second brood must be balanced by the risk of an early reduction in food sources. the phenology of predators, frosts, food sources, leafing of local plants, rain cycles, etc., all affect breeding success, and the species we see have successfully adapted to these influences to remain with us today. humans have recently ( here, over the past two hundred years ) radically influenced some of these influences, upsetting delicate balances, and our bird life is changing as a result. we have removed some predators, and encouraged the proliferation of others. we have apparently caused climatic warming, with earlier springs and later winters. we have introduced exotic animals and plants. we have bulldozed and", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5176219350423426, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.142302"} {"text": "online physiology degree | online physiology degree refers to the degree on physiology that are provided by the online universities that are situated in different parts on the world. in this kind of degrees you can remain in some remote corner of the world, and can take lessons from the universities that are located at some other parts of the world. these degrees are very much in demand and are recognized by the organizations around the world. what is physiology? the term physiology refers o the study which involves the mechanical, physical as well a s biochemical functions of any kind of living organisms. in other world the physical, mechanical as well as different biochemical function that take place in the body of any living organism can be studies in the subject of physiology. traditionally, physiology can be divided into two broader parts \u2013 plant physiology as well as animal physiology. physiology degrees are much sought after by students interested in the life sciences. however the principles that are followed in physiology are universal irrespective of any particular organism. human physiology is an important part of the study of animal physiology, too. there are some other major branches that originated from physiology that can be studies individually nowadays. these branches that originated from physiology includes biochemistry, paleobiology, biomechanics, pharmacology and biophysics. at the online physiology degree you can also have a chance to study a few of these branches. who are eligible to study online physiology degree? an online physiology degree are also beneficial to the working professionals who finds it hard to devote a certain amount of tie every day or at least once or twice a week to go for the part time courses. the online physiology degree will help them to study at night or even between the working hours. the course material being available online the online physiology degree gives them the option of \u2018 flexible timings \u2019 for their studies. thus the online physiology degree courses are very beneficial to them. why choose an online physiology degree? choosing or opting for an online physiology degree can be a wise decision on the part of the busy professional as well as any modern day student. the course material used in online physiology degree are made keeping in mind a global approach and so the degrees are, usually, recognized across the globe. the online physiology degree courses also offer you the flexibility to choose your time and pace to study. thus an online physiology degree course has an edge over the conventional degrees that are available. to know more about online science degree keep surfing the links of onlinedegreeshub.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5182074144874704, "token_count": 496, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.158059"} {"text": "lesson one : transforming everyday objects marcel duchamp : bicycle wheel, bicycle wheel on wooden stool, 1963 ( henley - on - thames, richard hamilton collection ) ; \u00a9 2007 artists rights society ( ars ), new york / adagp, paris, photo credit : cameraphoto / art resource, ny man ray : rayograph, gelatin silver print, 29. 4\u00d723. 2 cm, 1923 ( new york, museum of modern art ) ; \u00a9 2007 man ray trust / artists rights society ( ars ), new york / adagp, paris, photo \u00a9 the museum of modern art, new york meret oppenheim : object ( le dejeuner en fourrure ), fur - lined cup, diam. 109 mm, saucer, diam. 237 mm, spoon, l. 202 mm, overall, h. 73 mm, 1936 ( new york, museum of modern art ) ; \u00a9 2007 artists rights society ( ars ), new york / prolitteris, zurich, photo \u00a9 museum of modern art / licensed by scala / art resource, ny dada and surrealist artists questioned long - held assumptions about what a work of art should be about and how it should be made. rather than creating every element of their artworks, they boldly selected everyday, manufactured objects and either modified and combined them with other items or simply se - lected them and called them \u201c art. \u201d in this lesson students will consider their own criteria for something to be called a work of art, and then explore three works of art that may challenge their definitions. students will consider their own definitions of art. students will consider how dada and surrealist artists challenged conventional ideas of art. students will be introduced to readymades and photograms. ask your students to take a moment to think about what makes something a work of art. does art have to be seen in a specific place? where does one encounter art? what is art supposed to accomplish? who is it for? ask your students to create an individual list of their criteria. then, divide your students into small groups to discuss and debate the results and come up with a final list. finally, ask each group to share with the class what they think is the most important criteria and what is the most contested criteria for something to be called a work of art. write these on the chalkboard for the class to review and discuss. show your students the image of bicycle wheel. ask your students if marcel duchamp \u2019 s sculp -", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.54178872041281, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.169473"} {"text": "most contested criteria for something to be called a work of art. write these on the chalkboard for the class to review and discuss. show your students the image of bicycle wheel. ask your students if marcel duchamp \u2019 s sculp - ture fulfills any of their criteria for something to be called a work of art. ask them to support their obser - vations with visual evidence. inform your students that duchamp made this work by fastening a bicycle wheel to a kitchen stool. ask your students to consider the fact that duchamp rendered these two functional objects unus - able. make certain that your students notice that there is no tire on the bicycle wheel. to challenge accepted notions of art, duchamp selected mass - produced, often functional objects from everyday life for his artworks, which he called readymades. he did this to shift viewers \u2019 engagement with a work of art from what he called the \u201c retinal \u201d ( there to please the eye ) to the \u201c intellectual \u201d ( \u201c in the service of the mind. \u201d ) [ h. h. arnason and marla f. prather, history of modern art : painting, sculpture, architecture, photography ( fourth edition ) ( new york : harry n. abrams, inc., 1998 ), 274. ] by doing so, duchamp subverted the traditional notion that beauty is a defining characteristic of art. inform your students that bicycle wheel is the third version of this work. the first, now lost, was made in 1913, almost forty years earlier. because the materials duchamp selected to be readymades were mass - produced, he did not consider any readymade to be \u201c original. \u201d ask your students to revisit their list of criteria for something to be called a work of art. ask them to list criteria related specifically to the visual aspects of a work of art ( such as \u201c beauty \u201d or realistic rendering ). duchamp said of bicycle wheel, \u201c in 1913 i had the happy idea to fasten a bicycle wheel to a kitchen stool and watch it turn. \u201d [ john elderfield, ed., studies in modern art 2 : essays on assemblage ( new york : the museum of modern art, 1992 ), 135. ] bicycle wheel is a kinetic sculpture that depends on motion for effect. although duchamp selected items for his readymades without regard to their so - called beauty, he said, \u201c to see that wheel turning was very soothing,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5309725200026518, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.170513"} {"text": ", 135. ] bicycle wheel is a kinetic sculpture that depends on motion for effect. although duchamp selected items for his readymades without regard to their so - called beauty, he said, \u201c to see that wheel turning was very soothing, very comforting... i en - joyed looking at it, just as i enjoy looking at the flames dancing in a fireplace. \u201d [ francis m. naumann, the mary and william sisler collection ( new york : the museum of modern art, 1984 ), 160. ] by en - couraging viewers to spin bicycle wheel, duchamp challenged the common expectation that works of art should not to be touched. show your students rayograph. ask your students to name recognizable shapes in this work. ask them to support their findings with visual evidence. how do they think this image was made? inform your students that rayograph was made by man ray, an american artist who was well - known for his portrait and fashion photography. man ray transformed everyday objects into mysterious images by placing them on photographic paper, exposing them to light, and oftentimes repeating this process with additional objects and exposures. when photographic paper is developed in chemicals, the areas blocked from light by objects placed on the paper earlier on will remain light, and the areas exposed to light will turn black. man ray discovered the technique of making photograms by chance, when he placed some objects in his darkroom on light - sensitive paper and accidentally exposed them to light. he liked the resulting images and experimented with the process for years to come. he likened the technique, now known as the photogram, to \u201c painting with light, \u201d calling the images rayographs, after his assumed name. now that your students have identified some recognizable objects used to make rayograph, ask them to consider which of those objects might have been translucent and which might have been opaque, based on the tone of the shapes in the photogram. now show your students meret oppenheim \u2019 s sculpture object ( dejeuner en fourrure ). both rayograph and object were made using everyday objects and materials not traditionally used for making art, which, when combined, challenge ideas of reality in unexpected ways. ask your students what those everyday objects are and how they have been transformed by the artists. ask your students to name some traditional uses for the individual materials ( cup, spoon, saucer, fur ) used to make object. ask your students what choices they think oppenheim", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5607206845524924, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.171635"} {"text": "everyday objects are and how they have been transformed by the artists. ask your students to name some traditional uses for the individual materials ( cup, spoon, saucer, fur ) used to make object. ask your students what choices they think oppenheim made to transform these materials and objects. in 1936, the swiss artist oppenheim was at a cafe in paris with her friends pablo picasso and dora maar. oppenheim was wearing a bracelet she had made from fur - lined, polished metal tubing. picasso joked that one could cover anything with fur, to which oppenheim replied, \u201c even this cup and saucer. \u201d [ bice curiger, meret oppenheim : defiance in the face of freedom ( zurich, frankfurt, new york : parkett publishers inc., 1989 ), 39. ] her tea was getting cold, and she reportedly called out, \u201c waiter, a little more fur! \u201d soon after, when asked to participate in a surrealist exhibition, she bought a cup, saucer, and spoon at a department store and lined them with the fur of a chinese gazelle. [ josephine withers, \u201c the famous fur - lined teacup and the anonymous meret oppenheim \u201d ( new york : arts magazine, vol. 52, novem - ber 1977 ), 88 - 93. ] duchamp, oppenheim, and man ray transformed everyday objects into readymades, surrealist objects, and photograms. ask your students to review the images of the three artworks in this lesson and discuss the similarities and differences between these artists \u2019 transformation of everyday objects. art and controversy at the time they were made, works of art like duchamp \u2019 s bicycle wheel and oppenheim \u2019 s object were controversial. critics called duchamp \u2019 s readymades immoral and vulgar \u2014 even plagiaristic. overwhelmed by the publicity object received, oppenheim sunk into a twenty - year depres - sion that greatly inhibited her creative production. ask your students to conduct research on a work of art that has recently been met with controversy. each student should find at least two articles that critique the work of art. have your students write a one - page summary of the issues addressed in these articles. students should consider how and why the work chal - lenged and upset critics. was the controversial reception related to the representation, the medium, the scale, the cost, or the location of the work? after completing the assignment, ask your", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.553789656414934, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.172575"} {"text": "in any large city just a handful of bars give the police far more trouble than all the rest put together. the same is true of many other types of establishments, such as schools, convenience stores, and parking lots. in each case, just a few produce far more crime, disorder, and calls for police assistance than the rest of the group combined. this phenomenon \u2014 called \u201c risky facilities \u201d \u2014 has important implications for many problem - oriented policing projects. in particular, it can help police focus their energies where they are needed most and can help in selecting appropriate preventive measures. this guide serves as an introduction to risky facilities and shows how the concept can aid problem - oriented policing efforts by providing answers to the following key questions. we open with a definition of facilities and provide some examples. we then discuss risky facilities and explain how this concept is related to other crime concentration theories. facilities are places with specific public or private functions, such as stores, bars, restaurants, mobile home parks, bus stops, apartment buildings, public swimming pools, atm locations, libraries, hospitals, schools, parking lots, railway stations, marinas, and shopping malls. facilities vary greatly in the crimes they experience. medical facilities, for example, are likely to have different types and levels of crime than do police booking facilities. in addition, there is likely to be a great variation within any broad category of facility. for example, although both are medical facilities, dental offices are likely to have different levels and types of crime than are emergency rooms. because such distinctions are critical to the success of risky facility analyses, it is important to begin by carefully defining the type of facility that is to be examined ; only then proceed to an examination of the type and frequency of crime that the particular type of facility experiences. one important principle of crime prevention holds that crime is highly concentrated among particular people, places, and things ; as this principle suggests, focusing resources on these concentrations is likely to yield the greatest preventive benefits. this principle has spawned a number of related concepts that are routinely used by police in problem - solving projects, including : risky facilities is another recently described theory of crime concentration that holds great promise for problem - oriented policing. 1 the theory postulates that only a small proportion of any specific type of facility will account for the majority of crime and disorder problems experienced or produced by the group of facilities as a whole. as a rule of thumb, about 20 percent of the total group will account for 80 percent of the problems. this is known as the 80 / 20 rule : in", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5606874088769318, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.250869"} {"text": "of crime and disorder problems experienced or produced by the group of facilities as a whole. as a rule of thumb, about 20 percent of the total group will account for 80 percent of the problems. this is known as the 80 / 20 rule : in theory, 20 percent of any particular group of things is responsible for 80 percent of outcomes involving those things. 2 the 80 / 20 rule is not peculiar to crime and disorder ; rather, it is almost a universal law. for example, a small portion of the earth \u2019 s surface holds the majority of life on the planet ; a small proportion of earthquakes cause most earthquake damage ; a small number of people hold most of the earth \u2019 s wealth ; a small proportion of police officers produce the most arrests ; and so forth. in practice, of course, the proportion is seldom exactly 80 / 20 ; however, it is always true that some small percentage of a group produces a large percentage of any particular result involving that group. later in the guide we will show you how to determine whether the 80 / 20 rule holds true for any particular group of facilities. the 80 / 20 rule can be a useful initial assumption : when confronting a problem, start by assuming that most of the problem is created by a few individuals, places, or events. although this first approximation is not always correct, it is probably correct more often than assuming that the problem is spread evenly across individuals, places, or events. careful analysis can then test whether this starting assumption is correct. the first paper to discuss the concept of risky facilities identified nearly 40 studies of specific types of facilities that included data about variations in the risks of crime, disorder, or misconduct. 3 these studies covered a wide range of facilities and many different types of crime and deviance, including robbery, theft, assault, and simple disorder. all the studies showed wide variations in risk in the facilities studied and in many there was clear evidence of high concentrations of risk consistent with the definition of risky facilities. \u2020 there follow a few examples. \u2020 not every study provided clear evidence that a small proportion of the facilities accounted for a large proportion of the crime, disorder, or misconduct. rather, some reported differences between facilities in crime numbers or rates ; for example, matthews, pease & pease ( 2001 ) [ pdf ] reported that \u201c 4 percent of banks had robbery rates four to six times that of other banks. \u201d although consistent with the concept of risky facilities, these figures do not satisfy a key component of the definition : they do not demonstrate that a small number of high", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5575665306398523, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.252044"} {"text": "involved each time. indeed, no one need be victimized at all, as would be the case if the calls were about drugs, prostitution, or stolen property sales. calling the tavern a repeat victim can be more than just confusing, however, because it might also divert attention from the role mismanagement or poor design plays in causing the fights. by keeping the concepts of repeat victimization and risky facilities separate, it may be possible to determine whether or not repeat victimization is the cause of a risky facility and thereby to design responses accordingly. the concept of risky facilities can be helpful in two types of policing projects. first, the concept can be useful in crime prevention projects that focus on a particular class of facilities, such as low rent apartment complexes or downtown parking lots. in the scanning stage, the objective is to list the facilities involved along with the corresponding number of problem incidents in order to see which facilities experience the most and which the fewest problems. this might immediately suggest some contributing factors. for example, a study of car break - ins and thefts in downtown parking facilities in charlotte, north carolina revealed that the number of offenses in each parking lot was not merely a function of size. 14 rather, it was discovered that some smaller facilities experienced a large numbers of thefts because of some fairly obvious security deficiencies. this finding was explored in more depth in the analysis stage by computing theft rates for each facility based on its number of parking spaces. the analysis found that the risk of theft was far greater in surface lots than in parking garages, a fact that had not been known previously. subsequent analysis compared security features between the multilevel and surface lots and then within the members of each category in an effort to determine which aspects of security ( e. g., attendants, lighting, security guards ) explained the variation. this analysis guided the selection of measures that were to have been introduced at the response stage ; and had these been implemented as planned ( which was not the case ), the assessment stage would have examined, not merely whether theft rates declined overall, but whether those at the previously riskiest facilities had declined most. obviously, this type of analysis can be conducted within any group of facilities. second, risky facilities analysis can be helpful to crime prevention efforts that focus on a particular troublesome facility. in this sort of analysis, the scanning stage consists of comparing the problems at a particular facility with those at similar nearby facilities. for example, in a project that won the herman goldstein award for excellence in problem - oriented policing in 2003,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5088574569340454, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.254434"} {"text": "rate | adapted from : clarke and martin ( 1975 ). once a satisfactory measure of the problematic events for a defined group of facilities has been obtained, the following six - step procedure can be used to determine whether the 80 / 20 rule applies. \u2020 reproduced with permission from clarke and eck ( 2003 ) in order to analyze crime concentrations, it is first necessary to define the type of facility to be examined ; only then is it possible to create a list of facilities that meets that the definition. ideally, all places that fit the definition and that are in the area of study will be on the list once and only once. in addition, facilities that do not fit the definition will not be on the list. the further the list departs from this ideal, the more likely it is that the results will be misleading. identifying all facilities of a particular type in any given area can be troublesome : not only can it sometimes be difficult to develop an appropriate working definition of the type of facility at issue, but problems can also arise in regard to the data management practices of relevant public and private agencies. here is an example of creating a list of facilities that illustrates these points. a research team at the university of cincinnati, ohio wanted to determine why a few bars had numerous violent incidents, whereas most of the others had none or only a very few. to do this, they needed a definition of \u201c bar \u201d and a list of facilities that met this definition. researchers defined \u201c bar \u201d as a place that met four conditions : ( 1 ) it had to be open to the general public, rather than restricted to members or rented out to private parties ; ( 2 ) it had to serve alcohol for onsite consumption ; ( 3 ) some patrons had to come to the place for the primary purpose of consuming alcohol ; and ( 4 ) there had to be a designated physical area within the place that served as a drinking area. locations that did not meet all four conditions were excluded from the study. to obtain a list of locations meeting this definition, researchers began by consulting records from the ohio division of liquor control. these records showed that 633 places within the city limits were licensed to serve hard liquor. based upon their personal knowledge, researchers were able to exclude a number of locations from consideration, reducing the list to 391 possible bars. to isolate the real bars, researchers then compared the remaining locations to the most recent bar guide in a local weekly tabloid that catered to young adults, which contained both a brief written description of the locations and numerous commercial advertisements.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5849711843873331, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.256938"} {"text": "391 possible bars. to isolate the real bars, researchers then compared the remaining locations to the most recent bar guide in a local weekly tabloid that catered to young adults, which contained both a brief written description of the locations and numerous commercial advertisements. the tabloid information revealed that at least 198 of the 391 places fit the definition used. the tabloid list was incomplete, however, as there were an unknown number of city bars that were not reviewed by the tabloid staff. a check of the online yellow pages verified several more bars. private fraternal organizations were eliminated from consideration because they were not open to the general public. for most of the remaining places, researchers phoned or visited the sites, examining the physical locations and interviewing owners and employees. onsite visits revealed several restaurants had areas that looked like bars, but these were eventually eliminated from consideration when it became clear from interviews that they were more decorative than functional or that they were used for other purposes ( e. g., to hold carryout orders for customer pickup or to provide overflow seating where customers could eat ). ultimately, researchers identified 264 facilities that fit the definition of bar. these then became the subjects of the study. table 1 : the distribution of 121 assaults in 30 pubs | no. of assaults | | % of assaults | | cumulative % assaults | | cumulative % pubs | | george & dragon | | 6 | | 5. 0 | | 76. 9 | | 23. 3 | | hare & hounds | | 1 | | 0. 8 | | 96. 7 | | 46. 7 | | rose & crown | | 0 | | 0 | | 100 | | 63. 3 | | dog and fox | | 0 | | 0 | | 100 | | 76. 7 | because there is no single reason why facilities vary in risk, it is important to determine which reasons are in operation in each particular case. the most important sources of variation in risk follow. table 2 : reported shopliftings by store, danvers, mass. october 2003 to september 2004 | store | | shopliftings | | percent of shopliftings | | cumulative % of shopliftings | | cumulative % of stores | | shopliftings per 1000 sq. ft. | | 7 stores with 2 incidents | | 14 | | 4. 7 | | 90. 6 | | 30. 8 | | 0. 08 | | 28 stores with 1 incident | | 28 | | 9. 4 | | 100. 0 | | 66. 7 | | 0. 06", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5050055058983854, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.257853"} {"text": "facilities have far more crime than other facilities of the same type. rather, the full explanation usually involves a combination of the seven factors discussed above ; remember though, that the relative contribution of each will vary from case to case. in many problem - oriented projects it might not be possible to explain completely the variations in risk between facilities, because such analysis is usually only possible after detailed research that can take weeks or months to complete. however, it is usually possible to get some idea of how each of the seven factors contributes to the problem by comparing high and low crime facilities. we previously explained how to do this when we discussed the various ways of testing the influence of location, hot products, repeat victimization and crime attractors. in some cases, quantitative data such as facility size will be readily available. in others, it might be necessary to survey the facilities to discover the relevant information. for example, in the project mentioned above that focused on thefts from cars in charlotte \u2019 s downtown parking facilities, police surveyed the lots to gather information about hours of operation, attendants, fencing, lighting, and other security measures. this provided many ideas for reducing crime in the riskiest facilities. in another charlotte study, a police survey found that the theft of household appliances from construction sites was much lower when builders delayed installation until the homes were ready for occupancy. 19 direct observation and discussions with managers and police familiar with the facilities ( see box 4 ) can yield valuable insights into the reasons for variations in risk between facilities. in addition, interviews with apprehended offenders can reveal how they evaluate the difficulties, rewards, and risks of preying upon the facilities in the sample. \u2020 similarly, interviews with victims \u2014 particularly repeat victims \u2014 can be revealing. \u2020 see scott decker, using offender interviews to inform police problem solving, problem solving tools series no. 3 ( washington, d. c. : office of community oriented policing services, 2005 ). in newark, new jersey, a project funded by the u. s. department of justice office of community oriented policing services ( the cops office ) focused on drug dealing in low cost private rental apartment complexes. 20 during the scanning stage, 22 possible sites for intervention ( out of a total of 506 private apartment complexes ) were identified through an analysis of police data and interviews with officers in the newark police department \u2019 s safer cities task force and special investigations unit. subsequent interviews with district commanders revealed a special problem with four apartment complexes located close to entry and exit ramps for interstate 78, which provided out - of -", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5308901156459382, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 9, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.261297"} {"text": ". decker, s. ( 2005 ) using offender interviews to inform police problem solving, problem - oriented guides for police series, problem solving tools series no. 3 washington, d. c. : u. s. department of justice, office of community oriented policing services. [ full text ] eck, j. e. ( 2002 ). \u201c preventing crime at places. \u201d in l. w. sherman, d. farrington, b. welsh and d. l. mackenzie ( eds. ), evidence - based crime prevention. new york : routledge. - - - - ( 2003 ). \u201c police problems : the complexity of problem theory, research and evaluation. \u201d in j. knutsson ( ed. ), problem - oriented policing : from innovation to mainstream, crime prevention studies, vol. 15. monsey, n. y. : criminal justice press. [ full text ] eck, j., r. v. clarke and r. guerette ( 2007 ). \u201c risky facilities : crime concentration in homogeneous sets of facilities. \u201d crime prevention studies, vol. 21. monsey, n. y. : criminal justice press. [ full text ] felson, m., r. berends, b. richardson and a. veno ( 1997 ). \u201c reducing pub hopping and related crime. \u201d in r. homel ( ed. ), policing for prevention : reducing crime, public intoxication and injury, crime prevention studies, vol. 7. monsey, n. y. : criminal justice press. [ full text ] hirschfield, a., and k. bowers ( 1998 ). \u201c monitoring, measuring and mapping community safety. \u201d in a. marlow and j. pitts ( eds. ), planning safer communities. lyne regis : russell house publishing. homel, r., m. hauritz, g. mcilwain, r. wortley and r. carvolth ( 1997 ). \u201c preventing drunkenness and violence around nightclubs in a tourist resort. \u201d in r. v. clarke ( ed. ), situational crime prevention : successful case studies ( 2nd ed. ). guilderland, n. y. : harrow and heston. kock, r. ( 1999 ). 80 - 20 principle : the secret to success by achieving more with less. new york : doubleday. la vigne, n. ( 1994 ). \u201c gasoline drive - offs : designing a less convenient environment. \u201d", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5377668028447061, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 13, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.267648"} {"text": "r. ( 1999 ). 80 - 20 principle : the secret to success by achieving more with less. new york : doubleday. la vigne, n. ( 1994 ). \u201c gasoline drive - offs : designing a less convenient environment. \u201d in r. v. clarke ( ed. ), crime prevention studies, vol. 2. monsey, n. y. : criminal justice press. [ full text ] lindstrom, p. ( 1997 ). \u201c patterns of school crime : a replication and empirical extension. \u201d british journal of criminology 37 ( 1 ) : 121 - 130. loukaitou - sideris, a., and j. e. eck ( in press ). \u201c crime prevention and active living. \u201d american journal of health promotion. madensen, t., m. skubak, d. morgan and j. e. eck ( 2005 ). open - air drug dealing in cincinnati, ohio : executive summary and final recommendations. cincinnati, ohio : university of cincinnati, division of criminal justice. available at www. uc. edu / criminaljustice / projectreports / final _ recommendations. pdf ) matthews, r., c. pease and k. pease ( 2001 ). \u201c repeat bank robbery : theme and variations. \u201d in g. farrell and k. pease ( eds. ), repeat victimization. crime prevention studies, vol. 12. monsey, n. y. : criminal justice press. [ full text ] national association of convenience stores ( 1991 ). convenience store security report and recommendations. alexandria, va. : national association of convenience stores. newton, a. ( 2004 ). crime and disorder on busses : toward an evidence base for effective crime prevention. phd dissertation, university of liverpool. oakland police department ( 2003 ). \u201c the oakland airport motel project. \u201d submission for the herman goldstein award for excellence in problem - oriented policing. [ full text ] perrone, s. ( 2000 ). crimes against small business in australia : a preliminary analysis. trends & issues in crime and criminal justice, no. 184. canberra : australian institute for criminology. [ full text ] scott, m. ( 2001 ). the problem of robbery at automated teller machines. problem - oriented guides for police series, problem specific guide no. 8. washington, d. c. : u. s. department of justice, office of community oriented policing services. [ full text ] scott, m., and h. goldstein (", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5549689332784556, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 14, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.268765"} {"text": "- oriented guides for police series, problem specific guide no. 8. washington, d. c. : u. s. department of justice, office of community oriented policing services. [ full text ] scott, m., and h. goldstein ( 2005 ). shifting and sharing responsibility for public safety problems. problem - oriented guides for police, response guide series no. 3 washington, d. c. : u. s. department of justice, office of community oriented policing services. [ full text ] sherman, l., j. schmidt and r. velke ( 1992 ). high crime taverns : a recap project in problem - oriented policing. washington, d. c. : crime control institute. smith, d., m. gregson and j. morgan ( 2003 ). between the lines : an evaluation of the secured park award scheme. home office research study, no. 266. london : home office research, development and statistics directorate. [ full text ] stedman, j. ( 2005 ). \u201c alcohol issues in city parks. \u201d unpublished presentation to the chula vista city council. chula vista, ca : chula vista police department ( november ). weisel, d. ( 2005 ) analyzing repeat victimization. problem - oriented guides for police, problem solving tools series no. 4. washington, d. c. : u. s. department of justice, office of community oriented policing services. [ full text ] zanin, n., j. shane and r. v. clarke ( 2004 ). \u201c reducing drug dealing in private apartment complexes in newark, new jersey. \u201d a final report to the u. s. department of justice, office of community oriented policing services, on the field applications of the problem - oriented guides for police project. washington, d. c. : office of community oriented policing services, u. s. department of justice. [ full text ] you may order free bound copies in any of three ways : phone : 800 - 421 - 6770 or 202 - 307 - 1480 allow several days for delivery. send an e - mail with a link to this guide. error sending email. please review your enteries below.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5142446408910537, "token_count": 444, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 15, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.269653"} {"text": "pppl scientists propose a solution to a critical barrier to producing fusion posted april 23, 2012 ; 05 : 00 p. m. physicists from the u. s. department of energy ' s princeton plasma physics laboratory ( pppl ) have discovered a possible solution to a mystery that has long baffled researchers working to harness fusion. if confirmed by experiment, the finding could help scientists eliminate a major impediment to the development of fusion as a clean and abundant source of energy for producing electric power. an in - depth analysis by pppl scientists zeroed in on tiny, bubble - like islands that appear in the hot, charged gases \u2014 or plasmas \u2014 during experiments. these minute islands collect impurities that cool the plasma. and these islands, the scientists report in the april 20 issue of the journal physical review letters, are at the root of a longstanding problem known as the \" density limit \" that can prevent fusion reactors from operating at maximum efficiency. fusion occurs when plasmas become hot and dense enough for the atomic nuclei contained within the hot gas to combine and release energy. but when the plasmas in experimental reactors called tokamaks reach the mysterious density limit, they can spiral apart into a flash of light. \" the big mystery is why adding more heating power to the plasma doesn ' t get you to higher density, \" said david gates, a principal research physicist at pppl and co - author of the proposed solution with luis delgado - aparicio, a postdoctoral fellow at pppl and a visiting scientist at the massachusetts institute of technology ' s plasma science fusion center. \" this is critical because density is the key parameter in reaching fusion and people have been puzzling about this for more than 30 years. \" a discovery by princeton plasma physics laboratory physicists luis delgado - aparicio ( left ) and david gates could help scientists eliminate a major impediment to the development of fusion as a clean and abundant source of energy for producing electric power. listen to a podcast with the scientists discussing their discovery. ( photo by elle starkman ) the scientists hit upon their theory in what gates called \" a 10 - minute ' aha! ' moment. \" working out equations on a whiteboard in gates ' office, the physicists focused on the islands and the impurities that drive away energy. the impurities stem from particles that the plasma kicks up from the tokamak wall. \" when you hit this magical density limit, the islands grow and coalesce and the plasma ends up in a disruption, \" said delgado - ap", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5960147338847663, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.284369"} {"text": "energy. the impurities stem from particles that the plasma kicks up from the tokamak wall. \" when you hit this magical density limit, the islands grow and coalesce and the plasma ends up in a disruption, \" said delgado - aparicio. these islands actually inflict double damage, the scientists said. besides cooling the plasma, the islands act as shields that block out added power. the balance tips when more power escapes from the islands than researchers can pump into the plasma through a process called ohmic heating \u2014 the same process that heats a toaster when electricity passes through it. when the islands grow large enough, the electric current that helps to heat and confine the plasma collapses, allowing the plasma to fly apart. gates and delgado - aparicio now hope to test their theory with experiments on a tokamak called alcator c - mod at mit, and on the diii - d tokamak at general atomics in san diego. among other things, they intend to see if injecting power directly into the islands will lead to higher density. if so, that could help future tokamaks reach the extreme density and 100 - million - degree temperatures that fusion requires. the scientists ' theory represents a fresh approach to the density limit, which also is known as the \" greenwald limit \" after mit physicist martin greenwald, who has derived an equation that describes it. greenwald has another potential explanation for the source of the limit. he thinks it may occur when turbulence creates fluctuations that cool the edge of the plasma and squeeze too much current into too little space in the core of the plasma, causing the current to become unstable and crash. \" there is a fair amount of evidence for this, \" greenwald said. however, he added, \" we don ' t have a nice story with a beginning and end and we should always be open to new ideas. \" gates and delgado - aparicio pieced together their model from a variety of clues that have developed in recent decades. gates first heard of the density limit while working as a postdoctoral fellow at the culham centre for fusion energy in abingdon, england, in 1993. the limit had previously been named for culham scientist jan hugill, who described it to gates in detail. separately, papers on plasma islands were beginning to surface in scientific circles. french physicist paul - henri rebut described radiation - driven islands in a mid - 1980s conference paper, but not in a periodical. german physicist wolfgang suttrop speculated a decade later that", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.6042689286924371, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.285416"} {"text": "papers on plasma islands were beginning to surface in scientific circles. french physicist paul - henri rebut described radiation - driven islands in a mid - 1980s conference paper, but not in a periodical. german physicist wolfgang suttrop speculated a decade later that the islands were associated with the density limit. \" the paper he wrote was actually the trigger for our idea, but he didn ' t relate the islands directly to the greenwald limit, \" said gates, who had worked with suttrop on a tokamak experiment at the max planck institute for plasma physics in garching, germany, in 1996 before joining pppl the following year. in early 2011, the topic of plasma islands had mostly receded from gates ' mind. but a talk by delgado - aparicio about the possibility of such islands erupting in the plasmas contained within the alcator c - mod tokamak reignited his interest. delgado - aparicio spoke of corkscrew - shaped phenomena called snakes that had first been observed by pppl scientists in the 1980s and initially reported by german physicist arthur weller. intrigued by the talk, gates urged delgado - aparicio to read the papers on islands by rebut and suttrop. an email from delgado - aparicio landed in gates ' inbox some eight months later. in it was a paper that described the behavior of snakes in a way that fit nicely with the c - mod data. \" i said, ' wow! he ' s made a lot of progress, ' \" gates remembered. \" i said, ' you should come down and talk about this. ' \" what most excited gates was an equation for the growth of islands that hinted at the density limit by modifying a formula that british physicist paul harding rutherford had derived back in the 1980s. \" i thought, ' if wolfgang ( suttrop ) was right about the islands, this equation should be telling us the greenwald limit, \" gates said. \" so when luis arrived i pulled him into my office. \" then a curious thing happened. \" it turns out that we didn ' t even need the entire equation, \" gates said. \" it was much simpler than that. \" by focusing solely on the density of the electrons in a plasma and the heat radiating from the islands, the researchers devised a formula for when the heat loss would surpass the electron density. that in turn pinpointed a possible mechanism behind the greenwald limit. delgado - aparicio became so absorbed in the scientists ' new ideas that", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5770894176462473, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.286372"} {"text": "the islands, the researchers devised a formula for when the heat loss would surpass the electron density. that in turn pinpointed a possible mechanism behind the greenwald limit. delgado - aparicio became so absorbed in the scientists ' new ideas that he missed several turnoffs while driving back to cambridge, mass., that night. \" it ' s intriguing to try to explain mother nature, \" he said. \" when you understand a theory you can try to find a way to beat it. by that i mean find a way to work at densities higher than the limit. \" conquering the limit could provide essential improvements for future tokamaks that will need to produce self - sustaining fusion reactions, or \" burning plasmas, \" to generate electric power. such machines include proposed successors to iter, a $ 20 billion experimental reactor that is being built in cadarache, france, by the european union, the united states and five other countries. why hadn ' t researchers pieced together a similar theory of the density - limit puzzle before? the answer, said gates, lies in how ideas percolate through the scientific community. \" the radiation - driven islands idea never got a lot of press, \" he said. \" people thought of them as curiosities. the way we disseminate information is through publications, and this idea had a weak initial push. \" pppl, in plainsboro, n. j., is devoted both to creating new knowledge about the physics of plasmas \u2014 ultra - hot, charged gases \u2014 and to developing practical solutions for the creation of fusion energy. through the process of fusion, which is constantly occurring in the sun and other stars, energy is created when the nuclei of two lightweight atoms, such as those of hydrogen, combine in plasma at very high temperatures. when this happens, a burst of energy is released, which can be used to generate electricity. pppl is managed by princeton university for the u. s. department of energy ' s office of science.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5843452138222145, "token_count": 407, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.287138"} {"text": "prlog ( press release ) - apr. 10, 2012 - many are not aware that on the day titanic collided with an iceberg in the north atlantic, the ship had received no less than six wireless transmissions describing the extent of the dangerous ice fields and bergs, but that not all of these messages made it to the bridge and that the captain therefore had an incorrect mental picture which did not match the reality on the ocean in front of him. author david warner mathisen, a professional analyst and former us army infantry officer, observes that this type of failure to \u201c connect the dots \u201d is well known in the army, and that military concepts such as \u201c situational awareness \u201d and clausewitz \u2019 s phrase \u201c the fog of war \u201d are valuable tools for extracting lessons from the disaster that we can apply today. he points out that in many situations, the information that is needed to enable accurate analysis of the situation is actually available, but overlooked or not placed into the proper framework or context, so that the dots are not connected, something that happens so often that we can conclude that gaining true situational awareness is actually exceedingly difficult, even though it might at first appear to be simple. he then goes on to argue that the data we may be overlooking from a civilizational perspective may be creating a dangerous \u201c false picture \u201d that creates potentially serious danger, which should encourage greater efforts to \u201c connect the dots \u201d using tools that can facilitate better analysis. while many various theories of greater or lesser merit have been put forward to explain the 1912 titanic disaster, including some recent analysis that the position of the earth in relation to both the moon and the sun may have played a role, ultimately the sinking and the tragic loss of life were the result of a lack of situational awareness \u2013 not just prior to the collision but in the fatal aftermath as well. # # # david warner mathisen is a professional analyst and former us army officer, and the author of the book \" the mathisen corollary \" and of the recently - released essay \" titanic and the fall of civilizations. \"", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5609846274519374, "token_count": 418, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.289321"} {"text": "and the emphasis on learning from mistakes and a continuous process that results from what the military calls \u201c after - action reviews. \u201d learning can also occur in the classroom, whether through case studies, historical and analytic approaches, or experiential teaching that simulates situations that train students to increase self - awareness, distinguish their roles from their selves, and use their selves as a barometer for understanding a larger group. similarly, students can learn from the results of scientific studies, limited though they may be, and by studying the range of behaviors and contexts that historical episodes can illuminate. in practice, of course, few people occupy top positions in groups or organizations. most people \u201c lead from the middle. \u201d effective leadership from the middle often requires attracting and persuading those above, below, and beside you. indeed, leaders in the middle frequently find themselves in a policy vacuum, with few clear directives from the top. a passive follower keeps his head down, shuns risk, and avoids criticism. an opportunist uses the slack to feather his own nest rather than help the leader or the public. bureaucratic entrepreneurs, on the other hand, take advantage of such opportunities to adjust and promote policies. the key moral question is whether, and at what point, their entrepreneurial activity exceed the bounds of policies set from the top. since they lack the legitimate authority of elected or high - level appointed officials, bureaucratic entrepreneurs must remain cognizant of the need to balance initiative with loyalty. leaders should encourage such entrepreneurship among their followers as a means of increasing their effectiveness. after all, the key to successful leadership is to surround oneself with good people, empower them by delegating authority, and then claim credit for their accomplishments. to make this formula work, however, requires a good deal of soft power. without the soft power that produces attraction and loyalty to the leader \u2019 s goals, entrepreneurs run off in all directions and dissipate a group \u2019 s energies. with soft power, however, the energy of empowered followers strengthens leaders. leadership is broadly distributed throughout healthy democracies, and all citizens need to learn more about what makes good and bad leaders. potential leaders, in turn, can learn more about the sources and limits of the soft - power skills of emotional iq, vision, and communication, as well as hard - power political and organizational skills. they must also better understand the nature of the contextual intelligence they will need to educate their hunches and sustain strategies of smart power. most", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5213298704223469, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.295002"} {"text": "lama ole nydahl the six liberating actions are a motivational teaching for direct use in one ' s life. as is generally known, buddhism has a very practical aim and its view is exceedingly clear. no one gets enlightened from only hearing teachings. lasting results come from real experiences and the changes they bring about. because this is so important, buddha gave much practical advice, which should never be seen as commandments but as help from a friend. being neither a creator nor a judging god, he wants no followers nor students who are a flock of sheep. instead he wants colleagues - mature people sharing his enlightenment and the massive responsibility it entails are his real goal. for those who mainly think of themselves, his advice is contained in the noble eightfold path. starting with a useful lifestyle, it culminates in proper concentration. whoever has reached the level of compassion and insight, and wishes to be useful to others, finds the six paramitas or six liberating actions more useful. ' ita ' means ' gone ' and ' param ' means ' beyond '. the paramitas develop love which takes one beyond the personal. it is the view which sets one free, the deep insight that seer, things seen, and the act of seeing are interdependent and one, that subject, object and action cannot be separated. the paramitas liberate not because bad pictures in the mirror of one ' s mind are replaced with good ones, but because the confident states the latter produce allow one to go behind the good and the bad and recognize the mirror itself ; shining, perfect and more fantastic than anything that it may reflect. the actions are liberating because they bring a recognition of the ultimate nature of mind. if one only fills the mind with good impressions, that would of course bring future happiness, but it would not go beyond the conditioned. with the view of the oneness of subject, object and action, whatever is undertaken for the benefit of others will bring the doer timeless benefit. the first liberating action : generosity. generosity opens up every situation. the world is full of spontaneous richness, but no matter how good the music is, there is no party if no one dances. if no one shares anything of themselves, nothing meaningful will happen. that is why generosity is so important. at buddha ' s time, people were much less complicated than today. they also did not have amazing machines working for them. at that time, generosity was a question of", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5028215836647296, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.313255"} {"text": "of themselves, nothing meaningful will happen. that is why generosity is so important. at buddha ' s time, people were much less complicated than today. they also did not have amazing machines working for them. at that time, generosity was a question of helping others survive, of assuring that they had enough to eat. this meant the act was often focused on material things. today, in the free and non - overpopulated part of the world, this is not the case ; one usually dies from too much fat around the heart. due to a lack of clear thinking, people develop inner problems as the outer ones diminish, and start to feel lonely and insecure. instead of worrying about necessities, they develop complicated inner lives and many have never tasted the joy of their physical freedom. thus in the western world and parts of asia, where material things are abundant - generosity refers mostly to the emotional. it means sharing one ' s power, joy and love with others, from the beyond - personal levels from where there is no falling down. if one meditates well and taps into the unconditioned states of mind, there is no end to the good that one may pass on to others. sharing one ' s ultimate certainty is the finest gift of all - giving beings one ' s warmth - and though one cannot take one ' s car or fame past the grave, not everything is lost at death. the qualities developed during former lives are easily re - gained in later ones and there is no richness that is passed more directly from one existence to another than joyful energy. squeezing the juice out of life pays, and a few more mantras or prostrations, some more love for one ' s partner than usual, not only bring power here and now, but speed up enlightenment. as already mentioned, the finest and only lasting richness one may bring beings is an insight into their unconditioned nature. but how to do that? how does one show others their innate perfection? the best mirror is buddha ' s teachings and this is why no activity is more beneficial than the making of meditation centers. the practical wisdom they disseminate acquaints many with the clear light of their consciousness and the seeds thus planted will grow over all future lives until enlightenment. though many socially minded people claim that such teachings are a luxury and that first one should give people something to eat, this is not true. there is ample space for both. when the mind functions well, the stomach will digest the food better", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5443309982448602, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.315837"} {"text": "enlightenment. though many socially minded people claim that such teachings are a luxury and that first one should give people something to eat, this is not true. there is ample space for both. when the mind functions well, the stomach will digest the food better and maybe then one can understand the reasons for having less children. in any case, the body will disappear while the mind continues on. the second paramita : a life that is aware, meaningful and useful to others. as terms like morality and ethics are employed by governing classes to control those below, many prefer not to use them. people are consciously intimidated by this, and often think, \" if the state doesn ' t get you in this life, the church will get you afterwards. \" even when only advice is given, as in the case of the buddha, and the full development of beings is the only goal, one has to choose words which instruct clearly, without employing fear. the best definition of the second liberating action is probably living meaningfully and for the benefit of others. so what does this mean? how can one encompass the countless actions, words and thoughts during just one single day? buddha, seeing everything from the state of timeless wisdom, had a few unique ideas. because people have ten fingers for counting and then remembering, he gave ten pieces of advice concerning what is useful and what is not. encompassing body, speech and mind, they become meaningful also to independent people when one recognizes that buddha is not a boss, but a friend wishing one happiness. he wants everybody to share the blissful clear light of mind ; the knower of past, present and future. understanding that everybody is a buddha who has not realized it yet, and recognizing the outer world to be a pure land, all experience becomes the expression of highest wisdom simply because it can happen. how else could the buddha act? he never teaches by dogma or from above but shares his wisdom with beings whom he knows to be his equals in essence. due to the good karma of those surrounding him, buddha tought for a full 45 years and died with a smile. he taught many extraordinary students. the questions they asked him were on the level of socrates, aristotle and plato ; the best minds of an amazing generation came to test him with the complete range of their philosophical tools and found not only convincing words, but buddha ' s power was so skillful that it changed them in lasting ways. beyond perfecting their logical abilities, he influenced their whole mind. introducing them to the timeless experiencer behind", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.6044514460600829, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.317070"} {"text": "range of their philosophical tools and found not only convincing words, but buddha ' s power was so skillful that it changed them in lasting ways. beyond perfecting their logical abilities, he influenced their whole mind. introducing them to the timeless experiencer behind the experiences, there was no space left for doubt. on the levels of body, speech and mind, it is not difficult to understand what is useful to avoid. when people have problems with the police, usually they have caused some trouble with their body. killing, stealing, or harming others sexually are the main points here. when they are lonely, usually they say things which disturb others. they usually lie with the intent to harm others, spread gossip, split friends or confuse people. if somebody is unhappy, one will develop a tendency to dislike others, feel envy and permit states of confusion to drag on. the opposite are ten positive actions of body, speech and mind which only bring happiness. they make one powerful and useful to others. here the buddha advises using one ' s body as a tool to protect beings, to give them love and whatever else they need. whoever has success with others now, has developed that potential during earlier lives, so the quicker one starts, the better. one ' s speech may touch many more beings with the means of communication today. kind words previously spoken, create pleasant experiences now and strengthen good karma. if people listen, speak kindly and receive clear information, then again, in this life they will see benefit in telling the truth whenever possible, avoid telling lies to harm others, show people how things work in the world, and bring them calm. and finally, what to do with one ' s mind? good wishes, joy in the good that others do and clear thinking is the way to go. these qualities brought us the mental happiness we enjoy today and making a habit of them insures happiness until enlightenment. the mind is most important of all. thoughts today become words tomorrow and actions the day after. every moment here and now is important. if one watches the mind, nothing can stop one ' s progress. the third paramita : how not to lose future happiness through anger. when one is accumulating spiritual richness through generosity and directing it with the right understanding, the third quality needed on one ' s way is patience ; not to lose the good energy at work for others and oneself. how may one lose it? through anger. anger is the only luxury mind cannot afford. good impressions gathered over lifetimes - mind ' s capital and the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5350894993909483, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.318188"} {"text": "' s way is patience ; not to lose the good energy at work for others and oneself. how may one lose it? through anger. anger is the only luxury mind cannot afford. good impressions gathered over lifetimes - mind ' s capital and the only source of lasting happiness - may be burnt in no time through fits of hot or cold rage. buddha said that avoiding anger is the most difficult and most beautiful robe one can wear, and he gave many means to obtain that goal. one which is very useful today is experiencing a situation as a series of separate events to which one reacts without any evaluation. this \" salami tactic \" or \" strobe light - view \" is very effective when reacting to a physical danger. also other methods like feeling empathy with whomever creates bad karma, knowing it will return to them, and being aware of the impermanent and conditioned nature of every experience, and imagining how deluded people must be to cause such trouble are beneficial approaches. reacting to whatever appears without anger will set free the timeless wisdom of body, speech, and mind and one ' s reactions will be right. on the highest level of practice called the diamond way, one lets unwanted emotions float on a carpet of mantras, letting them fall away without causing any bad habits. one may also let the thief \" come to an empty house \" by simply being aware of the feeling while doing nothing unusual. when it has visited a few times without receiving any energy, it will come less frequently and then stay away. whoever can be aware as anger appears, plays around and then disappears, will discover a radiant state of mind, showing all things clearly like a mirror. in any case, it is wise to avoid anger as well as one can. and when it bites, to let it go quickly. the decision to stop anger and remove it whenever it appears is the support for the \" inner \" or bodhisattva vow. force is useful to protect and teach, but the feeling of anger is always difficult and causes most of the suffering in the world today. the buddhist protectors removing harm, or tilopa and marpa polishing off their students in record time fall under the category of forceful action. probably no teacher could survive without having to resort to it. meditation centers need this view for a balanced policy for their visitors. if people appear drunk, on drugs, unwashed or behave badly, one should make them leave quickly. they disturb others, plus the next day they will not remember what they have learned. the function of a", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5319181665547354, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.319218"} {"text": "for a balanced policy for their visitors. if people appear drunk, on drugs, unwashed or behave badly, one should make them leave quickly. they disturb others, plus the next day they will not remember what they have learned. the function of a buddhist center, and especially of the karma kagyu lineage, is to offer a spiritual way to those who are too critical and independent for anything else ; there are enough churches and places for people searching for help. not everybody brings the necessary conditions for entering the buddhist practice, however. to practice the diamond way one needs a foundation of being at least behaved, able to not take things personally and to think of others. the fourth paramita : joyful energy insuring our growth. next follows joyful energy. without that, life has no \" zap \" and one will get older but not wiser. it is a point where one should be conscious and keep feeding body, speech and mind the impressions which give an appetite for further conquest and joy. as most have a strong tendency towards inertia and the status quo, one should make sure to stay alive from the inside out, which actually happens best through the pure view of the diamond way. knowing that all beings are buddhas just waiting to be shown their richness and that all existence is the free play of enlightened space : what would be more inspiring than making all that come true? there is an immense joy inherent in constant growth, in never allowing anything to become stale or used. real development lies beyond the comfort zone and it pays well to demand little from others and much from oneself. the fifth paramita : meditation which makes life meaningful. the former four points should be evident to everybody. whoever wants to give life power and meaning has to invoke others. this happens best through generosity with body, speech and mind. one needs to direct the energy thus arising through skillful thoughts, words and actions and then to avoid the anger which destroys all good seeds one may have planted. also energy gives that extra push which opens new dimensions. but why meditation? because one cannot willfully keep the states so joyfully reached at times. unwanted emotions often lurk in dark corners of beings ' consciousness and may bring them to do, say or experience things they would rather have avoided. here, the pacifying meditation of calming and holding the mind gives the necessary distance to choose taking roles in life ' s comedies and avoiding it ' s tragedies. the sixth paramita : wisdom - recognizing the true nature of", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5598527898861116, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.320335"} {"text": "activemq via c # using apache. nms part 1 java message service ( jms ) is the de facto standard for asynchronous messaging between loosely coupled, distributed applications. per the specification, it provides a common way for java application to create, send, receive and read messages. this is great for enterprises or organizations whose architecture depends upon a single platform ( java ), but the reality is that most organizations have hi - bred architectures consisting of java and. net ( and others ). oftentimes these systems need to communicate using common messaging schematics : activemq and apache. nms satisfy this integration requirement. the jms specification outlines the requirements for system communication between java messaging middleware and the clients that use them. products that implement the jms specification do so by developing a provider that supports the set of jms interfaces and messaging semantics. examples of jms providers include open source offerings such as activemq, hornetq and glassfish and proprietary offerings such as sonicmq and websphere mq. the specification simply makes it easier for third parties to develop providers. all messaging in jms is peer - 2 - peer ; clients are either jms or non jms applications that send and receive messages via a provider. jms applications are pure java based applications whereas non jms use jms styled apis such as activemq. nms which uses openwire, a cross language wire protocol that allows native access to the activemq provider. jms messaging schematics are defined into two separate domains : queue based and topic based applications. queue based or more formally, point - to - point ( ptp ) clients rely on \u201c senders \u201d sending messages to specific queues and \u201c receivers \u201d registering as listeners to the queue. in scenarios where more a queue has more than one listener, the messages are delivered in a round - robin fashion between each listener ; only one copy of the message is delivered. think of this as something like a phone call between you and another person. topic based application follow the publish / subscribe metaphor in which ( in most cases ) a single publisher client publishes a message to a topic and all subscribers to that topic receive a copy. this type of messaging metaphor is often referred to as broadcast messaging because a single client sends messages to all client subscribers. this is some analogous to a tv station broadcasting a television show to you and any other people who wish to \u201c subscribe \u201d to a specific channel. jms api basics the jms standard defines a", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5291488488173522, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.329570"} {"text": "takes to send a message, however for performance reasons you can extend the life out to the length of the application \u2019 s lifetime. like the topicpublisher above, the topicsubscriber class is container / wrapper class that allows clients to \u201c listen in \u201d or \u201c subscribe \u201d to a topic. the topicsubscriber class is typically has a lifetime that is the equal to the lifetime of the application. the reason is pretty obvious : a publisher always knows when it will publish, but a subscriber never knows when the publisher will send the message. what the subscriber does is create a permanent \u201c listener \u201d to the topic, when a publisher sends a message to the topic, the subscriber will receive and process the message. the following unit test shows the classes above used in conjunction with the apache. nms and apache. nms. activemq api \u2019 s to send and receive messages to activemq which is java based, from the. net world! here is quick rundown of the apachnmsactivemqtests class : - declare variables for the required nms objects and the topicsubscriber - declare variables for the broker uri, the topic to subscribe / publish to, and the client and consumer ids - create a connectionfactory object, create and start a connection, and then create a session to work with. - create and start the topicsubscriber which will be a listener / subscriber to the \u201c testtopic \u201d topic. also, to receive messages you must register an event handler or lambda expression with the messagereceiveddelegate delegate. in this example i in - lined a lambda expression for simplicity. - on the test the method, create a temporary publisher and send a message to the topic. - tear down and dispose of the subscriber and session. - tear down and dispose of the connection. after you run the unit test you should see something like the following message : note that activemq must be up and running for the example to work.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5022248043624074, "token_count": 420, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.334242"} {"text": "below you will find several recent observations about the relationship between reading and science process skills. significant improvement in both science and reading scores occurred when the regular basal reading program was replaced with reading in science that correlated with the science curriculum ( romance and vitale, 2001 ). teachers should help students recognize the important role that prior knowledge plays and teach them to use that knowledge when learning science through reading ( barton and jordan, 2001 ). most students arrive at the science teacher ' s classroom knowing how to read, but few understand how to use reading for learning science content ( santa, havens, and harrison, 1996 ). the same skills that make good scientists also make good readers : engaging prior knowledge, forming hypotheses, establishing plans, evaluating understanding, determining the relative importance of information, describing patterns, comparing and contrasting, making inferences, drawing conclusions, generalizing, evaluating sources, and so on ( armbruster, 1993 ). the skills in science are remarkably similar to those used in other subjects, especially reading. when students are doing science, following scientific procedures, and thinking as scientists, they are developing skills that are necessary for effective reading and understanding ( padilla, muth and lund padilla, 1991 ). students engaging in hands - on activities are forced to confront currently held cognitive frameworks with new ideas, and, thus actively reconstruct meaning form experience ( shymansky, 1989 ). because hands - on activities encourage students to generate their own questions whose answers are found by subsequent reading of their science textbook or other science materials, such activities can provide students with both a meaningful purpose for reading ( ulerick, 1989 ) and context - valid cognitive frames of reference from which to construct meaning from text ( nelson - herber, 1986 ). reading and activity - oriented sciences emphasize the same intellectual skills and are both concerned with thinking processes. when a teacher helps students develop science process skills, reading processes are simultaneously being developed ( mechling & oliver, 1983 and simon & zimmerman, 1980 ). research indicates that a strong experienced - based science program, one in which students directly manipulate materials, can facilitate the development of language arts skills ( wellman, 1978 ). science process skills have reading counterparts. for example, when a teacher is working on \" describing \" in science, students are learning to isolate important characteristics, enumerate characteristics, use appropriate terminology, and use synonyms which are important reading skills ( carter & simpson, 1978 ). when students have used the process skills of observing, identifying, and classify", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5704536730178231, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.343018"} {"text": "science, students are learning to isolate important characteristics, enumerate characteristics, use appropriate terminology, and use synonyms which are important reading skills ( carter & simpson, 1978 ). when students have used the process skills of observing, identifying, and classifying, they are better able to discriminate between vowels and consonants and to learn the sounds represented by letters, letter blends, and syllables ( murray & pikul ski, 1978 ). science instruction provides an alternative teaching strategy that motivates students who may have reading difficulties ( wellman, 1978 ). children ' s involvement with process skills enables them to recognize more easily the contextual and structural clues in attacking new words and better equips them to interpret data in a paragraph. science process skills are essential to logical thinking, as well as to forming the basic skills for learning to read ( barufaldi & swift, 1977 ). guszak defines reading readiness as a skill - complex. of the three areas within the skill - complex, two can be directly enhanced by science process skills : ( 1 ) physical factors ( health, auditory, visual, speech, and motor ) ; and ( 2 ) understanding factors ( concepts, processes ). when students see, hear, and talk about science experiences, their understanding, perception, and comprehension of concepts and processes may improve ( barufaldi & swift, 1977 and bethel, 1974 ). the hands - on manipulative experiences science provides are the key to the relationship between process skills in both science and reading ( lucas & burlando, 1975 ). science activities provide opportunities for manipulating large quantities of multi - sensory materials which promote perceptual skills, i. e., tactile, kinesthetic, auditory, and visual ( neuman, 1969 ). these skills then contribute to the development of the concepts, vocabulary, and oral language skills ( listening and speaking ) necessary for learning to read ( wellman, 1978 ). studies viewed cumulatively suggest that science instruction at the intermediate and upper elementary grades does improve the attainment of reading skills. the findings reveal that students have derived benefits in the areas of vocabulary enrichment, increased verbal fluency, enhanced ability to think logically, and improved concept formation and communication skills ( campbell, 1972 ; kraft, 1961 ; olson, 1971 ; quinn & kessler, 1976 ).", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5893509999962696, "token_count": 473, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.344002"} {"text": "defining dry eyes : doctors agree that dry eyes involve water loss in the tear film \u2019 s aqueous layer physicians look for a series of symptoms for dry eyes, not an exact cause or condition, says bio - logic aqua research founder sharon kleyne. grants pass, or ( prweb ) april 09, 2012 in a recent interview, mrs. kleyne discussed the latest attempts to define \u201c dry eyes, \u201d \u201c dry eye syndrome \u201d and \u201c dry eye disease. \u201d according to mrs. kleyne, the only agreement is that dry eyes involve a loss of water in the tear film \u2019 s \u201c aqueous layer, \u201d due either to excessive evaporation or to poor tear production. the causes and symptoms of dry eyes are so complex and variable that doctors have not agreed on a precise clinical definition of the syndrome. dry eyes are the most frequently cited reason for visiting an eye doctor and so common that ophthalmologists find it difficult to draw a precise line between normal eyes and abnormal eyes with dry eye disease. ( mathers, 2005 ). that was the conclusion of eye health advocate sharon kleyne, host of the sharon kleyne hour power of water syndicated radio show and founder of bio - logic aqua research. the three - layered tear film covering the eye \u2019 s exposed portions is 99 % water and extremely complex. the overlying \u201c lipid layer \u201d helps prevent water evaporation from the middle \u201c aqueous ( water ) layer, \u201d while the lower \u201c mucin layer \u201d adheres the tear film to the eye. dry eyes are experienced by nearly everyone, says mrs. kleyne. tear film dehydration ( water loss ) begins at the moment of birth, when you first open your eyes, and eyes require constant hydration throughout life. because we are all unique, no two individuals are affected in exactly the same way by eye dehydration. doctors agree that maintaining a healthy, fully hydrated tear film is becoming an increasing challenge for everyone. according to ula jurkunas, md, corneal stem cell researcher at harvard university, \u201c to function well, the cornea ( clear part of the eye ) must be well hydrated by the tear film. hydration is also essential to successful corneal stem cell transplants \u201d ( jurkunas, 2011 ). sharon kleyne notes that, no physiologic variable correlates exactly with dry eye symptoms, although most measurable variables correlate to some degree. instead", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5207967035148755, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.348247"} {"text": "##eal stem cell transplants \u201d ( jurkunas, 2011 ). sharon kleyne notes that, no physiologic variable correlates exactly with dry eye symptoms, although most measurable variables correlate to some degree. instead, she explains, physicians look for a series of symptoms. the presence of one or more symptom could indicate a dry eye condition ( korb, 2000 ). the most common dry eye symptoms include eye irritation, a feeling of dryness in the eyes ; itching, burning and grainy or scratchy eyes ; increased eye allergies, and blurred vision ( especially late in the day ). symptoms such as fatigue, headache, muscle aches and an elevated stress level may not even directly involve the eyes ( mathers, 2005 ). this symptom - based definition works reasonably well, according to mrs. kleyne. the degree and duration of symptoms are critical since a large percentage of the adult population complains of at least mild dry eye symptoms at any given time. this includes 50 % of adult females and a significant percentage of computer users and contact lens patients ( mathers, 2005 ). in addition to symptoms, most ( but not all ) dry eye patients have at least one physiologic parameter outside the range of normal. typically, tear production has decreased, tear film volume is low, tear film evaporation is high, and / or tear film osmolarity is elevated ( mathers, 2004 ). in addition, tears produced in dry eyes contain elevated levels of substances ( metalloproteases and other proteinaceous compounds ) that increase surface inflammation ( barton, 1995 ). \u00a9 2012 bio - logic aqua research for the original version on prweb visit : http : / / www. prweb. com / releases / prweb2012 / 4 / prweb9381612. htm", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5393196369801889, "token_count": 391, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.349453"} {"text": "please read how you can help keep the encyclopedia free absolute and relational theories of space and motion since antiquity, natural philosophers have struggled to comprehend the nature of three tightly interconnected concepts : space, time, and motion. a proper understanding of motion, in particular, has been seen to be crucial for deciding questions about the natures of space and time, and their interconnections. since the time of newton and leibniz, philosophers \u2019 struggles to comprehend these concepts have often appeared to take the form of a dispute between absolute conceptions of space, time and motion, and relational conceptions. this article guides the reader through some of the history of these philosophical struggles. rather than taking sides in the ( alleged ) ongoing debates, or reproducing the standard dialectic recounted in most introductory texts, we have chosen to scrutinize carefully the history of the thinking of the canonical participants in these debates \u2014 principally descartes, newton, leibniz, mach and einstein. readers interested in following up either the historical questions or current debates about the natures of space, time and motion will find ample links and references scattered through the discussion and in the other internet resources section below. - 1. introduction - 2. aristotle - 3. descartes - 4. newton - 5. absolute space in the twentieth century - 6. leibniz - 7. \u2018 not - newton \u2019 versus \u2018 be - leibniz \u2019 - 8. mach and later machians - 9. relativity and motion - 10. conclusion - other internet resources - related entries things change. a platitude perhaps, but still a crucial feature of the world, and one which causes many philosophical perplexities \u2014 see for instance the entry on zeno ' s paradoxes. for aristotle, motion ( he would have called it \u2018 locomotion \u2019 ) was just one kind of change, like generation, growth, decay, fabrication and so on. the atomists held on the contrary that all change was in reality the motion of atoms into new configurations, an idea that was not to begin to realize its full potential until the seventeenth century, particularly in the work of descartes. ( of course, modern physics seems to show that the physical state of a system goes well beyond the geometrical configuration of bodies. fields, while determined by the states of bodies, are not themselves configurations of bodies if interpreted literally, and in quantum mechanics bodies have \u2018 internal states ' such as particle spin. ) while not all changes seem to be merely the ( loco )", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6597759157919307, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.481436"} {"text": "bodies. fields, while determined by the states of bodies, are not themselves configurations of bodies if interpreted literally, and in quantum mechanics bodies have \u2018 internal states ' such as particle spin. ) while not all changes seem to be merely the ( loco ) motions of bodies in physical space. yet since antiquity, in the western tradition, this kind of motion has been absolutely central to the understanding of change. and since motion is a crucial concept in physical theories, one is forced to address the question of what exactly it is. the question might seem trivial, for surely what is usually meant by saying that something is moving is to say that it is moving relative to something, often tacitly understood between speakers. for instance : the car is moving at 60mph ( relative to the road and things along it ), the plane is flying ( relative ) to london, the rocket is lifting off ( the ground ), or the passenger is moving ( to the front of the speeding train ). typically the relative reference body is either the surroundings of the speakers, or the earth, but this is not always the case. for instance, it seems to make sense to ask whether the earth rotates about its axis west - east diurnally or whether it is instead the heavens that rotate east - west ; but if all motions are to be reckoned relative to the earth, then its rotation seems impossible. but if the earth does not offer a unique frame of reference for the description of motion, then we may wonder whether any arbitrary object can be used for the definition of motions : are all such motions on a par, none privileged over any other? it is unclear whether anyone has really, consistently espoused this view : aristotle, perhaps, in the metaphysics ; descartes and leibniz are often thought to have but, as we ' ll see, those claims are suspect ; possibly huygens, though his remarks remain cryptic ; mach at some moments perhaps. if this view were correct, then the question of whether the earth or heavens rotate would be meaningless, merely different but equivalent expressions of the facts. but suppose, like aristotle, you take ordinary language accurately to reflect the structure of the world, then you could recognize systematic everyday uses of \u2018 up \u2019 and \u2018 down \u2019 that require some privileged standards \u2014 uses that treat things closer to a point at the center of the earth as more \u2018 down \u2019 and motions towards that point as \u2018 downwards '. of course we would likely explain this usage in terms of the fact that we and our language evolved", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6683598062176233, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.482820"} {"text": "standards \u2014 uses that treat things closer to a point at the center of the earth as more \u2018 down \u2019 and motions towards that point as \u2018 downwards '. of course we would likely explain this usage in terms of the fact that we and our language evolved in a very noticeable gravitational field directed towards the center of the earth, but for aristotle, as we shall see, this usage helped identify an important structural feature of the universe, which itself was required for the explanation of weight. now a further question arises : how should a structure, such as a preferred point in the universe, which privileges certain motions, be understood? what makes that point privileged? one might expect that aristotle simply identified it with the center of the earth, and so relative to that particular body ; but in fact he did not adopt that tacit convention as fundamental, for he thought it possible for the earth to move from the \u2018 down \u2019 point. thus the question arises ( although aristotle does not address it explicitly ) of whether the preferred point is somewhere picked out in some other way by the bodies in the universe \u2014 the center of the heavens perhaps? or is it picked out quite independently of the arrangements of matter? the issues that arise in this simple theory help frame the debates between later physicists and philosophers concerning the nature of motion ; in particular, we will focus on the theories of descartes, newton, leibniz, mach and einstein, and their interpretations. but similar issues circulate through the different contexts : is there any kind of privileged sense of motion, a sense in which things can be said to move or not, not just relative to this or that reference body, but \u2018 truly \u2019? if so, can this true motion be analyzed in terms of motions relative to other bodies \u2014 to some special body, or to the entire universe perhaps? ( and in relativity, in which distances, times and measures of relative motion are frame - dependent, what relations are relevant? ) if not, then how is the privileged kind of motion to be understood, as relative to space itself \u2014 something physical but non - material \u2014 perhaps? or can some kinds of motion be best understood as not being spatial changes \u2014 changes of relative location or of place \u2014 at all? to see that the problem of the interpretation of spatiotemporal quantities as absolute or relative is endemic to almost any kind of mechanics one can imagine, we can look to one of the simplest theories \u2014 aristotle ' s account of natural motion ( e. g., on the heavens i. 2 ). according", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6451125996542284, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.484044"} {"text": "center of the stars. it would be to push aristotle ' s writings too hard to suggest that he was consciously wrestling with the issue of whether mechanics required absolute or relative quantities of motion, but what is clear is that these questions arise in his physics and his remarks impinge on them. his theory also gives a simple model of how these questions arise : a physical theory of motion will say that \u2018 under such - and - such circumstances, motion of so - and - so a kind will occur \u2019 \u2014 and the question of whether that kind of motion makes sense in terms of the relations between bodies alone arises automatically. aristotle may not have recognized the question explicitly, but we see it as one issue in the background of his discussion of the center. the issues are, however, far more explicit in descartes ' physics ; and since the form of his theory is different the \u2018 kinds of motion \u2019 in question are quite different \u2014 as they change with all the different theories that we discuss. for descartes argued in his 1644 principles of philosophy ( see book ii ) that the essence of matter was extension ( i. e., size and shape ) because any other attribute of bodies could be imagined away without imagining away matter itself. but he also held that extension constitutes the nature of space, hence he concluded that space and matter were one and the same thing. an immediate consequence of the identification is the impossibility of the vacuum ; if every region of space is a region of matter, then there can be no space without matter. thus descartes ' universe is \u2018 hydrodynamical \u2019 \u2014 completely full of mobile matter of in different sized pieces in motion, rather like a bucket full of water and lumps of ice of different sizes, which has been stirred around. since fundamentally the pieces of matter are nothing but extension, the universe is in fact nothing but a system of geometric bodies in motion without any gaps. ( descartes held that all other properties arise from the configurations and motions of such bodies \u2014 from geometric complexes. see garber 1992 for a comprehensive study. ) the identification of space and matter poses a puzzle about motion : if the space that a body occupies literally is the matter of the body, then when the body \u2014 i. e., the matter \u2014 moves, so does the space that it occupies. thus it doesn ' t change place, which is should be to say that it doesn ' t move after all! descartes resolved this difficulty by taking all motion to be the motion of bodies relative to one another,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5957625806213322, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.486423"} {"text": "the space that it occupies. thus it doesn ' t change place, which is should be to say that it doesn ' t move after all! descartes resolved this difficulty by taking all motion to be the motion of bodies relative to one another, not a literal change of space. now, a body has as many relative motions as there are bodies but it does not follow that all are equally significant. indeed, descartes uses several different concepts of relational motion. first there is \u2018 change of place \u2019, which is nothing but motion relative to this or that arbitrary reference body ( ii. 13 ). in this sense no motion of a body is privileged, since the speed, direction, and even curve of a trajectory depends on the reference body, and none is singled out. next, he discusses motion in \u2018 the ordinary sense \u2019 ( ii. 24 ). this is often conflated with mere change of arbitrary place, but it in fact differs because according to the rules of ordinary speech one properly attributes motion only to bodies whose motion is caused by some action, not to any relative motion. ( for instance, a person sitting on a speeding boat is ordinarily said to be at rest, since \u2018 he feels no action in himself \u2019. ) finally, he defined motion \u2018 properly speaking \u2019 ( ii. 25 ) to be a body ' s motion relative to the matter contiguously surrounding it, which the impossibility of a vacuum guarantees to exist. ( descartes \u2019 definition is complicated by the fact that he modifies this technical concept to make it conform more closely to the pre - theoretical sense of \u2018 motion \u2019 ; however, in our discussion transference is all that matters, so we will ignore those complications. ) since a body can only be touching one set of surroundings, descartes ( dubiously ) argued that this standard of motion was unique. what we see here is that descartes, despite holding motion to be the motion of bodies relative to one another, also held there to be a privileged sense of motion ; in a terminology sometimes employed by writers of the period, he held there to be a sense of \u2018 true motion \u2019, over and above the merely relative motions. equivalently, we can say that descartes took motion ( \u2018 properly speaking \u2019 ) to be a complete predicate : that is, moves - properly - speaking is a one - place predicate. ( in contrast, moves - relative - to is a two - place predicate. ) and note that the predicate is complete", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.6192171483978752, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.487513"} {"text": ") to be a complete predicate : that is, moves - properly - speaking is a one - place predicate. ( in contrast, moves - relative - to is a two - place predicate. ) and note that the predicate is complete despite the fact that it is analyzed in terms of relative motion. ( formally, let contiguous - surroundings be a function from bodies to their contiguous surroundings, then x moves - properly - speaking is analyzed as x moves - relative - to contiguous - surroundings ( x ). ) this example illustrates why it is crucial to keep two questions distinct : on the one hand, is motion to be understood in terms of relations between bodies or by invoking something additional, something absolute ; on the other hand, are all relative motions equally significant, or is there some \u2018 true \u2019, privileged notion of motion? descartes ' views show that eschewing absolute motion is logically compatible with accepting true motion ; which is of course not to say that his definitions of motion are themselves tenable. there is an interpretational tradition which holds that descartes only took the first, \u2018 ordinary \u2019 sense of motion seriously, and introduced the second notion to avoid conflict with the catholic church. such conflict was a real concern, since the censure of galileo ' s copernicanism took place only 11 years before publication of the principles, and had in fact dissuaded descartes from publishing an earlier work, the world. indeed, in the principles ( iii. 28 ) he is at pains to explain how \u2018 properly speaking \u2019 the earth does not move, because it is swept around the sun in a giant vortex of matter \u2014 the earth does not move relative to its surroundings in the vortex. the difficulty with the reading, aside from the imputation of cowardice to the old soldier, is that it makes nonsense of descartes ' mechanics, a theory of collisions. for instance, according to his laws of collision if two equal bodies strike each other at equal and opposite velocities then they will bounce off at equal and opposite velocities ( rule i ). on the other hand, if the very same bodies approach each other with the very same relative speed, but at different speeds then they will move off together in the direction of the faster one ( rule iii ). but if the operative meaning of motion in the rules is the ordinary sense, then these two situations are just the same situation, differing only in the choice of reference frame, and so could not have different outcomes \u2014 bouncing", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.620308485030248, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.488698"} {"text": "faster one ( rule iii ). but if the operative meaning of motion in the rules is the ordinary sense, then these two situations are just the same situation, differing only in the choice of reference frame, and so could not have different outcomes \u2014 bouncing apart versus moving off together. it seems inconceivable that descartes could have been confused in such a trivial way. ( additionally, as pooley 2002 points out, just after he claims that the earth is at rest \u2018 properly speaking \u2019, descartes argues that the earth is stationary in the ordinary sense, because common practice is to determine the positions of the stars relative to the earth. descartes simply didn ' t need motion properly speaking to avoid religious conflict, which again suggests that it has some other significance in his system of thought. ) thus garber ( 1992, chapter 6 - 8 ) proposes that descartes actually took the unequivocal notion of motion properly speaking to be the correct sense of motion in mechanics. then rule i covers the case in which the two bodies have equal and opposite motions relative to their contiguous surroundings, while rule vi covers the case in which the bodies have different motions relative to those surroundings \u2014 one is perhaps at rest in its surroundings. that is, exactly what is needed to make the rules consistent is the kind of privileged, true, sense of motion provided by descartes ' second definition. insurmountable problems with the rules remain, but rejecting the traditional interpretation and taking motion properly speaking seriously in descartes ' philosophy clearly gives a more charitable reading. in an unpublished essay \u2014 de gravitatione ( newton, 2004 ) \u2014 and in a scholium to the definitions given in his 1687 mathematical principles of natural philosophy ( see newton, 1999 for an up - to - date translation ), newton attacked both of descartes ' notions of motion as candidates for the operative notion in mechanics. ( see stein 1967and rynasiewicz 1995 for important, and differing, views on the issue. ) ( this critique is studied in more detail in the entry newton ' s views on space, time, and motion. ) the most famous argument invokes the so - called \u2018 newton ' s bucket \u2019 experiment. stripped to its basic elements one compares : - a bucket of water hanging from a cord as the bucket is set spinning about the cord ' s axis, with - the same bucket and water when they are rotating at the same rate about the cord ' s axis. as is familiar from any rotating system,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.6152693180414328, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 7, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.489887"} {"text": "bucket of water hanging from a cord as the bucket is set spinning about the cord ' s axis, with - the same bucket and water when they are rotating at the same rate about the cord ' s axis. as is familiar from any rotating system, there will be a tendency for the water to recede from the axis of rotation in the latter case : in ( i ) the surface of the water will be flat ( because of the earth ' s gravitational field ) while in ( ii ) it will be concave. the analysis of such \u2018 inertial effects ' due to rotation was a major topic of enquiry of \u2018 natural philosophers ' of the time, including descartes and his followers, and they would certainly have agreed with newton that the concave surface of the water in the second case demonstrated that the water was moving in a mechanically significant sense. there is thus an immediate problem for the claim that proper motion is the correct mechanical sense of motion : in ( i ) and ( ii ) proper motion is anti - correlated with the mechanically significant motion revealed by the surface of the water. that is, the water is flat in ( i ) when it is in motion relative to its immediate surroundings \u2014 the inner sides of the bucket \u2014 but curved in ( ii ) when it is at rest relative to its immediate surroundings. thus the mechanically relevant meaning of rotation is not that of proper motion. ( you may have noticed a small lacuna in newton ' s argument : in ( i ) the water is at rest and in ( ii ) in motion relative to that part of its surroundings constituted by the air above it. it ' s not hard to imagine small modifications to the example to fill this gap. ) newton also points out that the height that the water climbs up the inside of the bucket provides a measure of the rate of rotation of bucket and water : the higher the water rises up the sides, the greater the tendency to recede must be, and so the faster the water must be rotating in the mechanically significant sense. but supposing, very plausibly, that the measure is unique, that any particular height indicates a particular rate of rotation. then the unique height that the water reaches at any moment implies a unique rate of rotation in a mechanically significant sense. and thus motion in the sense of motion relative to an arbitrary reference body, is not the mechanical sense, since that kind of rotation is not unique at all, but depends on the motion of the reference body. and so descartes \u2019 change of place ( and for", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.611929328633775, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 8, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.491564"} {"text": "the sense of motion relative to an arbitrary reference body, is not the mechanical sense, since that kind of rotation is not unique at all, but depends on the motion of the reference body. and so descartes \u2019 change of place ( and for similar reasons, motion in the ordinary sense ) is not the mechanically significant sense of motion. in our discussion of descartes we called the sense of motion operative in the science of mechanics \u2018 true motion \u2019, and the phrase is used in this way by newton in the scholium. thus newton ' s bucket shows that true ( rotational ) motion is anti - correlated with, and so not identical with, proper motion ( as descartes proposed according to the garber reading ) ; and newton further argues that the rate of true ( rotational ) motion is unique, and so not identical with change of place, which is multiple. newton proposed instead that true motion is motion relative to a temporally enduring, rigid, 3 - dimensional euclidean space, which he dubbed \u2018 absolute space \u2019. of course, descartes also defined motion as relative to an enduring 3 - dimensional euclidean space ; the difference is that descartes space was divided into parts ( his space was identical with a plenum of corpuscles ) in motion, not a rigid structure in which ( mobile ) material bodies are embedded. so according to newton, the rate of true rotation of the bucket ( and water ) is the rate at which it rotates relative to absolute space. or put another way, newton effectively defines the complete predicate x moves - absolutely as x moves - relative - to absolute space ; both newton and descartes offer the competing complete predicates as analyses of x moves - truly. newton ' s proposal for understanding motion solves the problems that he posed for descartes, and provides an interpretation of the concepts of constant motion and acceleration that appear in his laws of motion. however, it suffers from two notable interpretational problems, both of which were pressed forcefully by leibniz ( in the leibniz - clarke correspondence, 1715 \u2013 1716 ) \u2014 which is not to say that leibniz himself offered a superior account of motion ( see below ). ( of course, there are other features of newton ' s proposal that turned out to be empirically inadequate, and are rejected by relativity : newton ' s account violates the relativity of simultaneity and postulates a non - dynamical spacetime structure. ) first, according to this account, absolute velocity is a well - defined", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6352837302561022, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 9, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.493176"} {"text": "empirically inadequate, and are rejected by relativity : newton ' s account violates the relativity of simultaneity and postulates a non - dynamical spacetime structure. ) first, according to this account, absolute velocity is a well - defined quantity : more simply, the absolute speed of a body is the rate of change of its position relative to an arbitrary point of absolute space. but the galilean relativity of newton ' s laws mean that the evolution of a closed system is unaffected by constant changes in velocity ; galileo ' s experimenter cannot determine from observations inside his cabin whether the boat is at rest in harbor or sailing smoothly. put another way, according to newtonian mechanics, in principle newton ' s absolute velocity cannot be experimentally determined. so in this regard absolute velocity is quite unlike acceleration ( including rotation ) ; newtonian acceleration is understood in absolute space as the rate of change of absolute velocity, and is, according to newtonian mechanics, in general measurable, for instance by measuring the height that the water ascends the sides of the bucket. ( it is worth noting that newton was well - aware of these facts ; the galilean relativity of his theory is demonstrated in corollary v of the laws of the principia, while corollary vi shows that acceleration is unobservable if all parts of the system accelerate in parallel at the same rate, as they do in a homogeneous gravitational field. ) leibniz argued ( rather inconsistently, as we shall see ) that since differences in absolute velocity were unobservable, they could not be genuine differences at all ; and hence that newton ' s absolute space, whose existence would entail the reality of such differences, must also be a fiction. few contemporary philosophers would immediately reject a quantity as meaningless simply because it was not experimentally determinable, but this fact does justify genuine doubts about the reality of absolute velocity, and hence of absolute space. the second problem concerns the nature of absolute space. newton quite clearly distinguished his account from descartes ' \u2014 in particular with regards to absolute space ' s rigidity versus descartes ' \u2018 hydrodynamical \u2019 space, and the possibility of the vacuum in absolute space. thus absolute space is definitely not material. on the other hand, presumably it is supposed to be part of the physical, not mental, realm. in de gravitatione, newton rejected both the standard philosophical categories of substance and attribute as suitable characterizations. absolute space is not a substance for it lacks", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6188435800637735, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 10, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.494209"} {"text": "hand, presumably it is supposed to be part of the physical, not mental, realm. in de gravitatione, newton rejected both the standard philosophical categories of substance and attribute as suitable characterizations. absolute space is not a substance for it lacks causal powers and does not have a fully independent existence, and yet not an attribute since it would exist even in a vacuum, which by definition is a place where there are no bodies in which it might inhere. newton proposes that space is what we might call a \u2018 pseudo - substance \u2019, more like a substance than property, yet not quite a substance. ( note that samuel clarke, in his correspondence with leibniz, which newton had some role in composing, advocates the property view, and note further that when leibniz objects because of the vacuum problem, clarke suggests that there might be non - material beings in the vacuum in which space might inhere. ) in fact, newton accepted the principle that everything that exists, exists somewhere \u2014 i. e., in absolute space. thus he viewed absolute space as a necessary consequence of the existence of anything, and of god ' s existence in particular \u2014 hence space ' s ontological dependence. leibniz was presumably unaware of the unpublished de gravitatione in which these particular ideas were developed, but as we shall see, his later works are characterized by a robust rejection of any notion of space as a real thing rather than an ideal, purely mental entity. this is a view that attracts even fewer contemporary adherents, but there is something deeply peculiar about a non - material but physical entity, a worry that has influenced many philosophical opponents of absolute space. after the development of relativity ( which we will take up below ), and its interpretation as a spacetime theory, it was realized that the notion of spacetime had applicability to a range of theories of mechanics, classical as well as relativistic. in particular, there is a spacetime geometry \u2014 \u2018 galilean \u2019 or \u2018 neo - newtonian \u2019 spacetime \u2014 for newtonian mechanics that solves the problem of absolute velocity ; an idea exploited by a number of philosophers from the late 1960s ( e. g., earman 1970, friedman 1983, sklar 1974 and stein 1968 ). for details the reader is referred to the entry on spacetime : inertial frames, but the general idea is that although a spatial distance is well - defined between any two simultaneous points of this spacetime, only the temporal interval is well - defined between non", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.656981739204957, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 11, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.495746"} {"text": "the reader is referred to the entry on spacetime : inertial frames, but the general idea is that although a spatial distance is well - defined between any two simultaneous points of this spacetime, only the temporal interval is well - defined between non - simultaneous points. thus things are rather unlike newton ' s absolute space, whose points persist through time and maintain their distances ; in absolute space the distance between p - now and q - then ( where p and q are points ) is just the distance between p - now and q - now. however, galilean spacetime has an \u2018 affine connection \u2019 which effectively specifies for every point of every continuous curve, the rate at which the curve is changing from straightness at that point ; for instance, the straight lines are picked out as those curves whose rate of change from straightness is zero at every point. ( another way of thinking about this space is as possessing \u2014 in addition to a distance between any two simultaneous points and a temporal interval between any points \u2014 a three - place relation of colinearity, satisfied by three points just in case they lie on a straight line. ) since the trajectories of bodies are curves in spacetime the affine connection determines the rate of change from straightness at every point of every possible trajectory. the straight trajectories thus defined can be interpreted as the trajectories of bodies moving inertially, and the rate of change from straightness of any trajectory can be interpreted as the acceleration of a body following that trajectory. that is, newton ' s second law can be given a geometric formulation as \u2018 the rate of change from straightness of a body ' s trajectory is equal to the forces acting on the body divided by its mass \u2019. the significance of this geometry is that while acceleration is well - defined, velocity is not \u2014 in accord with empirically determinability of acceleration but not velocity according to newtonian mechanics. ( a simple analogy helps see how such a thing is possible : betweenness but not \u2018 up \u2019 is a well - defined concept in euclidean space. ) thus galilean spacetime gives a very nice interpretation of the choice that nature makes when it decides that the laws of mechanics should be formulated in terms of accelerations not velocities ( as aristotle and descartes proposed ). put another way, we can define the complete predicate x accelerates as trajectory ( x ) has - non - zero - rate - of - change - from - straightness, where trajectory maps bodies onto", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6526373132408089, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 12, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.496747"} {"text": "as aristotle and descartes proposed ). put another way, we can define the complete predicate x accelerates as trajectory ( x ) has - non - zero - rate - of - change - from - straightness, where trajectory maps bodies onto their trajectories in galilean spacetime. and this predicate, defined this way, applies to the water in the bucket if and only if it is rotating, according to newtonian mechanics formulated in terms of the geometry of galilean spacetime ; it is the mechanically relevant sense of the word in this theory. but all of this formulation and definition has been given in terms of the geometry of spacetime, not relations between bodies ; acceleration is \u2018 absolute \u2019 in the sense that there is a preferred ( true ) sense of acceleration in mechanics and which is not defined in terms of the motions of bodies relative to one another. ( note that this sense of \u2018 absolute \u2019 is broader than that of motion relative to absolute space, which we defined earlier. in the remainder of this article we will use it in the broader sense. the reader should be aware that the term is used in many ways in the literature, and such equivocation often leads to massive misunderstandings. ) thus if any of this analysis of motion is taken literally then one arrives at a position regarding the ontology of spacetime rather like that of newton ' s regarding space : it is some kind of \u2018 substantial \u2019 ( or maybe pseudo - substantial ) thing with the geometry of galilean spacetime, just as absolute space possessed euclidean geometry. this view regarding the ontology of spacetime is usually called \u2018 substantivalism \u2019 ( sklar, 1974 ). the galilean substantivalist usually sees himself as adopting a more sophisticated geometry than newton but sharing his substantivalism ( though there is room for debate on newton ' s exact ontological views, see disalle, 2002 ). the advantage of the more sophisticated geometry is that although it allows the absolute sense of acceleration apparently required by newtonian mechanics to be defined, it does not allow one to define a similar absolute speed or velocity \u2014 x accelerates can be defined as a complete predicate in terms of the geometry of galilean spacetime but not x moves in general \u2014 and so the first of leibniz ' s problem is resolved. of course we see that the solution depends on a crucial shift from speed and velocity to acceleration as the relevant senses of \u2018 motion \u2019 : from the rate of change of", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6625861926374537, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 13, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.498747"} {"text": "in general \u2014 and so the first of leibniz ' s problem is resolved. of course we see that the solution depends on a crucial shift from speed and velocity to acceleration as the relevant senses of \u2018 motion \u2019 : from the rate of change of position to the rate of rate of change. while this proposal solves the first kind of problem posed by leibniz, it seems just as vulnerable to the second. while it is true that it involves the rejection of absolute space as newton conceived it, and with it the need to explicate the nature of an enduring space, the postulation of galilean spacetime poses the parallel question of the nature of spacetime. again, it is a physical but non - material something, the points of which may be coincident with material bodies. what kind of thing is it? could we do without it? as we shall see below, some contemporary philosophers believe so. there is a \u2018 folk - reading \u2019 of leibniz that one finds either explicitly or implicitly in the philosophy of physics literature which takes account of only some of his remarks on space and motion. the reading underlies vast swathes of the literature : for instance, the quantities captured by earman ' s ( 1999 ) \u2018 leibnizian spacetime \u2019, do not do justice to leibniz ' s view of motion ( as earman acknowledges ). but it is perhaps most obvious in introductory texts ( e. g., ray 1991, huggett 2000 to mention a couple ). according to this view, the only quantities of motion are relative quantities, relative velocity, acceleration and so on, and all relative motions are equal, so there is no true sense of motion. however, leibniz is explicit that other quantities are also \u2018 real \u2019, and his mechanics implicitly \u2014 but obviously \u2014 depends on yet others. the length of this section is a measure, not so much the importance of leibniz ' s actual views, but the importance of showing what the prevalent folk view leaves out regarding leibniz ' s views on the metaphysics of motion and interpretation of mechanics. that said, we shall also see that no one has yet discovered a fully satisfactory way of reconciling the numerous conflicting things that leibniz says about motion. some of these tensions can be put down simply to his changing his mind ( see cover and hartz 1988 for an explication of how leibniz ' s views on space developed ). however, we will concentrate on the fairly short period in", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6326482325233984, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 14, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.500049"} {"text": ". some of these tensions can be put down simply to his changing his mind ( see cover and hartz 1988 for an explication of how leibniz ' s views on space developed ). however, we will concentrate on the fairly short period in the mid 1680 - 90s during which leibniz developed his theory of mechanics, and was most concerned with their interpretation. we will supplement this discussion with the important remarks that he made in his correspondence with samuel clarke around 30 years later ( 1715 \u2013 1716 ) ; this discussion is broadly in line with the earlier period, and the intervening period is one in which he turned to other matters, rather than one in which his views on space were dramatically evolving. arguably, leibniz ' s views concerning space and motion do not have a completely linear logic, starting from some logically sufficient basic premises, but instead form a collection of mutually supporting doctrines if one starts questioning why leibniz held certain views \u2014 concerning the ideality of space, for instance \u2014 one is apt to be led in a circle. still, exposition requires starting somewhere, and leibniz ' s argument for the ideality of space in the correspondence with clarke is a good place to begin. but bear in mind the caveats made here \u2014 this argument was made later than a number of other relevant writings, and its logical relation to leibniz ' s views on motion is complex. leibniz ( lv. 47 \u2014 this notation means leibniz ' s fifth letter, section 47, and so on ) says that ( i ) a body comes to have the \u2018 same place \u2019 as another once did, when it comes to stand in the same relations to bodies we \u2018 suppose \u2019 to be unchanged ( more on this later ). ( ii ) that we can define \u2018 a place \u2019 to be that which any such two bodies have in common ( here he claims an analogy with the euclidean / eudoxan definition of a rational number in terms of an identity relation between ratios ). and finally that ( iii ) space is all such places taken together. however, he also holds that properties are particular, incapable of being instantiated by more than one individual, even at different times ; hence it is impossible for the two bodies to be in literally the same relations to the unchanged bodies. thus the thing that we take to be the same for the two bodies \u2014 the place \u2014 is something added by our minds to the situation, and only ideal. as a result, space, which is after all constructed from these ideal places,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6245179806850492, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 15, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.501134"} {"text": "bodies. thus the thing that we take to be the same for the two bodies \u2014 the place \u2014 is something added by our minds to the situation, and only ideal. as a result, space, which is after all constructed from these ideal places, is itself ideal : \u2018 a certain order, wherein the mind conceives the application of relations \u2019. it ' s worth pausing briefly to contrast this view of space with those of descartes and of newton. both descartes and newton claim that space is a real, mind - independent entity ; for descartes it is matter, and for newton a \u2018 pseudo - substance \u2019, distinct from matter. and of course for both, these views are intimately tied up with their accounts of motion. leibniz simply denies the mind - independent reality of space, and this too is bound up with his views concerning motion. ( note that fundamentally, in the metaphysics of monads that leibniz was developing contemporaneously with his mechanics, everything is in the mind of the monads ; but the point that leibniz is making here is that even within the world that is logically constructed from the contents of the minds of monads, space is ideal. ) so far ( apart from that remark about \u2018 unchanged \u2019 bodies ) we have not seen leibniz introduce anything more than relations of distance between bodies, which is certainly consistent with the folk view of his philosophy. however, leibniz sought to provide a foundation for the cartesian / mechanical philosophy in terms of the aristotelian / scholastic metaphysics of substantial forms ( here we discuss the views laid out in sections 17 - 22 of the 1686 discourse on metaphysics and the 1695 specimen of dynamics, both in garber and ariew 1989 ). in particular, he identifies primary matter with what he calls its \u2018 primitive passive force \u2019 of resistance to changes in motion and to penetration, and the substantial form of a body with its \u2018 primitive active force \u2019. it is important to realize that these forces are not mere properties of matter, but actually constitute it in some sense, and further that they are not themselves quantifiable. however because of the collisions of bodies with one another, these forces \u2018 suffer limitation \u2019, and \u2018 derivative \u2019 passive and active forces result. ( there ' s a real puzzle here. collision presupposes space, but primitive forces constitute matter prior to any spatial concepts \u2014 the primitive active and passive forces ground motion and extension respectively. see garber and rauzy", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6324791810735513, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 16, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.502141"} {"text": "active forces result. ( there ' s a real puzzle here. collision presupposes space, but primitive forces constitute matter prior to any spatial concepts \u2014 the primitive active and passive forces ground motion and extension respectively. see garber and rauzy, 2004. ) derivative passive force shows up in the different degrees of resistance to change of different kinds of matter ( of \u2018 secondary matter \u2019 in scholastic terms ), and apparently is measurable. derivative active force however, is considerably more problematic for leibniz. on the one hand, it is fundamental to his account of motion and theory of mechanics \u2014 motion fundamentally is possession of force. but on the other hand, leibniz endorses the mechanical philosophy, which precisely sought to abolish aristotelian substantial form, which is what force represents. leibniz ' s goal was to reconcile the two philosophies, by providing an aristotelian metaphysical foundation for modern mechanical science ; as we shall see, it is ultimately an open question exactly how leibniz intended to deal with the inherent tensions in such a view. the texts are sufficiently ambiguous to permit dissent, but arguably leibniz intends that one manifestation of derivative active force is what he calls vis viva \u2014 \u2018 living force \u2019. leibniz had a famous argument with the cartesians over the correct definition of this quantity. descartes defined it as size times speed \u2014 effectively as the magnitude of the momentum of a body. leibniz gave a brilliant argument ( repeated in a number of places, for instance section 17 of the discourse on metaphysics ) that it was size times speed2 \u2014 so ( proportional to ) kinetic energy. if the proposed identification is correct then kinetic energy quantifies derivative active force according to leibniz ; or looked at the other way, the quantity of virtus ( another term used by leibniz for active force ) associated with a body determines its kinetic energy and hence its speed. as far as the authors know, leibniz never explicitly says anything conclusive about the relativity of virtus, but it is certainly consistent to read him ( as roberts 2003 does ) to claim that there is a unique quantity of virtus and hence \u2018 true \u2019 ( as we have been using the term ) speed associated with each body. at the very least, leibniz does say that there is a real difference between possession and non - possession of vis viva ( e. g., in section 18 of the discourse ) and it is a small step", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6358625024225384, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 17, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.503150"} {"text": "speed associated with each body. at the very least, leibniz does say that there is a real difference between possession and non - possession of vis viva ( e. g., in section 18 of the discourse ) and it is a small step from there to true, privileged speed. indeed, for leibniz, mere change of relative position is not \u2018 entirely real \u2019 ( as we saw for instance in the correspondence ) and only when it has vis viva as its immediate cause is there some reality to it. ( however, just to muddy the waters, leibniz also claims that as a matter of fact, no body ever has zero force, which on the reading proposed means no body is ever at rest, which would be surprising given all the collisions bodies undergo. ) an alternative interpretation to the one suggested here might say that leibniz intends that while there is a difference between motion / virtus and no motion / virtus, there is somehow no difference between any strictly positive values of those quantities. it is important to emphasize two points about the preceding account of motion in leibniz ' s philosophy. first, motion in the everyday sense \u2014 motion relative to something else \u2014 is not really real. fundamentally motion is possession of virtus, something that is ultimately non - spatial ( modulo its interpretation as primitive force limited by collision ). if this reading is right \u2014 and something along these lines seems necessary if we aren ' t simply to ignore important statements by leibniz on motion \u2014 then leibniz is offering an interpretation of motion that is radically different from the obvious understanding. one might even say that for leibniz motion is not movement at all! ( we will leave to one side the question of whether his account is ultimately coherent. ) the second point is that however we should understand leibniz, the folk reading simply does not and cannot take account of his clearly and repeatedly stated view that what is real in motion is force not relative motion, for the folk reading allows leibniz only relative motion ( and of course additionally, motion in the sense of force is a variety of true motion, again contrary to the folk reading ). however, from what has been said so far it is still possible that the folk reading is accurate when it comes to leibniz ' s views on the phenomena of motion, the subject of his theory of mechanics. the case for the folk reading is in fact supported by leibniz ' s resolution of the tension that we mentioned earlier, between the fundamental role of force", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6189851444242116, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 18, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.504183"} {"text": "the states of motion of bodies \u2014 some of his statements do suggest that he was confused in this way. for another way of stating the problem for the folk reading is that the claim that relative motions alone suffice for mechanics and that all relative motions are equal is a principle of general relativity, and could leibniz \u2014 a mathematical genius \u2014 really have failed to notice that his laws hold only in special frames? well, just maybe. on the one hand, when he explicitly articulates the principle of the equivalence of hypotheses ( for instance in specimen of dynamics ) he tends to say only that one cannot assign initial velocities on the basis of the outcome of a collision, which requires only galilean relativity. however, he confusingly also claimed ( on copernicanism and the relativity of motion, also in garber and ariew 1989 ) that the tychonic and copernican hypotheses were equivalent. but if the earth orbits the sun in an inertial frame ( copernicus ), then there is no inertial frame according to which the sun orbits the earth ( tycho brahe ), and vice versa : these hypotheses are simply not galilean equivalent ( something else leibniz could hardly have failed to notice ). so there is some textual support for leibniz endorsing general relativity, as the folk reading maintains. a number of commentators have suggested solutions to the puzzle of the conflicting pronouncements that leibniz makes on the subject, but arguably none is completely successful in reconciling all of them ( stein 1977 argues for general relativity, while roberts 2003 argues the opposite ; see also lodge 2003 ). so the folk reading simply ignores leibniz ' s metaphysics of motion, it commits leibniz to a mathematical howler regarding his laws, and it is arguable whether it is the best rendering of his pronouncements concerning relativity ; it certainly cannot be accepted unquestioningly. however, it is not hard to understand the temptation of the folk reading. in his correspondence with clarke, leibniz says that he believes space to be \u201c something merely relative, as time is, \u2026 an order of coexistences, as time is an order of successions \u201d ( liii. 4 ), which is naturally taken to mean that space is at base nothing but the distance and temporal relations between bodies. ( though even this passage has its subtleties, because of the ideality of", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6058476313346819, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 20, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.506254"} {"text": "an order of successions \u201d ( liii. 4 ), which is naturally taken to mean that space is at base nothing but the distance and temporal relations between bodies. ( though even this passage has its subtleties, because of the ideality of space discussed above, and because in leibniz ' s conception space determines what sets of relations are possible. ) and if relative distances and times exhaust the spatiotemporal in this way, then shouldn ' t all quantities of motion be defined in terms of those relations? we have seen two ways in which this would be the wrong conclusion to draw : force seems to involve a notion of speed that is not identified with any relative speed, and ( unless the equivalence of hypotheses is after all a principle of general relativity ) the laws pick out a standard of constant motion that need not be any constant relative motion. of course, it is hard to reconcile these quantities with the view of space and time that leibniz proposes \u2014 what is speed in size times speed2 or constant speed if not speed relative to some body or to absolute space? given leibniz ' s view that space is literally ideal ( and indeed that even relative motion is not \u2018 entirely real \u2019 ) perhaps the best answer is that he took force and hence motion in its real sense not to be determined by motion in a relative sense at all, but to be primitive monadic quantities. that is, he took x moves to be a complete predicate, but he believed that it could be fully analyzed in terms of strictly monadic predicates : x moves iff x possesses - non - zero - derivative - active - force. and this reading explains just what leibniz took us to be supposing when we \u2018 supposed certain bodies to be unchanged \u2019 in the construction of the idea of space : that they had no force, nothing causing, or making real any motion. it ' s again helpful to compare leibniz with descartes and newton, this time regarding motion. commentators often express frustration at leibniz ' s response to newton ' s arguments for absolute space : \u201c i find nothing \u2026 in the scholium that proves or can prove the reality of space in itself. however, i grant that there is a difference between an absolute true motion of a body and a mere relative change \u2026 \u201d ( lv. 53 ). not only does leibniz apparently fail to take the argument seriously, he then goes on to concede the step in the argument that seems to require absolute space", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6284712767992259, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 21, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.507297"} {"text": "motion of a body and a mere relative change \u2026 \u201d ( lv. 53 ). not only does leibniz apparently fail to take the argument seriously, he then goes on to concede the step in the argument that seems to require absolute space! but with our understanding of newton and leibniz, we can see that what he says makes perfect sense ( or at least that it is not as disingenuous as it is often taken to be ). newton argues in the scholium that true motion cannot be identified with the kinds of motion that descartes considers ; but both of these are purely relative motions, and leibniz is in complete agreement that merely relative motions are not true ( i. e., \u2018 entirely real \u2019 ). leibniz ' s \u2018 concession \u2019 merely registers his agreement with newton against descartes on the difference between true and relative motion ; he surely understood who and what newton was refuting, and it was a position that he had himself, in different terms, publicly argued against at length. but as we have seen, leibniz had a very different analysis of the difference to newton ' s ; true motion was not, for him, a matter of motion relative to absolute space, but the possession of quantity of force, ontologically prior to any spatiotemporal quantities at all. there is indeed nothing in the scholium explicitly directed against that view, and since it does potentially offer an alternative way of understanding true motion, it is not unreasonable for leibniz to claim that there is no deductive inference from true motion to absolute space. the folk reading which belies leibniz has it that he sought a theory of mechanics formulated in terms only of the relations between bodies. as we ' ll see presently, in the nineteenth century, ernst mach indeed proposed such an approach, but leibniz clearly did not ; though certain similarities between leibniz and mach \u2014 especially the rejection of absolute space \u2014 surely helps explain the confusion between the two. but not only is leibniz often misunderstood, there are influential misreadings of newton ' s arguments in the scholium, influenced by the idea that he is addressing leibniz in some way. of course the principia was written 30 years before the correspondence, and the arguments of the scholium were not written with leibniz in mind, but clarke himself suggests ( civ. 13 ) that those arguments \u2014 specifically those concerning the bucket \u2014 are telling against leibniz.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6093193224147334, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 22, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.508335"} {"text": "years before the correspondence, and the arguments of the scholium were not written with leibniz in mind, but clarke himself suggests ( civ. 13 ) that those arguments \u2014 specifically those concerning the bucket \u2014 are telling against leibniz. that argument is indeed devastating to a general principle of relativity \u2014 the parity of all relative motions \u2014 but we have seen that it is highly questionable whether leibniz ' s equivalence of hypotheses amount to such a view. that said, his statements in the first four letters of the correspondence could understandably mislead clarke on this point \u2014 it is in reply to clarke ' s challenge that leibniz explicitly denies the parity of relative motions. but interestingly, clarke does not present a true version of newton ' s argument \u2014 despite some involvement of newton in writing the replies. instead of the argument from the uniqueness of the rate of rotation, he argues that systems with different velocities must be different because the effects observed if they were brought to rest would be different. this argument is of course utterly question begging against a view that holds that there is no privileged standard of rest! as we discuss in section 8, mach attributed to newton the fallacious argument that because the surface of the water curved even when it was not in motion relative to the bucket, it must be rotating relative to absolute space. our discussion of newton showed how misleading such a reading is. in the first place he also argues that there must be some privileged sense of rotation, and hence not all relative motions are equal. second, the argument is ad hominem against descartes, in which context a disjunctive syllogism \u2014 motion is either proper or ordinary or relative to absolute space \u2014 is argumentatively legitimate. on the other hand, mach is quite correct that newton ' s argument in the scholium leaves open the logical possibility that the privileged, true sense of rotation ( and acceleration more generally ) is some species of relative motion ; if not motion properly speaking, then relative to the fixed stars perhaps. ( in fact newton rejects this possibility in de gravitatione ( 1962 ) on the grounds that it would involve an odious action at a distance ; an ironic position given his theory of universal gravity. ) however the kind of folk - reading of newton that underlies much of the contemporary literature replaces mach ' s interpretation with a more charitable one. according to this reading, newton ' s point is that his mechanics \u2014 unlike descartes ' \u2014 could explain why", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6097064459001871, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 23, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.509315"} {"text": "the kind of folk - reading of newton that underlies much of the contemporary literature replaces mach ' s interpretation with a more charitable one. according to this reading, newton ' s point is that his mechanics \u2014 unlike descartes ' \u2014 could explain why the surface of the rotating water is curved, that his explanation involves a privileged sense of rotation, and that absent an alternative hypothesis about its relative nature, we should accept absolute space. but our discussion of newton ' s argument showed that it simply does not have an \u2018 abductive \u2019, \u2018 best explanation \u2019 form, but shows deductively, from cartesian premises, that rotation is neither proper nor ordinary motion. that is not to say that newton had no understanding of how such effects would be explained in his mechanics. for instance, in corollaries 5 and 6 to the definitions of the principles he states in general terms the conditions under which different states of motion are not \u2014 and so by implication are \u2014 discernible according to his laws of mechanics. nor is it to say that newton ' s contemporaries weren ' t seriously concerned with explaining inertial effects. leibniz, for instance, analyzed a rotating body ( in the specimen ). in short, parts of a rotating system collide with the surrounding matter and are continuously deflected, into a series of linear motions that form a curved path. but the system as leibniz envisions it \u2014 comprised of a plenum of elastic particles of matter \u2014 is far too complex for him to offer any quantitative model based on this qualitative picture. ( in the context of the proposed \u2018 abductive \u2019 reading of newton, note that this point is telling against a rejection of intrinsic rigidity or forces acting at a distance, not narrow relationism ; it is the complexity of collisions in a plenum that stymies analysis. and since leibniz ' s collision theory requires a standard of inertial motion, even if he had explained inertial effects, he would not have thereby shown that all motions are relative, much less that all are equal. ) although the argument is then not newton ' s, it is still an important response to the kind of relationism proposed by the folk - leibniz, especially when it is extended by bringing in a further example from newton ' s scholium. newton considered a pair of identical spheres, connected by a cord, too far from any bodies to observe any relative motions ; he pointed out that their rate and direction of rotation could still be experimental", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6386116574106706, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 24, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.510353"} {"text": "in a further example from newton ' s scholium. newton considered a pair of identical spheres, connected by a cord, too far from any bodies to observe any relative motions ; he pointed out that their rate and direction of rotation could still be experimentally determined by measuring the tension in the rod, and by pushing on opposite faces of the two globes to see whether the tension increased or decreased. he intended this simple example to demonstrate that the project he intended in the principia, of determining the absolute accelerations and hence gravitational forces on the planets from their relative motions, was possible. however, if we further specify that the spheres and cord are rigid and that they are the only things in their universe, then the example can be used to point out that there are infinitely many different rates of rotation all of which agree on the relations between bodies. since there are no differences in the relations between bodies in the different situations, it follows that the observable differences between the states of rotation cannot be explained in terms of the relations between bodies. therefore, a theory of the kind attributed to the folk ' s leibniz cannot explain all the phenomena of newtonian mechanics, and again we can argue abductively for absolute space. ( of course, the argument works by showing that, granted the different states of rotation, there are states of rotation that cannot merely be relative rotations of any kind ; for the differences cannot be traced to any relational differences. that is, granted the assumptions of the argument, rotation is not true relative motion of any kind. ) this argument ( neither the premises nor conclusion ) is not newton ' s, and must not be taken as a historically accurate reading, however, that is not to say that the argument is fallacious, and indeed many have found it attractive, particularly as a defense not of newton ' s absolute space, but of galilean spacetime. that is, newtonian mechanics with galilean spacetime can explain the phenomena associated with rotation, while theories of the kind proposed by mach cannot explain the differences between situations allowed by newtonian mechanics, but these explanations rely on the geometric structure of galilean spacetime \u2014 particularly its connection, to interpret acceleration. and thus \u2014 the argument goes \u2014 those explanations commit us to the reality of spacetime \u2014 a manifold of points \u2014 whose properties include the appropriate geometric ones. this final doctrine, of the reality of spacetime with its component points or regions, distinct from matter, with geometric properties, is what we earlier identified as \u2018 substantiv", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6399185011075365, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 25, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.512564"} {"text": "deny any relations between bodies and spacetime itself. like the actual leibniz, they allow absolute quantities of motion, but claim that space and time themselves are nothing but the relations between bodies. of course, such views raise the question of how a motion can be not relative to anything at all, and how we are to understand the privileging of frames ; huggett ( 2006 ) contains a proposal for addressing these problems. ( note that sklar and van fraassen are committed to the idea that in some sense newton ' s laws are capable of explaining all the phenomena without recourse to spacetime geometry ; that the connection and the metrical properties are explanatorily redundant. a similar view is defended in the context of relativity in brown 2005. ) between the time of newton and leibniz and the 20th century, newton ' s mechanics and gravitation theory reigned essentially unchallenged, and with that long period of dominance, absolute space came to be widely accepted. at least, no natural philosopher or physicist offered a serious challenge to newton ' s absolute space, in the sense of offering a rival theory that dispenses with it. but like the action at a distance in newtonian gravity, absolute space continued to provoke metaphysical unease. seeking a replacement for the unobservable newtonian space, neumann ( 1870 ) and lange ( 1885 ) developed more concrete definitions of the reference frames in which newton ' s laws hold. in these and a few other works, the concept of the set of inertial frames was first clearly expressed, though it was implicit in both remarks and procedures to be found in the principia. ( see the entries on space and time : inertial frames and newton ' s views on space, time, and motion ) the most sustained, comprehensive, and influential attack on absolute space was made by ernst mach in his science of mechanics ( 1883 ). in a lengthy discussion of newton ' s scholium on absolute space, mach accuses newton of violating his own methodological precepts by going well beyond what the observational facts teach us concerning motion and acceleration. mach at least partly misinterpreted newton ' s aims in the scholium, and inaugurated a reading of the bucket argument ( and by extension the globes argument ) that has largely persisted in the literature since. mach viewed the argument as directed against a \u2018 strict \u2019 or \u2018 general - relativity \u2019 form of relationism, and as an attempt to establish the existence of absolute", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6360268737019296, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 27, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.516169"} {"text": "( and by extension the globes argument ) that has largely persisted in the literature since. mach viewed the argument as directed against a \u2018 strict \u2019 or \u2018 general - relativity \u2019 form of relationism, and as an attempt to establish the existence of absolute space. mach points out the obvious gap in the argument when so construed : the experiment only establishes that acceleration ( rotation ) of the water with respect to the earth, or the frame of the fixed stars, produces the tendency to recede from the center ; it does not prove that a strict relationist theory cannot account for the bucket phenomena, much less the existence of absolute space. ( the reader will recall that newton ' s actual aim was simply to show that descartes ' two kinds of motion are not adequate to accounting for rotational phenomena. ) although mach does not mention the globes thought experiment specifically, it is easy to read an implicit response to it in the things he does say : nobody is competent to say what would happen, or what would be possible, in a universe devoid of matter other than two globes. so neither the bucket nor the globes can establish the existence of absolute space. both in mach ' s interpretations of newton ' s arguments and in his replies, one can already see two anti - absolute space viewpoints emerge, though mach himself never fully kept them apart. the first strain, which we may call \u2018 mach - lite \u2019, criticizes newton ' s postulation of absolute space as a metaphysical leap that is neither justified by actual experiments, nor methodologically sound. the remedy offered by mach - lite is simple : we should retain newton ' s mechanics and use it just as we already do, but eliminate the unnecessary posit of absolute space. in its place we need only substitute the frame of the fixed stars, as is the practice in astronomy in any case. if we find the incorporation of a reference to contingent circumstances ( the existence of a single reference frame in which the stars are more or less stationary ) in the fundamental laws of nature problematic ( which mach need not, given his official positivist account of scientific laws ), then mach suggests that we replace the 1st law with an empirically equivalent mathematical rival : mach ' s equation ( 1960, 287 ) the sums in this equation are to be taken over all massive bodies in the universe. since the top sum is weighted by distance, distant masses count much more than near ones. in a world with a ( reasonably ) static distribution of heavy distant bodies, such as we appear to live", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.6358095990837467, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 28, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.517408"} {"text": "to be taken over all massive bodies in the universe. since the top sum is weighted by distance, distant masses count much more than near ones. in a world with a ( reasonably ) static distribution of heavy distant bodies, such as we appear to live in, the equation entails local conservation of linear momentum in \u2018 inertial \u2019 frames. the upshot of this equation is that the frame of the fixed stars plays exactly the role of absolute space in the statement of the 1st law. ( notice that this equation, unlike newton ' s first law, is not vectorial. ) this proposal does not, by itself, offer an alternative to newtonian mechanics, and as mach himself pointed out, the law is not well - behaved in an infinite universe filled with stars ; but the same can perhaps be said of newton ' s law of gravitation ( see malament 1995, and norton 1993 ). but mach did not offer this equation as a proposed law valid in any circumstances ; he avers, \u201c it is impossible to say whether the new expression would still represent the true condition of things if the stars were to perform rapid movements among one another. \u201d ( p. 289 ) it is not clear whether mach offered this revised first law as a first step toward a theory that would replace newton ' s mechanics, deriving inertial effects from only relative motions, as leibniz desired. but many other remarks made by mach in his chapter criticizing absolute space point in this direction, and they have given birth to the mach - heavy view, later to be christened \u201c mach ' s principle \u201d by albert einstein. the mach - heavy viewpoint calls for a new mechanics that invokes only relative distances and ( perhaps ) their 1st and 2nd time derivatives, and thus \u2018 generally relativistic \u2019 in the sense sometimes read into leibniz ' s remarks about motion. mach wished to eliminate absolute time from physics too, so he would have wanted a proper relationist reduction of these derivatives also. the barbour - bertotti theories, discussed below, provide this. mach - heavy apparently involves the prediction of novel effects due to \u2018 merely \u2019 relative accelerations. mach hints at such effects in his criticism of newton ' s bucket : newton ' s experiment with the rotating vessel of water simply informs us that the relative rotation of the water with respect to the sides of the vessel produces no noticeable centrifugal forces, but that such forces are produced by its relative rotation with respect to the mass of the earth and the other celestial bodies. no", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6153770116045496, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 29, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.518686"} {"text": "us that the relative rotation of the water with respect to the sides of the vessel produces no noticeable centrifugal forces, but that such forces are produced by its relative rotation with respect to the mass of the earth and the other celestial bodies. no one is competent to say how the experiment would turn out if the sides of the vessel [ were ] increased until they were ultimately several leagues thick. ( 1883, 284. ) the suggestion here seems to be that the relative rotation in stage ( i ) of the experiment might immediately generate an outward force ( before any rotation is communicated to the water ), if the sides of the bucket were massive enough. more generally, mach - heavy involves the view that all inertial effects should be derived from the motions of the body in question relative to all other massive bodies in the universe. the water in newton ' s bucket feels an outward pull due ( mainly ) to the relative rotation of all the fixed stars around it. mach - heavy is a speculation that an effect something like electromagnetic induction should be built into gravity theory. ( such an effect does exist according to the general theory of relativity, and is called \u2018 gravitomagnetic induction \u2019. the recently finished gravity probe b mission was designed to measure the gravitomagnetic induction effect due to the earth ' s rotation. ) its specific form must fall off with distance much more slowly than 1 / r2, if it is to be empirically similar to newtonian physics ; but it will certainly predict experimentally testable novel behaviors. a theory that satisfies all the goals of mach - heavy would appear to be ideal for the vindication of strict relationism and the elimination of absolute quantities of motion from mechanics. direct assault on the problem of satisfying mach - heavy in a classical framework proved unsuccessful, despite the efforts of others besides mach ( e. g., friedlander 1896, fopl 1904, reissner 1914, 1915 ), until the work of barbour and bertotti in the 1970s and 80s. ( between the late 19th century and the 1970s, there was of course one extremely important attempt to satisfy mach - heavy : the work of einstein that led to the general theory of relativity. since einstein ' s efforts took place in a non - classical ( lorentz / einstein / minkowski ) spacetime setting, we discuss them in the next section. ) rather than formulating a revised law of gravity / inertia using relative quantities, barbour and bertotti attacked the problem using the framework of lagrangian", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.630746965227051, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 30, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.519827"} {"text": "/ minkowski ) spacetime setting, we discuss them in the next section. ) rather than formulating a revised law of gravity / inertia using relative quantities, barbour and bertotti attacked the problem using the framework of lagrangian mechanics, replacing the elements of the action that involve absolute quantities of motion with new terms invoking only relative distances, velocities etc. their first ( 1977 ) theory uses a very simple and elegant action, and satisfies everything one could wish for from a mach - heavy theory : it is relationally pure ( even with respect to time : while simultaneity is absolute, the temporal metric is derived from the field equations ) ; it is nearly empirically equivalent to newton ' s theory in a world such as ours ( with a large - scale uniform, near - stationary matter distribution ) ; yet it does predict novel effects such as the ones mach posited with his thick bucket. among these is an \u2018 anisotropy of inertia \u2019 effect \u2014 accelerating a body away from the galactic center requires more force than accelerating it perpendicular to the galactic plane \u2014 large enough to be ruled out empirically. barbour and bertotti ' s second attempt ( 1982 ) at a relational lagrangian mechanics was arguably less machian, but more empirically adequate. in it, solutions are sought beginning with two temporally - nearby, instantaneous relational configurations of the bodies in the universe. barbour and bertotti define an \u2018 intrinsic difference \u2019 parameter that measures how different the two configurations are. in the solutions of the theory, this intrinsic difference quantity gets minimized, as well as the ordinary action, and in this way full solutions are derived despite not starting from a privileged inertial - frame description. the theory they end up with turns out to be, in effect, a fragment of newtonian theory : the set of models of newtonian mechanics and gravitation in which there is zero net angular momentum. this result makes perfect sense in terms of strict relationist aims. in a newtonian world in which there is a nonzero net angular momentum ( e. g., a lone rotating island galaxy ), this fact reveals itself in the classic \u201c tendency to recede from the center \u201d. since a strict relationist demands that bodies obey the same mechanical laws even in \u2018 rotating \u2019 coordinate systems, there cannot be any such tendency to recede from the center ( other than in a local subsystem ), in any of the relational theory ' s models", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6422257594658844, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 31, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.521797"} {"text": "a temptation to think of at least acceleration as \u2018 true \u2019 or \u2018 absolute \u2019. if such a realist believes motion to be by nature a relation rather than a property ( and as we saw in the introduction, not all philosophers accept this ) then she will feel obliged to accord some sort of existence or reality to the structure \u2014 e. g., the structure of galilean spacetime \u2014 in relation to which these motions are defined. for philosophers with such realist inclinations, the ideal relational account of motion would therefore be some version of mach - heavy. the special theory of relativity ( str ) is notionally based on a principle of relativity of motion ; but that principle is \u2018 special \u2019 \u2014 meaning, restricted. the relativity principle built into str is in fact nothing other than the galilean principle of relativity, which is built into newtonian physics. in other words, while there is no privileged standard of velocity, there is nevertheless a determinate fact of the matter about whether a body has accelerated or non - accelerated ( i. e., inertial ) motion. in this regard, the spacetime of str is exactly like galilean spacetime ( defined in section 5 above ). in terms of the question of whether all motion can be considered purely relative, one could argue that there is nothing new brought to the table by the introduction of einstein ' s str \u2014 at least, as far as mechanics is concerned. as dorling ( 1978 ) first pointed out, however, there is a sense in which the standard absolutist arguments against \u2018 strict \u2019 relationism using rotating objects ( buckets or globes ) fail in the context of str. maudlin ( 1993 ) used the same considerations to show that there is a way of recasting relationism in str that appears to be very successful. str incorporates certain novelties concerning the nature of time and space, and how they mesh together ; perhaps the best - known examples are the phenomena of \u2018 length contraction \u2019, \u2018 time dilation \u2019, and the \u2018 relativity of simultaneity. \u2019 since in str both spatial distances and time intervals \u2014 when measured in the standard ways \u2014 are observer - relative ( observers in different states of motion \u2018 disagreeing \u2019 about their sizes ), it is arguably most natural to restrict oneself to the invariant spacetime separation given by the interval between two points : [ dx2 + dy2 + dz2 \u2014 dt2 ] \u2014 the four - dimensional analog of the p", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6598358592070058, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 33, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.524093"} {"text": "sizes ), it is arguably most natural to restrict oneself to the invariant spacetime separation given by the interval between two points : [ dx2 + dy2 + dz2 \u2014 dt2 ] \u2014 the four - dimensional analog of the pythagorean theorem, for spacetime distances. if one regards the spacetime interval relations between masses - at - times as one ' s basis on which space - time is built up as an ideal entity, then with only mild caveats relationism works : the \u2018 relationally pure \u2019 facts suffice to uniquely fix how the material systems are embeddable ( up to isomorphism ) in the \u2018 minkowski \u2019 spacetime of str. the modern variants of newton ' s bucket and globes arguments no longer stymie the relationist because ( for example ) the spacetime interval relations among bits of matter in newton ' s bucket at rest are quite different from the spacetime interval relations found among those same bits of matter after the bucket is rotating. for example, the spacetime interval relation between a bit of water near the side of the bucket, at one time, and itself ( say ) a second later is smaller than the interval relation between a center - bucket bit of water and itself one second later ( times referred to inertial - frame clocks ). the upshot is that, unlike the situation in classical physics, a body at rest cannot have all the same spatial relations among its parts as a similar body in rotation. we cannot put a body or system into a state of rotation ( or other acceleration ) without thereby changing the spacetime interval relations between the various bits of matter at different moments of time. rotation and acceleration supervene on spacetime interval relations. it is worth pausing to consider to what extent this victory for ( some form of ) relationism satisfies the classical \u2018 strict \u2019 relationism traditionally ascribed to mach and leibniz. the spatiotemporal relations that save the day against the bucket and globes are, so to speak, mixed spatial and temporal distances. they are thus quite different from the spatial - distances - at - a - time presupposed by classical relationists ; moreover they do not correspond to relative velocities ( - at - a - time ) either. their oddity is forcefully captured by noticing that if we choose appropriate bits of matter at \u2018 times \u2019 eight minutes apart, i - now am at zero distance from the surface of the sun ( of eight minutes \u2018 past \u2019, since it took", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.6609506413440994, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 34, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.525129"} {"text": "either. their oddity is forcefully captured by noticing that if we choose appropriate bits of matter at \u2018 times \u2019 eight minutes apart, i - now am at zero distance from the surface of the sun ( of eight minutes \u2018 past \u2019, since it took 8 minutes for light from the sun to reach me - now ). so we are by no means dealing here with an innocuous, \u2018 natural \u2019 translation of classical relationist quantities into the str setting. on the other hand, in light of the relativity of simultaneity ( see note ), it can be argued that the absolute simultaneity presupposed by classical relationists and absolutists alike was, in fact, something that relationists should always have regarded with misgivings. from this perspective, instantaneous relational configurations \u2014 precisely what one starts with in the theories of barbour and bertotti \u2014 would be the things that should be treated with suspicion. if we now return to our questions about motions \u2014 about the nature of velocities and accelerations \u2014 we find, as noted above, that matters in the interval - relational interpretation of str are much the same as in newtonian mechanics in galilean spacetime. there are no well - defined absolute velocities, but there are indeed well - defined absolute accelerations and rotations. in fact, the difference between an accelerating body ( e. g., a rocket ) and an inertially moving body is codified directly in the cross - temporal interval relations of the body with itself. so we are very far from being able to conclude that all motion is relative motion of a body with respect to other bodies. it is true that the absolute motions are in 1 - 1 correlation with patterns of spacetime interval relations, but it is not at all correct to say that they are, for that reason, eliminable in favor of merely relative motions. rather we should simply say that no absolute acceleration can fail to have an effect on the material body or bodies accelerated. but this was already true in classical physics if matter is modeled realistically : the cord connecting the globes does not merely tense, but also stretches ; and so does the bucket, even if imperceptibly, i. e., the spatial relations change. maudlin does not claim this version of relationism to be victorious over an absolutist or substantivalist conception of minkowski spacetime, when it comes time to make judgments about the theory ' s ontology", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6327521230680181, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 35, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.526240"} {"text": "spatial relations change. maudlin does not claim this version of relationism to be victorious over an absolutist or substantivalist conception of minkowski spacetime, when it comes time to make judgments about the theory ' s ontology. there may be more to vindicating relationism than merely establishing a 1 - 1 correlation between absolute motions and patterns of spatiotemporal relations. the simple comparison made above between str and newtonian physics in galilean spacetime is somewhat deceptive. for one thing, galilean spacetime is a mathematical innovation posterior to einstein ' s 1905 theory ; before then, galilean spacetime had not been conceived, and full acceptance of newtonian mechanics implied accepting absolute velocities and, arguably, absolute positions, just as laid down in the scholium. so einstein ' s elimination of absolute velocity was a genuine conceptual advance. moreover, the scholium was not the only reason for supposing that there existed a privileged reference frame of \u2018 rest \u2019 : the working assumption of almost all physicists in the latter half of the 19th century was that, in order to understand the wave theory of light, one had to postulate an aetherial medium filling all space, wave - like disturbances in which constituted electromagnetic radiation. it was assumed that the aether rest frame would be an inertial reference frame ; and physicists felt some temptation to equate its frame with the absolute rest frame, though this was not necessary. regardless of this equation of the aether with absolute space, it was assumed by all 19th century physicists that the equations of electrodynamic theory would have to look different in a reference frame moving with respect to the aether than they did in the aether ' s rest frame ( where they presumably take their canonical form, i. e., maxwell ' s equations and the lorentz force law. ) so while theoreticians labored to find plausible transformation rules for the electrodynamics of moving bodies, experimentalists tried to detect the earth ' s motion in the aether. experiment and theory played collaborative roles, with experimental results ruling out certain theoretical moves and suggesting new ones, while theoretical advances called for new experimental tests for their confirmation or \u2014 as it happened \u2014 disconfirmation. as is well known, attempts to detect the earth ' s velocity in the aether were unsuccessful. on the theory side, attempts to formulate the transformation laws for electrodynamics in moving frames \u2014 in such", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6405183651419879, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 36, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.527596"} {"text": "happened \u2014 disconfirmation. as is well known, attempts to detect the earth ' s velocity in the aether were unsuccessful. on the theory side, attempts to formulate the transformation laws for electrodynamics in moving frames \u2014 in such a way as to be compatible with experimental results \u2014 were complicated and inelegant. a simplified way of seeing how einstein swept away a host of problems at a stroke is this : he proposed that the galilean principle of relativity holds for maxwell ' s theory, not just for mechanics. the canonical ( \u2018 rest - frame \u2019 ) form of maxwell ' s equations should be their form in any inertial reference frame. since the maxwell equations dictate the velocity c of electromagnetic radiation ( light ), this entails that any inertial observer, no matter how fast she is moving, will measure the velocity of a light ray as c \u2014 no matter what the relative velocity of its emitter. einstein worked out logically the consequences of this application of the special relativity principle, and discovered that space and time must be rather different from how newton described them. str undermined newton ' s absolute time just as decisively as it undermined his absolute space ( see note ). einstein ' s str was the first clear and empirically successful physical theory to overtly eliminate the concepts of absolute rest and absolute velocity while recovering most of the successes of classical mechanics and 19th century electrodynamics. it therefore deserves to be considered the first highly successful theory to explicitly relativize motion, albeit only partially. but str only recovered most of the successes of classical physics : crucially, it left out gravity. and there was certainly reason to be concerned that newtonian gravity and str would prove incompatible : classical gravity acted instantaneously at a distance, while str eliminated the privileged absolute simultaneity that this instantaneous action presupposes. several ways of modifying newtonian gravity to make it compatible with the spacetime structure of str suggested themselves to physicists in the years 1905 - 1912, and a number of interesting lorentz - covariant theories were proposed ( set in the minkowski spacetime of str ). einstein rejected these efforts one and all, for violating either empirical facts or theoretical desiderata. but einstein ' s chief reason for not pursuing the reconciliation of gravitation with str ' s spacetime appears to have been his desire, beginning in 1907, to replace str with a theory in which not only velocity could", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6238104579401366, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 37, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.529520"} {"text": "desiderata. but einstein ' s chief reason for not pursuing the reconciliation of gravitation with str ' s spacetime appears to have been his desire, beginning in 1907, to replace str with a theory in which not only velocity could be considered merely relative, but also acceleration. that is to say, einstein wanted if possible to completely eliminate all absolute quantities of motion from physics, thus realizing a theory that satisfies at least one kind of \u2018 strict \u2019 relationism. ( regarding einstein ' s rejection of lorentz - covariant gravity theories, see norton 1992 ; regarding einstein ' s quest to fully relativize motion, see hoefer 1994. ) einstein began to see this complete relativization as possible in 1907, thanks to his discovery of the equivalence principle. imagine we are far out in space, in a rocket ship accelerating at a constant rate g = 9. 98 m / s2. things will feel just like they do on the surface of the earth ; we will feel a clear up - down direction, bodies will fall to the floor when released, etc. indeed, due to the well - known empirical fact that gravity affects all bodies by imparting a force proportional to their matter ( and energy ) content, independent of their internal constitution, we know that any experiment performed on this rocket will give the same results that the same experiment would give if performed on the earth. now, newtonian theory teaches us to consider the apparent downward, gravity - like forces in the rocket ship as \u2018 pseudo - forces \u2019 or \u2018 inertial forces \u2019, and insists that they are to be explained by the fact that the ship is accelerating in absolute space. but einstein asked : \u201c is there any way for the person in the rocket to regard him / herself as being \u2018 at rest \u2019 rather than in absolute ( accelerated ) motion? \u201d and the answer he gave is : yes. the rocket traveler may regard him / herself as being \u2018 at rest \u2019 in a homogeneous and uniform gravitational field. this will explain all the observational facts just as well as the supposition that he / she is accelerating relative to absolute space ( or, absolutely accelerating in minkowski spacetime ). but is it not clear that the latter is the truth, while the former is a fiction? by no means ; if there were a uniform gravitational field filling all space, then it would affect all the other bodies in the world \u2014 the earth, the stars, etc, imparting to them a downward acceleration away from", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.627267368583921, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 38, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.531712"} {"text": "former is a fiction? by no means ; if there were a uniform gravitational field filling all space, then it would affect all the other bodies in the world \u2014 the earth, the stars, etc, imparting to them a downward acceleration away from the rocket ; and that is exactly what the traveler observes. in 1907, einstein published his first gravitation theory ( einstein 1907 ), treating the gravitational field as a scalar field that also represented the ( now variable and frame - dependent ) speed of light. einstein viewed the theory as only a first step on the road to eliminating absolute motion. in the 1907 theory, the theory ' s equations take the same form in any inertial or uniformly accelerating frame of reference. one might say that this theory reduces the class of absolute motions, leaving only rotation and other non - uniform accelerations as absolute. but, einstein reasoned, if uniform acceleration can be regarded as equivalent to being at rest in a constant gravitational field, why should it not be possible also to regard inertial effects from these other, non - uniform motions as similarly equivalent to \u201c being at rest in a ( variable ) gravitational field \u201d? thus einstein set himself the goal of expanding the principle of equivalence to embrace all forms of \u2018 accelerated \u2019 motion. einstein thought that the key to achieving this aim lay in further expanding the range of reference frames in which the laws of physics take their canonical form, to include frames adapted to any arbitrary motions. more specifically, since the class of all continuous and differentiable coordinate systems includes as a subclass the coordinate systems adapted to any such frame of reference, if he could achieve a theory of gravitation, electromagnetism and mechanics that was generally covariant \u2014 its equations taking the same form in any coordinate system from this general class \u2014 then the complete relativity of motion would be achieved. if there are no special frames of reference in which the laws take on a simpler canonical form, there is no physical reason to consider any particular state or states of motion as privileged, nor deviations from those as representing \u2018 absolute motion \u2019. ( here we are just laying out einstein ' s train of thought ; later we will see reasons to question the last step. ) and in 1915, einstein achieved his aim in the general theory of relativity ( gtr ). there is one key element left out of this success story, however, and it is crucial to understanding why most physicists reject einstein ' s claim to have eliminated absolute states of motion in gtr. going back to our accelerating rocket", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.6010398544666378, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 39, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.533248"} {"text": "gtr ). there is one key element left out of this success story, however, and it is crucial to understanding why most physicists reject einstein ' s claim to have eliminated absolute states of motion in gtr. going back to our accelerating rocket, we accepted einstein ' s claim that we could regard the ship as hovering at rest in a universe - filling gravitational field. but a gravitational field, we usually suppose, is generated by matter. how is this universe - filling field linked to generating matter? the answer may be supplied by mach - heavy. regarding the \u2018 accelerating \u2019 rocket which we decide to regard as \u2018 at rest \u2019 in a gravitational field, the machian says : all those stars and galaxies, etc., jointly accelerating downward ( relative to the rocket ), \u2018 produce \u2019 that gravitational field. the mathematical specifics of how this field is generated will have to be different from newton ' s law of gravity, of course ; but it should give essentially the same results when applied to low - mass, slow - moving problems such as the orbits of the planets, so as to capture the empirical successes of newtonian gravity. einstein thought, in 1916 at least, that the field equations of gtr are precisely this mathematical replacement for newton ' s law of gravity, and that they fully satisfied the desiderata of mach - heavy relationism. but it was not so. ( see the entry on early philosophical interpretations of general relativity. ) in gtr, spacetime is locally very much like flat minkowski spacetime. there is no absolute velocity locally, but there are clear local standards of accelerated vs non - accelerated motion, i. e., local inertial frames. in these \u2018 freely falling \u2019 frames bodies obey the usual rules for non - gravitational physics familiar from str, albeit only approximately. but overall spacetime is curved, and local inertial frames may tip, bend and twist as we move from one region to another. the structure of curved spacetime is encoded in the metric field tensor gab, with the curvature encoding gravity at the same time : gravitational forces are so to speak \u2018 built into \u2019 the metric field, geometrized away. since the spacetime structure encodes gravity and inertia, and in a mach - heavy theory these phenomena should be completely determined by the relational distribution of matter ( and relative motions ), einstein wished to see the metric as entirely determined by the distribution of matter and energy. but what the gtr field equations entail is, in general, only a partial -", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.6244048842322976, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 40, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.534307"} {"text": "be completely determined by the relational distribution of matter ( and relative motions ), einstein wished to see the metric as entirely determined by the distribution of matter and energy. but what the gtr field equations entail is, in general, only a partial - determination relation. we cannot go into the mathematical details necessary for a full discussion of the successes and failures of mach - heavy in the gtr context. but one can see why the machian interpretation einstein hoped he could give to the curved spacetimes of his theory fails to be plausible, by considering a few simple \u2018 worlds \u2019 permitted by gtr. in the first place, for our hovering rocket ship, if we are to attribute the gravity field it feels to matter, there has got to be all this other matter in the universe. but if we regard the rocket as a mere \u2018 test body \u2019 ( not itself substantially affecting the gravity present or absent in the universe ), then we can note that according to gtr, if we remove all the stars, galaxies, planets etc. from the world, the gravitational field does not disappear. on the contrary, it stays basically the same locally, and globally it takes the form of empty minkowski spacetime, precisely the quasi - absolute structure einstein was hoping to eliminate. solutions of the gtr field equations for arbitrary realistic configurations of matter ( e. g., a rocket ship ejecting a stream of particles to push itself forward ) are hard to come by, and in fact a realistic two - body exact solution has yet to be discovered. but numerical methods can be applied for many purposes, and physicists do not doubt that something like our accelerating rocket \u2014 in otherwise empty space \u2014 is possible according to the theory. we see clearly, then, that gtr fails to satisfy einstein ' s own understanding of mach ' s principle, according to which, in the absence of matter, space itself should not be able to exist. a second example : gtr allows us to model a single rotating object in an otherwise empty universe ( e. g., a neutron star ). relationism of the machian variety says that such rotation is impossible, since it can only be understood as rotation relative to some sort of absolute space. in the case of gtr, this is basically right : the rotation is best understood as rotation relative to a \u2018 background \u2019 spacetime that is identical to the minkowski spacetime of str, only \u2018 curved \u2019 by the presence of matter in the region of the star. on the other hand, there is one", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.6428803246732304, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 41, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.535383"} {"text": "is best understood as rotation relative to a \u2018 background \u2019 spacetime that is identical to the minkowski spacetime of str, only \u2018 curved \u2019 by the presence of matter in the region of the star. on the other hand, there is one charge of failure - to - relativize - motion sometimes leveled at gtr that is unfair. it is sometimes asserted that the simple fact that the metric field ( or the connection it determines ) distinguishes, at every location, motions that are \u2018 absolutely \u2019 accelerated and / or \u2018 absolutely rotating \u2019 from those that are not, by itself entails that gtr fails to embody a folk - leibniz style general relativity of motion ( e. g. earman ( 1989 ), ch. 5 ). we think this is incorrect, and leads to unfairly harsh judgments about confusion on einstein ' s part. the local inertial structure encoded in the metric would not be \u2018 absolute \u2019 in any meaningful sense, if that structure were in some clear sense fully determined by the relationally specified matter - energy distribution. einstein was not simply confused when he named his gravity theory. ( just what is to be understood by \u201c the relationally specified matter - energy distribution \u201d is a further, thorny issue, which we cannot enter into here. ) gtr does not fulfill all the goals of mach - heavy, at least as understood by einstein, and he recognized this fact by 1918 ( einstein 1918 ). and yet \u2026 gtr comes tantalizingly close to achieving those goals, in certain striking ways. for one thing, gtr does predict mach - heavy effects, known as \u2018 frame - dragging \u2019 : if we could model mach ' s thick - walled bucket in gtr, it seems clear that it would pull the water slightly outward, and give it a slight tendency to begin rotating in the same sense as the bucket ( even if the big bucket ' s walls were not actually touching the water. while gtr does permit us to model a lone rotating object, if we model the object as a shell of mass ( instead of a solid sphere ) and let the size of the shell increase ( to model the \u2018 sphere of the fixed stars \u2019 we see around us ), then as brill & cohen ( 1966 ) showed, the frame - dragging becomes complete inside the shell. in other words : our original minkowski background structure effectively disappears, and inertia becomes wholly determined by the shell of matter, just as mach posited was the case. this complete determination of in", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.6339331994160233, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 42, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.536498"} {"text": "frame - dragging becomes complete inside the shell. in other words : our original minkowski background structure effectively disappears, and inertia becomes wholly determined by the shell of matter, just as mach posited was the case. this complete determination of inertia by the global matter distribution appears to be a feature of other models, including the friedman - robertson - walker - lemaitre big bang models that best match observations of our universe. finally, it is important to recognize that gtr is generally covariant in a very special sense : unlike all other prior theories ( and unlike many subsequent quantum theories ), it postulates no fixed \u2018 prior \u2019 or \u2018 background \u2019 spacetime structure. as mathematicians and physicists realized early on, other theories, e. g., newtonian mechanics and str, can be put into a generally covariant form. but when this is done, there are inevitably mathematical objects postulated as part of the formalism, whose role is to represent absolute elements of spacetime structure. what is unique about gtr is that it was the first, and is still the only \u2018 core \u2019 physical theory, to have no such absolute elements in its covariant equations. the spacetime structure in gtr, represented by the metric field ( which determines the connection ), is at least partly \u2018 shaped \u2019 by the distribution of matter and energy. and in certain models of the theory, such as the big bang cosmological models, some authors have claimed that the local standards of inertial motion \u2014 the local \u2018 gravitational field \u2019 of einstein ' s equivalence principle \u2014 are entirely fixed by the matter distribution throughout space and time, just as mach - heavy requires ( see, for example, wheeler and cuifollini 1995 ). absolutists and relationists are thus left in a frustrating and perplexing quandary by gtr. considering its anti - machian models, we are inclined to say that motions such as rotation and acceleration remain absolute, or nearly - totally - absolute, according to the theory. on the other hand, considering its most mach - friendly models, which include all the models taken to be good candidates for representing the actual universe, we may be inclined to say : motion in our world is entirely relative ; the inertial effects normally used to argue for absolute motion are all understandable as effects of rotations and accelerations relative to the cosmic matter, just as mach hoped. but even if we agree that motions in our world are in fact all", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.6603346726985986, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 43, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.537473"} {"text": "; the inertial effects normally used to argue for absolute motion are all understandable as effects of rotations and accelerations relative to the cosmic matter, just as mach hoped. but even if we agree that motions in our world are in fact all relative in this sense, this does not automatically settle the traditional relationist / absolutist debate, much less the relationist / substantivalist debate. many philosophers ( including, we suspect, nerlich 1994 and earman 1989 ) would be happy to acknowledge the mach - friendly status of our spacetime, and argue nevertheless that we should understand that spacetime as a real thing, more like a substance than a mere ideal construct of the mind as leibniz insisted. ( nerlich ( 1994 ) and earman ( 1989 ), we suspect, would take this stance. ) some, though not all, attempts to convert gtr into a quantum theory would accord spacetime this same sort of substantiality that other quantum fields possess. this article has been concerned with tracing the history and philosophy of \u2018 absolute \u2019 and \u2018 relative \u2019 theories of space and motion. along the way we have been at pains to introduce some clear terminology for various different concepts ( e. g., \u2018 true \u2019 motion, \u2018 substantivalism \u2019, \u2018 absolute space \u2019 ), but what we have not really done is say what the difference between absolute and relative space and motion is : just what is at stake? recently rynasiewicz ( 2000 ) has argued that there simply are no constant issues running through the history that we have discussed here ; that there is no stable meaning for either \u2018 absolute motion \u2019 or \u2018 relative motion \u2019 ( or \u2018 substantival space \u2019 vs \u2018 relational space \u2019 ). while we agree to a certain extent, we think that nevertheless there are a series of issues that have motivated thinkers again and again ; indeed, those that we identified in the introduction. ( one quick remark : rynasiewicz is probably right that the issues cannot be expressed in formally precise terms, but that does not mean that there are no looser philosophical affinities that shed useful light on the history. ) our discussion has revealed several different issues, of which we will highlight three as components of the \u2018 absolute - relative debate \u2019. ( i ) there is the question of whether all motions and all possible descriptions of motions are equal, or whether some are \u2018 real \u2019 \u2014 what we have called, in seventeenth century parlance, \u2018 true \u2019. there is a natural", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6810924513192909, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 44, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.538479"} {"text": "debate \u2019. ( i ) there is the question of whether all motions and all possible descriptions of motions are equal, or whether some are \u2018 real \u2019 \u2014 what we have called, in seventeenth century parlance, \u2018 true \u2019. there is a natural temptation for those who hold that there is \u2018 nothing but the relative positions and motions between bodies ' ( and more so for their readers ) to add \u2018 and all such motions are equal \u2019, thus denying the existence of true motion. however, arguably \u2014 perhaps surprisingly \u2014 no one we have discussed has unreservedly held this view ( at least not consistently ) : descartes considered motion \u2018 properly speaking \u2019 to be privileged, leibniz introduced \u2018 active force \u2019 to ground motion ( arguably in his mechanics as well as metaphysically ), and mach ' s view seems to be that the distribution of matter in the universe determines a preferred standard of inertial motion. ( again, in general relativity, there is a distinction between inertial and accelerated motion. ) that is, relationists can allow true motions if they offer an analysis of them in terms of the relations between bodies. given this logical point, and given the historical ways thinkers have understood themselves, it seems unhelpful to characterize the issues in ( i ) as constituting an absolute - relative debate, hence our use of the term \u2018 true \u2019 instead of \u2018 absolute \u2019. so we are led to the second question : ( ii ) is true motion definable in terms of relations or not? ( of course the answer depends on what kind of definitions will count, and absent an explicit definition \u2014 descartes ' proper motion for example \u2014 the issue is often taken to be that of whether true motions supervene on relations, as newton ' s globes are often supposed to refute. ) it seems reasonable to call this issue that of whether motion is absolute or relative. descartes and mach are relationists about motion in this sense, while newton is an absolutist. leibniz is also an absolutist about motion in his metaphysics, and if our reading is correct, also about the interpretation of motion in the laws of collision. this classification of leibniz ' s views runs contrary to his customary identification as relationist - in - chief, but we will clarify his relationist credentials below. finally, we have discussed ( ii ) in the context of relativity, first examining maudlin ' s proposal that the embedding of a relationally - specified system in min", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6509431297750298, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 45, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.539485"} {"text": "- in - chief, but we will clarify his relationist credentials below. finally, we have discussed ( ii ) in the context of relativity, first examining maudlin ' s proposal that the embedding of a relationally - specified system in minkowski spacetime is in general unique once all the spacetime interval - distance relations are given. this proposal may or may not be held to satisfy the relational - definability question of ( ii ), but in any case it cannot be carried over to the context of general relativity theory. in the case of gtr we linked relational motion to the satisfaction of mach ' s principle, just as einstein did in the early years of the theory. despite some promising features displayed by gtr, and certain of its models, we saw that mach ' s principle is not fully satisfied in gtr as a whole. we also noted that in the absence of absolute simultaneity, it becomes an open question what relations are to be permitted in the definition ( or supervience base ) \u2014 spacetime interval relations? instantaneous spatial distances and velocities on a 3 - d hypersurface? ( in recent works, barbour has argued that gtr is fully machian, using a 3 - d relational - configuration approach. see barbour, foster and murchadha 2002. ) the final issue is that of ( iii ) whether absolute motion is motion with respect to substantival space or not. of course this is how newton understood acceleration \u2014 as acceleration relative to absolute space. more recent newtonians share this view, although motion for them is with respect to substantival galilean spacetime ( or rather, since they know newtonian mechanics is false, they hold that this is the best interpretation of that theory ). leibniz denied that motion was relative to space itself, since he denied the reality of space ; for him true motion was the possession of active force. so despite his \u2018 absolutism \u2019 ( our adjective not his ) about motion he was simultaneously a relationist about space : \u2018 space is merely relative \u2019. following leibniz ' s lead we can call this debate the question of whether space is absolute or relative. the drawback of this name is that it suggests a separation between motion and space, which exists in leibniz ' s views, but which is otherwise problematic ; still, no better description presents itself. others who are absolutists about motion but relationists about space include sklar ( 1974 ) and van", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.655583762336311, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 46, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.540435"} {"text": "motion and space, which exists in leibniz ' s views, but which is otherwise problematic ; still, no better description presents itself. others who are absolutists about motion but relationists about space include sklar ( 1974 ) and van fraassen ( 1985 ) ; sklar introduced a primitive quantity of acceleration, not supervenient on motions relative to anything at all, while van fraassen let the laws themselves pick out the inertial frames. it is of course arguable whether any of these three proposals are successful ; ( even ) stripped of leibniz ' s aristotelian packaging, can absolute quantities of motion \u2018 stand on their own feet \u2019? and under what understanding of laws can they ground a standard of inertial motion? huggett ( 2006 ) defends a similar position of absolutism about motion, but relationism about space ; he argues \u2014 in the case of newtonian physics \u2014 that fundamentally there is nothing to space but relations between bodies, but that absolute motions supervene \u2014 not on the relations at any one time \u2014 but on the entire history of relations. works cited in text - aristotle, 1984, the complete works of aristotle : the revised oxford translation, j. barnes ( ed. ), princeton : princeton university press. - barbour, j. and bertotti, b., 1982, \u201c mach ' s principle and the structure of dynamical theories, \u201d proceedings of the royal society ( london ), 382 : 295 - 306. - \u2013 \u2013 \u2013, 1977, \u201c gravity and inertia in a machian framework, \u201d nuovo cimento, 38b : 1 - 27. - brill, d. r. and cohen, j., 1966, \u201c rotating masses and their effects on inertial frames, \u201d physical review 143 : 1011 - 1015. - brown, h. r., 2005, physical relativity : space - time structure from a dynamical perspective, oxford : oxford university press. - descartes, r., 1983, principles of philosophy, r. p. miller and v. r. miller ( trans. ), dordrecht, london : reidel. - dorling, j., 1978, \u201c did einstein need general relativity to solve the problem of space? or had the problem already been solved by special relativity?, \u201d british journal for the philosophy of science, 29 : 311 - 323. - earman, j., 1989, world enough and spacetime :", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6219203854793951, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 47, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.541323"} {"text": "relativity to solve the problem of space? or had the problem already been solved by special relativity?, \u201d british journal for the philosophy of science, 29 : 311 - 323. - earman, j., 1989, world enough and spacetime : absolute and relational theories of motion. boston : m. i. t. press. - \u2013 \u2013 \u2013, 1970, \u201c who ' s afraid of absolute space?, \u201d australasian journal of philosophy, 48 : 287 - 319. - einstein, a., 1918, \u201c prinzipielles zur allgemeinen relativitatstheorie, \u201d annalen der physik, 51 : 639 - 642. - \u2013 \u2013 \u2013, 1907, \u201c uber das relativitatsprinzip und die aus demselben gezogenen folgerungen, \u201d jahrbuch der radioaktivitat und electronik 4 : 411 - 462. - einstein, a., lorentz, h. a., minkowski, h. and weyl, h., 1952, the principle of relativity. w. perrett and g. b. jeffery, trs. new york : dover books. - foppl, a. \u201c uber absolute und relative bewegung, \u201d sitzungsberichte der munchener akad.. 35 : 383. - friedlander, b. and j., 1896, absolute und relative bewegung, berlin : leonhard simion. - friedman, m., 1983, foundations of space - time theories : relativistic physics and philosophy of science, princeton : princeton university press. - garber, d., 1992, descartes ' metaphysical physics, chicago : university of chicago press. - garber, d. and j. b. rauzy, 2004, \u201c leibniz on body, matter and extension, \u201d the aristotelian society : supplementary volume, 78 : 23 - 40. - hartz, g. a. and j. a. cover, 1988, \u201c space and time in the leibnizian metaphysic, \u201d nous, 22 : 493 - 519. - hoefer, c., 1994, \u201c einstein ' s struggle for a machian gravitation theory, \u201d studies in history and philosophy of science, 25 : 287 - 336. - huggett, n., 2006, \u201c the regularity account of", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.6137049818771056, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 48, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.542136"} {"text": "c., 1994, \u201c einstein ' s struggle for a machian gravitation theory, \u201d studies in history and philosophy of science, 25 : 287 - 336. - huggett, n., 2006, \u201c the regularity account of relational spacetime, \u201d mind, 115 : 41 - 74. - \u2013 \u2013 \u2013, 2000, \u201c space from zeno to einstein : classic readings with a contemporary commentary, \u201d international studies in the philosophy of science, 14 : 327 - 329. - lange, l., 1885, \u201c ueber das beharrungsgesetz, \u201d berichte der koniglichen sachsischen gesellschaft der wissenschaften zu leipzig, mathematisch - physische classe 37 ( 1885 ) : 333 - 51. - leibniz, g. w., 1989, philosophical essays, r. ariew and d. garber ( trans. ), indianapolis : hackett pub. co. - leibniz, g. w., and samuel clarke, 1715 \u2013 1716, \u201c correspondence \u201d, in the leibniz - clarke correspondence, together with extracts from newton ' s \u201c principia \u201d and \u201c opticks \u201d, h. g. alexander ( ed. ), manchester : manchester university press, 1956. - lodge, p., 2003, \u201c leibniz on relativity and the motion of bodies, \u201d philosophical topics, 31 : 277 - 308. - mach, e., 1883, die mechanik in ihrer entwickelung, historisch - kritisch dargestellt. 2nd edition. leipzig : brockhaus. english translation ( 6th edition, 1960 ) : the science of mechanics, la salle, illinois : open court press. - malament, d., 1995, \u201c is newtonian cosmology really inconsistent?, \u201d philosophy of science 62, no. 4. - maudlin, t., 1993, \u201c buckets of water and waves of space : why space - time is probably a substance, \u201d philosophy of science, 60 : 183 - 203. - minkowski, h. ( 1908 ). \u201c space and time, \u201d in einstein, et al. ( 1952 ), pp. 75 - 91. - nerlich, graham, 1994, the shape of space ( 2nd edition ), cambridge : cambridge university press. - neumann, c., 1870, ueber die principien der galilei - newton ' schen theorie. leipzig : b.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.6609980882290303, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 49, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.542957"} {"text": "graham, 1994, the shape of space ( 2nd edition ), cambridge : cambridge university press. - neumann, c., 1870, ueber die principien der galilei - newton ' schen theorie. leipzig : b. g. teubner, 1870. - newton, i., 2004, newton : philosophical writings, a. janiak ( ed. ), cambridge : cambridge university press. - newton, i. and i. b. cohen, 1999, the principia : mathematical principles of natural philosophy, i. b. cohen and a. m. whitman ( trans. ), berkeley ; london : university of california press. - norton, j., 1995, \u201c mach ' s principle before einstein, \u201d in j. barbour and h. pfister ( eds. ) mach ' s principle : from newton ' s bucket to quantum gravity : einstein studies, vol. 6. boston : birkhauser, pp. 9 - 57. - norton, j., 1993, \u201c a paradox in newtonian cosmology, \u201d in m. forbes, d. hull and k. okruhlik ( eds. ) psa 1992 : proceedings of the 1992 biennial meeting of the philosophy of science association. vol. 2. east lansing, mi : philosophy of science association, pp. 412 - 20. - \u2013 \u2013 \u2013, 1992, \u201c einstein, nordstrom and the early demise of scalar, lorentz - covariant theories of gravitation, \u201d archive for history of exact sciences, 45 : 17 - 94. - pooley, o., 2002, the reality of spacetime, d. phil thesis, oxford university. - ray, c., 1991, time, space and philosophy, new york : routledge. - roberts, j. t., 2003, \u201c leibniz on force and absolute motion, \u201d philosophy of science, 70 : 553 - 573. - rynasiewicz, r., 1995, \u201c by their properties, causes, and effects : newton ' s scholium on time, space, place, and motion \u2014 i. the text, \u201d studies in history and philosophy of science, 26 : 133 - 153. - sklar, l., 1974, space, time and spacetime, berkeley : university of california press. - stein, h., 1977, \u201c some philosophical prehistory of general relativity, \u201d in minnesota studies in the philosophy of science 8 : foundations of", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6484909555457219, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 50, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.543889"} {"text": "l., 1974, space, time and spacetime, berkeley : university of california press. - stein, h., 1977, \u201c some philosophical prehistory of general relativity, \u201d in minnesota studies in the philosophy of science 8 : foundations of space - time theories :, j. earman, c. glymour and j. stachel ( eds. ), minneapolis : university of minnesota press. - \u2013 \u2013 \u2013, 1967, \u201c newtonian space - time, \u201d texas quarterly, 10 : 174 - 200. - wheeler, j. a. and ciufolini, i., 1995, gravitation and inertia, princeton, n. j. : princeton u. press. notable philosophical discussions of the absolute - relative debates - barbour, j. b., 1982, \u201c relational concepts of space and time, \u201d british journal for the philosophy of science, 33 : 251 - 274. - belot, g., 2000, \u201c geometry and motion, \u201d british journal for the philosophy of science, 51 : 561 - 595. - butterfield, j., 1984, \u201c relationism and possible worlds, \u201d british journal for the philosophy of science, 35 : 101 - 112. - callender, c., 2002, \u201c philosophy of space - time physics, \u201d in the blackwell guide to the philosophy of science, p. machamer ( ed. ), cambridge : blackwell. 173 - 198. - carrier, m., 1992, \u201c kant ' s relational theory of absolute space, \u201d kant studien, 83 : 399 - 416. - dieks, d., 2001, \u201c space - time relationism in newtonian and relativistic physics, \u201d international studies in the philosophy of science, 15 : 5 - 17. - disalle, r., 1995, \u201c spacetime theory as physical geometry, \u201d erkenntnis, 42 : 317 - 337. - earman, j., 1986, \u201c why space is not a substance ( at least not to first degree ), \u201d pacific philosophical quarterly, 67 : 225 - 244. - \u2013 \u2013 \u2013, 1970, \u201c who ' s afraid of absolute space?, \u201d australasian journal of philosophy, 48 : 287 - 319. - earman, j. and j. norton, 1987, \u201c what price spacetime substantivalism : the hole story, \u201d british journal for the philosophy of science, 38 : 515 - 525. - ho", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.6768692382031447, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 51, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.544805"} {"text": "287 - 319. - earman, j. and j. norton, 1987, \u201c what price spacetime substantivalism : the hole story, \u201d british journal for the philosophy of science, 38 : 515 - 525. - hoefer, c., 2000, \u201c kant ' s hands and earman ' s pions : chirality arguments for substantival space, \u201d international studies in the philosophy of science, 14 : 237 - 256. - \u2013 \u2013 \u2013, 1998, \u201c absolute versus relational spacetime : for better or worse, the debate goes on, \u201d british journal for the philosophy of science, 49 : 451 - 467. - \u2013 \u2013 \u2013, 1996, \u201c the metaphysics of space - time substantialism, \u201d journal of philosophy, 93 : 5 - 27. - huggett, n., 2000, \u201c reflections on parity nonconservation, \u201d philosophy of science, 67 : 219 - 241. - le poidevin, r., 2004, \u201c space, supervenience and substantivalism, \u201d analysis, 64 : 191 - 198. - malament, d., 1985, \u201c discussion : a modest remark about reichenbach, rotation, and general relativity, \u201d philosophy of science, 52 : 615 - 620. - maudlin, t., 1993, \u201c buckets of water and waves of space : why space - time is probably a substance, \u201d philosophy of science, 60 : 183 - 203. - \u2013 \u2013 \u2013, 1990, \u201c substances and space - time : what aristotle would have said to einstein, \u201d studies in history and philosophy of science, 531 - 561. - mundy, b., 1992, \u201c space - time and isomorphism, \u201d proceedings of the biennial meetings of the philosophy of science association, 1 : 515 - 527. - \u2013 \u2013 \u2013, 1983, \u201c relational theories of euclidean space and minkowski space - time, \u201d philosophy of science, 50 : 205 - 226. - nerlich, g., 2003, \u201c space - time substantivalism, \u201d in the oxford handbook of metaphysics, m. j. loux ( ed. ), oxford : oxford univ pr. 281 - 314. - \u2013 \u2013 \u2013, 1996, \u201c what spacetime explains, \u201d philosophical quarterly, 46 : 127 - 131. - \u2013 \u2013 \u2013, 1994, what spacetime explains : metaphysical essays on space and time, new york : cambridge univ", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.6591413028757251, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 52, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.545667"} {"text": "314. - \u2013 \u2013 \u2013, 1996, \u201c what spacetime explains, \u201d philosophical quarterly, 46 : 127 - 131. - \u2013 \u2013 \u2013, 1994, what spacetime explains : metaphysical essays on space and time, new york : cambridge univ pr. - \u2013 \u2013 \u2013, 1973, \u201c hands, knees, and absolute space, \u201d journal of philosophy, 70 : 337 - 351. - rynasiewicz, r., 2000, \u201c on the distinction between absolute and relative motion, \u201d philosophy of science, 67 : 70 - 93. - \u2013 \u2013 \u2013, 1996, \u201c absolute versus relational space - time : an outmoded debate?, \u201d journal of philosophy, 93 : 279 - 306. - teller, p., 1991, \u201c substance, relations, and arguments about the nature of space - time, \u201d philosophical review, 363 - 397. - torretti, r., 2000, \u201c spacetime models for the world, \u201d studies in history and philosophy of modern physics, 31b : 171 - 186. - st. andrews school of mathematics and statistics index of biographies - the pittsburgh phil - sci archive of pre - publication articles in philosophy of science - ned wright ' s special relativity tutorial - andrew hamilton ' s special relativity pages descartes, rene : physics | general relativity : early philosophical interpretations of | newton, isaac : views on space, time, and motion | space and time : inertial frames | space and time : the hole argument | zeno of elea : zeno ' s paradoxes", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.628513881194428, "token_count": 314, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 53, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.546241"} {"text": "san francisco, dec. 29, 2008 - - facial expressions of emotion are hardwired into our genes, according to a study published today in the journal of personality and social psychology. the research suggests that facial expressions of emotion are innate rather than a product of cultural learning. the study is the first of its kind to demonstrate that sighted and blind individuals use the same facial expressions, producing the same facial muscle movements in response to specific emotional stimuli. the study also provides new insight into how humans manage emotional displays according to social context, suggesting that the ability to regulate emotional expressions is not learned through observation. san francisco state university psychology professor david matsumoto compared the facial expressions of sighted and blind judo athletes at the 2004 summer olympics and paralympic games. more than 4, 800 photographs were captured and analyzed, including images of athletes from 23 countries. \" the statistical correlation between the facial expressions of sighted and blind individuals was almost perfect, \" matsumoto said. \" this suggests something genetically resident within us is the source of facial expressions of emotion. \" matsumoto found that sighted and blind individuals manage their expressions of emotion in the same way according to social context. for example, because of the social nature of the olympic medal ceremonies, 85 percent of silver medalists who lost their medal matches produced \" social smiles \" during the ceremony. social smiles use only the mouth muscles whereas true smiles, known as duchenne smiles, cause the eyes to twinkle and narrow and the cheeks to rise. \" losers pushed their lower lip up as if to control the emotion on their face and many produced social smiles, \" matsumoto said. \" individuals blind from birth could not have learned to control their emotions in this way through visual learning so there must be another mechanism. it could be that our emotions, and the systems to regulate them, are vestiges of our evolutionary ancestry. it ' s possible that in response to negative emotions, humans have developed a system that closes the mouth so that they are prevented from yelling, biting or throwing insults. \"", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5267277597812626, "token_count": 408, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.550359"} {"text": "jan. 30, 2009 a new way of making leds could see household lighting bills reduced by up to 75 % within five years. gallium nitride ( gan ), a man - made semiconductor used to make leds ( light emitting diodes ), emits brilliant light but uses very little electricity. until now high production costs have made gan lighting too expensive for wide spread use in homes and offices. however the cambridge university based centre for gallium nitride has developed a new way of making gan which could produce leds for a tenth of current prices. gan, grown in labs on expensive sapphire wafers since the 1990s, can now be grown on silicon wafers. this lower cost method could mean cheap mass produced leds become widely available for lighting homes and offices in the next five years. based on current results, gan led lights in every home and office could cut the proportion of uk electricity used for lights from 20 % to 5 %. that means we could close or not need to replace eight power stations. a gan led can burn for 100, 000 hours so, on average, it only needs replacing after 60 years. and, unlike currently available energy - saving bulbs gan leds do not contain mercury so disposal is less damaging to the environment. gan leds also have the advantage of turning on instantly and being dimmable. professor colin humphreys, lead scientist on the project said : \u201c this could well be the holy grail in terms of providing our lighting needs for the future. we are very close to achieving highly efficient, low cost white leds that can take the place of both traditional and currently available low energy light bulbs. that won \u2019 t just be good news for the environment. it will also benefit consumers by cutting their electricity bills. \u201d gan leds, used to illuminate landmarks like buckingham palace and the severn bridge, are also appearing in camera flashes, mobile phones, torches, bicycle lights and interior bus, train and plane lighting. parallel research is also being carried out into how gan lights could mimic sunlight to help 3m people in the uk with seasonal affective disorder ( sad ). ultraviolet rays made from gan lighting could also aid water purification and disease control in developing countries, identify the spread of cancer tumours and help fight hospital \u2018 super bugs \u2019. funding was provided by the engineering and physical sciences research council ( epsrc ). about gan leds a light - emitting diode ( led ) is a semiconductor diode that emits light when charged with electricity. leds are", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5133582766966618, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.557875"} {"text": "bugs \u2019. funding was provided by the engineering and physical sciences research council ( epsrc ). about gan leds a light - emitting diode ( led ) is a semiconductor diode that emits light when charged with electricity. leds are used for display and lighting in a whole range of electrical and electronic products. although gan was first produced over 30 years ago, it is only in the last ten years that gan lighting has started to enter real - world applications. currently, the brilliant light produced by gan leds is blue or green in colour. a phosphor coating is applied to the led to transform this into a more practical white light. gan leds are currently grown on 2 - inch sapphire. manufacturers can get 9 times as many leds on a 6 - inch silicon wafer than on a 2 - inch sapphire wafer. in addition, edge effects are less, so the number of good leds is about 10 times higher. the processing costs for a 2 - inch wafer are essentially the same as for a 6 - inch wafer. a 6 - inch silicon wafer is much cheaper to produce than a 2 - inch sapphire wafer. together these factors result in a cost reduction of about a factor of 10. possible future applications - cancer surgery. currently, it is very difficult to detect exactly where a tumour ends. as a result, patients undergoing cancer surgery have to be kept under anaesthetic while cells are taken away for laboratory tests to see whether or not they are healthy. this may need to happen several times during an operation, prolonging the procedure extensively. but in the future, patients could be given harmless drugs that attach themselves to cancer cells, which can be distinguished when a blue gan led is shone on them. the tumour \u2019 s edge will be revealed, quickly and unmistakably, to the surgeon. - water purification. gan may revolutionise drinking water provision in developing countries. if aluminium is added to gan then deep ultra - violet light can be produced and this kills all viruses and bacteria, so fitting such a gan led to the inside of a water pipe will instantly eradicate diseases, as well as killing mosquito larvae and other harmful organisms. - hospital - acquired infections. shining a ultra - violet gan torch beam could kill viruses and bacteria, boosting the fight against mrsa and c difficile. simply shining a gan torch at a hospital wall or trolley, for example, could kill any \u2018 superbugs \u2019 lurking there. other social bookmarking and", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5690638607180595, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.558858"} {"text": "filed under : foundational hand after studying the proportions of the foundational hand letters, the next step is to start writing the letters. each letter is constructed rather than written. the letters are made up of a combination of pen strokes, which are only made in a top \u2013 down or left \u2013 right direction. the pen is never pushed up. when we studied the proportions of the foundational hand we could group the letters according to their widths. now, we can group them according to the order and direction of the pen strokes. you may find it useful to look at the construction grid whilst studying the order and direction of the letters. the first group consists of the letters c, e, and o. these letters are based on the circle shape. this shape is produced with two pen strokes. visualise a clock face and start the first stroke at approximately the 11, and finish it in an anti - clockwise direction at 5. the second stroke starts again at the 11 and finishes in a clockwise direction on the 5 to complete the letter o. the first pen - stroke for the letters c and e are the same as the first of the letter o. the second pen - stroke on the c and e are shorter and finish around the 1 position on the imaginary clock face. finally, the letter e has a third stroke, starting at the end of the second stroke and finishes when it touches the first stroke. the next group of letters are d, q, b and p. all these letters combine curved and straight pen strokes. when writing these letters it can be useful to think of the underlying circle shape, which your pen will leave or join at certain points depending upon which letter is being written. the first stroke of the b starts at the ascender height of the letter, which can be eyed in at just under half the x - height ( body height of letters with no ascender or descender ). continue the ascender stroke of the b until it \u2018 picks up \u2019 the circle shape, follow round the circle until the pen reaches the 5 on the imaginary clock face. the second stroke starts on the first stroke following the circle round until it touches the end of the first stroke. the letter d is similar to the c except it has a third stroke for the ascender, which will touch the ends of the first and second stroke being for finishing on the write - line. letter p starts with a vertical stroke from the x - height down to the imaginary descender line, which is just under half the x - height", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5009149137180396, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.579661"} {"text": ", which will touch the ends of the first and second stroke being for finishing on the write - line. letter p starts with a vertical stroke from the x - height down to the imaginary descender line, which is just under half the x - height below the write - line. the second and third strokes are curved, starting on the descender stroke and following round the imaginary circle. the letter q is almost the same as the d, except it has a descender stroke rather than an ascender stroke. letters a, h, m, n, r all these letters combine curved and straight pen strokes. once again, think of the underlying circle shape, which your pen will leave or join at certain points depending upon the letter being written. the letter h consists of two pen strokes. the first is a vertical ascender stroke. the second stroke starts curved, follows the circle round, then leaves it and becomes straight. the letter n is produced exactly the same way as the letter h, except the first stroke is not so tall as it starts on the x - height line. the first two pen strokes of the letter m are the same as the letter n. then a third stroke is added which is identical to the second stroke. the letter r is also written the same way as the letter n except the second stroke finishes at the point where the circle would have been left and the straight is picked up. the first stroke of letter a is the same as the second stroke of the letters h, m and n. the second stroke follows the circle. finally, the third stroke starts at the same point as the second stroke, but is a straight line at a 30\u00b0 angle and touches the first stroke. the next group of letters are l, u and t. these letters are straight - forward. the letter l is the same as the first stroke of letter b. the letter u is also similar to the first stroke of letter b except it starts lower down. the second stroke starts on the x - height line and finishes on the write - line. letter t has the same first stroke as letter u. it is completed by a second horizontal stroke. the following letters k, v, w, x, y and z are made of at least one diagonal pen stroke. the letter k starts with a vertical ascender stroke, then a second stroke diagonal stroke which joins the vertical stroke. the final stroke is also diagonal and starts where the first and second stroke meet and stops when it touches the write - line. if you look closely", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5096591258673633, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.581620"} {"text": "starts with a vertical ascender stroke, then a second stroke diagonal stroke which joins the vertical stroke. the final stroke is also diagonal and starts where the first and second stroke meet and stops when it touches the write - line. if you look closely you will see it goes further out than the second stroke. this makes the letter look more balanced. if the end of these two pen - strokes lined up the letter would look like it is about to fall over. letter v is simply two diagonal strokes and these are repeated to produce the letter w. the letter y is the same as the v except the second stroke is extended until to create a descender stroke. letter x is a little different, you need to create it in such a way that the two stroke cross slightly above the half - way mark on the x - height. this means the top part will be slightly smaller than the bottom which will give the letter a better balance. finally, in this group is letter z. the easiest way to produce this is with the two horizontal pen strokes, thenjoin these two strokes with a diagonal pen - stroke to complete the letter. now for the hardest letters ; f, g and s. out of these three letters, f is the simplest. it starts with a vertical ascender stroke \u2013 except this is not as tall as the other ascender strokes we have produced so far. this is because we have to allow for the second curved stroke. the overall height of these two strokes should be the same as other letters that have an ascender. finally, we need a horizontal stroke to complete the letter. which will you find the hardest letter g or s? these are trickier because unlike all the other letters we have written they do not relate so well to the grid. the letter g is made of a circle shape, with an oval / bowl shape under the write - line. you can see the letter g is made of three pen - strokes. the first stroke is just like the first stroke of the letter o for example, except it is a smaller. the second stroke starts like the second stroke of the letter o, but when it joins the first stroke it continues and changes direction in the gap between the bottom of the shape and the write - line. the third stroke completes the oval shape. finally, we have a little fourth stroke to complete the letter. the letter s is made up of three strokes. the first stroke is sort of an s shape! the second and third strokes complete the letter s. these are easier", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5001194282320844, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.583344"} {"text": "the basic element in solar modules the wafers are further processed to solar cells in the third production step. they form the basic element of the resulting solar modules. the cells already possess all of the technical attributes necessary to generate electricity from sunlight. positive and negative charge carriers are released in the cells through light radiation causing electrical current ( direct current ) to flow. the \" cell \" business division is part of solarworld subsidiary deutsche cell gmbh and solarworld industries america lp. here, solar cells are produced from the preliminary product, the solar silicon wafer. the group manufactures both monocrystalline as well as polycrystalline solar cells. the monocrystalline as well as polycrystalline solar cells are produced around the clock in one of the most advanced solar cell production facilities. the wafers are produced in the clean rooms of the deutsche cell gmbh using the most cutting edge process facilities with the highest level of automation. through the fully integrated production concept, it is possible to flexibly control the use of all auxiliary materials necessary for production and to continuously optimize material utilization during operation. this concept allows us to assure the unique quality standard of our solar cells and simultaneously reduce the loss rate compared to conventional processes. this not only lowers production costs, it adds to the expertise in the solar cell production for the solarworld group. the wafer is first cleaned of all damage caused by cutting and then textured. a p / n junction is created by means of phosphorous diffusion which makes the silicon conductive. in the next step, the phosphorus glass layer produced by diffusion is removed. an anti - reflection layer is added. this which reduces optical losses and ensures electrical passivation of the surface is added. then, the contacts are attached to the front and back along with a rear contact. finally, every individual solar cell is tested for its optical qualities and the electrical efficiency measured.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5390826840036327, "token_count": 385, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.588429"} {"text": "by staff writers chicago il ( spx ) jan 11, 2013 technologically valuable ultrastable glasses can be produced in days or hours with properties corresponding to those that have been aged for thousands of years, computational and laboratory studies have confirmed. aging makes for higher quality glassy materials because they have slowly evolved toward a more stable molecular condition. this evolution can take thousands or millions of years, but manufacturers must work faster. armed with a better understanding of how glasses age and evolve, researchers at the universities of chicago and wisconsin - madison raise the possibility of designing a new class of materials at the molecular level via a vapor - deposition process. \" in attempts to work with aged glasses, for example, people have examined amber, \" said juan de pablo, uchicago ' s liew family professor in molecular theory and simulations. \" amber is a glass that has been aged millions of years, but you cannot engineer that material. you get what you get. \" de pablo and wisconsin co - authors sadanand singh and mark ediger report their findings in the latest issue of nature materials. ultrastable glasses could find potential applications in the production of stronger metals and in faster - acting pharmaceuticals. the latter may sound surprising, but drugs with the amorphous molecular structure of ultrastable glass could avoid crystallization during storage and be delivered more rapidly in the bloodstream than pharmaceuticals with a semi - crystalline structure. amorphous metals, likewise, are better for high - impact applications than crystalline metals because of their greater strength. the nature materials paper describes computer simulations that singh, a doctoral student in chemical engineering at uw - madison, carried out with de pablo to follow - up some intriguing results from ediger ' s laboratory. growing stable glasses several years ago, he discovered that glasses grown this way on a specially prepared surface that is kept within a certain temperature range exhibit far more stability than ordinary glasses. previous researchers must have grown this material under the same temperature conditions, but failed to recognize the significance of what they had done, ediger said. ediger speculated that growing glasses under these conditions, which he compares to the tetris video game, gives molecules extra room to arrange themselves into a more stable configuration. but he needed singh and de pablo ' s computer simulations to confirm his suspicions that he had actually produced a highly evolved, ordinary glass rather than an entirely new material. \" there ' s interest in making these materials on the computer because you have direct access to the structure, and you can therefore determine the relationship between the arrangement of the molecules", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5302290905735969, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.592985"} {"text": "had actually produced a highly evolved, ordinary glass rather than an entirely new material. \" there ' s interest in making these materials on the computer because you have direct access to the structure, and you can therefore determine the relationship between the arrangement of the molecules and the physical properties that you measure, \" said de pablo, a former uw - madison faculty member who joined uchicago ' s new institute for molecular engineering earlier this year. there are challenges, though, to simulating the evolution of glasses on a computer. scientists can cool a glassy material at the rate of one degree per second in the laboratory, but the slowest computational studies can only simulate cooling at a rate of 100 million degrees per second. \" we cannot cool it any slower because the calculations would take forever, \" de pablo said. \" it had been believed until now that there is no correlation between the mechanical properties of a glass and the molecular structure ; that somehow the properties of a glass are \" hidden \" somewhere and that there are no obvious structural signatures, \" de pablo said. creating better materials ultrastable glasses achieve their stability in a manner analogous to the most efficiently packed, multishaped objects in tetris, each consisting of four squares in various configurations that rain from the top of the screen. \" this is a little bit like the molecules in my deposition apparatus raining down onto this surface, and the goal is to perfectly pack a film, not to have any voids left, \" ediger said. the object of tetris is to manipulate the objects so that they pack into a perfectly tight pattern at the bottom of the screen. \" the difference is, when you play the game, you have to actively manipulate the pieces in order to build a well - packed solid, \" ediger said. \" in the vapor deposition, nature does it for us. \" but in tetris and experiments alike, when the objects or molecules descend too quickly, the result is a poorly packed, void - riddled pattern. \" in the experiment, if you either rain the molecules too fast or choose a low temperature at which there ' s no mobility at the surface, then this trick doesn ' t work, \" ediger said. then it would be like taking a bucket of odd - shaped pieces and just dumping them on the floor. there are all sorts of voids and gaps because the molecules didn ' t have any opportunity to find a good way of packing. \" \" ultrastable glasses from in silico vapor deposition, \" by sadamand", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5687412541656512, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.594036"} {"text": "in january 1992, a container ship near the international date line, headed to tacoma, washington from hong kong, lost 12 containers during severe storm conditions. one of these containers held a shipment of 29, 000 bathtub toys. ten months later, the first of these plastic toys began to wash up onto the coast of alaska. driven by the wind and ocean currents, these toys continue to wash ashore during the next several years and some even drifted into the atlantic ocean. the ultimate reason for the world ' s surface ocean currents is the sun. the heating of the earth by the sun has produced semi - permanent pressure centers near the surface. when wind blows over the ocean around these pressure centers, surface waves are generated by transferring some of the wind ' s energy, in the form of momentum, from the air to the water. this constant push on the surface of the ocean is the force that forms the surface currents. learning lesson : how it is currently done around the world, there are some similarities in the currents. for example, along the west coasts of the continents, the currents flow toward the equator in both hemispheres. these are called cold currents as they bring cool water from the polar regions into the tropical regions. the cold current off the west coast of the united states is called the california current. likewise, the opposite is true as well. along the east coasts of the continents, the currents flow from the equator toward the poles. there are called warm current as they bring the warm tropical water north. the gulf stream, off the southeast united states coast, is one of the strongest currents known anywhere in the world, with water speeds up to 3 mph ( 5 kph ). these currents have a huge impact on the long - term weather a location experiences. the overall climate of norway and the british isle is about 18\u00b0f ( 10\u00b0c ) warmer in the winter than other cites located at the same latitude due to the gulf stream. take it to the max! keeping current while ocean currents are a shallow level circulations, there is global circulation which extends to the depths of the sea called the great ocean conveyor. also called the thermohaline circulation, it is driven by differences in the density of the sea water which is controlled by temperature ( thermal ) and salinity ( haline ). in the northern atlantic ocean, as water flows north it cools considerably increasing its density. as it cools to the freezing point, sea ice forms with the \" salts \" extracted from the frozen water making the water below more", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5166884595783358, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.605867"} {"text": "of unilever \u2019 s businesses remained largely unaffected. companies that try to engage in proactive, cause - oriented product development often find themselves at a disadvantage : either their target market proves significantly smaller than predicted by their focus groups and surveys or their costs of providing ethical product features are not covered by the prices consumers are willing to pay. ( for a different perspective on these issues, see \u201c the power of the post - recession consumer, \u201d by john gerzema and michael d \u2019 antonio, s + b, spring 2011. ) to understand the true nature of the ethical consumer, we set up a series of generalized experimental polling studies over nearly 10 years that allowed us to gather the social and ethical preferences of large samples of individuals. we then conducted 120 in - depth interviews with consumers from eight countries ( australia, china, germany, india, spain, sweden, turkey, and the united states ). we asked them not just to confirm that they might purchase a product, but to consider scenarios under which they might buy an athletic shoe from a company with lax labor standards, a soap produced in ways that might harm the environment, and a counterfeit brand - name wallet or suitcase. they were also asked how they thought other people from their country might respond to these products \u2014 a well - established \u201c projective technique \u201d that often reveals more accurate answers than questions about the respondent \u2019 s direct purchases. and they were asked about their own past behavior ; for example, all the interviewees admitted purchasing counterfeit goods at some point. the interviews asked participants explicitly about the ramifications of these ethical issues, and the inconsistencies between their words and their actions.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.500267457319051, "token_count": 334, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.613226"} {"text": "many of us act as though we all see the same reality, yet the truth is we don ' t. human beings have cognitive biases or blind spots. blind spots are ways that our mind becomes blocked from seeing reality as it is - blinding us from seeing the real truth about ourselves in relation to others. once we form a conclusion, we become blind to alternatives, even if they are right in front of their eyes. emily pronin, a social psychologist, along with colleagues daniel lin and lee ross, at princeton university ' s department of psychology, created the term \" blind spots. \" the bias blind spot is named after the visual blind spot. passing the ball - watch this video there is a classic experiment that demonstrates one level of blind spots that can be attributed to awareness and focused - attention. when people are instructed to count how many passes the people in white shirts make on the basketball court, they often get the number of passes correct, but fail to see the person in the black bear suit walking right in front of their eyes. hard to believe but true! blind spots & denial however, the story of blind spots gets more interesting when we factor in our cognitive biases that come from our social needs to look good in the eyes of others. when people operate with blind spots, coupled with a strong ego, they often refuse to adjust their course even in the face of opposition from trusted advisors, or incontrovertible evidence to the contrary. two well - known examples of blind spots are henry ford and a & p : - next > > - next > >", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5561280102215034, "token_count": 317, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.620730"} {"text": "the 8 - bit al register into the 8 - bit bytelocation label. accessing memory locations ( using pointers ) in c we have the concept of pointers. a pointer is simply a variable that points to a location in memory. typically that memory location holds some data that is important to us and that \u2019 s why we \u2019 re keeping a pointer to it so we can access the data later. this same concept can be achieved in assembly. moving a label \u2019 s memory address into a register ( creating a pointer ) movl $ int32, % eax this will move the memory location of the int32 label into the eax register. in effect the eax register is now a pointer to the data held by the int32 label. notice that we use movl because memory locations are 4 bytes. also notice that to access the memory location of a label you prepend the $ character. dereferencing a pointer ( accessing the contents of a memory address ) moving a word into a dereferenced location movl $ 9, ( % eax ) this will move the integer 9 into the memory location held in eax. in other words, if this were c, % eax would be considered a pointer and ( % eax ) would be the way we dereference that pointer to change the contents of the location it points to. the equivalent in c would like something like this : int int32 = 2 ; int * eax ; eax = & int32 ; * eax = 9 ; the only difference in the c example is that we had to define eax as an int pointer before we could copy the address of int32. in assembly we can just copy the address of int32 directly into the eax register, circumventing the need for an additional variable. but line 4 of this c example is the equivalent of the assembly example shown above. so to clarify one more time, eax does not change at all in this example ; eax still points to the same location! however, the data at that location has changed. so if eax contains the location of the int32 label, then int32 now contains 9. so it \u2019 s int32 that has changed, not eax. notice that we use the parentheses to access the memory location stored in the register ( dereference the pointer ). moving a dereferenced value into a register movl ( % eax ), % ebx in effect the eb", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5133067096547944, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.644888"} {"text": "measured by immune cell proliferation and response to interleukin 15 ( a specific cytokine, protein produced by immune cells used for research purposes to measure immune response ), researchers found that discordant patients had responses similar to fully respondant patients ( stephano vella and colleagues, 9th retroviruses conference, seattle, february 2002 ). without attempting to advise whether patients in a disconnect situation should change or continue their treatment, the questions invoked here are placed on the table. the presence of primary resistance mutations can oddly enough be associated with the provision of some beneficial effects. however, developing resistance or discordance is not the preferred outcome. when a patient is facing this discordant predicament, the next path may not be always clear. phenomena are occurring in the disconnect syndrome that are below the surface. a patients decisions are often complicated by various confounding issues. this is compounded by the fact that data regarding the long - term outlook of patients continuing in this disconnect pattern is sorely lacking. some researchers have demonstrated higher progression rates while others concluded that the immunologic deterioration is delayed by an average of three years ( stephen deeks and colleagues, university of california at san francisco ). however large trials of disconnected patients who continue to maintain good clinical immunologic response to haart for a specified duration would provide greater insight into the risks. it seems that patients manifesting a disconnect who continue their treatment are stable clinically and not developing opportunistic infections. however, with the ongoing epidemic of resistance, it would be helpful to understand what it all means to a patients health and longevity. daniel s. berger, m. d. is medical director for northstar healthcare ; clinical assistant professor of medicine at the university of illinois at chicago and editor of aids infosource. he also serves as medical consultant and columnist for positively aware. inquiries are welcomed by dr. berger ; he can be reached at dsbergermd @ aol. com or 773. 296. 2400.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5324979995221876, "token_count": 417, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.659238"} {"text": "in mathematics, hyperbolic functions are analogs of the ordinary trigonometric, or circular, functions. the basic hyperbolic functions are the hyperbolic sine \" sinh \" ( typically pronounced / \u02c8s\u026ant\u0283 / or / \u02c8\u0283a\u026an / ), and the hyperbolic cosine \" cosh \" ( typically pronounced / \u02c8k\u0252\u0283 / ), from which are derived the hyperbolic tangent \" tanh \" ( typically pronounced / \u02c8t\u00e6nt\u0283 / or / \u02c8\u03b8\u00e6n / ), etc., in analogy to the derived trigonometric functions. the inverse hyperbolic functions are the area hyperbolic sine \" arsinh \" ( also called \" asinh \", or sometimes by the misnomer of \" arcsinh \" ) and so on. just as the points ( cos t, sin t ) form a circle with a unit radius, the points ( cosh t, sinh t ) form the right half of the equilateral hyperbola. hyperbolic functions occur in the solutions of some important linear differential equations, for example the equation defining a catenary, and laplace ' s equation in cartesian coordinates. the latter is important in many areas of physics, including electromagnetic theory, heat transfer, fluid dynamics, and special relativity. hyperbolic functions were introduced in the 18th century by the swiss mathematician johann heinrich lambert. the hyperbolic functions are : via complex numbers the hyperbolic functions are related to the circular functions as follows : where is the imaginary unit defined as. note that, by convention, sinh2x means ( sinhx ) 2, not sinh ( sinhx ) ; similarly for the other hyperbolic functions when used with positive exponents. another notation for the hyperbolic cotangent function is, though cothx is far more common. hyperbolic sine and cosine satisfy the identity which is similar to the pythagorean trigonometric identity. it can also be shown that the area under the graph of cosh x from a to b is equal to the arc length of cosh x from a to b. for a full list of integrals of hyperbolic functions, see list of integrals of hyperbolic functions in the above expressions, c is called the constant of integration. it is possible to express the above functions as taylor series : a point on the hyperbola xy = 1 with x > 1 determines a hyperbolic triangle in which the side adjacent to the hyperbolic", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5440166104565458, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.663511"} {"text": "expressions, c is called the constant of integration. it is possible to express the above functions as taylor series : a point on the hyperbola xy = 1 with x > 1 determines a hyperbolic triangle in which the side adjacent to the hyperbolic angle is associated with cosh while the side opposite is associated with sinh. however, since the point ( 1, 1 ) on this hyperbola is a distance \u221a2 from the origin, the normalization constant 1 / \u221a2 is necessary to define cosh and sinh by the lengths of the sides of the hyperbolic triangle. and the property that cosh t \u2265 1 for all t. the hyperbolic functions are periodic with complex period 2\u03c0i ( \u03c0i for hyperbolic tangent and cotangent ). the parameter t is not a circular angle, but rather a hyperbolic angle which represents twice the area between the x - axis, the hyperbola and the straight line which links the origin with the point ( cosh t, sinh t ) on the hyperbola. the function cosh x is an even function, that is symmetric with respect to the y - axis. the function sinh x is an odd function, that is \u2212sinh x = sinh ( \u2212x ), and sinh 0 = 0. the hyperbolic functions satisfy many identities, all of them similar in form to the trigonometric identities. in fact, osborn ' s rule states that one can convert any trigonometric identity into a hyperbolic identity by expanding it completely in terms of integral powers of sines and cosines, changing sine to sinh and cosine to cosh, and switching the sign of every term which contains a product of 2, 6, 10, 14,... sinhs. this yields for example the addition theorems the \" double angle formulas \" and the \" half - angle formulas \" the derivative of sinh x is cosh x and the derivative of cosh x is sinh x ; this is similar to trigonometric functions, albeit the sign is different ( i. e., the derivative of cos x is \u2212sin x ). the gudermannian function gives a direct relationship between the circular functions and the hyperbolic ones that does not involve complex numbers. the graph of the function a cosh ( x / a ) is the catenary, the curve formed by a uniform flexible chain hanging freely under gravity. from the definitions of the hyperbolic sine and cosine, we can derive", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5424689697660176, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.667143"} {"text": "education is the transmission of civilization. ~ william james durant ( 1885 \u2013 1981 ) and ariel durant, born chaya kaufman ( 1898 - 1981 ) after the murder of benazir bhutto, pakistan dominated the news for a week or so but that has now faded. we were regaled with speculation about the danger to the world posed by an unstable, nuclear - armed, undemocratic state where fundamentalist muslims find it easy to integrate into society. it was in pakistan that the taliban ( which took over the government of afghanistan and provided shelter to al qaeda ) were originally able to organize and build a foundation. a recent analysis on television suggests that the taliban are direct descendants of protestors who instigated the mutiny against british imperial rule and christian missionary zeal in 19th century india. but pakistan is also seen as a major bulwark in the \" war on terror \" and has been the recipient of $ 5bn in us aid since the attack on the twin towers. now the excitement has died down, pakistan has dropped out of media consciousness but its problems remain. and one of its greatest problems is education. like the rest of public life in pakistan, the education system is subject to endemic corruption. and this should trouble the rest of the world because education in pakistan is being exploited by fundamentalists in their drive to recruit new followers. when it was provided with american aid on a massive scale, pakistan promised to devote some of the money to improving its education system. the world bank has also allocated a separate $ 300mn specifically to support schools and colleges \u2013 but fearing that the money will disappear into a sink of corruption, it is reluctant to disburse the funds until proper control systems are put in place. these fears are justified. american officials supervising military aid suspect that invoices for supplies are inflated by as much as 30 %, enabling millions of dollars to disappear. and in the education system, officials estimate that corruption taps 15 % of intended expenditure. little has been done to improve education in pakistan. in the punjab, for example, there are 63, 000 state schools, of which : - 5, 000 ( 8 % ) have been condemned as dangerous structures. - 26, 000 ( 41 % ) have no electricity. - 16, 000 ( 25 % ) have no toilets. many teachers see their jobs as sinecures and don ' t turn up to work, while local inspectors distrust the information provided by the ministry of education. few schools have enough classrooms and some resort to teaching in the open air under", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5124814068731101, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.688465"} {"text": "have you ever wondered : where did we come from? what makes us different from all the other life forms on this planet? shannon dorey in her new book \" the master of speech \" just might have the answers and most people won ' t like them! ms. dorey has studied the life and works of marcel griaule, a french anthropologist, who 50 years ago recorded the oral history and mythology of the dogon, as told by ogotemmeli, a member of the tribe. the dogon are an isolated mountainous region of bandiagara, south of the sahara desert in mali, west africa. mr. griaule wrote about the dogon in his book, \" conversations with ogotemmeli \", published in 1947. the dogon mythology is disturbing because it claims that we were created by beings that genetically engineered our dna. in fact, the book states that our dna was manipulated three times and that three different versions of humans were designed. this was due to failed experiments by out creators. amphibious aliens from the sirian star system, that landed on earth with \" great noise and wind \" on a 3 - legged spacecraft. these aliens, named the nummo, didn ' t take into consideration the problems of combining their androgynous ( both male and female ) dna with the dna of single sexed animals ( us ). according to ms dorey on page 25, \" the nummo change the earth animals who are \" naked and speechless \" by using the \" fibers \" or the dna from the nummo world. the lack of intelligence on the earth is identified as \" disorder \" that the nummo want to end. by combining their dna with the earth animals they order the universe \". on page 26, ms dorey writes : \" ogotemmeli referred to the earth previously as being \" naked and speechless \" which is how animals are defined. so by connecting with the nummo, the animals become clothed and they learn to speak. \" as stated the nummo came from the sirius star system and resembled serpents, lizards, chameleons and fish! ms. dorey adds, \" the first important symbol found in ogotemmili conversation with griaule is the symbol of the \" word \" it self. the \" word \" is used as a metaphor for dna of the biologically engineered humans. this is because speech is synonymous with intelligence and the only way the earth animals are able to speak is when their dna is combined with the numm", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5210749602108335, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.712145"} {"text": "it self. the \" word \" is used as a metaphor for dna of the biologically engineered humans. this is because speech is synonymous with intelligence and the only way the earth animals are able to speak is when their dna is combined with the nummo ' s dna. the \" word \" is a key symbol and is used throughout to describe the three different version of the biologically engineered humans. \" on page 5, ms dorey writes : \".. the religion of the dogon tribe centered on the sirius star system and this information about the red - dwarf star had been told to griaule, and another anthropologist germaine dieterlen, sometime between 1931 and 1950. the dogon had told the anthropologists they had received their knowledge from visitors who came to the earth from another star system. \" how can we believe the dogon mythology? what proof is there that this tale, this story is any truer than that of any other culture or religion? on page 5 ms. dorey writes, \" what is even more important is that the dogon mythology evolved from an oral culture. the ancient stories told by ogotemmeli had been passed on from generation to generation throughout the ages \". read \" the master of speech \" and discover how the nummo story is woven into the creation myths of all the worlds major religions! learn the truth about immortality and reincarnation. in what may prove to be one of life ' s largest understatements, ms. dorey writes, \" it ( the dogon mythology ) provides us with the sought after missing link and answers to questions that have plagued humanity since the beginning of time. if you are interested in purchasing \" the master of speech \", please click here. publishers, to have your book reviews placed here please contact email @ example. com.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5740906302324441, "token_count": 369, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.712849"} {"text": "effect of district meter areas on water quality isbn : 1 84057 205 1 from the modelling work, case study and discussions with the industry, it is concluded that the net long term effect of creating dmas does not appear to be detrimental to water quality on a day to day basis. the short term effect of creating dmas depends on the extent with which the network has a potential to cause water quality problems, eg does it contain deposits and / or corroding mains. where these exist it is highly likely that work to install new valves and the set up of the dma will cause short term discoloured water for some customers. customers who bought this report also bought... various operational and maintenance strategies ( and the activities that comprise the strategy ) are adopted by water suppliers in order to maintain water quality at acceptable levels. conversely, acitivities applied to a netw... more... price : \u00a3100 add to basket this report investigates the prediction of chlorine by means of a field study. the prediction of water age was successful. further research is needed on chlorine decay. the importance of pipe material, diameter, temperature,... more... price : \u00a3150 add to basket the manual provides guidance to staff engaged in managing district meter areas ( dmas ). it guides the practitioner through the stages of : 1. setting up and maintaining districts, 2 monitoring leakage, 3 se... more... price : \u00a3100 add to basket this study aims to advance understanding on discolouration in drinking water. work products include : - a literature review of corrosion and iron discolouration. - analysis of relationships between corrosion, tuberculatio... more... price : \u00a3100 add to basket the first update of ' managing leakage ', the 1995 water industry report. economics of leakage methodology, both short and long term is developed in detail. there are case studies on whole - life costing. seven key areas of ukwi... more... price : \u00a350 add to basket", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5143148231033978, "token_count": 422, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.717771"} {"text": "socialsekreteraren har ordet! en studie av hur ungdomar beskrivs i socialtjanstens yttranden avseende unga lagovertradare. sammanfattning : the purpose of this essay was to examine how youths are described in certain written statements that are produced by the social services. the statements that this study has focused on, are those written with the purpose of serving the court with suggestions of treatment - measures when a person between 15 and 18 is suspected of having committed a crime. the main issues were : how is the content in these statements described and what do these descriptions tell the reader? do the images of youths in the statements differ, depending on the degree of intervention for the suggested treatment - measure? the essay is based on a qualitative content - analysis of 50 statements and the material has been analysed from a social - constructive theoretical perspective. the study shows that the youths in the statements are described through descriptions that reinforces a positive or a negative image of the youth, and that these descriptions are described as either utterances or facts. depending on the degree of intervention for the suggested treatment - measures, the information in the statements differ in that descriptions that are likely to reinforce a positive image of the youth are more frequent in the statements where no or less intervening treatment - measures is suggested. i addition to this, descriptions that are likely to reinforce a negative image of the youth are more frequent in the statements where more intervening treatment - measures is suggested. the study further shows that descriptions are more often described as facts in the statements with more intervening suggested treatment - measures. in addition to this, descriptions are more often described as utterances in the statements with less intervening suggested treatment - measures. har kan du hamta uppsatsen i fulltext. ( folj lanken till nasta sida )", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5542697812612783, "token_count": 387, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.728806"} {"text": "- prayer and worship - beliefs and teachings - issues and action - catholic giving - about usccb the story of creation. * 1in the beginning, when god created the heavens and the eartha \u2014 2 * and the earth was without form or shape, with darkness over the abyss and a mighty wind sweeping over the waters \u2014 b 3then god said : let there be light, and there was light. c 4god saw that the light was good. god then separated the light from the darkness. 5god called the light \u201c day, \u201d and the darkness he called \u201c night. \u201d evening came, and morning followed \u2014 the first day. * 6then god said : let there be a dome in the middle of the waters, to separate one body of water from the other. 7god made the dome, * and it separated the water below the dome from the water above the dome. and so it happened. d 8god called the dome \u201c sky. \u201d evening came, and morning followed \u2014 the second day. 9then god said : let the water under the sky be gathered into a single basin, so that the dry land may appear. and so it happened : the water under the sky was gathered into its basin, and the dry land appeared. e 10god called the dry land \u201c earth, \u201d and the basin of water he called \u201c sea. \u201d god saw that it was good. 11f then god said : let the earth bring forth vegetation : every kind of plant that bears seed and every kind of fruit tree on earth that bears fruit with its seed in it. and so it happened : 12the earth brought forth vegetation : every kind of plant that bears seed and every kind of fruit tree that bears fruit with its seed in it. god saw that it was good. 13evening came, and morning followed \u2014 the third day. 14then god said : let there be lights in the dome of the sky, to separate day from night. let them mark the seasons, the days and the years, g 15and serve as lights in the dome of the sky, to illuminate the earth. and so it happened : 16god made the two great lights, the greater one to govern the day, and the lesser one to govern the night, and the stars. h 17god set them in the dome of the sky, to illuminate the earth, 18to govern the day and the night, and to separate the light from the darkness. god saw that it was good", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5088040924683919, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.738486"} {"text": "\u2019 adam is here the generic term for humankind ; in the first five chapters of genesis it is the proper name adam only at 4 : 25 and 5 : 1 \u2013 5. in our image, after our likeness : \u201c image \u201d and \u201c likeness \u201d ( virtually synonyms ) express the worth of human beings who have value in themselves ( human blood may not be shed in 9 : 6 because of this image of god ) and in their task, dominion ( 1 : 28 ), which promotes the rule of god over the universe. * [ 1 : 27 ] male and female : as god provided the plants with seeds ( vv. 11, 12 ) and commanded the animals to be fertile and multiply ( v. 22 ), so god gives sexuality to human beings as their means to continue in existence. * [ 1 : 28 ] fill the earth and subdue it : the object of the verb \u201c subdue \u201d may be not the earth as such but earth as the territory each nation must take for itself ( chaps. 10 \u2013 11 ), just as israel will later do ( see nm 32 : 22, 29 ; jos 18 : 1 ). the two divine commands define the basic tasks of the human race \u2014 to continue in existence through generation and to take possession of one \u2019 s god - given territory. the dual command would have had special meaning when israel was in exile and deeply anxious about whether they would continue as a nation and return to their ancient territory. have dominion : the whole human race is made in the \u201c image \u201d and \u201c likeness \u201d of god and has \u201c dominion. \u201d comparable literature of the time used these words of kings rather than of human beings in general ; human beings were invariably thought of as slaves of the gods created to provide menial service for the divine world. the royal language here does not, however, give human beings unlimited power, for kings in the bible had limited dominion and were subject to prophetic critique. * [ 1 : 29 ] according to the priestly tradition, the human race was originally intended to live on plants and fruits as were the animals ( see v. 30 ), an arrangement that god will later change ( 9 : 3 ) in view of the human inclination to violence. by accepting this message, you will be leaving the website of the united states conference of catholic bishops. this link is provided solely for the user ' s convenience. by providing this link, the united states conference of catholic bishops assumes no responsibility for, nor does it necessarily endorse, the website,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5180931273084353, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.743361"} {"text": "electric currents into earth \u2019 s crust that made their way into the high - voltage canadian hydro - quebec power grid. this caused the transformer to fail and left more than 6 million people without power for 9 hours. the same storm also damaged and disrupted the operation of satellites, gps systems, and radio communication systems used by the united states military. while large, the 1989 storm pales in comparison to one that occurred in september 1859 and is the largest storm in recorded history. scientists estimate that the economic impact to the united states from a storm of the same size in today \u2019 s society could exceed $ 1 trillion as a result of the technological systems it could disrupt. the usgs, a partner in the multi - agency national space weather program, collects data that can help us understand how magnetic storms may impact the united states. constant monitoring of earth \u2019 s magnetic field allows us to better assess the impact of these phenomena on earth \u2019 s surface. to do this, the usgs geomagnetism program maintains 14 observatories around the united states and its territories, which provide ground - based measurements of changes in the magnetic field. these measurements are being used by the noaa space weather prediction center and the us air force weather agencyto track the intensity of the magnetic storm generated by this solar activity. in addition to providing data to its customers, the usgs produces models of the earth \u2019 s magnetic field that are used in a host of applications, including gps receivers, military and civilian navigational systems, and in research for studies of the effects of geomagnetic storms on the ionosphere ( a shell of electrons and electrically charged atoms and molecules surrounding earth ), atmosphere, and near - space environment.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5216451705876197, "token_count": 344, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.751260"} {"text": "contamination and pollution introduction of harmful substances into the environment by human action or natural processes. northern gulf of mexico ecosystem change and hazard susceptibility [ more info ] map interfaces and data in the area offshore louisiana, mississippi, and alabama which was affected most by hurricane katrina and, more recently, the oil spill. nutrients national synthesis project : nutrients in rivers, streams, and aquifers in the united states [ more info ] this nutrients national synthesis project site on the u. s. study of nutrients, especially nitrogen and phosphorus, as contaminants in high concentrations links to an overview, study team, featured reports, publications, and national datasets. nutrients in the nation ' s streams and groundwater : national findings and implications [ more info ] despite public sector efforts to reduce nonpoint - source nutrients in streams and rivers, concentrations have remained the same or increased, continuing to pose risks to aquatic life and human health. occurrence of emerging contaminants in water and bed material in the missouri river, north dakota, 2007 [ more info ] water monitoring results, focused on wastewater compounds, human - health pharmaceutical compounds, hormones, and antibiotics in water, and waste indicators, hormones, and antibiotics in solids. occurrence of escherichia coli in the cuyahoga river in the cuyahoga valley national park, ohio [ more info ] explains how this important indicator bacteria is used to detect problems in the water supply that may affect human health, focusing on a specific recreational area. occurrence of selected radionuclides in ground water used for drinking water in the united states [ more info ] results ( *. pdf ) of a 1998 targeted reconnaissance survey on the sources of radium, polonium, and lead radionuclides, data collection and laboratory methods, existing occurrences in drinking water, risk assessments, and compliance monitoring. occurrence, distribution, and concentrations of selected contaminants in streambed - and suspended - sediment samples collected in bexar county, texas, 2007 - 09 [ more info ] study showing which chemicals found in sediments were most common, with methods used and likely consequences of their high concentrations. oil pollution impacts on birds [ more info ] a compilation of information, including reports, bibliographies, and data, on all aspects oil toxicity relevant to birds and other wildlife. operational guidelines for geological fieldwork in areas endemic for coccidioidomycosis ( valley fever ) [ more info ] report giving operational guidelines that will lower the risk of coccidioidomycosis ( valley fever", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5237487908697631, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.754509"} {"text": "educational material of interest to wide audiences. description of bryophytes ( mosses, liverworts, and hornworts ) and lichens ( dual organisms of a fungus and an alga or a cyanobacterium ) that are part of forest ecosystems in the pacific northwest with information on habitat and conservation. manual for research program on the nesting habits of sea turtles of the virgin islands, with descriptions of species, nesting behavior, observation methods, record keeping, tagging, and tissue sample collection. ( pdf file, 121 pp. ) buffelgrass ( pennisetum ciliare ) poses a problem in the deserts of the united states, growing in dense stands and introducing a wildfire risk in an ecosystem not adapted to fire. this report explains what we are doing to help mitigate its effects. combining genetic data with current and predicted climate scenarios, we are modeling the predicted future distributions of wildlife populations in the arctic and identifying key environmental variables that determine important animal habitat. three themes of ongoing research : forecasting polar bear and walrus population response to changing marine ecosystems ; measuring wildlife population changes in the arctic coastal plain, and wildlife communities in the boreal - arctic transition zone. identification of epiphytes ( plants obtaining moisture and nutrients from the air and rain and usually living on another plant ) on seaweed in tampa bay, florida. abstract of symposium presentation with photos. detailed publication on the classification system for an inventory of wetlands and deepwater habitats of the united states used to describe ecological taxa and arrange them in a system useful to resource managers. overview of interdisciplinary research studies in glacier national park to understand how this mountain wilderness responds to present climatic variability and other external stressors, such as air pollution, and links to detailed reports. home page for coastal and marine geology with links to topics of interest ( sea level change, erosion, corals, pollution, sonar mapping, and others ), sound waves monthly newsletter, field centers, regions of interest, and subject search system. changes in both the ocean and coastal ecosystems may have negative effects on sea otter populations in the coastal northwest and alaska. a study underway will examine these factors and the overall health of sea otter populations. declines in fish and wildlife populations, water - quality issues, and changes in coastal habitats have prompted this usgs study of the region ' s nearshore life and environment. includes links to data from published reports. coverage of the coastal prairie ecology research ( cper ) team, national wetlands research center, providing scientific information to aid the conservation, management,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5043533153772009, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.777246"} {"text": "diversity and the effects of environmental degradation on living species. links to research, which differentiated two species of sage - grouse. geographic analysis and monitoring program ( gam ) conducts studies about land surface change, environmental and human health, fire and urban ecology, and natural hazards to help decision - makers in land - use planning and land management. field methods, topics of investigation, shoreline changes, publications, and satellite imagery related to geologic and hydrologic processes affecting lake pontchartrain and adjacent lakes which form a large estuary in the gulf coast region. description of the geospatial multi - agency coordination ( geomac ) project, online maps of current wildland fire locations using netscape communicator or microsoft internet explorer, and user guide on how to use mapping application. review of the size of breeding populations of giant canada geese by states in the mississippi, atlantic, central, and pacific flyways and the management problems caused by rapid increases of local breeding populations. site for great lakes science center, ann arbor, which provides information about biological resources in the great lakes basin. links to personnel, publications, data, library, facilities, research vessels, great lakes issues, and research. website of the gulf of mexico integrated science program to understand the framework and processes of the gulf of mexico using tampa bay as a pilot study. links to publications, digital library, water chemistry maps, epiphytes, and field trips. tide stage, specific conductance, water temperature, and freshwater inflow at selected hudson river ( new york ) gages updated every 4 - hours to measure the effects of freshwater withdrawals and upstream movement of the salt front. airborne scanning laser surveys ( lidar ) are used to obtaining data to investigate the magnitude and causes of coastal changes that occur during severe storms. links to examples of coastal mapping during specific hurricanes. a brief definition and explanation of hypoxia with special reference to the gulf of mexico hypoxic zone along the louisiana - texas coast as well as extensive links to usgs and other related information resources. information about the causes and impact of hypoxia with links to usgs and other federal agency information and activities related to nutrients in the mississippi river basin and hypoxia in the gulf of mexico. description of the use of a miniature video - camera system deployed at nests of passerine species in north dakota to videotape predation of eggs or nestlings by animals such as mice, ground squirrels, deer, cowbirds and others. recent physical changes over time, including trends toward", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5017421306210229, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 8, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.782770"} {"text": "n his thoughtful history of eton, christopher hollis points out the complexities involved when discussing matters of class distinction at the school and in society as a whole during the centuries since its founding. first of all what we may call a whig theory of history doesn ' t really apply ; that is, class distinctions have not, as many have claimed, gradually attenuated. things are more complicated than that. when discussing either british society or the institution of the english public school, one frequently encounters the claim, as hollis puts it, \" that class distinctions are perhaps still strong but... that they have been gradually and steadily growing less over the generations. the truth is... by no means so simple. turning to the issue of class in the eton henry vi founded, he argues, it would be somewhat less than a half truth to say that eton was in its foundation a school for poor boys. in the first place of course the ' poor and needy ' boys whom henry had in mind were not the sons of serfs. they were rather the sons of tradesmen. in the second place in the middle ages instruction in a school was almost always free. eton was in no way unique in providing free tuition. the originality in henry ' s plan was his conception of a school in which poor and needy ' scholars were to be educated side by side with richer commensales. nonetheless, despite the king ' s apparently radical juxtaposition of sons of tradesman and nobility, one form of class distinction \u2014 well known since victorian times \u2014 did not yet exist : up to the beginning of the nineteenth century no one ever suggested that the local tradesman ' s son \u2014 the son of the man who made no pretence to be a gentleman \u2014 should be excluded from the school. eton of the early nineteenth century was by no means what could be called a democratic or an egalitarian school. the sons of noblemen had what would seem to us offensive and ridiculous privileges within the school \u2014 a special dress \u2014 a special seat in chapel and the like. on occasion at any rate, as appears in various memoirs, they behaved with ill - bred insolence towards their inferiors within the school. yet class distinctions were so clearly established in society at large that it was not thought that the nobleman ' s son could be in any way contaminated or his prestige put in jeopardy if he had to spend his school days sitting at the same bench or kneeling at the same block as a tradesman ' s son. when and why, then,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5102353310330427, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.803432"} {"text": "amniotic fluid index is a way of measuring the amount of liquid that is around a baby ( fetus ) in the uterus during pregnancy. it is usually done as part of the biophysical profile ( bpp ), which is a series of tests that measure the health of the baby during pregnancy. amniotic fluid protects the fetus from temperature extremes and from being bumped or hurt as the mother moves around. it also allows the fetus to move around in the uterus and is important for lung and limb development. a problem with the amount of amniotic fluid could point to a problem with the growing fetus. too much or too little fluid could also cause problems during labor and delivery. doctors use ultrasound to calculate the amniotic fluid index. the doctor looks at the amount of amniotic fluid in four different areas of the uterus. the four areas are called quadrants. the doctor measures how much fluid is in each quadrant. then he or she adds up the numbers to get an idea of the total amount of fluid that surrounds the baby. june 18, 2012 sarah marshall, md - family medicine & william gilbert, md - maternal and fetal medicine how this information was developed to help you make better health decisions. to learn more visit healthwise. org \u00a9 1995 - 2013 healthwise, incorporated. healthwise, healthwise for every health decision, and the healthwise logo are trademarks of healthwise, incorporated. we are happy to take your appointment request over the phone, or, you may fill out an online request form. disclaimer : the information on this website is for general informational purposes only and should not be relied upon as a substitute for sound professional medical advice, evaluation or care from your physician or other qualified health care provider.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5057029992476314, "token_count": 359, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.832825"} {"text": "in the star wars : where science meets imagination exhibit, luke skywalker ' s landspeeder is on display for the first time. click on image for full size courtesy of landspeeder image \u00a9 2006 lucasfilm ltd. & tm photo : dom miguel photography star wars exhibition brings reality to fantasy news story originally written on april 16, 2008 a new museum exhibit shows that some of the robots, vehicles and devices from the star wars films are close to the types of things scientists have developed to use in space. the exhibition - - at the science museum of minnesota in st. paul, minn., from june 13 until august 24 - - showcases landspeeders, r2d2 and other items from the star wars films. visitors will learn how researchers today are pursuing similar technologies. the exhibit developers were surprised and excited to learn that many of today ' s scientists were inspired by the fantasy technologies they saw in the star wars movies. one of the goals of the exhibit is to be an inspiration for the kids will be the next set of future scientists. the exhibit contains film clips, props, models and costumes. visitors are encouraged to participate in hands - on exhibits and activities. shop windows to the universe science store! our online store includes fun classroom activities for you and your students. issues of nesta ' s quarterly journal, the earth scientist are also full of classroom activities on different topics in earth and space science! you might also be interested in : scientists have learned that mount hood, oregon ' s tallest mountain, has erupted in the past due to the mixing of two different types of magma. \" the data will help give us a better road map to what a future... more the earth ' s mantle is a rocky, solid shell that is between the earth ' s crust and the outer core, and makes up about 84 percent of the earth ' s volume. the mantle is made up of many distinct portions or... more some geologic faults that appear strong and stable, slip and slide like weak faults, causing earthquakes. scientists have been looking at one of these faults in a new way to figure out why. in theory,... more the sun goes through cycles that last approximately 11 years. these solar cycle include phases with more magnetic activity, sunspots, and solar flares. they also include phases with less activity. the... more studying tree rings doesn ' t only tell us the age of that tree. tree rings also show what climate was like for each year of a tree ' s life,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5687903662498933, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.861928"} {"text": "rescue, defined as terrain that has a slope angle of 60 and higher where rescuers are dependent upon ropes. this might involve other wind technicians or emergency personnel and a variety of safety systems. denis stresses the need for the writing of proper procedures for every wind farm including a fall protection code that clearly outlines the required action for all possible events. currently, osha rule 1910 : 66 ( f ) is fairly general : \" the employer shall provide for prompt rescue of employees in the event of a fall or shall assure the self - rescue capability of employees. \" the only way to ensure this is by establishing effective training programmes for new and existing employees. \" even though the incidents are infrequent, the potential for high angle rescue is a concern for everyone, \" says vander velde. \" most sites now require all their employees to be trained in a high angle rescue system. \" medical help at height some go beyond high angle rescue training and require additional emergency management training such as support for injuries that occur in remote areas. duke energy reports great success with the implementation of an elevated emergency management ( emm ) programme. each year, the company holds an emergency response drill that involves all site personnel and may include off site personnel. this drill is to practice emergency response skills as well as assess existing levels of knowledge. during one of the first such drills, several wind technicians said they felt they needed more emergency medical treatment training. that led to a new safety programme involving one of duke ' s wind site managers who was an emergency medical technician ( emt ) and a company called tech safety lines of carrollton, texas that supplies rescue training and equipment. this team worked together to develop training to address a range of injuries. the company now provides annual emm retraining for all employees. this programme deals with such situations as victims being suspended in their harness and needing relief before being lowered to the ground. it is all very well to call a medic. but what if you are 50 miles from the nearest doctor and in a location that can only be accessed along a dirt track? and in any case, rural emergency response teams do not typically have the training or tools to reach a patient dangling from a rotor. \" emergencies involving a post - fall suspended victim get most of the attention but the larger percentage of up - tower injuries involve soft - tissue or bone and joint injuries, \" says brent wise, a partner at tech safety lines. \" victims suspended in their harness need relief and lowering as quickly as possible, however many up - tower accidents would benefit", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.521709863895982, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.878086"} {"text": "this is one of my favorite stories. in short, one of john burk \u2019 s ( @ occam98 ) students wanted to launch a space balloon. if you want all the details, this post at quantum progress pretty much says it all. the part that makes this story so cool is that it was the student who did all of the set up and fundraising and stuff. love it. oh, and the student is apparently named \u201c m. \u201d i wonder if the student is either one of the men in black or a james bond scientist. ok, you know what i do, right? i need to add something. here is a very nice video of the space balloon launch. you know i like to use pictures for data from time to time, right? one problem is that i don \u2019 t know much about cameras. there, i said it. really, almost all of my photos are made with my phone. that is what makes the phone so great, you almost always have your camera with you. to make these pictures useful for physics, it helps to know the angular size of the picture. here is a diagram so you can see what i am talking about : there are 20 seconds left on the clock. your team is down by 2 points such that a field goal would win it. the ball is spotted on the hash mark at the 15 yard line and it is first down. what to do? should you call a run play so that the ball is in the center of the field? or should the ball be kicked from where it is? so there is the question. is it better to kick the ball from an angle or move back and kick it head on? let me just look at one aspect of this situation. what is the angular size of the goal post from the location of the kicker? i am not looking at the height of the horizontal goal post \u2013 i will assume the kicker can get the ball over this. this was on reddit. it is an image from google maps showing an aircraft. not surprising, there are lots of aircraft that get caught by the cameras in mid flight. but what about the colors? is this some rainbow - unicorn plane? i am not sure of the exact details, but this rainbow effect is from the camera. i am not sure why, but this camera is capturing red green and blue ( and probably white ) colors separately at different times. here is the actual link to the google map. the first thing that comes to my mind is \u2013 i wonder how fast the plane", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_entanglement", "similarity_score": 0.5392992311081041, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.892553"} {"text": "not sure why, but this camera is capturing red green and blue ( and probably white ) colors separately at different times. here is the actual link to the google map. the first thing that comes to my mind is \u2013 i wonder how fast the plane was moving. that question is difficult to answer because i don \u2019 t know how much time was between each \u2018 color filter \u2019 photo. oh well, i will proceed anyway. first, some info. reading through the very insightful reddit comments, it seems the commenters are certain that the plain is an embraer erj 145. really, all i need is the length. wikipedia lists it with a 29. 87 m length and a 20. 04 meter wingspan. from the image, does the rainbow plane have the same ratio of length to wingspan as listed? ok, not quite the same. maybe that is close enough. the one thing is that the image clearly has some distortion. either the plane it turning or the image has been adjusted to make it look like it is a top down view. well, surfing around a bit i couldn \u2019 t find another plane that was close in length / wing span ratio. i am going with erj 145. if i scale the image from the length of the plane, how \u201c far \u201d between the different colors? here is a plot of the 4 color images. note that for this image, i put the axis along the fuselage of the plane. the points are the locations of the back tip of one of the wings. the first cool thing that i can learn from this is that there must have been a cross - wind. the aircraft is not traveling in the direction that it is heading. of course this is not uncommon, planes do this all the time. oh, let me not that i am assume the aircraft is far enough away from the satellite that the multiple colors are due to the motion of the plane and not the satellite. this is probably a good assumption since the houses below are not rainbow colored. what about the speed? if it is moving at a constant velocity, then : i know the changes in position. so, let me just call the change in time 1 cs ( cs for camera - second ). this means that the plane \u2019 s speed would be 1. 8 m / cs. ok, let \u2019 s just play a game. what if the time between frames was 1 / 100th of a second? that would mean that the speed would be 180 m / s or 400 mph. that is possible since wikipedia lists the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5218512610473677, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.893610"} {"text": "/ cs. ok, let \u2019 s just play a game. what if the time between frames was 1 / 100th of a second? that would mean that the speed would be 180 m / s or 400 mph. that is possible since wikipedia lists the max speed at around 550 mph. if the time between images is 1 / 30th of a second ( i picked that because that is a common frame rate for video ) then the speed would be 54 m / s ( 120 mph ). that doesn \u2019 t seem too low. i would imaging the landing speed would be around that speed ( or maybe a little lower \u2013 but what do i know? ) but wait \u2013 there is more. can i determine the altitude of the plane? well, suppose i have two objects of two different lengths that are two different distances from a camera. here is an example. my notation here looks a little messy, but both objects have a length ( l ) and a distance from the camera ( r ). they also have an angular size, denoted by \u03b8. about angular size, i can write the following. i don \u2019 t know the distances from the camera and i don \u2019 t know the angles. but, i can sort of measure the angles. suppose i measure the number of pixels each object takes up in the photo. then the angular size could be written as : where p1 is the pixel size of an object and c is some constant for that particular camera. now i can re - write these angular equations and divide so that i get rid of the c. i can get values for all the stuff on the right of that equation. here are my values ( object 1 is the plane and object 2 is the background \u2013 really, i will just use the scale provided by google maps ). oh, one more thing. i am not going to measure the pixel length but rather some arbitrary length of the same scale. l1 = 29. 87 m p1 = 1 unit l2 = 10 m p2 = 0. 239 unit putting in my values above i get the ratio of the distances from the camera as : now i just need one of the r \u2018 s \u2013 ideally it would be r2 ( the distance the camera is from the ground ). wikipedia says that the satellite images are typically taken from an aircraft flying 800 - 1500 feet high. so, suppose r2 = 1500 feet ( 457 meters ). in this case the altitude of the rainbow plane would be : 1000 feet would mean that the rainbow plane is probably landing ( or taking off", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5118253499655695, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.894700"} {"text": "learn something new every day more info... by email a block diagram is a graphical method used to explain the concept of a system without the need to understand the individual components within that system. this type of diagram might be used in a variety of industries to illustrate and educate individuals about how a system operates, either in part or in its entirety. block diagrams usually will have a logical, methodical flow from beginning to end. engineers and software programmers are examples of individuals who might be familiar with block diagrams. block diagrams essentially are synonymous with flow charts, but a block diagram is generalized in nature. sometimes block diagrams are used to conceal specific information or processes that might prove to be advantageous or detrimental, whichever the case might be. people who are being presented with a block diagram should be able to develop an understanding of what that block represents. to assist in understanding the block itself, lines should be drawn to the block representing various inputs, outputs or alternative choices. depending on the type of process being illustrated, blocks might serve in any capacity that is needed to adequately describe the process or parts of the process. for instance, a manufacturing cell of machine tools might include a drill press, a milling machine and a sanding machine. to illustrate a process within that cell, each machine tool might be represented by its own block. when the manufacturing process is illustrated in its entirety, a single block might be used to represent all of the components within that cell. a block diagram also can be used to illustrate how a computer program works or how parts of a program work. if, for instance, a program is needed to calculate four different methods of interest rates, a block might represent each of these lines of code for one of these methods. in this way, a supervisor does not need to understand the code itself, as it is written, as long as the purpose of that block is communicated effectively. some block diagrams can be used as a way to map out a process as a top - down diagram. for instance, a person who has an inspired project might use a block diagram as a way to convey the idea as a series of individual blocks, each of which helps support the main topic. later, these individual blocks might then be analyzed and further developed into additional block diagrams as needed. this method can be repeated until the process is mapped out to the satisfaction of all those involved with the project. if compiled and mapped out completely, the block diagram might resemble a pine tree type of structure of the entire project, which is typical for a top - down diagram.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.6053914171152074, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.900964"} {"text": "american heritage\u00ae dictionary of the english language, fourth edition - v. to establish in office ; install. century dictionary and cyclopedia - to set or place ; establish, as in a rank or condition. - to invest. gnu webster ' s 1913 - v. to set, place, or establish, as in a rank, office, or condition ; to install ; to invest. - from in - + state. ( wiktionary ) \u201c north carolina improved to 21 - 1 in instate tournament games, including 6 - 0 in games played here - home to atlantic coast conference rival wake forest. \u201d \u201c while this was not a war, the instate was the same. \u201d \u201c but, the difficult national environment for democrats coupled with a surge in republican energy instate - - the result of the passage of a stringent immigration bill - - quickly turned the race into a serious contest. \u201d \u201c soccer board of directors voted to re - instate the provisional sanction. \u201d \u201c after a first refusal, obama says he ' ll now re - instate solar water heating to the white house roof, and will add photo - voltaic cells that will generate electricity. \u201d \u201c if we want to avoid catastrophic climate change and avoid climate disaster, we need to instate a moratorium on drilling in the arctic. \u201d \u201c i think only money from instate sources should be allowed to pay for the campaign. \u201d \u201c this seems like more of a power play to me : they want a worldwide governing body to oversee this and have them instate rules in place that will change our lives forever. \u201d \u201c it ' s time to re - instate the tax breaks from the 2000 - 2004 period and we all have to face the fact that these bills must be paid. \u201d \u201c then if congress really thinks this is incorrect, they can re - instate them. \u201d these user - created lists contain the word \u2018 instate \u2019. the only letters without a \" satine \" bingo possibility : j, q, y words found through wordie ' s random word function. i didn ' t take phrases, foreign, misspelled, or madeupical words, so i looked at about 200 words to assemble this list. i was surprise... looking for tweets for instate.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.518072361029424, "token_count": 466, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.906655"} {"text": "a footnote. fourteen bars. can a fifty - five second composition be a key to unlocking chopin \u2019 s life - long aesthetic? cantabile. an italian word first used around 1724. it means \u201c singable, \u201d \u201c songlike, \u201d or indicates \u201c a style of playing designed to imitate the human voice. \u201d twice in his life chopin fell head - over - heels in love \u2026 with singers. a third became a close friend and collaborator. days after his arrival in paris, chopin wrote home heady with the endless buffet of spectacular voices he was hearing night after night. chopin was identifying something of himself in these great voices and in what they were singing - most notably in the \u201c never - ending melody \u201d chopin reported hearing in vincenzo bellini \u2019 s operas. for many music scholars, chopin \u2019 s love of opera, and of singing, is the key to understanding his music ; they call it chopin \u2019 s \u201c cantabile aesthetic. \u201d flowing, singable, lines, bellini \u2019 s bel canto, translated to the black and white of the keys. cantabile is also the title of this briefest of chopin miniatures. chopin wrote it in paris around 1834, but it didn \u2019 t get published until nearly a century later. despite its brevity, it sums up the singing soul of chopin. as chopin \u2019 s biographer, james hunecker wrote, \" he may become old - fashioned, but, like mozart, he will remain eternally beautiful. \u201d - jennifer foster", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5477784672869417, "token_count": 310, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.920845"} {"text": "in grammar terms, a participle is an adjective ( descriptive word ) made from a verb. ( noun ) an example of a participle is \" sleeping \" in the phrase \" sleeping dogs. \" see participle in webster ' s new world college dictionary origin : ofr < l participium < particeps, participating, partaking < participare, participate : from participating in the nature of both v. & adj. see participle in american heritage dictionary 4 origin : middle english origin :, from old french origin :, variant of participe origin :, from latin participium ( translation of greek metokhe, sharing, partaking, participle ) origin :, from particeps, particip -, partaker ; see participate. usage note : participial phrases such as walking down the street or having finished her homework are commonly used in english to modify nouns or pronouns, but care must be taken in incorporating such phrases into sentences. readers will ordinarily associate a participle with the noun, noun phrase, or pronoun adjacent to it, and misplacement may produce comic effects as in he watched his horse take a turn around the track carrying a racing sheet under his arm. a correctly placed participial phrase leaves no doubt about what is being modified : sitting at her desk, jane read the letter carefully. \u2022 another pitfall in using participial phrases is illustrated in the following sentence : turning the corner, the view was quite different. grammarians would say that such a sentence contains a \u201c dangling participle \u201d because there is no noun or pronoun in the sentence that the participial phrase could logically modify. moving the phrase will not solve the problem ( as it would in the sentence about the horse with a racing sheet ). to avoid distracting the reader, it would be better to recast the sentence as when we turned the corner, the view was quite different or turning the corner, we had a different view. \u2022 a number of expressions originally derived from participles have become prepositions, and these may be used to introduce phrases that are not associated with the immediately adjacent noun phrase. such expressions include concerning, considering, failing, granting, judging by, and speaking of. thus one may write without fear of criticism speaking of politics, the elections have been postponed or considering the hour, it is surprising that he arrived at all. learn more about participle", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.51642054020464, "token_count": 511, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.951535"} {"text": "and poor workers. thus when an authoritarian regime markets clothing and athletic shoes that were produced by child labor under sweatshop conditions, the wto claims that there is nothing it can do. the demonstrations in seattle, however, showed that growing numbers of americans are recognizing that all of these issues - third world sweatshops, the destruction of unions, deteriorating living standards, the dismantling of social programs inside the u. s. - are actually interconnected. \" globalization \" is not some abstraction, but a destructive social force that has practical consequences on how we live, work and eat. there is a direct connection between the elimination of millions of jobs that can sustain families here in the u. s., and the exportation of jobs into countries without unions, environmental and safety standards. as real jobs disappear for millions of u. s. workers, and as welfare programs are eliminated, the only alternative is to use the prisons as the chief means of regulating mass unemployment. thus in the 1990s in the u. s., a period of so - called unprecedented capitalist expansion, the number of prisoners in federal, state and local correctional facilities roughly doubled. between 1995 and 1997, according to the national jobs for all coalition, the average incomes of the poorest 20 percent of female - headed families fell. in 1998, 163 cities and 670 counties had unemployment rates that were more than 50 percent higher than the national average. these deep pockets of joblessness and hunger are not accidental : they represent the logical economic consequences of a nation that builds one hundred new prison cells a day and sanctions the exportation of millions of jobs. black americans therefore should be in the forefront of the debates about international trade, but we must do so by recalling the activist slogan of the sixties : \" think globally, act locally. \" there is an inescapable connection between seattle and sing sing prison, between global inequality and the brutalization of third world labor and what ' s happening to black, brown and working people here in the u. s. as globalized capitalism destroys democracy, unions and the environment abroad, it is carrying out a similar agenda in our own backyards. for these reasons, we must create new organizations and a new political language that can unify international groups into collective protest action. we are challenged to build new political networks and information sharing across the boundaries of race, gender, class and nation. we must make the connections in the fight for democracy in the 21st century. dr. manning marable is professor of history and political science, and the director", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5310342031911273, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:50.962941"} {"text": "of rumor detection later in the outbreak is consistent with allport and postman \u2019 s basic law of rumor ( 12 ). according to this law, the amount of rumors in circulation is roughly equal to the importance of the rumor multiplied by the uncertainty surrounding the rumor. we found that, as more information became available about the outbreaks and about the h5n1 virus, fewer rumors circulated. this decrease was despite the fact that the importance of the disease remained high because of the ongoing risk for evolution of a pandemic influenza strain. through rumor surveillance, who assisted affected countries by issuing guidelines, providing technical expertise, and mobilizing supplies. unaffected countries also took action by banning the importation of poultry from affected countries. this action was crucial in preventing the further spread of avian influenza. an important part of rumor surveillance is the timely dissemination of accurate information to reduce misunderstanding and unwarranted concern, especially for rumors reported in the media. one example was the need to address the international concern that arose about the rumor that pigs were infected with avian influenza ( 13 ). if the rumor had not been reported to be incorrect publicly after the verification process, health authorities may have heightened avian influenza surveillance to include the investigation of persons with symptoms of influenza and a history of contact with pigs. the literature lacks guidance on how to establish and operate enhanced rumor surveillance during large outbreaks. based on our experience and drawing on the recommendations in standard texts on public health surveillance ( 14, 15 ), we suggest the following criteria for developing rumor surveillance : 1 ) define the goals of surveillance as part of an early warning system in which each rumor deserves investigation to determine its veracity ; 2 ) apply a case definition that will have a high level of sensitivity ( and therefore a relatively lower specificity ) to identify the event of interest early in the outbreak ; 3 ) articulate clearly the steps to be undertaken to assess the veracity of the rumor, the criteria for deeming the verification process complete, and the ethics and confidentiality in conducting investigations ; 4 ) clarify the actions to be taken if the rumored events are true, or incorrect, or if the response of the verifying authority lacks credibility ; 5 ) delegate responsibility for data collection, management of the rumor database, and verification to a person trained in surveillance. this person must have access to relevant national and international networks and appropriate negotiation skills to investigate the veracity of the rumors. in selected instances, multilingual staff may be essential ; 6 ) include among the data sources print and electronic media, the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.529747853226562, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:51.012362"} {"text": "another day, another planet, another micro \u2014 but the ace is so fast that even bill bennett had to switch into hyper - drive to review it. the jupiter ace is a radical departure from the mainstream of micro - computing, and could prove to be the start of a very important new - trend. rather than accepting the prevailing wisdom, jupiter cantab designed the machine around the forth language. in a way, this makes the ace a breakthrough \u2014 it is both the first mass - produced home computer not to use that tired old lady of micro languages, basic, and is also one of the fastest micros ever made. the speed clement is vital ; it is more or less the justification for using a hitherto arcane computer tongue. but speed is not the only - advantage of forth, or indeed of the ace. it has that all - important feature ; structure. structured programming is definitely the \u201c coming thing \u201d. it is preferred by both educationalists and professional programmers alike, and leads me to another fashionable computer buzz - word ; portability. portability is an important conception in micro - computing. put simply it means the ability of one computer to run a program written for another, taking the hardware differences into account. forth is highly portable. providing the relevant hardware details, such as screen and memory size, are taken into account, any program written in forth should run on any forth system. programming in forth is so fundamentally different to programming in basic that some people prefer not to call forth software \u201c programs \u201d at all. it is important to discard all your current ideas about programming before you start with the language forth. when writing a basic program, it seems quite normal to think of the control passing through program lines. these lines are like rails along which the control runs, complete with loops and goto jumps. the control path is often difficult to follow even in your own, short, well - documented programs. imagine trying to sort out someone else \u2019 s epic and rather badly - documented program, which they quickly wrote in the middle of the night. this just does not happen with forth, because each little section of code is debugged as it is written, and the control path does not really exist as a concept. a forth system contains a set of words, called a kernel in some implementations. on the jupiter ace they are referred to as rom - words, because they are in the machine \u2019 s 8k of read - only memory. these words act on whatever number is on the top of the stack, which is the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_computing", "similarity_score": 0.5011031840947171, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:51.029955"} {"text": "in some implementations. on the jupiter ace they are referred to as rom - words, because they are in the machine \u2019 s 8k of read - only memory. these words act on whatever number is on the top of the stack, which is the area of memory that the system plays with. the best way to think of a stack is as a pile of plates. these plates are the numbers. plates can be added to the top of the pile at any time, but only the one on the top can be worked on. this is a much more convenient way of managing the memory than using addresses, though with forth it is still possible to define variables and constants. each word in the rom - word set can be thought of as a call to a machine - code subroutine. usually any value sent into a subroutine is called a \u201c parameter \u201d. in forth the relevant parameters are those numbers at present on the top of the stack. for example : plus is a forth word \u2014 written + \u2014 which adds together the two numbers at the top of the system stack, and then puts the resulting number in their place. thus, on the jupiter, when you input 2 enter the screen shows 2 ok 3 enter the screen shows 3 ok + enter the screen shows + ok. enter the screen shows 5 ok the command \u201c. \u201d prints out whatever is currently on the top of the stack. for conven - ience i will call this \u201c dot \u201d. we can think of the numbers 2 and 3 as parameters sent to the plus routine, and the resultant value 5 as the parameter sent to the dot routine. as soon as a forth word is entered it is obeyed. a number of words can be entered at a time. for example, our example could have been input as : 2 3 +. enter the result 5 is printed immediately at the cursor position. it is very important to remember to put a space between all forth words or numbers as they are entered. forth really comes into its own when users start to define their own words. this is very simple to do. new words are formed by combining words already defined, and in some cases using numbers which are placed on the stack. for example, to write a word that will add two numbers together and then print out the result, we shall use the name plus : : plus +. ; enter the colon at the beginning indicates that a new word is being defined. what follows it \u2014 plus in this case \u2014 is the name of that word. we input the +", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5341042714567875, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:51.032306"} {"text": "the result, we shall use the name plus : : plus +. ; enter the colon at the beginning indicates that a new word is being defined. what follows it \u2014 plus in this case \u2014 is the name of that word. we input the + and. to tell the computer that these are the forth words which go to make up our word, plus, and the semi - colon at the end closes the definition. once a new word is defined it appears on the top of the vocabulary list. the vocabulary initially contains the 140 rom - words, and, the top word in the list is forth. this merely indicates that the words below it constitute the main vocabulary. the forth word vlist makes the machine print out a list of all the words in the vocabulary, including all the new ones. it is possible to define the same word twice. if, having typed in the word plus as i des - cribed you decided that you wanted to change it so that the screen cleared first, you would have to use the editor. enter the following : and up comes the previous definition of that word, laid out thus ; : plus +. the word cls \u2014 clear screen \u2014 would need to be added before the word +. this is done by moving the cursor to the position where the extra word \u2014 or words \u2014 are to be inserted and typing that word in. the cursor - control keys are the 5, 6, 7 and 8, used in the same way as on the zx - 81. once the word has been changed to the corrected form, typing enter now places that word in the vocabulary. if at this stage you type vlist, you would find that there are two versions of the word plus in the list. the computer would always execute the second version, leaving the first for dead. this makes debugging software incredibly easy because any incorrectly - defined words can be tested as they are entered and continually hacked about until they reach a correct form. because all previous attempts at the same word are kept in the dictionary, you can return to these at any time. when the definitive version of the word has been created, you can save memory space by deleting with replace all the intermediate attempts. unlike most implementations of forth, the ace has a substantial level of error - checking. for example, the stack will not overflow. it is also made more powerful by the ability to redefine words without the system crashing. however, should you require yet more speed than normally available, there is a", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5576171787817825, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:51.034850"} {"text": "level of error - checking. for example, the stack will not overflow. it is also made more powerful by the ability to redefine words without the system crashing. however, should you require yet more speed than normally available, there is a fast command. this does away with the error - checking, so it is wise to use it only when a program is totally debugged. it takes the computer \u2019 s speed up to about 90 percent of a machine - coded program, but it does disable the break key. at an end - user price of \u00a389. 95, the jupiter ace is an excellent way of learning an important new computer language. it will have a special appeal to those who feel that they have now grown out of their zx - 81s, especially as far as basic programming is concerned. it will also be a godsend to those who want the speed and economy of machine code but cannot grasp its principles. the jupiter ace comes in a white plastic case, not all that dissimilar in style to the now - defunct zx - 80 \u2032 s horrible box. it is undoubtedly the machine \u2019 s worst feature, and the cost - cutting that has been done here could turn out to be that ha \u2019 porth of tar that spoilt the ship. the printing on the case is in a matt - black, broken only by a series of red lines. these red lines are obviously the microcomputer world \u2019 s equivalent of the \u201c go - faster \u201d stripes that teenage car owners sport to make their old ford cortinas look a little sleeker. the truth of the matter is that the jupiter is very fast. the manufacturer claims that it is the fastest microcomputer in this quadrant of the galaxy. this has a lot to do with the rapidity of the forth language, but some of the credit has to go to the z - 80a processor which nips along at a rate of knots \u2014 3. 25mhz to be precise. speed implies heat, but there is not much danger of the jupiter overheating, or at least a sight less danger than some machines, because inside that flimsy plastic case is plenty of breathing room and what is more, the case is better ventilated than that of the zx range of computers. sinclair cognoscenti will smile when they peer inside the case and see the heat sink. i often wonder why they are such odd shapes \u2014 could it be they were designed by picasso? comparisons with the sinclair", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_computing", "similarity_score": 0.5162169634070914, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:51.036094"} {"text": "of the zx range of computers. sinclair cognoscenti will smile when they peer inside the case and see the heat sink. i often wonder why they are such odd shapes \u2014 could it be they were designed by picasso? comparisons with the sinclair machines will inevitably keep cropping up, because the designers of the ace were, until recently, in the employ of sinclair research and so take some of the credit and blame for the zx spectrum. apart from the gross departure of choosing the forth language, the design is fairly standard. sinclair owners will find much inside the ace \u2019 s case that is familiar to them. the keyboard closely resembles that on the zx - 81, both in the number of keys and their layout. but rather than having those horrid little squares that you have to struggle to push down as you program, the ace uses a rubbery \u201c moving - key \u201d design. personally i find it is a little like shaking a dead man \u2019 s hand. the keys do at least have the advantage of being readable \u2014 that is, there are none of the spectrum \u2019 s red words which you can only track down using special spectacles. another small mercy that we can thank jupiter for \u2014 or zeus if you are greek \u2014 is that there is no single - keyword entry to contend with. however, the designers probably did not abandon it for any good reason, but merely because the infinity of word names available to forth makes it impracticable. there are also some significant advances. for example, there are both upper and lower - case letters. it is also possible for the user to define his own character set \u2014 in fact by doing so, some reasonably high - resolution graphics are possible. in this way the graphics of the ace remind me of a non - colour spectrum. in normal mode there are 32 character positions across the display and 24 down. in the plot mode, there is a resolution of 64 by 48 points \u2014 not exactly high resolution. if you are prepared to play about with the character definition then this increases to a respectable 192 by 256. the operation of the word plot is like the other forth words. the top three numbers on the stack are the parameters which are passed to a machine - code routine. at the top of the stack is a number which describes how the point is to be drawn, and the next two give its screen location. probably the biggest advantage of the ace \u2019 s picture quality over the zx - 81 \u2032 s is that the ace has a rock - steady black screen on which", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_computing", "similarity_score": 0.5039025524516352, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:51.037319"} {"text": "the amount of plutonium in their teeth. \u201d add to this the morbidity and mortality or working in uranium mines and the dangers of disposing of radioactive waste, and you have negative health impacts at every stage of nuclear power ( for a summary see the uk \u2019 s campaign for nuclear disarmament ). despite this, governments have invested massively in the nuclear industry and globalized the risk. canada has exported nuclear reactors while building seven of its own, and despite concerns about safety the ontario government plans on investing $ 36 billion into nuclear power at the same time as its backing off wind power. reasons and excuses while nuclear power is a clear and present danger to the health of the planet and its people, it is a thriving industry driven by economic and military competition. vandana shiva \u2014 who studied nuclear physics and now leads the climate justice movement in india \u2014 has exposed the hypocrisy of us hostility to iranian nuclear power when it is doing the same thing to promote nuclear power and weapons in india as a bulwark against china : as shiva summarized in her book soil not oil, \u201c nuclear winter is not an alternative to global warming \u201d, and it is a tragedy that japan has become the test case against both military and civilian arms of the nuclear industry - - from the atomic bomb 65 years ago to the nuclear meltdown today. but instead of admitting the problems of nuclear power, the nuclear industry and its supporters have greenwashed it and presented it as a solution to global warming. some environmentalists, such as gaia theorist james lovelock, have fallen prey to these claims. lovelock, whose ideas are driven by apocalyptic predictions and an extreme pessimism, has gone so far as to claim that \u201c nuclear power is the only green solution \u201d. while former us president george bush defended his country \u2019 s 103 nuclear power plants as not producing \" a single pound of air pollution or greenhouses gases \u201d, dr. helen caldicott has refuted the claim in her important book nuclear power is not the answer, which proves that even without meltdowns nuclear power is a threat to the planet : the false dichotomy between carbon emissions and nuclear power is also refuted by those developing the tar sands, who have proposed using nuclear power to pump tar sands oil. people power, green jobs fortunately there are growing anti - nuclear campaigns uniting indigenous groups, ngos and the broader climate justice movement to challenge nuclear power in all its stages \u2014 from mining to use to waste disporal. as vandana shiva writes in", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5365135418814302, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:51.046063"} {"text": "[ previous ] | [ session 38 ] | [ next ] r. greenberg, g. hoppa, b. r. tufts, p. e. geissler ( lpl, univ. of arizona ) the characteristics of chaos regions on europa suggest they may be sites of melt - through from below. they are wide - ranging in size, location and age. most are similar to conamara with a matrix reminiscent of frozen slush, and often rafts of pre - existing crust. edges are of two types : ramps, perhaps the tapering of crustal thickness to zero, or cliffs where rafts appear to have broken clear from the shore. of the lenticulae, \" spots \" generally appear to be small chaoses with textured matrix and occasional rafts, \" pits \" may represent incipient melting nearly at the surface, and many \" domes \" may be small chaoses raised by isostatic compensation following refreezing of the crust. the extent of chaoses often appears to be limited by ridge systems with the coastline parallel and set back by a distance comparable to the width of the ridge system. pre - existing ridges often survive as causeways or chains of rafts. boundaries of chaoses are apparently not controlled by pre - existing cracks, evidence that formation is essentially a thermal, rather than mechanical process. evidently ridges thicken the crust such that melt - through is more likely between ridge systems. subsequent cracks and ridges form across pre - existing chaoses : recent chaoses have few cracks or ridges across them ( with paths somewhat jagged as they meander among rafts ), while the remains of old chaoses are only isolated rafts surrounded by densely ridged terrain. thus two fundamental resurfacing processes have alternated over europa ' s geological history : melt - through ( at various places and times ) forming chaos terrain, and criss - crossing by cracking and ridge - building forming densely ridged ( and other tectonic ) terrain. mapping of chaos features based on morphology at 200 m shows that they correlate well with dark regions in global ( 2 km resolution ) mosaics ( except dark regions due to ridge margins or craters ), so considerable area has been available to accommodate the expansion of crust that occurs along extensional bands and ridges. chaos ubiquity suggests europan geology has been dominated by the effects of having liquid water under a very thin ice shell, with chaos regions being widespread examples of zero shell thickness.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5036676825037867, "token_count": 499, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:51.050132"} {"text": "this is a language dependent introduction course on computer program design and development. emphasis is on the identification and solution of business problems through systems of computer programs. programs are described and designed through such tools as program flowcharts, structure charts, and pseudocode. within this framework, programming languages are treated as tools which can be selected, as appropriate, to implement the designs. this course provides the foundation for a program of study in computer science. it introduces the discipline of computing and the roles of professionals. a contemporary high - level language with appropriate constructs for structured design and structured types is presented. it integrates an introduction to algorithm design, an understanding of abstraction applied to date types and structures, and an appreciation of imperative and object - oriented programming. programming assignments are an integral part of this course. prerequisite : csc 110 or permission of instructor. this course develops the discipline of computing and the roles of professionals by introducing software engineering early in the learning process. this course formally presents abstract date types ( adts ). the adts presented are stacks, queues, lists, trees, graphs and tables. simple sorting and searching techniques, along with their efficiency are studied. the use of pointers and recursion is covered. programming assignments are an integral part of this course. prerequisite : csc 111. this course covers the manner in which the computer is used to solve problems. lectures cover the style and techniques necessary to solve problems using the visual basic programming language. object - oriented programming ( oop ) will be covered. this course will allow students to take advantage of the many new capabilities of building applications in a graphical user interface ( gui ). this course emphasizes the organization and operation of real computer systems at the architectural level. the mapping of statements and constructs in a high - level language onto sequences of machine instruction is studied, as well as the internal representation of simple data types and structures. topics include the fetch / execute cycle, bus structures, memory hierarchy, addressing modes, and subroutines. alternative architectures, such as vector and parallel models, are presented. three lecture hours per week. prerequisites : csc 111, mat 161. this course is the capstone course for the as degree in computer science. the course focuses on software engineering and requires a major software project. topics include : object - orientation, software design tools and techniques ( such as data flow diagrams, structure charts, crc cards, algorithms, pseudocode ), software reuse, software test strategies, and documentation standards", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5029095859147241, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:51.059729"} {"text": "and requires a major software project. topics include : object - orientation, software design tools and techniques ( such as data flow diagrams, structure charts, crc cards, algorithms, pseudocode ), software reuse, software test strategies, and documentation standards. prerequisite : csc 112. this course is an introduction to game programming techniques and gaming development. topics include 2d graphics and code generated animation, sound technologies, interactivity, and multi - player games. prerequisite : csc 111 or csc 264 or permission of instructor. this course is an introduction to the administration of servers operating in a client server environment. students will be introduced to the system software running client server networks, and will learn to install, configure, monitor, and manage a network server. specific topics include server software installation, protocols, shells, system and user administration, scripts, and daemons. students will be exposed to several different operating systems and several server applications, such as web, ftp, database, and mail servers. three lecture hours. prerequisite : cis 130 or permission of instructor. the fundamentals of database design and implementation are introduced with an emphasis on data relationships. utilization of a database management system ( dbms ) and its components will be covered, along with structured query language ( sql ) and data security techniques. prerequisite : cis / csc major with sophomore standing. an introduction to the c + + language which provides software developers with an \" extendable \" language in which abstract data types suitable for a given application can be created and then used as naturally as built - in data types. while based on the c programming language, c + + provides data and function encapsulation, function overloading, inheritance, strong typing, and other features needed for object - oriented programming ( oop ). this makes c + + a true high - level language suitable for professional software engineering. the language constructs and oop methods are introduced with a series of examples of increasing sophistication which are the basis of project assignments. four lecture hours and one optional recitation hour per week. prerequisite : csc 110 or permission of instructor. this course introduces object - oriented java using current technical advances in programming methodology, web - based applications, and applications for hand - held devices. java methods, classes, objects, inheritance, graphics, animation, and networking are discussed. four lecture hours per week. prerequisite : csc 110 or permission of instructor. this course builds upon the fundamental topics explored in", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5081750317330653, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:51.060699"} {"text": "definition, survive over multiple seasons ( or periodic condition changes ). seaweed. algae that are large and photosynthetic. a large change in the shape or structure of an animal that happens as the animal grows. in insects, \" incomplete metamorphosis \" is when young animals are similar to adults and change gradually into the adult form, and \" complete metamorphosis \" is when there is a profound change between larval and adult forms. butterflies have complete metamorphosis, grasshoppers have incomplete metamorphosis. having the capacity to move from one place to another. specialized for swimming the area in which the animal is naturally found, the region in which it is endemic. reproduction in which eggs are released by the female ; development of offspring occurs outside the mother ' s body. the business of buying and selling animals for people to keep in their homes as pets. the kind of polygamy in which a female pairs with several males, each of which also pairs with several different females. structure produced by the calcium carbonate skeletons of coral polyps ( class anthozoa ). coral reefs are found in warm, shallow oceans with low nutrient availability. they form the basis for rich communities of other invertebrates, plants, fish, and protists. the polyps live only on the reef surface. because they depend on symbiotic photosynthetic algae, zooxanthellae, they cannot live where light does not penetrate. mainly lives in oceans, seas, or other bodies of salt water. breeding is confined to a particular season remains in the same area reproduction that includes combining the genetic contribution of two individuals, a male and a female associates with others of its species ; forms social groups. uses touch to communicate defends an area within the home range, occupied by a single animals or group of animals of the same species and held through overt defense, display, or advertisement the region of the earth that surrounds the equator, from 23. 5 degrees north to 23. 5 degrees south. an animal which has an organ capable of injecting a poisonous substance into a wound ( for example, scorpions, jellyfish, and rattlesnakes ). uses sight to communicate breeding takes place throughout the year animal constituent of plankton ; mainly small crustaceans and fish larvae. ( compare to phytoplankton. ) agbayani, e. 2008. \" zebrasoma flavescens \" ( on - line ). fishbase. accessed april 08, 2008 at http", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5882657207884477, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:51.095678"} {"text": "you might check the following : the fuel pressure regulator ( 1 ) is a diaphragm - operated cartridge relief valve with the fuel pump pressure on one side and the regulator spring pressure and intake manifold vacuum on the other. a retainer ( 2 ) holds the fuel pressure regulator. the regulator ' s function is to maintain a constant pressure differential across the injectors at all times. the pressure regulator compensates for engine load by increasing the fuel pressure as engine vacuum drops. with the ignition on leaving the engine off ( zero vacuum ), the fuel pressure at the pressure test connection should be 415 - 455 kpa ( 6o - 66 psi ). if the pressure is too low, poor performance could result. if the pressure is too high, excessive odor may result. the engine coolant temperature sensor is a thermistor ( a resistor which changes value based on temperature ) mounted in the engine coolant passage. low coolant temperature produces a high resistance 100, 000 ohms at - 40\u00b0c ( - 40\u00b0f ) while high temperature causes low resistance 70 ohms at 130\u00b0c ( 266\u00b0f ). the vcm supplies a 5 volt signal to the engine coolant temperature sensor through a resistor in the vcm and measures the voltage. the voltage will be high when the engine is cold. the voltage will be low when the engine is hot. by measuring the voltage, the vcm calculates the engine coolant temperature. engine coolant temperature affects most systems the vcm controls. the scan tool displays engine coolant temperature in degrees. after engine start - up, the temperature should rise steadily to about 9o\u00b0c ( 194\u00b0f ) then stabilize when thermostat opens. if the engine has not been run for several hours ( overnight ), the engine coolant temperature and intake air temperature displays should be close to each other. when the vcm detects a malfunction in the engine coolant temperature ( ect ) sensor circuit, the following diagnostic trouble code ( dtc ) s will set : dtc p0117 circuit low. dtc p0118 circuit high. dtc p0125 excessive time to closed loop. dtc p1114 circuit intermittent low. dtc p1115 circuit intermittent high.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5102085470778348, "token_count": 463, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:51.100842"} {"text": "pods ) require a specific number and type of facility depending upon the public health scenario and the number of persons affected. the alternative care site planning model is intended to help public health officials evaluate the resources required to staff and equip alternative care sites in multiple emergency scenarios. < br > < br > | montgomery county advanced practice center | | workforce | | website | | 3 / 13 / 2012 1 : 46 pm | | susan wherley | | http : / / apc. naccho. org / products / apc20101003 | the alternative care site planning model is intended to help public health officials evaluate the resources required to staff and equip alternative care sites in multiple emergency scenarios. this model focuses on the critical resources needed for alternative care sites. it is not intended to manage all materials required. users must have microsoft excel in order to operate the model. does the public really understand the difference between the terms \" avian influenza \" and \" pandemic influenza \"? do they know how avian and pandemic influenzas are spread? are they familiar with simple ways to prepare for influenza? this tool is both a resource for local health departments to educate their communities and a self - study for persons who wish to increase their own knowledge and awareness. this tool includes a pdf of the \u201c complete presentation guide \u201d which includes the powerpoint presentation with speaker ' s notes, pre - and post - tests, suggested handouts, and interactive activities. word documents are available for the pre - and post - test and evaluation. | montgomery county advanced practice center | | risk communication | | word ; pdf | | reference / guides | | english | | 5 / 20 / 2011 11 : 05 am | | ian goldstein | < br > prepare for an emergency by equipping first responders with the medication they need to safely respond to a biological incident or other public health disaster. protect first responders while cutting down on response time. the bio - pack toolkit demonstrates an effective model of medication prepositioning implemented in montgomery county, md. < br > < br > | montgomery county advanced practice center | | mass medical countermeasures ; workforce | | hostedvideo | | reference / guides | | english | | 3 / 13 / 2012 4 : 56 pm | | susan wherley | | http : / / apc. naccho. org / products / apc2005681 | \u2022 demonstrate an effective model of medication prepositioning for first responders through bio - packs.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5366806813784607, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:51.122416"} {"text": ". < br > < br > | montgomery county advanced practice center | | continuity of operations planning | | word | | reference / guides ; training | | english | | 3 / 14 / 2012 12 : 01 pm | | susan wherley | | http : / / apc. naccho. org / products / apc20071696 | \u2022 identify critical day - to - day services of the local health department that will need to continue to ensure uninterrupted performance during a wide spectrum of emergency events or disasters. < br > building a public health community of practice \u2013 a biosurveillance resource compendium is a cd toolkit intended to help public health agencies implement an effective, comprehensive biosurveillance program. providing approximately 40 resources, the cd includes a series of articles on implementing biosurveillance initiatives, materials defining and discussing the development of a public health community of practice, specific examples of real - world tools and resources that have proven beneficial in north texas ( including system response protocols ), and a research report on biosurveillance system efficacy. < br > < br > | tarrant county advanced practice center | | biosurveillance, disease detection, and investigation | | cd | | reference / guides | | english | | 3 / 14 / 2012 3 : 58 pm | | susan wherley | | http : / / apc. naccho. org / products / apc20081484 | \u2022 help public health agencies strengthen partnerships with stakeholders at the federal, state and local levels and with the medical community, law enforcement, first responders, and schools. < br > learn about public health preparedness issues such as isolation and quarantine, workforce activation / surge, vulnerable populations planning, risk communications, and pandemic influenza preparedness with tools directed towards local health departments ( lhds ), businesses, and community agencies. < br > < br > | seattle & king county advanced practice center | | risk communication | | cd | | training | | english | | 3 / 14 / 2012 3 : 55 pm | | susan wherley | | http : / / apc. naccho. org / products / apc20091746 | build, strengthen, and carry out emergency response strategies in : \u2022 vulnerable and at - risk populations \u2022 risk communication \u2022 pandemic flu \u2022 healthcare response \u2022 isolation and quarantine \u2022 community and partner engagement < br > help businesses, government agencies,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5007240435723964, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:51.124658"} {"text": "that will provide assistance with planning for a public health vaccination or dispensing clinic. this tool can be used either in the advance planning stages or for immediate support during an actual event. the computer model is designed to assist in planning a clinic with improved efficiency and performance while enlightening the planners on what to expect in the event of an outbreak. < br > < br > | montgomery county advanced practice center | | mass medical countermeasures | | website | | reference / guides | | english | | 3 / 21 / 2012 5 : 04 pm | | susan wherley | | http : / / apc. naccho. org / products / apc2008258 | \u2022 create mathematical and simulation models of mass dispensing and vaccination clinics ( also known as points of dispensing or pods ). \u2022 develop decision support tools to help emergency preparedness planners plan clinics that have enough capacity to serve residents quickly while avoiding unnecessary congestion. < br > the closed pod partnerships : train the trainer website is designed for businesses, faith - based and community - based organizations, higher education institutions ( colleges and universities ) and federal agencies that are interested in partnering with their local health department as closed points of dispensing ( pods ) for mass dispensing of antibiotics to employees, family members and / or clients in the event of a large scale infectious disease emergency. this resource includes self - guided online training modules, forms, templates, fact sheets, planning resources, checklists, and information useful for staff setting up and working a closed pod. < br > < br > | san francisco bay area advanced practice center | | partnerships and collaborations | | website | | reference / guides | | english | | 3 / 22 / 2012 1 : 20 pm | | susan wherley | | http : / / apc. naccho. org / products / apc20101780 | \u2022 learn how a closed point of dispensing ( pod ) works. \u2022 set up and activate a closed pod. \u2022 conduct just - in - time training for closed pod staff. < br > tabletop exercises are one of the strategies that the public health workforce can use to convene and engage their community partners. this resource provides state and local public health entities with information and guidance on the key ingredients to consider when developing and facilitating a bioterrorism tabletop exercise. | dekalb county board of health advanced practice center, revised by the san francisco bay", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5069541907826155, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:51.126972"} {"text": "encounter during the disaster. after answering each question, you earn points based on the relative correctness of your decision, given the three choices available in each situation. you also receive feedback explaining the merits or drawbacks of the possible answer answers. at the end of each scenario, you obtain your final score and can review the questions and feedback. < br > design and conduct a full - scale disaster exercise using a dvd - based interactive training course designed to assist public health and emergency management professionals. the dvd includes video footage that details tarrant county ' s full - scale dirty bomb disaster drill. the tool also includes an interactive training manual as well as a chapter - based lecture series focused on the design and evaluation components of a public health exercise. < br > < br > | tarrant county advanced practice center | | chemical, biological, radiological, nuclear, and explosive preparedness | | dvd ; hostedvideo ; pdf | | exercises ; training | | english | | 3 / 26 / 2012 2 : 29 pm | | susan wherley | | http : / / apc. naccho. org / products / apc2005272 | \u2022 identify the basic components of a field functional exercise for public health. \u2022 compare a field functional exercise to drills, tabletops, full - scale exercises, and top offs. \u2022 set performance expectations and scale the exercise to include budget considerations. \u2022 plan a field functional exercise. \u2022 define key collaboration and partnerships including required expertise and level of experience. < br > discover the process for utilizing pharmacies as medication dispensing and vaccination sites during emergencies by building effective partnerships between local health departments and community pharmacists. this toolkit contains four sections related to developing effective and sustainable medication dispensing strategies : background, planning, activation & operation, and policy & legal. a user guide and table top exercise are also available on the website. < br > < br > | seattle & king county advanced practice center | | partnerships and collaborations ; mass medical countermeasures | | website | | 3 / 26 / 2012 2 : 53 pm | | susan wherley | | a prescription for preparedness : an online community for local health departments and pharmacists to help ready america for emergencies | | http : / / apc. naccho. org / products / apc20102206 | \u2022 document the process for developing collaborative drug therapy agreements and memoranda of understanding between local health departments ( lhds ) and ph", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5029464915419103, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 9, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:51.135608"} {"text": "new ideas and information have emerged recently that hold great promise for enhancing the impact of current prevention efforts. \" prevention is the best treatment \" is an oft - cited maxim, and one that certainly applies to drug abuse. anyone who can be influenced to avoid abusing drugs is spared their harmful health and social effects, including increased risk for lethal infections, family disruption and job loss, confusion and despair, the difficult struggle of treatment, and - - for many - - the ravages of addiction and the ordeal of climbing back after relapse. from society ' s point of view, drug abuse prevention helps keep a tremendous burden - - related to disease and premature death, lost capacity for productive work, and crime - - from being even worse. the bulk of current interventions to prevent drug abuse fall mainly into two groups. one set is designed to reduce risk factors associated with higher likelihood of drug abuse and increase protective factors associated with lower likelihood of drug abuse. when implemented in conformity with proven prevention principles ( see \" risk and protective factors in drug abuse prevention \" ), this strategy, the product of more than a decade of research and clinical experience, is effective and inclusive enough to apply to most populations. moreover, researchers continue to learn more about how risk and protective factors relate, and practitioners are ever more adept at applying this knowledge. these efforts will continue to yield incrementally - - perhaps even dramatically - - higher impact interventions well into the future. nonetheless, there are limitations to the risk - and - protective - factors strategy. one feature that ultimately limits its impact, for example, is the nature of the factors themselves. they tend to be fundamental or deeply entrenched characteristics or experiences of a person, family, or community. some are hidden, such as sexual victimization ; others are prominent in society, such as adolescent depression or ready access to drugs of abuse. as a result, traditional risk factors generally can be modified only by relatively broad and long - term interventions. certain factors may not be susceptible to modification, such as a genetic predisposition to risk - taking. in addition, for the most part, traditional risk factors pertain to an individual ' s vulnerability to drug abuse, rather than the actual choice to use drugs. as important as it is to lower vulnerability, on a given day, even someone with a relatively low vulnerability may opt to use drugs. the second important group of preventive interventions complements and extends the risk - and - protective - factors strategy by focusing on the dynamic of situations, beliefs, motives,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5195226878915999, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:51.173529"} {"text": "a given day, even someone with a relatively low vulnerability may opt to use drugs. the second important group of preventive interventions complements and extends the risk - and - protective - factors strategy by focusing on the dynamic of situations, beliefs, motives, reasoning and reactions that enter into the choice to abuse or not to abuse drugs. important applications of this strategy include normative education to refute the common belief that \" everyone takes drugs, \" and equipping young people with the skills to refuse drug offers without feeling they are losing face. this strategy is full of untapped promise, and today likely offers the best prospects for rapid development of more effective prevention. a few of the many issues whose elucidation may yield improved interventions include why even very young children tend to expect positive experiences from drugs ; how individuals ' styles for processing language and visual images affect drug - taking decisions ; the roles of curiosity and impulsivity in such decisions ; and what logical processes people typically follow when deciding to use or not use drugs. a recent dramatic finding in neurobiological research may greatly increase our understanding of adolescent decisionmaking and our ability to help adolescents choose wisely regarding drug abuse. scientists have long suspected that the adolescent brain is still developing physically, and researchers have now demonstrated that new neural tissue and connections continue to form throughout the transitional years between childhood and adulthood. further investigation of this growth process undoubtedly will yield important insights relevant to some of the cognitive issues affecting the appeal of drugs and drug - taking decisions. the impact on drug abuse prevention could be tremendous, especially in light of the fact that adolescence often is a critical period for initiation of drug abuse. most chronic drug abusers start experimenting with intoxication in adolescence or young adulthood. while populations are constantly changing - - and while prescription drug abuse by older individuals today is a serious and mounting concern - - it remains generally true that people who do not abuse drugs during the decisive years before age 25 are unlikely ever to develop a serious drug problem. it remains generally true that people who do not abuse drugs during the decisive years before age 25 are unlikely ever to develop a serious drug problem. a tighter focus on decisionmaking regarding drug abuse should enable us to progress in a vitally important area : preventing escalation from early, experimental drug use to regular use, abuse, and addiction. we know that fewer than 10 percent of people who experiment with drugs become dependent or addicted. we also know that some of the factors that influence whether a person will become dependent or addicted are independent of the factors that influence", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5301566197419469, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:51.175998"} {"text": "use, abuse, and addiction. we know that fewer than 10 percent of people who experiment with drugs become dependent or addicted. we also know that some of the factors that influence whether a person will become dependent or addicted are independent of the factors that influence whether he or she will initiate drug abuse. for example, research has suggested that, perhaps because of their particular brain chemistry, some individuals dislike the agitation cocaine can produce more than they like the euphoria it brings - - and so discontinue use after their initial experimentation. interventions based upon such factors may curtail drug abuse before it reaches critical severity and thereby forestall most of its truly tragic health and social consequences. nida ' s prevention agenda is to aggressively pursue research on risk and protective factors while also seeking to identify, develop, and integrate new science - based approaches into existing prevention programs. to accomplish these goals, nida recently launched the three - part drug abuse prevention research initiative. ( see \" nida conference reviews advances in prevention science, announces new national research initiative. \" ) basic researchers will mine new neurobiological and other fundamental research discoveries for prevention applications. basic, clinical, and applied researchers and practitioners will work together in transdisciplinary prevention research centers to synthesize knowledge from all the relevant scientific fields into powerful new prevention packages. researchers and state and local practitioners will collaborate in community multisite prevention trials to rapidly assess proposed new prevention approaches and interventions in diverse communities and populations. exciting moments in science occur when the gradual accumulation of knowledge suddenly gives rise to new perspectives with the promise of new solutions to problems of living. in the area of drug abuse prevention, this is such a moment, and nida is moving swiftly to take full advantage of its potential.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5174585455918914, "token_count": 353, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:51.177759"} {"text": "researchers at stanford university have brought about a unique marriage between computer chips and living cells that could greatly accelerate everything from tests for new drugs to screening for diseases such as leukemia. the basic living element in every organism is the cell. humans have at least 100 trillion of them, all designed to carry out various bodily functions. each cell is a complex bag of enzymes and chemicals surrounded by a spherical membrane, and how a cell reproduces and works with other cells determines how efficiently the organism performs. scientists have struggled for years to understand the cell and especially the membrane that seems to control most of the crucial functions, but they have been hampered by the difficulty of growing cells in a laboratory culture for research. a decade ago, stanford researchers developed artificial membranes that were so like the real thing that living cells could be tricked into attaching themselves to them. two years ago, graduate student jay t. groves learned something interesting when he pulled a pair of tweezers through one of the artificial membranes. the parts separated permanently. he also found that he could manipulate the different parts by applying an electrical current. about that time, nick ulman, an electrical engineer, joined groves ' research group, headed by chemistry professor steven g. boxer. ulman brought with him an understanding of microelectronics. the researchers discovered that the electric field generated by a tiny microchip could be used to separate the artificial membrane into tiny squares, which they called \" corrals. \" the corrals were so small that millions occupied an area no bigger than a fingernail. that gave the researchers something they had never had before : a means of isolating, cataloging and manipulating millions of cell membranes simultaneously. \" it ' s a little bit like having a parking lot with assigned spaces, \" boxer says. if you leave your car in an unmarked parking lot at the airport, he says, you may be lucky to find it again. but if each parking space has a number, it becomes much simpler. \" ultimately, you can say i ' ve got a ferrari in spot 2a, and i ' ve got a volkswagen over in space 3d, \" boxer says. similarly, living cells can be \" tricked \" into attaching themselves to individual membranes. that is done by modifying the surface of each membrane. \" if you wax a car, after you wax it, water beads up on the surface, \" boxer says. \" before waxing, the water just runs off. that ' s an example of modifying the properties of the surface such that water associates differently with the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_computing", "similarity_score": 0.5252542372707109, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:51.189162"} {"text": "wax a car, after you wax it, water beads up on the surface, \" boxer says. \" before waxing, the water just runs off. that ' s an example of modifying the properties of the surface such that water associates differently with the surface. \" one potential use is for cell screening for leukemia patients. some of the membranes on the chip could be \" seeded \" with proteins that bind to different kinds of cells. by flooding a glass plate embedded with chips with blood from the patient, the cells would attach themselves to designated areas, thus revealing how many cells of different types are present, and possibly even how well they are performing. joseph a. zasadzinski, professor of chemical engineering at uc santa barbara, who has analyzed the stanford research, sees many potential applications. it could pave the way for a pharmaceutical researcher to \" try 50 million different things \" at the same time, zasadzinski says. \" right now, you grow cells in culture and you see which ones die, and that ' s very slow. here you can imagine 20, 000 little plates in a square inch, and each one of them you can tweak a slightly different way. \" it could greatly increase the rate of testing for new drugs for viruses, he says, because the experiments could be repeated millions of times in a tightly controlled and manipulable environment. others see it leading to a test for aids in which thousands of blood tests could be conducted in the time it now takes to do just one. the heart of the system is the computer chip. \" that ' s where the ultimate power of this comes in, \" boxer says. \" the same technology that ' s used to make integrated circuits, computer chips, is also being used to design a biocompatible surface. \" that has led to a bit of unwelcome fallout, he adds. the researchers are constantly asked if they are on the road to the ultimate marriage between computers and living cells - - the bionic man. boxer flinches at the suggestion. this is such a tiny step, he says, that it ' s ludicrous to think of it in those terms. still, some see this as one more step toward creating computer - based biological systems. \" if you can optimize this, you can get a nice bio - sensor out of it, \" zasadzinski says. \" but it would be hard to imagine any sort of bionic man for an awful long time. \" he says he is more", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_computing", "similarity_score": 0.5272238824572817, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:51.191312"} {"text": "this - that man is not independent ; that under all circumstances and relations he is in the hand of a power mightier than himself, which frames time and seasons according to its own good pleasure. god holds the threads of human life ; in some mysterious way directs and controls events ; success and failure are dependent upon his will. there are certain laws which, regulate the issues of actions and events, and man cannot alter these ; his free - will can put them in motion, but they become irresistible when in operation. this is not fatalism ; it is the mere statement of a fact in experience. koheleth never denies man ' s liberty, though he is very earnest in asserting god ' s sovereignty. the reconciliation of the two is a problem unsolved by him. gill ' s exposition of the entire bible a time to love, and a time to hate,.... for one to love his friend, and to hate a man, a sinner, as the targum ; to love a friend while he continues such, and hate him, or less love him, when he proves treacherous and unfaithful ; an instance of a change of love into hatred may be seen in the case of amnon, 2 samuel 13 : 15. a time of unregeneracy is a time of loving worldly lusts and sinful pleasures, the company of wicked men, and all carnal delights and recreations ; and a time of conversion is a time to hate what was before loved, sin, and the conversion of sinners, the garment spotted with the flesh, the principles and practices, though not the persons, of ungodly men ; and even to hate, that is, less love, the dearest friends and relations, in comparison of, or when in competition with, christ ; a time of war, and a time of peace ; for nations to be engaged in war with each other, or to be at peace, which are continually revolving ; and there is a time when there will be no more war. in a spiritual sense, the present time, or state of things, is a time of war ; the christian ' s life is a warfare state, though it will be soon accomplished, in which he is engaging in fighting with spiritual enemies, sin, satan, and the world : the time to come, or future state, is a time of peace, when saints shall enter into peace, and be no more disturbed by enemies from within or from without. in the midrash,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5513188470223603, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:51.237583"} {"text": "this morning, via mashable. i like the idea of \u201c the deleted city \u201d being an enormous virtual city that never really existed, but sort of did. ( video via mashable ) i remember the math olympiad and the science olympiad in high school, but for some reason i never thought of the practice continuing out of the classroom. since school is supposed to prepare you for the real - world, i don \u2019 t know why i was surprised to come across this project from charlotte, north carolina. welcome to the business intelligence olympiad! every two years, starting in 2008, the city of charlotte pits business unit teams from different city departments against each other to address a fictional problem with analytics and data sets. i \u2019 m sure the competition leads to plenty of laughter and good - hearted competition, but according to the article i read, it \u2019 s also created an environment where \u201c a lot of information that previously had not be [ sic ] shared is now shared regularly between bi analysts throughout the city. \u201d the competition in 2010 included a fictitious hurricane that bore a striking resemblance to irene. \u201c the underlying benefit was with hurricane irene coming up the coast almost on the same track as the theoretical hurricane vixen from december, teams were more used to looking at contingencies and how they affected portions of their business, \u201d [ manager of data administration for the city of charlotte ] raper said. as far as i know there isn \u2019 t something comparable in seattle, but maybe there should be. is it time for a bi olympiad with data from the viaduct? for more about charlotte \u2019 s olympiad, see the original article from govtech. com here. the teams here at piraeus put in a lot of hard work, so it \u2019 s nice that we can also hang out together. we had our summer picnic on friday and our fearless office manager managed to pick just about the nicest day all summer. the food was great, we had balloons and music, a little bit of ladder golf and a little bit of swimming. most importantly, some really great people! oh yeah, and water balloons. i forgot how much fun water balloons are! i \u2019 ll update the slideshow as i get more photos.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5094961738822746, "token_count": 445, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:51.249605"} {"text": "mra is a study of the blood vessels using magnetic resonance imaging ( mri ). using a large magnet, radio waves, and a computer, an mra makes two - dimensional and three - dimensional pictures. reasons for test this test is done in order to : - identify diseased, narrowed, enlarged, and blocked blood vessels - locate internal bleeding mris can be harmful if you have metal inside your body such as joint replacements or a pacemaker. make sure your doctor knows of any internal metal before the test. some people may also have an allergic reaction to the contrast dye. talk to your doctor about any allergies you have. also, let your doctor know if you have liver or kidney problems. these may make it difficult for your body to get rid of the contrast. what to expect prior to test before the test, your doctor may : - ask about your medical history - perform a physical exam - do blood tests if your doctor prescribes a sedative : - arrange for a ride home. - do not eat or drink for at least four hours before the exam. - take the sedative 1 - 2 hours before the exam, or as directed. at the mri center, you will be asked if you have something in your body that would interfere with the mra, such as : - pacemaker or implantable defibrillator - ear implant - metal fragments in your eyes or in any other part of your body - implanted port device, such as an insulin pump - metal plate, pins, screws, or surgical staples - metal clips from aneurysm repair - retained bullets - any other large metal objects in your body you may be : - given earplugs or headphones to wear. the mri machine makes a loud banging noise. - given an injection of a contrast dye into your vein. - allowed to have a family member or friend with you during the test. description of the test if contrast is used, a small iv needle will be inserted into your hand or arm before you are moved into the mri machine. the contrast will be injected during one set of images. it helps to make some organs and vessels easier to see on the pictures. you might have an allergic reaction to the dye, but this is rare you will lie on a special table. this table will be moved inside the opening of the mri machine. most mris consist of 2 - 6 sets of images. each one will take between 2 - 15 minutes. you will need to lie still while the images are being", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5337662092339348, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:51.256095"} {"text": "consider the following in haskell : let p x = x + + show x in putstrln $ p \" let p x = x + + show x in putstrln $ p \" evaluate this expression in an interactive haskell session and it prints itself out. but there ' s a nice little cheat that made this easy : the haskell ' show ' function conveniently wraps a string in quotation marks. so we simply have two copies of once piece of code : one without quotes followed by one in quotes. in c, on the other hand, there is a bit of a gotcha. you need to explicitly write code to print those extra quotation marks. and of course, just like in haskell, this code needs to appear twice, once out of quotes and once in. but the version in quotes needs the quotation marks to be ' escaped ' using backslash so it ' s notactually the same as the first version. and that means we can ' t use exactly the same method as with haskell. the standard workaround is not to represent the quotation marks directly in the strings, but instead to use the ascii code for this character and use c ' s convenient % c mechanism to print at. for example : again we were lucky, c provides this great % c mechanism. what do you need in a language to be sure you can write a self - replicator? it turns out there is a very general approach to writing self - replicators that ' s described in vicious circles. what follows is essentially from there except that i ' ve simplified the proofs by reducing generality. we ' ll use capital letters to represent programs. typically these mean ' inert ' strings of characters. i ' ll use square brackets to indicate the function that the program evaluates. so if p is a program to compute the mathematical function p, we write [ p ] ( x ) = p ( x ). p is a program and [ p ] is a function. we ' ll consider both programs that take arguments like the p i just mentioned, and also programs, r, that take no arguments, so [ r ] is simply the output or return value of the program r. now we come to an important operation. we ' ve defined [ p ] ( x ) to be the result of running p with input x. now we define p ( x ) to be the program p modified so that it no longer takes an argument or input but instead substitutes the ' hard - coded ' value of", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5486335891787799, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:51.267151"} {"text": "p ] ( x ) to be the result of running p with input x. now we define p ( x ) to be the program p modified so that it no longer takes an argument or input but instead substitutes the ' hard - coded ' value of x instead. in other words [ p ( x ) ] = [ p ] ( x ). p ( x ) is, of course, another program. there are also many ways of implementing p ( x ). we could simply evaluate [ p ] ( x ) and write a program to simply print this out or return it. on the other hand, we could do the absolute minimum and write a new piece of code that simply calls p and supplies it with a hard - coded argument. whatever we choose is irrelevant to the following discussion. so here ' s the demand that we make of our programming language : that it ' s powerful enough for us to write a program that can compute p ( x ) from inputs p and x. this might not be a trivial program to write, but it ' s not conceptually hard either. it doesn ' t have gotchas like the quotation mark issue above. typically we can compute p ( x ) by some kind of textual substitution on p. with that assumption in mind, here ' s a theorem : any program p that takes one argument or input has a fixed point, x, in the sense that running p with input x gives the same result as just running x. given an input x, p acts just like an interpreter for the programming language as it outputs the same thing as an interpreter would given input x. so here ' s a proof : define the function f ( q ) = [ p ] ( q ( q ) ). we ' ve assumed that we can write a program that computes p ( x ) from p and x so we know we can write a program to compute q ( q ) for any q. we can then feed this as an input to [ p ]. so f is obviously computable by some program which we call q0. so [ q0 ] ( q ) = [ p ] ( q ( q ) ). now the fun starts : [ p ] ( q0 ( q0 ) ) = [ q0 ] ( q0 ) ( by definition of q0 ) = [ q0 ( q0 ) ] ( by definition of p ( x ) ) in other words q0 ( q0 ) is our fixed point. so now take p to compute the identity function.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.6245750207477627, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:51.268147"} {"text": ") ( by definition of q0 ) = [ q0 ( q0 ) ] ( by definition of p ( x ) ) in other words q0 ( q0 ) is our fixed point. so now take p to compute the identity function. then [ q0 ( q0 ) ] = [ p ] ( q0 ( q0 ) ) = q0 ( q0 ). so q0 ( q0 ) outputs itself when run! what ' s more, this also tells us how to do other fun stuff like write a program to print itself out backwards. and it tells us how to do this in any reasonably powerful programming language. we don ' t need to worry about having to work around problems like ' escaping ' quotation marks - we can always find a way to replicate the escape mechanism too. so does it work in practice? well it does for haskell - i derived the haskell fragment above by applying this theorem directly, and then simplifying a bit. for c + +, however, it might give you a piece of code that is longer than you want. in fact, you can go one step further and write a program that automatically generates a self - replicator. check out samuel moelius ' s kpp. it is a preprocessor that converts an ordinary c + + program into one that can access its own source code by including the code to generate its own source within it. another example of an application of these methods is futamura ' s theorem which states that there exists a program that can take as input an interpreter for a language and output a compiler. i personally think this is a little bogus.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.6328898629192483, "token_count": 337, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:51.268769"} {"text": "principles of design balance in design is similar to balance in physics. a large shape close to the center can be balanced by a small shape close to the edge. a large light toned shape will be balanced by a small dark toned shape ( the darker the shape the heavier it appears to be ) graduation of size and direction produce linear perspective. graduation of colour from warm to cool and tone from dark to light produce aerial perspective. graduation can add interest and movement to a shape. a graduation from dark to light will cause the eye to move along a shape. repetition with variation is interesting, without variation repetition can become monotonous. if you wish to create interest, any repeating element should include a degree of variation. contrast is the juxtaposition of opposing elements eg. opposite colours on the colour wheel \u2013 red / green, blue / orange etc. contrast in tone or value \u2013 light / dark. contrast in direction \u2013 horizontal / vertical. the major contrast in a painting should be located at the center of interest. too much contrast scattered throughout a painting can destroy unity and make a work difficult to look at. unless a feeling of chaos and confusion are what you are seeking, it is a good idea to carefully consider where to place your areas of maximum contrast. harmony in painting is the visually satisfying effect of combining similar, related elements. eg. adjacent colurs on the colour wheel, similar shapes etc. dominance gives a painting interest, counteracting confusion and monotony. dominance can be applied to one or more of the elements to give emphasis. relating the design elements to the idea being expressed in a painting reinforces the principal of unity. eg. a painting with an active aggressive subject would work better with a dominant oblique direction, course, rough texture, angular lines etc. whereas a quiet passive subject would benefit from horizontal lines, soft texture and less tonal contrast. unity in a painting also refers to the visual linking of various elements of the work.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6096684621164106, "token_count": 396, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:51.271000"} {"text": "what is fluorescence? fluorescence is the ability of certain chemicals to give off visible light after absorbing radiation which is not normally visible, such as ultraviolet light. this property has led to a variety of uses. let \u2019 s shed some further light on this topic ; consider the omnipresent \u201c fluorescent \u201d lights. just how do they work? fluorescent tubes contain a small amount of mercury vapor. the application of an electric current causes a stream of electrons to traverse the tube. these collide with the mercury atoms which become energized and consequently emit ultraviolet light. the inside of the tube is coated with a fluorescent material, such as calcium chlorophosphate, which converts the invisible ultraviolet light into visible light. the same idea is used to produce color television pictures. the screen is coated with tiny dots of substances which fluoresce in different colours when they are excited by a beam of electrons which is used to scan the picture. but fluorescent materials had practical uses even before we dreamed of color television. one of the most amazing of all fluorescent materials is a synthetic compound, appropriately called fluorescein. under ultraviolet light it produces an intense yellow - green fluorescence which during world war ii was responsible for saving the lives of many downed flyers. over a million pounds of the stuff were manufactured in 1943 and distributed to airmen in little packets to use as a sea marker. since the fluorescence is so potent that it can be seen when the concentration of fluorescein is as little as 25 parts per billion, rescue planes easily spotted the men in the ocean. aircraft carriers also made extensive use of fluorescein. the signal men on deck wore clothes and waved flags treated with the compound which was then made to glow by illumination with ultraviolet light. the incoming pilots could clearly see the deck and the need to use runway lights which would have drawn the attention of enemy aircraft was eliminated. certain natural substances also fluoresce under ultraviolet light. urine and moose fur are interesting examples. prisoners have actually made use of this property of urine and have used it as a secret ink. what about the moose fur? well, in canada and sweden there are hundreds of accidents each year involving the collision of automobiles with moose. some of these result in fatalities. some car manufacturers are now considering fitting their vehicles with uv emitting headlights to reduce moose collisions! how \u2019 s that for putting the right chemistry to work.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6360137463128204, "token_count": 486, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:51.273601"} {"text": ".. ], and sometimes vice versa : [... ], welcome ( greeting ) = [... ], be happy, and s [... ], 96 ( crum, 1939, p. 273 ) = phonetically * pset - ase. [... ] and [... ]. often interchange with transcribed [... ] and [... ] : thus, [... ], demon, genius = [... ], and [... ] ( munier, 1930, p. 165 ) = s [... ] ( ibid., p. 167 ) = [... ], cabbage. but there are other cases as well, such as insertions of an auxiliary vowel ( written [... ] ) in a three - consonant cluster : thus, s [... ], sow ( ibid., p. 113 ) = latin scrofa, and s [... ], vault of heaven = greek [... ], ball, vault of heaven. also [... ], sparrow, appears as s [... ], bird = [... ] ( \u2018 usfur ) ( ibid., p. 114 ). the group ks ( [... ] ) was often pronounced nks in the final position and later, with an auxiliary vowel, - niks : [... ] whip, appears as s [... ] ( ibid., p. 171 ), still without auxiliary vowel, but [... ], appears as s [... ] ( ibid., p. 116 ), and [... ], wasp, is s [... ] instead of s [... ] ( ibid., p. 115 ). a similar case is s [... ], apocalypse, from [... ] today pronounced abu ghalamsis. the group [... ] is often written [... ], probably influenced by [... ] ( [... ] ), but, a frequent conjunction. thus, one finds s, b [... ], palace, from [... ] = latin palatium. s [... ], b [... ], pupil of the eye, is nothing else than s, b [... ], child", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.547125981243231, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:51.308591"} {"text": ". ], palace, from [... ] = latin palatium. s [... ], b [... ], pupil of the eye, is nothing else than s, b [... ], child, in this case the \u201c girl of the eye \u201d as in egyptian [... ] wn. t im. t ir. t, the girl in the eye, or greek [... ], girl, pupil of eye ( vycichl, 1983, p. 7 ). the copto - greek words of the scalae often represent greek postclassical forms. b [... ], october, is neither latin, nor modern [... ] or a similar form, but a postclassical form. one can compare armenian hoktember and russian oktyabr \u2019 ( * oktembri ) there are four s words for \u201c water \u201d : [... ] ( [... ] ), [... ] ( [... ] ), [... ] ( [... ] ), and [... ] ( munier, 1930, p. 109 ). [... ] ( [... ] ) is the classical word ; [... ] ( [... ] ), literally \u201c the new, fresh one, \u201d is the current expression in modern greek ; [... ] ( nama ) is \u201c running water \u201d ; and p - [... ] is the autochthonous coptic word for \u201c water \u201d ( s ). [... ] and [... ] are translated ( az - zalzalah ), the earthquake ( ibid., p. 107 ). the etymologies are quite clear : [... ] + [... ], earthquake, and the autochthonous coptic form derives from s [... ], to move, and the old word s [... ], earth. this s [... ] is another word than old coptic [... ], creator of the earth ( vycichl, 1983, p. 82 ). s [... ], the pictures = arabic ( as - suwar ) ( munier, 1930, p. 122 ) derives from greek [... ], little picture ( stephanus, 1831 - 1865, vol. 4, p. 42", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5770749830198436, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:51.309514"} {"text": "one of my favorite science fiction ideas is in a short story called light of other days about something called \u201c slow glass. \u201d light took decades to pass through. in this story, the idea was that people could buy glass windows that took so long for the light to pass through, that they could nostalgically watch long gone scenes, such as their children playing outside as toddlers long after they had gone off to college, or green fields with horses where now ugly cities grew. it was about the speed of light. here is a concept that is similar. instead of slow windows, it is slow walls. ravenbrick has made a nanotech wall that can slow down the day \u2019 s heat coming into a building. using phase - changing material at the molecular level, you get to transfer the warmth of the sun \u2019 s heat from the afternoon well into the night. ravenbrick makes several clean tech materials for building that greatly reduce energy needs, most notably windows that turn off the sun, like sage electrochromics windows do. the one that is new to me is this \u201c slow wall \u201d. they claim that their glass - clad smart wall : ravenskin could literally reduce your heating bill to zero! ( coupled with good building design, of course, you can \u2019 t expect a zero bill if you put leaky windows in their wall! ) their wall can delay solar heat gain from hot afternoons, to later that night, when you need it more. this helps regulate the internal temperatures of buildings. it has excellent r - values to begin with ( r - 11 or more ) so it insulates like a normal wall limiting the conduction and convection of heat. the magic \u2013 or science fiction \u2013 part is achieved by converting incoming sunlight to infrared, and then directing the flow of energy inward only when you want it to come through the walls. the problem with super well - insulated buildings is that sometimes you do want the suns heat getting in, and regular insulated walls are dumb walls that don \u2019 t know when to send the heat in and when to shut it out. the smart wall knows because you can tell it. susan kraemer writes at cleantechnica, csp - today, pv - insider, smartgridupdate and greenprophet and has been published at ecoseed, nrdc onearth, matternetwork, celsius, energynow and scientific american. as a former serial entrepreneur in product design she brings an innovator ' s perspective on inventing a carbon - constrained civilization :", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.616711492049353, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:51.320903"} {"text": "benefits of touch typing on task performance : i assume that when comparing skilled individuals, two handed touch typing on a traditional keyboard is faster, more reliable, and more automatic, than the other methods of text input that you mention ( e. g., phone or tablet keyboards ). these advantages are discussed here. - faster input means that ideas can be expressed more quickly. - visual attention does not need to be allocated to the keyboard which permits more attention to be placed on the content or the screen. - the greater reliability and automaticity mean that less attention needs to be allocated to the task of typing than to other methods. - a more consistent keyboard layout across devices further justifies the investment in learning touch typing. for further discussion of the cognitive and performance benefits of skilled touch typing, check out yechiam et al ( 2003 ). discussing the benefits of touch typing over visual typing, they state : one main distinction of the touch - typing strategy appears to be the ability to look at the screen while typing and to devote a minimal level of visual search to the keyboard ( cooper, 1983 ). this ability is gained through the memorization of key positions and finger trajectories, which makes touch - typing a difficult skill to acquire. other differences between touch - typing and visually guided typing include touch typists ' ( a ) use of all fingers of both hands, as opposed to the use of one hand of only some of the fingers ; ( b ) fixed assignment of fingers to keys ; ( c ) reduced arm movements ; and ( d ) fixed locations of the palms ( crooks, 1964 ). broader cognitive benefits of touch typing : while i have not read any specific research testing the idea, i think the benefits of touch typing relate to its superiority as a text entry method and not as some broader tool for brain integration. a large body of research on psychomotor and cognitive performance suggests that transfer across disparate domains tends to be minimal. the domains would need to have some overlapping elements. more broadly, there is a strong link between unemployment and depression ( e. g., frese & mohr, 1987 ). engaging in meaningful or enjoyable activity might help improve mood in some cases ( e. g., juggling, mastering some other new skill ). however, i don ' t think the mechanism of that mood improvement would be hemispheric brain balancing. - cooper, w. e. ( 1983 ). introduction. in w. e. cooper ( ed. ), cognitive aspects of skilled typewriting", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_computing", "similarity_score": 0.5113470680948067, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:51.323955"} {"text": "nasa / jpl - caltech / stsci / esa this image of a pair of colliding galaxies called ngc 6240 shows them in a rare, short - lived phase of their evolution just before they merge into a single, larger galaxy. click on the image for a larger version. nothing draws a crowd like a spectacular crash - whether it ' s a nascar auto race or a galactic collision. over the past month, internet users voted for a cosmic smash - up as their favorite target for a future close - up from the hubble space telescope, and this week you can feast your eyes on two fantastic images of galaxies in gridlock. the first \" train wreck \" comes from nasa ' s spitzer space telescope. this is a biggie : two huge galaxies, each anchored by a central black hole that ' s millions of times as massive as the sun, are moving toward an imminent pile - up. exactly how imminent? millions of years after the scene captured in this image - a time span that ' s a mere blink of the eye on the cosmic scale. \" one of the most exciting things about the image is that this object is unique, \" stephanie bush of the harvard - smithsonian center for astrophysics, says in a news release about the observations. \" merging is a quick process, especially when you get to the train wreck that is happening. there just aren ' t many galactic mergers at this stage in the nearby universe. \" spitzer ' s image of ngc 6240, which is 400 million light - years away in the constellation ophiuchus, highlights the bursts of infrared radiation as the dust and gas from the two galaxies slam together. all that pressure creates new generations of hot stars, blazing away in infrared wavelengths even though the radiation in visible wavelengths is obscured by dust clouds. because of this phenomenon, these starry swirls are known as luminous infrared galaxies. in the news release, the spitzer science team point to the streams of stars being ripped off the galaxies - \" tidal tails \" that extend into space in all directions. and this is just the warmup act : bush and her colleagues expect the galactic black holes to hit head - on. that would upgrade ngc 6240 ' s status to that of an ultra - luminous infrared galaxy, thousands of times as bright in infrared as our own milky way. the findings are detailed in the astrophysical journal. in addition to bush, the paper ' s co - authors include zhong wang, margarita karovska and giovanni fazio, all of the harvard - smithsonian", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5278252067677764, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:51.341696"} {"text": "in infrared as our own milky way. the findings are detailed in the astrophysical journal. in addition to bush, the paper ' s co - authors include zhong wang, margarita karovska and giovanni fazio, all of the harvard - smithsonian center for astrophysics. this week ' s other galactic crash was witnessed by the european southern observatory ' s very large telescope in chile. two galaxies are piling into each other 70 million light - years away in the constellation libra, and just as in the case of ngc 6240, the clashing clouds of gas and dust are sparking waves of stellar fireworks. | this color composite image from the eso very large telescope in chile shows arp 261. click on the picture for a larger version. these galaxies, collectively known as arp 261, aren ' t as big as the monsters in ngc 6240. they ' re on the scale of dwarf galaxies, similar to the magellanic clouds orbiting the milky way. in this week ' s image advisory, the eso says the focus of research in this picture actually isn ' t the wide - screen view of smashing galaxies, but a detailed look at an unusually long - lasting, x - ray - emitting supernova. this image adds little white bars to highlight the location of the supernova. the picture also includes other objects at a wide range of distances. if you click on a higher - resolution view, you ' ll be able to make out a sprinkling of background galaxies on the right side of the picture. those galaxies may be 50 to 100 times farther away than arp 261, the eso says. toward the top left corner of the picture, you can see two red - green - blue streaks. those are two small asteroids in our solar system ' s main asteroid belt. the streaks are multicolored because the eso ' s picture was taken through different color filters - and the asteroids were moving through the telescope field even as the exposures were switched from one filter to the next. correction for 3 : 30 p. m. et march 18 : i fixed a bad link to the saturn transit story... sorry about that! after reading all the perceptive comments below, i ' ve also edited the item to straighten something out about the timing of events at ngc 6240. we will likely see an even more spectacular pile - up there millions of years from now, but because the galaxies are so distant, and because the speed of light is finite, that phase of the pile - up will have", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5019824669450481, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:51.342729"} {"text": "since its origin, the scouting program has been an educational experience concerned with values. in 1910, the first activities for scouts were designed to build character, physical fitness, practical skills, and service. these elements were part of the original cub scout program and continue to be part of cub scouting today character development should extend into every aspect of a boy ' s life. character development should also extend into every aspect of cub scouting. cub scout leaders should strive to use cub scouting ' s 12 core values throughout all elements of the program \u2014 service projects, ceremonies, games, skits, songs, crafts, and all the other activities enjoyed at den and pack meetings cub scouting ' s 12 core values contributing service and showing responsibility to local, state, and national communities. being kind and considerate, and showing concern for the well - being of others. being helpful and working together with others toward a common goal being brave and doing what is right regardless of our fears, the difficulties, or the consequences. having inner strength and confidence based on our trust in god. | | health and fitness : being personally committed to keeping our minds and bodies clean and fit. telling the truth and being worthy of trust. sticking with something and not giving up, even if it is difficult. being cheerful and setting our minds to look for and find the best in all situations. using human and other resources to their fullest. showing regard for the worth of something or someone. fulfilling our duty to god, country, other people, and ourselves. | 12 core values and the scout law boy scouts learn and strive to live by the scout law : a scout is trustworthy, loyal, helpful, friendly, courteous, kind, obedient, cheerful, thrifty, brave, clean, and reverent many of the core values of cub scouting relate directly to the scout law : | health and fitness character can be defined as the collection of core values by an individual that leads to moral commitment and action. character development should challenge cub scouts to experience core values in six general areas : god, world, country, community, family, and self. character is \" values in action. \" the goals of the cub scout leader are - to seek out and maximize the many opportunities to incorporate character development - to convince the young cub scout that character is important to the individual, to his family, community, country, world, and god character development should not be viewed as something done occasionally as part of a separate program, or as part of only one area of life. for in reality", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5096836237680682, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:51.349080"} {"text": "that character is important to the individual, to his family, community, country, world, and god character development should not be viewed as something done occasionally as part of a separate program, or as part of only one area of life. for in reality, character development is a part of everything a cub scout does. character development lessons can be found in every aspect of the cub scouting experience. when it comes to developing character, the complete person must be considered. character development involves at least three critical areas : - know ( thought ) - commit ( feeling ) - practice ( behavior ) in cub scouting, addressing these three critical areas and relating them to values is referred to as character connections. character connections asks the cub scout to : character development includes moral knowledge \u2014 both awareness and reasoning. for example, children must understand what honesty means and they must be able to reason about and interpret each situation, and then decide how to apply the principles of honesty. what do i think or know about the core value? how does the context of this situation affect this core value? what are some historical, literary, or religious examples representing the core value? character development includes attention to moral motivation. children must be committed to doing what they know is right. they must be able to understand the perspectives of others, to consider how others feel, and to develop an active moral conscience. why is this core value important? what makes living out this core value different? what will it take to live out this core value? character development includes the development of moral habits through guided practice. children need opportunities to practice the social and emotional skills necessary for doing what is right but difficult, and to experience the core values in their lives. how can i act according to this core value? how do i live out this core value? how can i practice this value at school, at home, and with my friends? to make character connections an integral part of cub scouting, the 12 core values are being integrated throughout the boys ' handbooks and advancement program. program support for character development can be found in cub scout program helps, in the cub scout leader book, and at your monthly roundtable meetings. - core values are the basis of good character development. - character must be broadly defined to include thinking, feeling, and behavior. - core values should be promoted throughout all phases of life.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5061936359972372, "token_count": 471, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:51.350756"} {"text": "darkness is our natural state. during the 200, 000 years of human existence our species has only known electric light for. 06 % of that time. yes there were candles and torches, but the thought of just flipping a switch to turn on all the lights in a room was inconceivable. today we recognize the shapes of cities based on the lights they shine at our satellites. here in europe electricity is like oxygen. it is everywhere. we would never even consider paying for electricity at an airport or cafe to charge the batteries of our computers and mobile phones. but what is essential to remember is that this year, 2009, exactly 130 years after the invention of the electric light bulb, the technology still hasn \u2019 t spread to all corners of the globe. these students are studying under lamps at their city \u2019 s airport because it is the only place with stable electricity. major african cities like monrovia in liberia, are powered completely by generators. the centralization of electricity thomas edison \u2019 s electric light bulb was really an ingenious invention, but from a business point of view it had a problem. you couldn \u2019 t use it without electricity. and so, to sell his electric lamps edison realized that he would need to distribute electricity to the homes, offices, and warehouses that wanted electric light. pearl street station was edison \u2019 s first power generating station. to the right you can see the small neighborhood in manhattan that it was able to provide electricity to. edison came up with direct current to transmit electricity from power stations to nearby businesses and homes. the problem with direct current is that it is a very inefficient way of transmitting electricity over long distances. the direct current model would require a power station in every neighborhood. still, edison thought he came up with a master plan to provide electricity and electric light to the whole world. after all, who could challenge america \u2019 s greatest inventor? nikola tesla is one of europe \u2019 s and one of science \u2019 s most intriguing characters. a serbian, tesla was born in the tiny village of smiljan, which today still has a population of less than 500 and is now part of croatia. ( as danica radovanovic recently reminded me on facebook, tesla was one of many brilliant serbian scientists to leave his country for elsewhere. ) tesla questioned edison \u2019 s use of direct current to transmit electricity and instead proposed alternating current, which is far more efficient as it travels over long distances. what followed was the war of currents : tesla and edison went head to head. europe \u2019 s", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_entanglement", "similarity_score": 0.5324914234431155, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:51.378450"} {"text": ") tesla questioned edison \u2019 s use of direct current to transmit electricity and instead proposed alternating current, which is far more efficient as it travels over long distances. what followed was the war of currents : tesla and edison went head to head. europe \u2019 s greatest inventor of the time versus america \u2019 s greatest inventor of the time. and who lost? this poor elephant named topsy. tesla \u2019 s system of alternating current raises the voltage to a very high level as it travels across distances. edison electrocuted topsy as a scare tactic to show the public what would happen if they touched a high voltage cable. but what sealed the deal was the niagara falls hydroelectric power project, the biggest power generator of the time. in 1883, the niagara falls power company hired nikola tesla and his business partner george westinghouse to design a system to generate alternating current and transmit it throughout new york. had alternating current not won, then projects like china \u2019 s three gorges dam, which will generate ten times as much electricity as niagara falls, would never exist. alternating current led to the centralization of electricity. one of edison \u2019 s arguments against alternating current is that a few major power generators are much more vulnerable than many spread all around the world. that remains true today, but the economics of centralized energy production and the allure of cheap energy won out in the end. the centralization of computing i wanted to briefly go over the history of electrification because its development so closely parallels what we are seeing today in the computing industry. this is not my own observation : it was first made in a book by nicholas carr called the big switch and the analogy is now commonly used by many when they explain the concept of cloud computing. phase 1 : mainframe computing this is the computer that the internal revenue service used to process tax returns in the 1960 \u2019 s. mainframe computers at the time typically cost between $ 500, 000 \u2013 $ 1 million. they were only available to programmers and researchers who had to wait hours if not days to use them because there was so much computing to be done and so few computers to do it. phase 2 : personal computing the second phase of computing began in 1977 with the apple ii computer, which brought computing into the home and personal office for the first time. data was stored on audio cassette tapes. the first apple ii cost $ 1, 300 with 4k of ram and $ 2, 600 with 48k of ram. today you can buy a gigabyte of ram for $ 30 and a terabyte hard drive for $ 70", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5173332992599705, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:51.379677"} {"text": "tapes. the first apple ii cost $ 1, 300 with 4k of ram and $ 2, 600 with 48k of ram. today you can buy a gigabyte of ram for $ 30 and a terabyte hard drive for $ 70. it had a one megahertz processor and the above ad from a 1977 issue of scientific america touted its high resolution graphics ; by which it meant a 280 by 192 pixels display with four colors : black, white, violet, and green. this is gary. from the tags on the flickr picture i assume he works in the it department of some startup company. in many ways gary \u2019 s position exemplifies the era of personal computing. gary is in charge of maintaining a network of computers for just one company. he goes around to each computer and upgrades new versions of software. he creates new email accounts for new employees. he answers questions as they come up. and he backs up all the data to make sure it isn \u2019 t lost in case of a hard drive failure. ( increasingly gary is able to nap while online services do that work for him. ) most of us still operate in the era of personal computing. we create content on our laptop and desktop computers. we store our information on our individual hard drives. and when we share documents it is usually with email. phase 3 : cloud computing the greatest evidence that we are entering the third chapter of computing is that laptop computers are becoming less powerful, not more. this is because today you don \u2019 t need a powerful computer ; all you need is an internet connection. google is even creating a free and open source operating system specifically targeted for cheap netbooks like the one above. in fact, increasingly we are leaving our laptops at home because smart phones are proving sufficient for most of our daily tasks. this week the big talk of town is a rumored apple tablet, which might be announced tomorrow, though much more likely sometime during the first half of 2010. there have, in fact, been rumors of an apple tablet computer for years, but only now does it make sense to release such a powerful product with so few features. a tablet pc does little except connect to the internet. but today all you need is a keyboard, screen, camera, and microphone to connect to the cloud. word processing, image editing, spreadsheets, video editing, audio recording : all the applications are available online. so, what do we mean when we say \u201c the cloud \u201d? in many ways i think that the term is an un", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5069271334125027, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:51.382524"} {"text": "cloud. word processing, image editing, spreadsheets, video editing, audio recording : all the applications are available online. so, what do we mean when we say \u201c the cloud \u201d? in many ways i think that the term is an unhelpful abstraction which masks the actual shift in infrastructure that is taking place. increasingly computing and data storage are not taking place on our own computers, but rather at massive data centers like this one : the data center in the above video has about 40, 000 computers. here is just one : machines like this process and store our emails, the photos we publish online, our blog posts, the videos we upload to youtube, and even the voicemails we listen to from our mobile phones. datacentermap. org has a map - based directory of major data centers based around the world. when we speak of \u201c the cloud \u201d what we \u2019 re really referring to are these massive data centers, the thousands of computers they contain, and the countless software applications they make available to us through our browsers. and this visualization from new scientist shows us how those applications interact with our laptops, cell phones, and tablets from the massive data centers that make up the cloud. 2009 is the 40th anniversary of the internet, the 20th anniversary of the world wide web, and the 5th anniversary of what we call web 2. 0. the change is accelerating. just look at these maps of internet users from 2002, 2004, 2006, and 2008. ( teddy points out that african internet users aren \u2019 t included on any of the maps. ) last year, for the first time ever, the united states was not the nation with the largest number of internet users. that now belongs to china. and, unless something drastic happens, china will continue to have the largest online presence for the rest of our lives. internet world statistics estimates that there are over 1. 5 billion internet users. last year google announced that it had indexed its trillionth web page. researchers at microsoft estimate that \u201c if you spent just one minute reading every website in existence, you \u2019 d be kept busy for 31, 000 years. without any sleep. \u201d ( \u201c that explains a lot, \u201d says georgia. ) some researchers estimate that global internet usage already makes up five percent of the world \u2019 s energy consumption. though this video has stirred up lots of debate about the statistics it cites ( check out the 130 + comments on the post ), its basic premise \u2013 that the internet has had a tremendous impact on human society", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5517023546476049, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:51.383909"} {"text": "percent of the world \u2019 s energy consumption. though this video has stirred up lots of debate about the statistics it cites ( check out the 130 + comments on the post ), its basic premise \u2013 that the internet has had a tremendous impact on human society \u2013 cannot be denied. the centralization of intelligence we have gone over the history of electrification and computing. i \u2019 d like to conclude with a brief history of collective intelligence. in the 17th century thomas hobbes was a controversial figure in part because he believed that intelligence came not from an all powerful god, but from each individual ; and that if we could somehow bring each individual \u2019 s intelligence together to create a collective intelligence then we could shape society for the better. in 1938, hg wells published world brain, a collection of essays on the future organization of knowledge and education. two years earlier the american library association had endorsed microfilm as a way to archive and store books, newspapers, manuscripts, and periodicals. wells, inspired by advances in microfilm, imagined \u201c a mental clearing house for the mind, a depot where knowledge and ideas are received, sorted, summarized, digested, clarified and compared. \u201d even before wells published world brain, belgian author and peace activist paul otlet was already envisioning his own pre - cursor to google books : so how has collective intelligence changed in the era of cloud computing? what do we mean when we say \u201c cloud intelligence? \u201d for one thing, our relationship with software has become much more symbiotic. we depend on cloud software to make sense of the information around us ; and cloud software depends on us to help it make sense of the ever - increasing amount of information we upload to the internet. take google flu trends, for instance, which can detect flu outbreaks faster than the center for disease control by monitoring searches for symptoms. another example of cloud intelligence is recaptcha which has enlisted an army of millions of unknowing volunteers to help digitize books and the complete archive of the new york times : ( if you want to leave a comment on this post you \u2019 re forced to join von ahn \u2018 s mission. ) another example of cloud intelligence is found in the active astrometry group on flickr. there are over 1, 000 amateur astronomers in the group that help scientists keep an eye on the galaxies around us by regularly posting the photos they take from their telescopes. when members of the group publish a photograph of the nighttime sky an automated computer application scans their photos for recognizable stars, planets,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5563085384490363, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:51.385301"} {"text": "in the group that help scientists keep an eye on the galaxies around us by regularly posting the photos they take from their telescopes. when members of the group publish a photograph of the nighttime sky an automated computer application scans their photos for recognizable stars, planets, and nebulae and labels them using flickr \u2019 s notes function. each photographer gains more information about the photograph that he or she took and astrometry. net gets a new image of the nighttime sky to add to its ever - growing database. in an interview on the flickr developer blog, project leader christopher stumm says that astrometry. net is currently \u201c using images from around the web to calculate the path comet holmes took through the sky. \u201d chris messina from san francisco brings us another example of cloud intelligence from a recent shopping trip to officemax where he and his girlfriend were hoping to buy some dry erase boards for their home office. the shopping trip wasn \u2019 t a success. most of the boards were poor quality and when they did eventually find a product that suited their needs, it was damaged. rather than moving on to the next office supply store chris pulled out his iphone and took a picture with the amazon iphone application of the dry erase board they wanted to buy. the picture is then uploaded to one of amazon \u2019 s massive data centers where it is posted on mechanical turk, a website that lists \u201c human intelligence tasks \u201d that pay anywhere from one penny to five dollars. jeff, for example, will pay you one penny for every sermon time you find listed on a church website. amazon is also willing to pay one penny to anyone who will look at the photo chris uploaded from his iphone application and identify that same product on the amazon website. chris will never know who did the work for him, but within minutes he received a message from amazon with a link to the product he was looking for. i would imagine that just about every tourist who has been to london has taken a picture of big ben. it must be the most photographed clock tower in the world. ten years ago we put those photographs in a photo album to share with our family and friends. more recently we \u2019 ve become accustomed to sharing them on picasa, flickr, or twitter. but now the tourist snapshots we take are helping create a 3d model of the world : if the cloud is the world brain, then the cameras and microphones on our mobile phones and laptops are its eyes and ears. how many times have you been to a cafe or bar and heard a song that you liked but didn \u2019 t", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5130053216264998, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:51.386357"} {"text": ": if the cloud is the world brain, then the cameras and microphones on our mobile phones and laptops are its eyes and ears. how many times have you been to a cafe or bar and heard a song that you liked but didn \u2019 t recognize? today if you help the cloud listen, it will provide you with the information. shazam identifies the song you are listening by sharing a small audio sample with your mobile phone. in turn shazam is able to track the most popular songs as they come out. google \u2019 s crowdsourced traffic application also highlights the symbiotic relationship between human intelligence and cloud intelligence. when you start the application google will show you traffic conditions on many of the streets around you. in turn, you agree to let google track your speed as you travel ; thus updating their maps with more real - time traffic data. just five years ago it would have cost at least hundreds of thousands of dollars to produce a video with actors on location based all around the world. also, until very recently there was only one man in the world who could attract millions of views when dancing the moonwalk. today we all can. all we have to do is upload a video to eternal moonwalk. the cloud is enabling a new possibilities of creative collaboration. what is the future of collective intelligence? all that we can be sure of is that all intelligence is always collective ; whether it is the collective intelligence of the nucleotides that make up our dna or the billions of neurons in our brain as they produce the thoughts in our heads right now. above is a visualization of the internet made by the opte project. it is a map of us \u2013 the internet would not exist were it not for us, and we would each be very different without the internet. just as each individual neuron in our brain is unaware that collectively it is part of a larger self, it is too easy for each of us to forget that, as internet users, we too form parts of a collective whole. and that collective whole is much greater \u2013 and different \u2013 than the sum of its parts. in many ways the cloud is leading to the centralization of power as it lures us into trusting just a few major corporations with our personal information. on the other hand it creates an architecture of participation that is enabling a larger percentage of the world population to become active citizens rather than just passive consumers. this podium i am speaking at right now was once the sole symbol of power in the room. today a cloud of conversation floats all", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5760046100340228, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:51.387333"} {"text": "web \u2019 or ' w3 \u2019 \u2013 is the virtual world of network - accessible information available to computers. the web consists of a vast number of ' pages \u2019, and links. web pages can include text, graphics and images, videos and sound. in november 2004 google claimed to cover 8, 058, 044, 651 web pages. ( wikipedia ' size comparisons \u2019 ) the web uses a special language and set of rules to create ' web pages \u2019 \u2013 primarily hyper text markup language ( html ) and the hyper text transfer protocol ( http ). ' browsers \u2019 \u2013 software for searching and viewing information on the web \u2013 interpret and display information coded in html across the vast ' web \u2019 of different computer networks and systems. this creates an environment that, for users, appears like a seamless global information system, where people may search, browse and interact. the world wide web was ' invented \u2019 in 1989 by british - born tim berners - lee when he wrote the first ' web browser \u2019 \u2013 software to interpret and display html ( hyper text mark - up language ) \u2013 thereby making the coded material on a multitude of different computers and operating systems uniformly readable in plain english. berners - lee was working at cern, the european particle physics laboratory based in switzerland at the time. as the international physics community used a diverse range of information systems and computer networks, berners - lee wanted to create an efficient way for the different networks to interconnect, share information and communicate with each other. two years later, in 1992, cern released the world wide web. - discuss and research the meanings of the following terms : urls, http, xml / rdf, smil, soap, web accessibility and web applications. - explain the difference between hypertext and hyperlinks. - the world wide web consortium ( w3c ) is the international organisation founded by tim berners - lee that works on developing protocols and guidelines that ensure long - term growth for the web. since 1994, w3c has produced more than ninety web standards, called w3c recommendations that contribute to web interoperability. develop a biography about tim berners - lee for a newspaper feature article. - web applications and dynamic web sites were major developments in the types of interactions that can occur on the web. one simple example is the use of \u2018 cookies \u2019 to remember details about users so that on return to a specific site it is tailored to the needs of that user. the ability to search within websites is another example.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5947297320725669, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:51.409207"} {"text": "| oracle\u00ae database concepts 11g release 2 ( 11. 2 ) | pdf \u00b7 mobi \u00b7 epub | this chapter contains the following sections : a process is a mechanism in an operating system that can run a series of steps. the mechanism depends on the operating system. for example, on linux an oracle background process is a linux process. on windows, an oracle background process is a thread of execution within a process. code modules are run by processes. all connected oracle database users must run the following modules to access a database instance : application or oracle database utility a database user runs a database application, such as a precompiler program or a database tool such as sql * plus, that issues sql statements to a database. oracle database code each user has oracle database code executing on his or her behalf that interprets and processes the application ' s sql statements. a process normally runs in its own private memory area. most processes can periodically write to an associated trace file ( see \" trace files \" ). multiple - process oracle ( also called multiuser oracle ) uses several processes to run different parts of the oracle database code and additional processes for the users \u2014 either one process for each connected user or one or more processes shared by multiple users. most databases are multiuser because a primary advantages of a database is managing data needed by multiple users simultaneously. each process in a database instance performs a specific job. by dividing the work of the database and applications into several processes, multiple users and applications can connect to an instance simultaneously while the system gives good performance. a database instance contains or interacts with the following types of processes : client processes run the application or oracle tool code. oracle processes run the oracle database code. oracle processes including the following subtypes : background processes start with the database instance and perform maintenance tasks such as performing instance recovery, cleaning up processes, writing redo buffers to disk, and so on. server processes perform work based on a client request. note : server processes, and the process memory allocated in these processes, run in the instance. the instance continues to function when server processes terminate. slave processes perform additional tasks for a background or server process. the process structure varies depending on the operating system and the choice of oracle database options. for example, the code for connected users can be configured for dedicated server or shared server connections. in a shared server architecture, each server process that runs database code can serve multiple client processes. figure 15 - 1 shows a system global area ( sga ) and background processes using dedicated server connections", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_computing", "similarity_score": 0.5499335100748451, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:51.429920"} {"text": "can be configured for dedicated server or shared server connections. in a shared server architecture, each server process that runs database code can serve multiple client processes. figure 15 - 1 shows a system global area ( sga ) and background processes using dedicated server connections. for each user connection, the application is run by a client process that is different from the dedicated server process that runs the database code. each client process is associated with its own server process, which has its own program global area ( pga ). when a user runs an application such as a pro * c program or sql * plus, the operating system creates a client process ( sometimes called a user process ) to run the user application. the client application has oracle database libraries linked into it that provide the apis required to communicate with the database. client processes differ in important ways from the oracle processes interacting directly with the instance. the oracle processes servicing the client process can read from and write to the sga, whereas the client process cannot. a client process can run on a host other than the database host, whereas oracle processes cannot. for example, assume that a user on a client host starts sql * plus and connects over the network to database sample on a different host ( the database instance is not started ) : sql > connect sys @ inst1 as sysdba enter password : * * * * * * * * * connected to an idle instance. on the client host, a search of the processes for either sample shows only the sqlplus client process : % ps - ef | grep - e sample - e sqlplus | grep - v grep clientuser 29437 29436 0 15 : 40 pts / 1 00 : 00 : 00 sqlplus as sysdba on the database host, a search of the processes for either sample shows a server process with a nonlocal connection, but no client process : % ps - ef | grep - e sample - e sqlplus | grep - v grep serveruser 29441 1 0 15 : 40? 00 : 00 : 00 oraclesample ( local = no ) a connection is a physical communication pathway between a client process and a database instance. a communication pathway is established using available interprocess communication mechanisms or network software. typically, a connection occurs between a client process and a server process or dispatcher, but it can also occur between a client process and oracle connection manager ( cman ). a session is a logical entity in the database instance memory that represents the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5113401291612423, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:51.432629"} {"text": ". typically, a connection occurs between a client process and a server process or dispatcher, but it can also occur between a client process and oracle connection manager ( cman ). a session is a logical entity in the database instance memory that represents the state of a current user login to a database. for example, when a user is authenticated by the database with a password, a session is established for this user. a session lasts from the time the user is authenticated by the database until the time the user disconnects or exits the database application. a single connection can have 0, 1, or more sessions established on it. the sessions are independent : a commit in one session does not affect transactions in other sessions. note : if oracle net connection pooling is configured, then it is possible for a connection to drop but leave the sessions intact. multiple sessions can exist concurrently for a single database user. as shown in figure 15 - 2, user hr can have multiple connections to a database. in dedicated server connections, the database creates a server process on behalf of each connection. only the client process that causes the dedicated server to be created uses it. in a shared server connection, many client processes access a single shared server process. figure 15 - 3 illustrates a case in which user hr has a single connection to a database, but this connection has two sessions. generating an autotrace report of sql statement execution statistics re - creates the scenario in figure 15 - 3. example 15 - 2 connects sql * plus to the database as user system and enables tracing, thus creating a new session ( sample output included ). sql > select sid, serial #, paddr from v $ session where username = user ; sid serial # paddr - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 90 91 3be2e41c sql > set autotrace on statistics ; sql > select sid, serial #, paddr from v $ session where username = user ; sid serial # paddr - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 88 93 3be2e41c 90 91 3be2e41c... sql > disconnect disconnect command in example 15 - 1 actually ends the sessions, not the connection. opening a new terminal and connecting to the instance as a different user, the query in example 15 - 2 shows that the connection from example 15 - 1 is still active. sql > connect dba1 @", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5493391960280634, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:51.433610"} {"text": "has its own pga. however, the uga for a session is in the sga so that any shared server can access session data. a multiprocess oracle database uses some additional processes called background processes. the background processes perform maintenance tasks required to operate the database and to maximize performance for multiple users. each background process has a separate task, but works with the other processes. for example, the lgwr process writes data from the redo log buffer to the online redo log. when a filled log file is ready to be archived, lgwr signals another process to archive the file. oracle database creates background processes automatically when a database instance starts. an instance can have many background processes, not all of which always exist in every database configuration. the following query lists the background processes running on your database : select pname from v $ process where pname is not null order by pname ; this section includes the following topics : see also : oracle database reference for descriptions of all the background processes the mandatory background processes are present in all typical database configurations. these processes run by default in a database instance started with a minimally configured initialization parameter file ( see example 13 - 1 ). this section describes the following mandatory background processes : oracle database reference for descriptions of other mandatory processes, including mman, diag, vktm, dbrm, and psp0 oracle real application clusters administration and deployment guide and oracle clusterware administration and deployment guide for more information about background processes specific to oracle rac and oracle clusterware the process monitor ( pmon ) monitors the other background processes and performs process recovery when a server or dispatcher process terminates abnormally. pmon is responsible for cleaning up the database buffer cache and freeing resources that the client process was using. for example, pmon resets the status of the active transaction table, releases locks that are no longer required, and removes the process id from the list of active processes. pmon also registers information about the instance and dispatcher processes with the oracle net listener ( see \" the oracle net listener \" ). when an instance starts, pmon polls the listener to determine whether it is running. if the listener is running, then pmon passes it relevant parameters. if it is not running, then pmon periodically attempts to contact it. the system monitor process ( smon ) is in charge of a variety of system - level cleanup duties. the duties assigned to smon include : recovering terminated transactions that were skipped during instance recovery because of file - read or tablespace", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5020630645388053, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:51.435757"} {"text": "a node automatically connects to other databases involved in an in - doubt distributed transaction. when reco reestablishes a connection between the databases, it automatically resolves all in - doubt transactions, removing from each database ' s pending transaction table any rows that correspond to the resolved transactions. see also : oracle database administrator ' s guide for more information about transaction recovery in distributed systems an optional background process is any background process not defined as mandatory. most optional background processes are specific to tasks or features. for example, background processes that support oracle streams advanced queuing ( aq ) or oracle automatic storage management ( oracle asm ) are only available when these features are enabled. this section describes some common optional processes : the archiver processes ( arcn ) copy online redo log files to offline storage after a redo log switch occurs. these processes can also collect transaction redo data and transmit it to standby database destinations. arcn processes exist only when the database is in archivelog mode and automatic archiving is enabled. oracle database uses job queue processes to run user jobs, often in batch mode. a job is a user - defined task scheduled to run one or more times. for example, you can use a job queue to schedule a long - running update in the background. given a start date and a time interval, the job queue processes attempt to run the job at the next occurrence of the interval. oracle database manages job queue processes dynamically, thereby enabling job queue clients to use more job queue processes when required. the database releases resources used by the new processes when they are idle. dynamic job queue processes can run a large number of jobs concurrently at a given interval. the sequence of events is as follows : the job coordinator process ( cjq0 ) is automatically started and stopped as needed by oracle scheduler ( see \" oracle scheduler \" ). the coordinator process periodically selects jobs that need to be run from the system job $ table. new jobs selected are ordered by time. the coordinator process dynamically spawns job queue slave processes ( jnnn ) to run the jobs. the job queue process runs one of the jobs that was selected by the cjq0 process for execution. each job queue process runs one job at a time to completion. after the process finishes execution of a single job, it polls for more jobs. if no jobs are scheduled for execution, then it enters a sleep state, from which it wakes up at periodic intervals and polls for more jobs. if the process does not find any new", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_computing", "similarity_score": 0.5120771635061019, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 8, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:51.440098"} {"text": "table scan such as from employees, one server process performs all of the work, as shown in figure 15 - 5. in parallel execution, the server process acts as the parallel execution coordinator responsible for parsing the query, allocating and controlling the slave processes, and sending output to the user. given a query plan for a sql query, the coordinator breaks down each operator in a sql query into parallel pieces, runs them in the order specified in the query, and integrates the partial results produced by the slave processes executing the operators. figure 15 - 6 shows a parallel scan of the employees table. the table is divided dynamically ( dynamic partitioning ) into load units called granules. each granule is a range of data blocks of the table read by a single slave process, called a parallel execution server, which uses nnn as a name format. the database maps granules to execution servers at execution time. when an execution server finishes reading the rows corresponding to a granule, and when granules remain, it obtains another granule from the coordinator. this operation continues until the table has been read. the execution servers send results back to the coordinator, which assembles the pieces into the desired full table scan. the number of parallel execution servers assigned to a single operation is the degree of parallelism for an operation. multiple operations within the same sql statement all have the same degree of parallelism.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_computing", "similarity_score": 0.5626546271442094, "token_count": 283, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 11, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:51.443961"} {"text": "approximate of pre - cidr ( classless inter - domain routing ) subnet mask. for example : in _ addr _ t addr, mask ; addr = inet _ network ( net _ name ) ; mask = ~ ( in _ addr _ t ) 0 ; if ( ( addr & in _ classa _ net ) = = 0 ) addr < < = 8, mask < < = 8 ; if ( ( addr & in _ classa _ net ) = = 0 ) addr < < = 8, mask < < = 8 ; if ( ( addr & in _ classa _ net ) = = 0 ) addr < < = 8, mask < < = 8 ; this usage is deprecated by the cidr requirements. see fuller, v., li, t., yu, j., and varadhan, k. rfc 1519, classless inter - domain routing ( cidr ) : an address assignment and aggregation strategy. network working group. september 1993. the functions setnetent ( ), getnetent ( ), and endnetent ( ) are used to enumerate network entries from the database. setnetent ( ) sets ( or resets ) the enumeration to the beginning of the set of network entries. this function should be called before the first call to getnetent ( ). calls to getnetbyname ( ) and getnetbyaddr ( ) leave the enumeration position in an indeterminate state. if the stayopen flag is non - zero, the system may keep allocated resources such as open file descriptors until a subsequent call to endnetent ( ). successive calls to getnetent ( ) return either successive entries or null, indicating the end of the enumeration. endnetent ( ) may be called to indicate that the caller expects to do no further network entry retrieval operations ; the system may then deallocate resources it was using. it is still allowed, but possibly less efficient, for the process to call more network entry retrieval functions after calling endnetent ( ). the functions getnetbyname ( ), getnetbyaddr ( ), and getnetent ( ) use static storage that is reused in each call, making these routines unsafe for use in multi - threaded applications. the functions getnetbyname _ r ( ), getnetbyaddr _ r ( ), and getnetent _ r ( ) provide reent", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.510554300522494, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:51.452840"} {"text": "is reused in each call, making these routines unsafe for use in multi - threaded applications. the functions getnetbyname _ r ( ), getnetbyaddr _ r ( ), and getnetent _ r ( ) provide reentrant interfaces for these operations. each reentrant interface performs the same operation as its non - reentrant counterpart, named by removing the ` ` _ r ' ' suffix. the reentrant interfaces, however, use buffers supplied by the caller to store returned results, and are safe for use in both single - threaded and multi - threaded applications. each reentrant interface takes the same parameters as its non - reentrant counterpart, as well as the following additional parameters. the parameter result must be a pointer to a struct netent structure allocated by the caller. on successful completion, the function returns the network entry in this structure. the parameter buffer must be a pointer to a buffer supplied by the caller. this buffer is used as storage space for the network entry data. all of the pointers within the returned struct netent result point to data stored within this buffer. see return values. the buffer must be large enough to hold all of the data associated with the network entry. the parameter buflen should give the size in bytes of the buffer indicated by buffer. for enumeration in multi - threaded applications, the position within the enumeration is a process - wide property shared by all threads. setnetent ( ) may be used in a multi - threaded application but resets the enumeration position for all threads. if multiple threads interleave calls to getnetent _ r ( ), the threads will enumerate disjointed subsets of the network database. like their non - reentrant counterparts, getnetbyname _ r ( ) and getnetbyaddr _ r ( ) leave the enumeration position in an indeterminate state. network entries are represented by the struct netent structure defined in < netdb. h >. the functions getnetbyname ( ), getnetbyname _ r, getnetbyaddr, and getnetbyaddr _ r ( ) each return a pointer to a struct netent if they successfully locate the requested entry ; otherwise they return null. the functions getnetent ( ) and getnetent _ r ( ) each return a pointer to a struct netent if they successfully enumerate an entry ;", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_entanglement", "similarity_score": 0.5064707182260837, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:51.453840"} {"text": "need help using school facts jax? our quickstart video makes it easy to learn about the rich features the dashboard has to offer. you ' ll also find answers to our most frequently asked questions. for clear explanations on some of the technical terms and abbreviations, check out the glossary. glossary of terms jump to letter : - charter school ( from florida dept. of education ) charter schools are public schools that operate under a performance contract, or a \" charter \" which frees them from many regulations created for traditional public schools while holding them accountable for academic and financial results. charter schools are created when an individual or group submits an application to the school district ; the school district approves the application ; the applicants form a governing board that negotiates a contract with the district school board ; and the applicants and district school board agree upon a charter or contract. the district school board then becomes the sponsor of the charter school. the negotiated contract outlines expectations of both parties regarding the school ' s academic and financial charter schools are open to all students residing within the district ; however, charter schools are allowed to target students within specific age groups or grade levels, students considered at - risk of dropping out or failing, or students who meet reasonable academic, artistic or other eligibility standards established by the charter school. for more information, see fl doe office of independent education & parental - differentiated accountability differentiated accountability ( da ) refers to the system used in florida for classifying and evaluating the progress of school improvement based on school grades performance ( see \" school grades \" definition for more information ). beginning in 2012, florida ' s differentiated accountability assignment categories include : schools that have increased by at least one letter grade over the previous year or have maintained a school grade of \" a \". reward schools are eligible for school recognition funds as an incentive for their performance. schools receiving a school grade of \" c \" or \" d \". focus schools are subject to some increased state oversight and monitoring than reward or non - da schools. schools receiving a school grade of \" f \". priority schools are subject to more intensive intervention efforts required by the florida department of education. these schools must conduct a comprehensive needs assessment and submit a plan to demonstrate significant, immediate academic and systematic improvement in areas including : school improvement planning, leadership quality, educator quality, professional development, curriculum alignment and pacing, and monitoring plans and for more information, visit fl doe bureau of school improvement. - end - of - course exams end - of - course exams ( eocs ) are standardized tests aligned with florida", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5284646970523108, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:51.483328"} {"text": "mathematics, social and personal skills, science, social studies, physical development and fitness, and creative arts. - fair - k : the fair - k test is used to measure reading readiness skills, including a students ' understanding of letter names and letter - sounds ( phonemic awareness ). results from these two sections are used to calculate a student ' s probability of success in reading score. additional sections of the fair also administered to all public school kindergarten students include listening comprehension and vocabulary assessments. for more information about kindergarten readiness assessments, doe office of early learning. - magnet programs magnet programs offer a concentrated curriculum in designated areas of study, such as mathematics, science, technology, business, or performing arts. magnet programs may be offered schoolwide at dedicated magnet schools, or as special programs for magnet cohorts within traditional schools. magnet programs or schools are part of florida ' s school choice enrollment options and typically draw students from a wider geographic area than locally zoned for more information, visit fl doe magnet schools information. - postsecondary readiness postsecondary readiness rates indicate the percentage of a school ' s most recent graduating class who were qualified to enroll in college - level courses without the need for remediation in either reading or mathematics. readiness is determined by a student ' s highest scores on any of a number of recognized college placement tests, including the act, sat, cpt, or p. e. r. t. in order for a student to be considered postsecondary ready, he or she would need to meet the following minimum scores on any of these - act ( potential score range : 1 - 36 ) : - reading : 18 - english : 17 - mathematics : 19 - cpt ( potential score range : 1 - 120 ) : - writing skills : - elementary algebra : - p. e. r. t. ( potential score range : 50 - 150 ) : - reading : 104 - writing : 99 - mathematics : 113 - sat ( potential score range : 200 - 800 ) : - verbal : 440 - mathematics : 440 for more information about these tests or how postsecondary readiness is calculated, visit fl doe college and career readiness. - school grades school grades are the commonly used term to refer to a school ' s state accountability rating. all eligible public schools in florida are evaluated each year on student performance in the following - reading performance ( all students ) - reading performance gains ( all students ) - reading performance gains ( lowest 25 % students ) - math performance ( all students ) - math performance gains (", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5131971097611288, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:51.485369"} {"text": "science supplies and services model for mass spectrometer how many of high school or college students have seen the insides of a working mass spectrometer? how many know how and why it works? what is it used for? is the print - out the only important feature of the instrument or should our students understand how the information was obtained? a model of a mass spectrometer can be used to encourage this understanding. the s17 science model mass spectrometer is designed to answer an number of questions, and to teach a number of very interesting concepts. the instruction sheets that accompany this kit outline, in great detail, some of the best ways of using this kit to : the instruction sheets include information and diagrams to help you set up the apparatus. a set of sample questions, comments and answers that have been elicited and used in various classrooms is also included. students in kindergarten through college have marveled at the use of this kit in demonstrations. the kit has already been purchased by high schools and universities throughout the world for demonstrating the mass spectrometer to students of all academic backgrounds. you will want one of these in your school. it is available in two different kits, eq 129 and eq 131. the instructions sheets are the same in both kits. your ip address is : 220. 127. 116. 11", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5169045795999911, "token_count": 268, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:51.487859"} {"text": "open version of the diphthong rather than the existence of a diphthong in contrast to a monophthong. for example, someone pronouncing the \" long e \" as / e\u026a / might refer to / \u025b\u026a / and / a\u026a / as \" diphthongs \" but consider / e\u026a / a \" normal e \". the following is not a complete depiction of all sounds in all dialects but is an exemplative overview. | \u27e8 a \u27e9 | | / a / or / \u0252 / | | / o\u0252 / | | / a\u02d0 / or / \u0252\u02d0 / | | \u27e8 e \u27e9 | | / \u025b / | | / e\u026a / or / \u025b\u026a / | | / \u025b\u02d0 / | | \u27e8 o \u27e9 | | / \u0254 / | | / o\u028a / or / \u0254\u028a / | | / \u0254\u02d0 / | | \u27e8 o \u27e9 ( and other spellings ) | | / \u0153 / | | / / or / / | | / \u0153\u02d0 / | some of the sound - long vowels have had special characters in some areas or in the writing of some authors. the most widespread are \" e \" for / \u025b\u02d0 /, \" \u00e6 \" for / / ( and to a much lesser extent for / \u0153\u02d0 / ) and \" \u0153 \" for / \u0153\u02d0 /. \" a \" has been used for both / \u025b\u02d0 / and / /. key to dialectal pronunciation in general, the most closed version ( on the left ) is spoken in the west ( e. g. lower saxony ), while the most open ( on the right ) versions are from the east, especially rural ( not urban ) parts of w : mecklenburg - vorpommern. e = / \u025b\u026a / = / e\u026a / ~ / \u025b\u026a / ~ / a\u026a / o = / \u0254\u028a / = / o\u028a / ~ / \u0254\u028a / ~ / \u0252\u028a / o = / / = / / ~ / / ~ / / ; [ e\u026a ] ( w : konigsberg, low prussian ) u etc. ( long ) = / y\u02d0 / ; [ i\u02d0 ] ( low prussian ) u etc. ( short ) = [ ] ; [ \u026a ] ( low prussian ) r = / r / = [ r ] ~ [ \u027e ] ( except in syllable coda ) a = / \u028c / = [ a ] ~ [ \u00e6 ] ~ [ \u028c ] ~ [ \u0252 ] the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.509983761013435, "token_count": 503, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:51.501478"} {"text": "; [ \u026a ] ( low prussian ) r = / r / = [ r ] ~ [ \u027e ] ( except in syllable coda ) a = / \u028c / = [ a ] ~ [ \u00e6 ] ~ [ \u028c ] ~ [ \u0252 ] the merger of monophthongal a and o due to the relative similarity of the sounds of lengthened a and lengthened o, both were used somewhat interchangeably in middle low german writing. later, \" a \" replaced the letter \" o \" in the quasi - standard that middle low german had developed. this was because, at some point in history, most low german dialects merged the sound - long a with the sound - long o. later many merged the long a with the sound - long a as well. which sound was kept and which was lost was random throughout the dialects. in addition, low german orthography became more varied and also more randomized in later periods, so that words might be written with either a or o in a region ( e. g. apen and open ), while not necessarily giving away the pronunciation. comparison of low german and dutch low saxon orthographies some important differences between dutch - influenced orthography of dutch low saxon and the german - influences orthography of low german pertain to the representation of the following : | ipa / s / | | s | | s, ss, \u00df, z | | ipa / \u00f8 /, / \u0153 / | | eu | | o ( rarely \u00e6 for / \u0153 / ) | | vowel length in closed syllables | | doubled vowel | | doubled consonant or h | | capitalisation of nouns | | no | | yes | - for example, compare dutch low saxon zes ( \u201c six \u201d ) and kruus ( \u201c cross \u201d ) with german low german sess ( \u201c six \u201d ) and kruuz ( \u201c cross \u201d ). - dutch speakers usually use a double vowel ( laand ) to show the length of a vowel in a closed syllable, german speakers use an h ( wahnen ). both use an e after an i. the difference can be seen in the spellings of the word which means \" year \", which is pronounced either / j\u0252\u02d0\u027e / or / j\u0254\u02d0\u027e / or with / - \u0250 / instead of / \u027e / : it is written as jaar and joar in dutch low saxon, but as jahr, johr or some variant thereof in germany. - influenced by standard high german, which capitalizes nouns", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5035470042297969, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:51.502597"} {"text": "| | this article needs additional citations for verification. ( april 2008 ) | a blackboard ( uk english ) or chalkboard ( us english ) is a reuseable writing surface on which text or drawings are made with sticks of calcium sulfate or calcium carbonate, known, when used for this purpose, as chalk. blackboards were originally made of smooth, thin sheets of black or dark grey slate stone. modern versions are often green because the color is considered easier on the eyes. a blackboard can simply be a piece of board painted with matte dark paint ( usually black or dark green ). a more modern variation consists of a coiled sheet of plastic drawn across two parallel rollers, which can be scrolled to create additional writing space while saving what has been written. the highest grade blackboards are made of a rougher version porcelain enamelled steel ( black, green, blue or sometimes other colours ). porcelain is very hard wearing and blackboards made of porcelain usually last 10 \u2013 20 years in intensive use. lecture theatres may contain a number of blackboards in a grid arrangement. the lecturer then moves boards into reach for writing and then move them out of reach, allowing a large amount of material to be shown simultaneously. the chalk marks can be easily wiped off with a damp cloth, a sponge or a special blackboard eraser consisting of a block of wood covered by a felt pad. however, chalk marks made on some types of wet blackboard can be difficult to remove. blackboard manufacturers often advise that a new or newly resurfaced blackboard be completely covered using the side of a stick of chalk and then that chalk brushed off as normal to prepare it for use. chalk sticks sticks of processed \" chalk \" are produced especially for use with blackboards in white and also in various colours. these are not actually made from chalk rock but from calcium sulfate in its dihydrate form, gypsum. advantages and disadvantages as compared to whiteboards, blackboards have a variety of advantages : - chalk requires no special care ; whiteboard markers must be capped or else they dry out. - chalk is an order of magnitude cheaper than whiteboard markers for a comparable amount of writing. - it is easier to draw lines of different weights and thicknesses with chalk than with whiteboard markers. - chalk has a mild smell, whereas whiteboard markers often have a pungent odor. - chalk writing often provides better contrast than whiteboard markers. on the other hand, chalk produces dust, the amount depending on the quality of chalk used", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5164898347387128, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:51.593141"} {"text": "a textbook or coursebook is a manual of instruction in any branch of study. textbooks are produced according to the demands of educational institutions. although most textbooks are only published in printed format, many are now available as online electronic books and increasingly, although illegally, in scanned format on file sharing networks. the ancient greeks wrote texts intended for education. the modern textbook has its roots in the standardization made possible by the printing press. johannes gutenberg himself may have printed editions of ars minor, a schoolbook on latin grammar by aelius donatus. early textbooks were used by tutors and teachers, who used the books as instructional aids ( e. g., alphabet books ), as well as individuals who taught themselves. the greek philosopher socrates ( 469 - 399 b. c. ) lamented the loss of knowledge because the media of transmission were changing. before the invention of the greek alphabet 2, 500 years ago, knowledge and stories were recited aloud, much like homer ' s epic poems. the new technology of writing meant stories no longer needed to be memorized, a development socrates feared would weaken the greeks ' mental capacities for memorizing and retelling. ( paradoxically, we know about socrates ' concerns only because they were written down by his student plato in his famous dialogues. ) the next revolution for books came with the 15th - century invention of printing with changeable type. the invention is attributed to german metalsmith johannes gutenberg, who cast type in molds using a melted metal alloy and constructed a wooden - screw printing press to transfer the image onto paper. gutenberg ' s first and only large - scale printing effort was the now iconic gutenberg bible in the 1450s \u2014 a latin translation from the hebrew old testament and the greek new testament [ disambiguation needed ], copies of which can be viewed on the british library website www. bl. uk. gutenberg ' s invention made mass production of texts possible for the first time. although the gutenberg bible itself was stratospherically expensive, printed books began to spread widely over european trade routes during the next 50 years, and by the 16th century printed books had become more widely accessible and less costly. compulsory education and the subsequent growth of schooling in europe led to the printing of many standardized texts for children. textbooks have become the primary teaching instrument for most children since the 19th century. two textbooks of historical significance in united states schooling were the 18th century new england primer and the 19th century mcguffey readers. technological advances change the way people", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5376484333862875, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:51.661190"} {"text": "for children. textbooks have become the primary teaching instrument for most children since the 19th century. two textbooks of historical significance in united states schooling were the 18th century new england primer and the 19th century mcguffey readers. technological advances change the way people interact with textbooks. online and digital materials are making it increasingly easy for students to access materials other than the traditional print textbook. students now have access to electronic and pdf books, online tutoring systems and video lectures. an example of e - book publishing is principles of biology from nature publishing. most notably, an increasing number of authors are foregoing commercial publishers and offering their textbooks under a creative commons or other open license. the new york times recently endorsed the use of free, open, digital textbooks in the editorial \" that book costs how much? \" the \" broken market \" the textbook market does not operate in exactly the same manner as most consumer markets. first, the end consumers ( students ) do not select the product, and the product is not purchased by faculty or professors. therefore, price is removed from the purchasing decision, giving the producer ( publishers ) disproportionate market power to set prices high. similarities are found in the pharmaceutical industry, which sells its wares to doctors, rather than the ultimate end - user ( i. e. patient ). this fundamental difference in the market is often cited as the primary reason that prices are out of control. the term \" broken market \" first appeared in economist james koch ' s analysis of the market commissioned by the advisory committee on student financial assistance. this situation is exacerbated by the lack of competition in the textbook market. consolidation in the past few decades [ when? ] has reduced the number of major textbook companies from around 30 to just a handful. consequently, there is less competition than there used to be, and the high cost of starting up ' keeps new companies from entering. new editions & the used book market students seek relief from rising prices through the purchase of used copies of textbooks, which tend to be less expensive. most college bookstores offer used copies of textbooks at lower prices. most bookstores will also buy used copies back from students at the end of a term if the book is going to be re - used at the school. books that are not being re - used at the school are often purchased by an off - campus wholesaler for 0 - 30 % of the new cost, for distribution to other bookstores where the books will be sold. textbook companies have countered this by encouraging faculty to assign homework that", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.51019174978474, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:51.662336"} {"text": "one - time - use supplements destroy the resale value of the textbook. according to the student pirgs, the typical bundled textbook is 10 % - 50 % more than an unbundled textbook, and 65 % of professors said they \u201c rarely \u201d or \u201c never \u201d use the bundled items in their courses. a 2005 government accountability office ( gao ) report found that the production of these supplemental items was the primary cause of rapidly increasing prices : while publishers, retailers, and wholesalers all play a role in textbook pricing, the primary factor contributing to increases in the price of textbooks has been the increased investment publishers have made in new products to enhance instruction and learning... while wholesalers, retailers, and others do not question the quality of these materials, they have expressed concern that the publishers \u2019 practice of packaging supplements with a textbook to sell as one unit limits the opportunity students have to purchase less expensive used books.... if publishers continue to increase these investments, particularly in technology, the cost to produce a textbook is likely to continue to increase in the future. bundling has also been used as a means of segmenting the used book market. each combination of a textbook and supplemental items receives a separate isbn. a single textbook could therefore have dozens of isbns that denote different combinations of supplements packaged with that particular book. when a bookstore attempts to track down used copies of textbooks, they will search for the isbn the course instructor orders, which will locate only a subset of the copies of the textbook. legislation on the state and federal level seeks to limit the practice of bundling, by requiring publishers to offer all components separately. publishers have testified in favor of bills including this provision, but only in the case that the provision exempts the loosely defined category of \" integrated textbooks. \" the federal bill only exempts 3rd party materials in integrated textbooks, however publisher lobbyists have attempted to create a loophole through this definition in state bills. price disclosure given that the problem of high textbook prices is linked to the \" broken \" economics of the market, requiring publishers to disclose textbook prices to faculty is a solution pursued by a number of legislatures. by inserting price into sales interactions, this regulation will supposedly make the economic forces operate more normally. no data suggests that this is in fact true. however, the student pirgs have found that publishers actively withhold pricing information from faculty, making it difficult to obtain. their most recent study found that 77 % of faculty say publisher sales representatives do not volunteer prices, and only 40 % got an answer when", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5108721083087864, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:51.666215"} {"text": "state policies suggest that public investment in open textbooks might make sense. to offer another perspective, any jurisdiction might find itself challenged to find sufficient numbers of credible academics who would be willing to undertake the effort of creating an open textbook without realistic compensation, in order to make such a proposal work. the other challenge involves the reality of publishing, which is that textbooks with good sales and profitability subsidize the creation and publication of low demand but believed to be necessary textbooks. subsidies skew markets and the elimination of subsidies is disruptive ; in the case of low demand textbooks the possibilities following subsidy removal include any or all of the following : higher retail prices, a switch to open textbooks, a reduction of the number of titles published. on the other hand, independent open textbook authoring and publishing models are developing. most notably, the startup publisher flat world knowledge already has dozens of college - level open textbooks that are used by more than 900 institutions in 44 countries. their innovative business model was to offer the open textbook free online, and then sell ancillary products that students are likely to buy if prices are reasonable - print copies, study guides, epub,. mobi ( kindle ), pdf download, etc. flat world knowledge compensates its authors with royalties on these sales. with the generated revenue flat world knowledge funded high - quality publishing activities with a goal of making the flat world financial model sustainable. however, in january, 2013 flat world knowledge announced their financial model could no longer sustain their free - to - read options for students. flat world knowledge intends to have open textbooks available for the 125 highest - enrolled courses on college campuses within the next few years. ck - 12 flexbooks are the open textbooks designed for united states k - 12 courses. ck - 12 flexbooks are designed to facilitate conformance to national and united states and individual state textbook standards. ck - 12 flexbooks are licensed under a creative commons by - nc - sa license, are easy to update, and easy to customize. ck - 12 flexbooks are free to use online and offer formats suitable for use on portable personal reading devices and computers - both online and offline. formats for both ipad and kindle are offered. school districts may select a title as is or customize the open textbook to meet local instructional standards. the file may be then accessed electronically or printed using any print on demand service without paying a royalty, saving 80 % or more when compared to traditional textbook options. an example print on demand open textbook title, \" college algebra \" by stitz", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5004355567635552, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 7, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:51.670503"} {"text": "in some situations. although the project does not permit verbatim copies of pre - existing works ( those would be covered by wikisource ), it does permit annotated texts, which are a kind of text that includes an original text within it and serves as a guide to reading or studying that text. annotated editions of previously published source texts may only be written if the source text is compatible with the project ' s license. mit opencourseware provides several open textbooks. international market pricing similar to the issue of reimportation of pharmaceuticals into the u. s. market, the gao report also highlights a similar phenomenon in textbook distribution. retailers and publishers have expressed concern about the reimportation of lower - priced textbooks from international locations. specifically, they cited the ability students have to purchase books from online distribution channels outside the united states at lower prices, which may result in a loss of sales for u. s. retailers. additionally, the availability of lower - priced textbooks through these channels has heightened distrust and frustration among students regarding textbook prices, and college stores find it difficult to explain why their textbook prices are higher, according to the national association of college stores. retailers and publishers have also been concerned that some u. s. retailers may have engaged in reimportation on a large scale by ordering textbooks for entire courses at lower prices from international distribution channels. while the 1998 supreme court decision quality king v. l ' anza protects the reimportation of copyrighted materials under the first - sale doctrine, textbook publishers have still attempted to prevent the u. s. sale of international editions by enforcing contracts which forbid foreign wholesalers from selling to american distributors. concerned about the effects of differential pricing on college stores, the national association of college stores has called on publishers to stop the practice of selling textbooks at lower prices outside the united states. for example, some u. s. booksellers arrange for drop - shipments in foreign countries which are then re - shipped to america where the books can be sold online at used prices ( for a \" new \" unopened book ). the authors often getting half - royalties instead of full - royalties, minus the charges for returned books from bookstores. cost distribution according to the national association of college stores, the entire cost of the book is justified by expenses, with typically 11. 7 % of the price of a new book going to the author ' s royalties ( or a committee of editors at the publishing house ), 22. 7 % going to the store,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5061817635198954, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 9, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:51.672579"} {"text": "textbooks. discussions of textbooks have been included on creation and evolution in the public education debate. the smith v. board of school commissioners of mobile county case brought forward a debate about scientific fact being presented in textbooks. in his book, surely you ' re joking, mr. feynman!, the late physics nobel prize laureate richard p. feynman described his experiences as a member of a committee that evaluated science textbooks. at some instances, there were nonsensical examples to illustrate physical phenomena ; then a company sent \u2014 for reasons of timing \u2014 a textbook that contained blank pages, which even got good critiques. feynman himself experienced attempts at bribery. largely in the us, but increasingly in other nations, k - 12 mathematics textbooks have reflected the controversies of new math and reform mathematics which have sought to replace traditional mathematics in what have been called the math wars. traditional texts, still favored in asia and other areas, merely taught the same time - tested mathematics that most adults have learned. by contrast \" progressive \" approaches seek to address problems in social inequity with approaches that often incorporate principles of constructivism and discovery. texts such as terc and cmp discourage or omit standard mathematics methods and concepts such as long division and lowest common denominators. for example an index entry to multiply fractions would lead to \" devise your own method to multiply fractions which work on these examples \", and the formula for the area of a circle would be an exercise for a student to derive rather than including it in the student text. by the 2000s, while some districts were still adopting the more novel methods, others had abandoned them as unworkable. higher education in the u. s., college and university textbooks are chosen by the professor teaching the course, or by the department as a whole. students are typically responsible for obtaining their own copies of the books used in their courses, although alternatives to owning textbooks, such as textbook rental services and library reserve copies of texts, are available in some instances. in some european countries, such as sweden or spain, students attending institutions of higher education pay for textbooks themselves, although higher education is free of charge otherwise. with higher education costs on the rise, many students are becoming sensitive to every aspect of college pricing, including textbooks, and in many cases amount to one tenth of tuition costs. the 2005 government accountability office report on college textbooks said that since the 1980s, textbook and supply prices have risen twice the rate of inflation in the past two decades. a 2005 pi", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6003714623921239, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 12, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:51.675765"} {"text": "##rgs ( press release ) - see pirg ' s catalog of open textbooks for examples of open textbooks - a cover to cover solution by nicole allen of the student pirgs. 2010. - flat world knowledge president eric frank addresses oregon legislators on solving textbook affordability. pressitt. february 21, 2011. - open - source textbook co. flat world goes back to school with 40, 000 new customers - venture beat 8 / 20 / 09 - 150, 000 college students save $ 12 million using flat world knowledge open textbooks. marketwire. august 23, 2010. - flat world knowledge : open college textbooks by sanford forte. opensource. com. february 23, 2010. - organizational behavior v1. 1 by talya bauer & berrin erdogan. irvington, ny : flat world knowledge. 2010. ( free online open textbook format sample - pdf view ) - introduction to psychology by charles stangor. irvington, ny : flat world knowledge. 2010. ( free online open textbook format sample - web view ) - see flat world knowledge ' s website - flat world knowledge website. - flat world knowledge gets $ 15 million in funding. publishers weekly. january 20, 2011. - ck - 12 flexbooks. homepage. - carl stitz / jeff zeager on ohio textbook hq 2010. - ck - 12 - standards correlations united states. - human biology - genetics ck - 12 flexbook by the program in human biology, stanford university. ( sample of free web access format ) - about ck - 12 foundation - curriki. org homepage. - lewin, tamar ( 21 october 2003 ). \" students find $ 100 textbooks cost $ 50, purchased overseas \". the new york times. retrieved 24 september 2009. - \" testimony of marc l. fleischaker, counsel, national association of college stores \". hearing on \" are college textbooks priced fairly? \". u. s. house of representatives, committee on education and the workforce, subcommittee on 21st century competitiveness. 20 july 2004. archived from the original on 7 october 2011. retrieved 24 september 2009. - rip - off 101 : second edition, the student pirgs ( 2005 ) further reading - slatalla, michelle ( august 30, 2007 ), \" knowledge is priceless but textbooks are not \", new york times. | wikimedia commons has media related to : textbooks |", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5059559072838957, "token_count": 491, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 15, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:51.680241"} {"text": "hydrothermal circulation in its most general sense is the circulation of hot water ; ' hydros ' in the greek meaning water and ' thermos ' meaning heat. hydrothermal circulation occurs most often in the vicinity of sources of heat within the earth ' s crust. this generally occurs near volcanic activity, but can occur in the deep crust related to the intrusion of granite, or as the result of orogeny or metamorphism. seafloor hydrothermal circulation the term includes both the circulation of the well known, high temperature vent waters near the ridge crests, and the much lower temperature, diffuse flow of water through sediments and buried basalts further from the ridge crests. the former circulation type is sometimes termed \" active \", and the latter \" passive \". in both cases the principle is the same : cold dense seawater sinks into the basalt of the seafloor and is heated at depth whereupon it rises back to the rock - ocean water interface due to its lesser density. the heat source for the active vents is the newly formed basalt, and, for the highest temperature vents, the underlying magma chamber. the heat source for the passive vents is the still - cooling older basalts. heat flow studies of the seafloor suggest that basalts within the oceanic crust take millions of years to completely cool as they continue to support passive hydrothermal circulation systems. hydrothermal vents are locations on the seafloor where hydrothermal fluids mix into the overlying ocean. perhaps the best known vent forms are the naturally - occurring chimneys referred to as black smokers. hydrothermal circulation is not limited to ocean ridge environments. the source water for hydrothermal explosions, geysers and hot springs is heated groundwater convecting below and lateral to the hot water vent. hydrothermal circulating convection cells exist any place an anomalous source of heat, such as an intruding magma or volcanic vent, comes into contact with the groundwater system. deep crust hydrothermal also refers to the transport and circulation of water within the deep crust, generally from areas of hot rocks to areas of cooler rocks. the causes for this convection can be : - intrusion of magma into the crust - radioactive heat generated by cooled masses of granite - heat from the mantle - hydraulic head from mountain ranges, for example, the great artesian basin - dewatering of metamorphic rocks which liberates water - dewatering of deeply buried sediments hydrothermal ore deposits during the early 1900s various geologists worked to classify hydrothermal ore deposits which were assumed to have formed from upward flowing aque", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5650309594723082, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:51.812803"} {"text": "- dewatering of metamorphic rocks which liberates water - dewatering of deeply buried sediments hydrothermal ore deposits during the early 1900s various geologists worked to classify hydrothermal ore deposits which were assumed to have formed from upward flowing aqueous solutions. waldemar lindgren developed a classification based on interpreted decreasing temperature and pressure conditions of the depositing fluid. his terms : hypothermal, mesothermal, epithermal and teleothermal were based on decreasing temperature and increasing distance from a deep source. only the epithermal has been used in recent works. john guilbert ' s 1985 redo of lindgren ' s system for hydrothermal deposits includes the following : - ascending hydrothermal fluids, magmatic or meteoric water - porphyry copper and other deposits, 200 - 800 \u00b0c, moderate pressure - igneous metamorphic, 300 - 800 \u00b0c, low - moderate pressure - cordilleran veins, intermediate to shallow depths - epithermal, shallow to intermediate, 50 - 300 \u00b0c, low pressure - circulating heated meteoric solutions - circulating heated seawater - oceanic ridge deposits, 25 - 300 \u00b0c, low pressure see also - w. lindgren, 1933, mineral deposits, mcgraw hill, 4th ed. - guilbert, john m. and charles f. park, jr., 1986, the geology of ore deposits, freeman, p. 302 isbn 0 - 7167 - 1456 - 6", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5317268216343976, "token_count": 299, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:51.813553"} {"text": "phosphorescence is a specific type of photoluminescence related to fluorescence. unlike fluorescence, a phosphorescent material does not immediately re - emit the radiation it absorbs. the slower time scales of the re - emission are associated with \" forbidden \" energy state transitions in quantum mechanics. as these transitions occur very slowly in certain materials, absorbed radiation may be re - emitted at a lower intensity for up to several hours after the original excitation. commonly seen examples of phosphorescent materials are the glow - in - the - dark toys, paint, and clock dials that glow for some time after being charged with a bright light such as in any normal reading or room light. typically the glowing then slowly fades out within minutes ( or up to a few hours ) in a dark room. the study of phosphorescent materials led to the discovery of radioactivity in 1896. in simple terms, phosphorescence is a process in which energy absorbed by a substance is released relatively slowly in the form of light. this is in some cases the mechanism used for \" glow - in - the - dark \" materials which are \" charged \" by exposure to light. unlike the relatively swift reactions in a common fluorescent tube, phosphorescent materials used for these materials absorb the energy and \" store \" it for a longer time as the processes required to re - emit the light occur less often. quantum mechanical most photoluminescent events, in which a chemical substrate absorbs and then re - emits a photon of light, are fast, on the order of 10 nanoseconds. light is absorbed and emitted at these fast time scales in cases where the energy of the photons involved matches the available energy states and allowed transitions of the substrate. in the special case of phosphorescence, the absorbed photon energy undergoes an unusual intersystem crossing into an energy state of higher spin multiplicity ( see term symbol ), usually a triplet state. as a result, the energy can become trapped in the triplet state with only classically \" forbidden \" transitions available to return to the lower energy state. these transitions, although \" forbidden \", will still occur in quantum mechanics but are kinetically unfavored and thus progress at significantly slower time scales. most phosphorescent compounds are still relatively fast emitters, with triplet lifetimes on the order of milliseconds. however, some compounds have triplet lifetimes up to minutes or even", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6760067131688077, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:51.846620"} {"text": "thus progress at significantly slower time scales. most phosphorescent compounds are still relatively fast emitters, with triplet lifetimes on the order of milliseconds. however, some compounds have triplet lifetimes up to minutes or even hours, allowing these substances to effectively store light energy in the form of very slowly degrading excited electron states. if the phosphorescent quantum yield is high, these substances will release significant amounts of light over long time scales, creating so - called \" glow - in - the - dark \" materials. where s is a singlet and t a triplet whose subscripts denote states ( 0 is the ground state, and 1 the excited state ). transitions can also occur to higher energy levels, but the first excited state is denoted for simplicity. some examples of \" glow - in - the - dark \" materials do not glow by phosphorescence. for example, \" glow sticks \" glow due to a chemiluminescent process which is commonly mistaken for phosphorescence. in chemiluminescence, an excited state is created via a chemical reaction. the light emission tracks the kinetic progress of the underlying chemical reaction. the excited state will then transfer to a \" dye \" molecule, also known as a sensitizer or fluorophor, and subsequently fluoresce back to the ground state common pigments used in phosphorescent materials include zinc sulfide and strontium aluminate. use of zinc sulfide for safety related products dates back to the 1930s. however, the development of strontium aluminate, with a luminance approximately 10 times greater than zinc sulfide, has relegated most zinc sulfide based products to the novelty category. strontium aluminate based pigments are now used in exit signs, pathway marking, and other safety related signage. | this section requires expansion. ( october 2008 ) | see also - karl a. franz, wolfgang g. kehr, alfred siggel, jurgen wieczoreck, and waldemar adam \" luminescent materials \" in ullmann ' s encyclopedia of industrial chemistry 2002, wiley - vch, weinheim. doi : 10. 1002 / 14356007. a15 _ 519 - zitoun, d. ; bernaud, l. ; manteghetti, a. microwave synthesis of a long - lasting phosphor. j. chem. ed. 2009, 86, 72 -", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.596698530247835, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:51.849736"} {"text": "affects the sound according to many players, is not generally agreed. any of the following can be called semi - acoustic : - instruments starting from a solid body \" blank \" which has been routed out to make a chambered body guitar. - instruments with semi - hollow bodies constructed from plates of wood around a solid core, having no soundholes, such as the gibson lucille or brian may red special. - instruments with a solid core but hollow bouts and soundholes ( usually f - holes ), such as the gibson es - 335. in these, the bridge is fixed to a solid block of wood rather than to a sounding board, and the belly vibration is minimised much as in a solid body instrument. - thin - bodied archtop guitars, such as the epiphone casino. these possess both a sounding board and sound box, but the function of these is purely to modify the sound transmitted to the pickups. such guitars are still intended purely as electric instruments, and while they do make some sound when the pickups are not used, the tone is weak and not normally considered musically useful. - full hollowbody semi - acoustic instruments, often called jazz guitars, such as the gibson es - 175 ; these have a full - size sound box, but are still intended to be played through an amplifier. the rickenbacker 330 jg some companies that have produced famous semi - acoustic guitars include : gibson, gretsch and rickenbacker. a variety of manufacturers now produce semi - acoustic model guitars : d ' angelico, epiphone, ibanez, etc. - fully hollow body - thinline hollow body ( thin body ) - semi hollow body ( with center block ) - other semi hollow ( solid - body with cavities ) - various types - archtop guitars. guitars with a fully hollow or semi - hollow body, with or without pickups. - electro - acoustic guitars. fully acoustic guitars with piezo pickups. - hybrid guitars. guitars with both magnetic and piezo pickups. can be solid, semi - hollow or hollow bodied. - silent guitars. solid body guitars with a piezo pickups. - ingram, adrian, a concise history of the electric guitar, melbay, 2001. - hunter, dave, the rough guide to guitar, penguin books, 2011. - miller, a. j., the electric guitar : a history of an american icon, baltimore, md, smithsonian institute, 2004. - martin a. darryl, innovation and the development of the modern", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5023573269004917, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:51.913860"} {"text": "| quantum field theory | | | it has been suggested that this article be merged with zero - point energy. ( discuss ) proposed since june 2012. | in quantum field theory, the vacuum state ( also called the vacuum ) is the quantum state with the lowest possible energy. generally, it contains no physical particles. zero - point field is sometimes used [ by whom? ] as a synonym for the vacuum state of an individual quantized field. according to present - day understanding of what is called the vacuum state or the quantum vacuum, it is \" by no means a simple empty space \", and again : \" it is a mistake to think of any physical vacuum as some absolutely empty void. \" according to quantum mechanics, the vacuum state is not truly empty but instead contains fleeting electromagnetic waves and particles that pop into and out of existence. the qed vacuum of quantum electrodynamics ( or qed ) was the first vacuum of quantum field theory to be developed. qed originated in the 1930s, and in the late 1940s and early 1950s it was reformulated by feynman, tomonaga and schwinger, who jointly received the nobel prize for this work in 1965. today the electromagnetic interactions and the weak interactions are unified in the theory of the electroweak interaction. the standard model is a generalization of the qed work to include all the known elementary particles and their interactions ( except gravity ). quantum chromodynamics is the portion of the standard model that deals with strong interactions, and qcd vacuum is the vacuum of quantum chromodynamics. it is the object of study in the large hadron collider and the relativistic heavy ion collider, and is related to the so - called vacuum structure of strong interactions. non - zero expectation value if the quantum field theory can be accurately described through perturbation theory, then the properties of the vacuum are analogous to the properties of the ground state of a quantum mechanical harmonic oscillator ( or more accurately, the ground state of a qm problem ). in this case the vacuum expectation value ( vev ) of any field operator vanishes. for quantum field theories in which perturbation theory breaks down at low energies ( for example, quantum chromodynamics or the bcs theory of superconductivity ) field operators may have non - vanishing vacuum expectation values called condensates. in the standard model, the non - zero vacuum expectation value of the higgs field, arising from spontaneous symmetry", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.7146165742294743, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:52.174701"} {"text": "a field \u03c6, which should be written as, is usually condensed to. virtual particles the presence of virtual particles can be rigorously based upon the non - commutation of the quantized electromagnetic fields. non - commutation means that although the average values of the fields vanish in a quantum vacuum, their variances do not. the term \" vacuum fluctuations \" refers to the variance of the field strength in the minimal energy state, and is described picturesquely as evidence of \" virtual particles \". it is sometimes attempted to provide an intuitive picture of virtual particles based upon the heisenberg energy - time uncertainty principle : ( with \u03b4e and \u03b4t being the energy and time variations respectively ; \u03b4e is the accuracy in the measurement of energy and \u03b4t is the time taken in the measurement, and \u0127 is the planck constant divided by 2\u03c0 ) arguing along the lines that the short lifetime of virtual particles allows the \" borrowing \" of large energies from the vacuum and thus permits particle generation for short times. although the phenomenon of virtual particles is accepted, this interpretation of the energy - time uncertainty relation is not universal. one issue is the use of an uncertainty relation limiting measurement accuracy as though a time uncertainty \u03b4t determines a \" budget \" for borrowing energy \u03b4e. another issue is the meaning of \" time \" in this relation, because energy and time ( unlike position q and momentum p, for example ) do not satisfy a canonical commutation relation ( such as [ q, p ] = i \u0127 ). various schemes have been advanced to construct an observable that has some kind of time interpretation, and yet does satisfy a canonical commutation relation with energy. the very many approaches to the energy - time uncertainty principle are a long and continuing subject. physical nature of the quantum vacuum according to astrid lambrecht ( 2002 ) : \" when one empties out a space of all matter and lowers the temperature to absolute zero, one produces in a gedankenexperiment the quantum vacuum state. \" photon - photon interaction can occur only through interaction with the vacuum state of some other field, for example through the dirac electron - positron vacuum field ; this is associated with the concept of vacuum polarization. according to milonni ( 1994 ) : \"... all quantum fields have zero - point energies and vacuum fluctuations. \" this means that there is a component of the quantum vacuum respectively for each component field ( considered in the conceptual absence of the other fields ), such as the electromagnetic field, the dirac electron", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.7211215988361636, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:52.180105"} {"text": "quantum fields have zero - point energies and vacuum fluctuations. \" this means that there is a component of the quantum vacuum respectively for each component field ( considered in the conceptual absence of the other fields ), such as the electromagnetic field, the dirac electron - positron field, and so on. according to milonni ( 1994 ), some of the effects attributed to the vacuum electromagnetic field can have several physical interpretations, some more conventional than others. the casimir attraction between uncharged conductive plates is often proposed as an example of an effect of the vacuum electromagnetic field. schwinger, deraad, and milton ( 1978 ) are cited by milonni ( 1994 ) as validly, though unconventionally, explaining the casimir effect with a model in which \" the vacuum is regarded as truly a state with all physical properties equal to zero. \" in this model, the observed phenomena are explained as the effects of the electron motions on the electromagnetic field, called the source field effect. milonni writes : \" the basic idea here will be that the casimir force may be derived from the source fields alone even in completely conventional qed,... \" milonni provides detailed argument that the measurable physical effects usually attributed to the vacuum electromagnetic field cannot be explained by that field alone, but require in addition a contribution from the self - energy of the electrons, or their radiation reaction. he writes : \" the radiation reaction and the vacuum fields are two aspects of the same thing when it comes to physical interpretations of various qed processes including the lamb shift, van der waals forces, and casimir effects. \" this point of view is also stated by jaffe ( 2005 ) : \" the casimir force can be calculated without reference to vacuum fluctuations, and like all other observable effects in qed, it vanishes as the fine structure constant, \u03b1, goes to zero. \" see also references and notes - astrid lambrecht ( hartmut figger, dieter meschede, claus zimmermann eds. ) ( 2002 ). observing mechanical dissipation in the quantum vacuum : an experimental challenge ; in laser physics at the limits. berlin / new york : springer. p. 197. isbn 3 - 540 - 42418 - 0. - christopher ray ( 1991 ). time, space and philosophy. london / new york : routledge. chapter 10, p. 205. isbn 0 - 415 - 03221 - 0. - aip physics news update, 1996 - physical review focus dec. 1998 - walter dittrich & gi", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6771509423067497, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:52.182663"} {"text": "and philosophy. london / new york : routledge. chapter 10, p. 205. isbn 0 - 415 - 03221 - 0. - aip physics news update, 1996 - physical review focus dec. 1998 - walter dittrich & gies h ( 2000 ). probing the quantum vacuum : perturbative effective action approach. berlin : springer. isbn 3 - 540 - 67428 - 4. - for an historical discussion, see for example ari ben - menahem, ed. ( 2009 ). \" quantum electrodynamics ( qed ) \". historical encyclopedia of natural and mathematical sciences, volume 1 ( 5th ed. ). springer. pp. 4892 ff. isbn 3 - 540 - 68831 - 5. for the nobel prize details and the nobel lectures by these authors see \" the nobel prize in physics 1965 \". nobelprize. org. retrieved 2012 - 02 - 06. - jean letessier, johann rafelski ( 2002 ). hadrons and quark - gluon plasma. cambridge university press. p. 37 ff. isbn 0 - 521 - 38536 - 9. - sean carroll, sr research associate - physics, california institute of technology, june 22, 2006 c - span broadcast of cosmology at yearly kos science panel, part 1 - david delphenich ( 2006 ). \" nonlinear electrodynamics and qed \". arxiv : hep - th / 0610088 [ hep - th ]. - klein, james j. and b. p. nigam, birefringence of the vacuum, physical review vol. 135, p. b1279 - b1280 ( 1964 ). - mourou, g. a., t. tajima, and s. v. bulanov, optics in the relativistic regime ; \u00a7 xi nonlinear qed, reviews of modern physics vol. 78 ( no. 2 ), 309 - 371 ( 2006 ) pdf file. - holger gies ; joerg jaeckel ; andreas ringwald ( 2006 ). \" polarized light propagating in a magnetic field as a probe of millicharged fermions \". physical review letters 97 ( 14 ). arxiv : hep - ph / 0607118. bibcode : 2006phrvl.. 97n0402g. doi : 10. 1103 / physrevlett.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6920756658243142, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:52.183980"} {"text": "( 14 ). arxiv : hep - ph / 0607118. bibcode : 2006phrvl.. 97n0402g. doi : 10. 1103 / physrevlett. 97. 140402. - davis ; joseph harris ; gammon ; smolyaninov ; kyuman cho ( 2007 ). \" experimental challenges involved in searches for axion - like particles and nonlinear quantum electrodynamic effects by sensitive optical techniques \". arxiv : 0704. 0748 [ hep - th ]. - myron wyn evans, stanis\u0142aw kielich ( 1994 ). modern nonlinear optics, volume 85, part 3. john wiley & sons. p. 462. isbn 0 - 471 - 57548 - 8. \" for all field states that have classical analog the field quadrature variances are also greater than or equal to this commutator. \" - david nikolaevich klyshko ( 1988 ). photons and nonlinear optics. taylor & francis. p. 126. isbn 2 - 88124 - 669 - 9. - milton k. munitz ( 1990 ). cosmic understanding : philosophy and science of the universe. princeton university press. p. 132. isbn 0 - 691 - 02059 - 0. \" the spontaneous, temporary emergence of particles from vacuum is called a \" vacuum fluctuation \". \" - for an example, see p. c. w. davies ( 1982 ). the accidental universe. cambridge university press. p. 106. isbn 0 - 521 - 28692 - 1. - a vaguer description is provided by jonathan allday ( 2002 ). quarks, leptons and the big bang ( 2nd ed ed. ). crc press. pp. 224 ff. isbn 0 - 7503 - 0806 - 0. \" the interaction will last for a certain duration \u03b4t. this implies that the amplitude for the total energy involved in the interaction is spread over a range of energies \u03b4e. \" - this \" borrowing \" idea has led to proposals for using the zero - point energy of vacuum as an infinite reservoir and a variety of \" camps \" about this interpretation. see, for example, moray b. king ( 2001 ). quest for zero point energy : engineering principles for ' free energy ' inventions. adventures unlimited press. pp. 124 ff. isbn 0 - 932813 - 94 - 1. - quantities satisfying a", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.7376454022744063, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:52.188650"} {"text": "example, moray b. king ( 2001 ). quest for zero point energy : engineering principles for ' free energy ' inventions. adventures unlimited press. pp. 124 ff. isbn 0 - 932813 - 94 - 1. - quantities satisfying a canonical commutation rule are said to be noncompatible observables, by which is meant that they can both be measured simultaneously only with limited precision. see kiyosi ito ( 1993 ). \" \u00a7 351 ( xx. 23 ) c : canonical commutation relations \". encyclopedic dictionary of mathematics ( 2nd ed ed. ). mit press. p. 1303. isbn 0 - 262 - 59020 - 4. - paul busch, marian grabowski, pekka j. lahti ( 1995 ). \" \u00a7 iii. 4 : energy and time \". operational quantum physics. springer. pp. 77 ff. isbn 3 - 540 - 59358 - 6. - for a review, see paul busch ( 2008 ). \" chapter 3 : the time \u2013 energy uncertainty relation \". in j. g. muga, r. sala mayato and i. l. egusquiza, editors. time in quantum mechanics ( 2nd ed ed. ). springer. pp. 73 ff. isbn 3 - 540 - 73472 - 4. - fowler, r., guggenheim, e. a. ( 1965 ). statistical thermodynamics. a version of statistical mechanics for students of physics and chemistry, reprinted with corrections, cambridge university press, london, page 224. - partington, j. r. ( 1949 ). an advanced treatise on physical chemistry, volume 1, fundamental principles. the properties of gases, longmans, green and co., london, page 220. - wilks, j. ( 1971 ). the third law of thermodynamics, chapter 6 in thermodynamics, volume 1, ed. w. jost, of h. eyring, d. henderson, w. jost, physical chemistry. an advanced treatise, academic press, new york, page 477. - bailyn, m. ( 1994 ). a survey of thermodynamics, american institute of physics, new york, isbn 0 \u2013 88318 \u2013 797 \u2013 3, page 342. - jauch, j. m., rohrlich, f. ( 1955 / 1980 ). the theory of photons and electrons. the relat", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.7229688009030368, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:52.189930"} {"text": "york, isbn 0 \u2013 88318 \u2013 797 \u2013 3, page 342. - jauch, j. m., rohrlich, f. ( 1955 / 1980 ). the theory of photons and electrons. the relativistic quantum field theory of charged particles with spin one - half, second expanded edition, springer - verlag, new york, isbn 0 \u2013 387 \u2013 07295 \u2013 0, pages 287 \u2013 288. - milonni, p. w. ( 1994 ). the quantum vacuum. an introduction to quantum electrodynamics, academic press, inc., boston, isbn 0 \u2013 12 \u2013 498080 \u2013 5, page xv. - milonni, p. w. ( 1994 ). the quantum vacuum. an introduction to quantum electrodynamics, academic press, inc., boston, isbn 0 \u2013 12 \u2013 498080 \u2013 5, page 239. - schwinger, j., deraad, l. l., milton, k. a. ( 1978 ). casimir effect in dielectrics, annals of physics, 115 : 1 \u2013 23. - milonni, p. w. ( 1994 ). the quantum vacuum. an introduction to quantum electrodynamics, academic press, inc., boston, isbn 0 \u2013 12 \u2013 498080 \u2013 5, page 418. - jaffe, r. l. ( 2005 ). casimir effect and the quantum vacuum, phys. rev. d 72 : 021301 ( r ), http : / / 1 \u2013 5. cua. mit. edu / 8. 422 _ s07 / jaffe2005 _ casimir. pdf further reading - free pdf copy of the structured vacuum - thinking about nothing by johann rafelski and berndt muller ( 1985 ) isbn 3 - 87144 - 889 - 3. - m. e. peskin and d. v. schroeder, an introduction to quantum field theory. - h. genz, nothingness : the science of empty space - maybe this should discuss star trek and / or star gate : engineering the zero - point field and polarizable vacuum for interstellar flight - e. w. davis, v. l. teofilo, b. haisch, h. e. puthoff, l. j. nickisch, a. rueda and d. c. cole ( 2006 ) \" review of experimental concepts for studying the quantum vacuum field \"", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6711437879693599, "token_count": 509, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 7, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:52.190856"} {"text": "regime in a remnant patch of bush. this vision assumes that such toolkits will be developed and readily utilised. underpinning this framework is a basic set of principles that should encourage actions to achieve sustainable native vegetation management. these include : - recognition that all vegetation management should be based on the overall goal of ecologically sustainable development which recognises environmental, economic and social values ; - recognition of the important role of native vegetation in the functioning of ecosystems in maintaining productivity capacity of agricultural lands ; - recognition that the biological diversity of vegetation should be maintained through appropriate land management practices. these include a suite of measures from environmental protection through to sustainable use and production using best practice management techniques ; - recognition that vegetation management requires the continuing partnership of government, land managers, industry and the wider community ; - recognition that where there are threats of serious or irreversible environmental damage, lack of full scientific certainty should not be used as a reason for postponing measures to prevent environmental degradation. in the application of the precautionary principle, public and private decisions should be guided by : - careful evaluation to avoid, wherever practicable, serious or irreversible damage to the environment ; and - an assessment of the risk - weighted consequences of various options ; - recognition that protecting existing remnant vegetation is the most efficient way of conserving biodiversity. native vegetation is usually managed within the broader natural resource management context that takes account of economic and social objectives additional to environmental objectives. however, sustainable native vegetation management does not only serve environmental objectives. outcomes from sustainable native vegetation management also contribute substantially to important economic and social objectives. the native vegetation outcomes being sought in this framework are : - a reversal in the long - term decline in the extent and quality of australia ' s native vegetation cover by : - conserving native vegetation, and substantially reducing land clearing ; - conserving australia ' s biodiversity ; and - restoring, by means of substantially increased revegetation, the environmental values and productive capacity of australia ' s degraded land and water ; - conservation and, where appropriate, restoration of native vegetation to maintain and enhance biodiversity, protect water quality and conserve soil resources, including on private land managed for agriculture, forestry and urban development ; - retention and enhancement of biodiversity and native vegetation at both regional and national levels ; and - an improvement in the condition of existing native vegetation. specific vegetation outcomes being sought, within the context of integrated natural resource management, are described below. biodiversity outcomes sought : - protection of biological diversity and maintenance of essential ecological processes and life -", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5003432628022454, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:52.215218"} {"text": "written for political science 101 last term at the university of waterloo. node your homework they said... democracy is more than an election every few years, a familiar process removed from the daily grind until it comes time to tick a small box on a larger piece of paper. it is instead more about people than protocol, more magical and less mechanical. we should see it in terms of an ideal to which our institutions and practices strive towards, rather than the view that these infrastructures come about as a result of this intangible juggernaut of democracy. democracy is not a construct of man, it is instead a set of ideals and values we seek. the typical citizen of a liberal democratic society does not have much to say about democracy except when confronted by \u201c man on the street \u201d interviews or whenever your particular national holiday rolls around. this apathy is not a result of genuine malice, but more a testament to the fact that our particular implementation of the idea of democracy works so well it is almost transparent. no mobs run loose through his streets at night, no men dressed in black come to \u201c talk \u201d to him in the early hours of the morning. his roads, sewer, electricity and television hum day and night without losing a beat. in a more direct sense, his government functions properly and does not become a burden to him. the pleasant life he leads is a direct result of a democratic society functioning properly, and it is his very right as a citizen of this society to ignore it on a daily basis. this individualistic view of democracy cannot hold in all situations. it works for general day to day circumstances, however even the most right - wing of individualist thinkers holds a belief that under certain circumstances, citizens have a duty to perform certain tasks for the state. these duties may be mundane, such as paying taxes or voting, or extreme, such as defending one \u2019 s nation. all have a common thread, that which citizens as a member of a state have certain natural duties. democracy cannot exist without its members participating in it, this is a fundamental requirement. these natural duties may vary from time to time but the constant is that they always exist in some capacity or another. democracy is based upon many citizens performing small duties, instead of a small group of citizens controlling many responsibilities. the concept of working together is one that democracy builds itself upon. democracy is the rule of the people, not a person. it fulfills the innate human need to guide one \u2019 s destiny, through even such a small part as filling out a ballot", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5152255754363735, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:52.277679"} {"text": "the concept of working together is one that democracy builds itself upon. democracy is the rule of the people, not a person. it fulfills the innate human need to guide one \u2019 s destiny, through even such a small part as filling out a ballot. the fact that democracy is based on such emotionally appealing ideas should give you some conception as to the reasons for its success. hobbes may have argued that we need someone to control us, but in the end, what we all really want is to control ourselves. the fact that democracy is able to take a selfish desire, such as the want to control the state, and turn it into a government which acts for the good of all is further evidence as to the robustness of the democratic ideal. democracy is an enduring dream, contrary to the doomed wunderkinds of communism and other governments based on theory not practice. while superior in their vision of a utopia on paper, they come against one fundamental flaw, namely people tend to run toward the jerk side of the personality scale. communism without greed would indeed be utopia but the real world runs up against tangible problems with this. you cannot remove greed from a man by political posturing no more than you can paint stripes on a horse and call it a zebra. it may pass on first inspection, but when it comes down to the most basic of things, you tend to run into a few problems. the reason democracy works in the physical realm is it engages in political judo, in that it takes men \u2019 s selfishness and desires, parries them into another direction unpredicted by the man, all with the full momentum of his swing still behind him. it has survived from the ancient greeks to this present day for this very reason. the initial view of democracy as we know it was conceived by the greeks, however the practical application of democracy we have today is drastically different from their view. initially it was the concept that every citizen ( citizens being of course aristocratic males ) would have a say in the management of the state. today however we have a different conception of this democratic ideal. pure practicality dictates that we cannot have the entire community attempt to come to a conclusion on issues addressed by the state. this was practical in the greek age where a manageable number would discuss the issues of the day, but this is not feasible in this day and age where our world population is measured in billions. the fundamental thing to remember however is that the ideal of democracy survives between this gulf of years and culture. this romanticism of democracy", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5530942190115586, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:52.278732"} {"text": "issues of the day, but this is not feasible in this day and age where our world population is measured in billions. the fundamental thing to remember however is that the ideal of democracy survives between this gulf of years and culture. this romanticism of democracy is the root of its power. the society we live in values the ideals held by the democratic system, and as such we accept it as a ruling influence in our lives. an example of this is the prime minister being a \u201c public servant \u201d. only in the strictest most idealistic sense is he a genuine servant of the people ; however we call him such without a hint of irony as we value the democratic ideal so highly. all politicians are crooks we tell each other, yet we keep on voting. why, when we so enthusiastically hate the dictators and marcos of the world who embezzle funds? the answer lies in that we see democracy as striving toward an ideal. no man is perfect, but they \u2019 re working on it. this contradiction between reality and the psyche is at the heart of any power, and in western countries it is what tells us that democracy is the cure for all that ills a state. contradiction is fundamental to democracy. democracy brings us together we are told, it is the great equalizer. all men are born equal, none shall be held in higher esteem than another. one citizen shall have one vote. all say that the members of a democratic state are inherently equal. on the other hand we have canada, a liberal democratic society, in which multiculturalism is not only encouraged but has an official policy to address it. differences are encouraged, and any attempt to insinuate that we should all become equal is dismissed as right - wing xenophobia. where then is the balance? democracy gives us equality, but it also gives us the right to be different. it is the fine line between the two, a tightrope act of titanic proportions. the balance must not swing too far one way or the other, lest the acrobat be unset and come crashing down. the democratic ideal allows us to weigh multiculturalism and its variants against solidarity and never find a clear winner. it allows us to value them equally, as this is the ultimate measure of equality. equality can lead to problems however, if democracy becomes the rule of the \u201c most equal \u201d. a tyranny of the majority is completely democratic in the most literal sense of the word in that the majority chooses for it to be so, however it is unpalatable", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5206340823888344, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:52.279683"} {"text": "problems however, if democracy becomes the rule of the \u201c most equal \u201d. a tyranny of the majority is completely democratic in the most literal sense of the word in that the majority chooses for it to be so, however it is unpalatable to many in our society. this is due to the fact that we see democracy in more than just the literal sense, we see it as a shining ideal. this ideal would not allow trampling of minority rights, and as discussed before, the ideal of democracy is the fine balance between differences and solidarity. as such we cannot allow this tyranny, permitted as it is in a literal interpretation of a democratic society. the democratic ideal implies compassion and empathy, more than just cold cruel statistics of fifty percent plus one. the democratic ideal hinges on this idea of not allowing technicalities and numbers to become the ruling force instead of a vision of participation by all. common occurrences such as majority governments being elected by a minority as seen as undemocratic, even though in the strictest sense they follow literal democracy. if your system is built upon the philosophy that a leader is elected indirectly through grouping voters into regions, this is particularly apparent. the recent florida fiasco in the american elections is a particularly apt example of this. counting non - participating voters and the popular vote, a leader was elected who received far less support from his citizens than a majority. while seen as undemocratic and a travesty, at the same time it is completely by the book. unfortunately, there is no book of democracy. we instead view democracy as an ideal not a construct. it is not a point by point leaflet we can airdrop over dictatorships, but instead an attitude that results from culture and history. it is a result of directing people \u2019 s desires toward solidarity, and at the same time respecting differences. while at time contradictory and awkward, it endures. it endures due to the fact that democracy is a dream not a document, and dreams are not easily lost.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5151177801235789, "token_count": 408, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:52.281198"} {"text": "the open tree of life : toward a global synthesis of phylogenetic knowledge 2013 reu project : in the field of systematic biology, scientists study species of all kinds to determine how one is related to another by evolutionary descent. in other words, they are trying to reconstruct the great tree of life - - the branching genealogy of all species, traced all the way back to a single common ancestor. ( the scientific term for ' tree of life ' is ' phylogeny '. ) individual scientists typically have expertise in only one or a few branches on the tree - - for instance, one might study dung beetles, while another studies venus flytraps. every year, experts like these publish thousands of scientific papers describing new phylogenetic trees for different group of organisms : clams, birds, mushrooms, and so on. however, these newly discovered trees are generally recorded simply as figures embedded in the pages of scientific journals. the open tree of life project seeks to extract all these trees from the literature and graft them together by entering them into a common database. this will enable computational analyses that will produce, for the first time, an estimate of the tree of life that includes all species ever studied. research methods and techniques : interns on this project will learn how to download data sets of dna sequences, perform phylogenetic analyses, and interpret the results. they will also have the opportunity to learn basic computer programming and linux shell computing, or advance their current knowledge of these topics. their contributions will be recorded in a public database for posterity. it is perfect fit for anyone interested in both biology and computers. curator / advisor : dr. richard ree ( curator, botany )", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5449397855539155, "token_count": 335, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:52.289140"} {"text": "work together. we don ' t have much difficulty making simulations on the computer, but we had a very hard time getting the actual mechanism to work based on the simulation data. in 3d - tracking, for instance, subject tracking information and af need to link up and work together, but it didn ' t work at all at the beginning. we thought we had debugged the program and got the calculations perfect, too, but there were so many unknowns in this pioneering technology, it took a long while for us to make it work. we tested various possibilities in this process of trial and error, and once we finally got it to work in the camera, everyone involved in development and engineering felt a sense of achievement. \u201d you have been involved mainly in the development of metering technologies since you joined nikon, so in the development of the scene recognition system, you had to expand into other fields such as af, didn ' t you. i ' m very interested in how you approached those challenges. \u201c everyone in the development team came from completely different jobs, but our departments were nearby and we were in an environment where we could talk to each other quite easily. when talk of this development project came up, we had lots of discussions between departments. especially when the idea was first proposed, it came under criticism from people wondering whether there was any sense in even attempting such a high hurdle. once we put our heads together and talked openly about how we felt, i think we created an ideal environment for making something better. \u201d you knew it would be difficult, but you didn ' t say it was impossible. it is an admirable testimony to the interest and passion all the developers had for this new technology. \u201c i think it really was thanks to the efforts of so many people that we were able to do this. in the process of turning this new technology into a viable product, there really was a tremendous amount of ambiguity from the original idea to the final specifications we decided on. there were so many things we couldn ' t know just through experiments on the desk. in this area we had some members in the company who were in charge of making test photos and giving us constant advice. they were just like test drivers for new cars. we received lots of ideas from the hands - on experience of these people. real ideas from the field are indeed very different from theoretical ideas, and they were indispensable to our development efforts. \u201d the harder the road we travel, the greater is our joy at the end. just to hear someone", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5390525684285992, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:52.427564"} {"text": "of these people. real ideas from the field are indeed very different from theoretical ideas, and they were indispensable to our development efforts. \u201d the harder the road we travel, the greater is our joy at the end. just to hear someone say they were able to take a photo they could never take before. how long did it take your team to develop the scene recognition system? - speaking of his future endeavors, mr. takeuch enthusiastically says : i want to explore applications to various camera models by considering their specifications and target users. \u201c about three years including time for the original idea. \u201d the d3 and d300 equipped with the scene recognition system have been released. looking back on the development process, where did you get the energy to overcome all those difficulties? \u201c it was really our strong desire to succeed in creating this system. the difficulty in developing the system was the scale of the expectations people had for this technology. this provided the support we need to overcome obstacles in the development process. of course, we have considerable satisfaction in having developed the technology, but more than that we look forward to the reaction of users. though we developed these cameras with high - end, professional users in mind, professionals have the ability to make do with cameras with few functions. so if professionals use these cameras and say they are really useful, that would be a mark of success for us. the aim of the scene recognition system really has been to enable people to take photos they could never take before. \u201d we also look forward to future applications of the scene recognition system, which has a lot of potential. \u201c as a core technology, we would like to adapt it to future camera models, considering their specifications and target users. we want to start looking into various applications that will meet those needs. \u201d", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5022937655097593, "token_count": 362, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:52.428510"} {"text": "| click to see the full size image | about the image since 2003 i ' ve been gathering texts from the web written in indigenous and minority languages. the image above is a \" family tree \" of the 1000 languages i ' ve found to date, where proximity in the tree is measured by a straightforward statistical comparison of writing systems ( details below ). - when you load the full image it will be too big to fit in a browser window and you may not see anything at first \u2013 you ' ll need to use the horizontal and vertical scrollbars to explore different parts of the tree ( most browsers will let you zoom in and out also ). and because it ' s an svg image, you can use your browser ' s search functionality ( probably ctrl + f or - f ) to find different language codes, although the search behavior can be a bit weird / unpredictable. - each language is colored according to its linguistic family ( details here ). for example, all indo - european languages are greenish colors, with different subfamilies ( celtic, germanic, etc. ) being slightly different shades of green. i also tried to use similar colors for languages from the same geographical region even when there is no known genetic relationship among them, and so arawakan, quechuan, tucanoan languages ( all from south america ) are shades of purple, while central and north american languages are shades of blue. - clicking on a language opens a new tab or window with the documentation page for the iso 639 - 3 language identifier where you ' ll find a name for the language in english and a link to its ethnologue page for additional information. - what i ' m calling \" languages \" are really \" writing systems \" ; you ' ll see, for example, separate nodes for bo ( tibetan ) and bo - latn ( tibetan written in latin script ). in a small number of cases i track macrolanguages, regional variants ( e. g. en, en - ie, en - za ), and some dialects. in total, there are 919 distinct iso 639 - 3 codes among the 1000 writing systems represented. the gory details everything is based on an analysis of three character sequences ( \" 3 - grams \" ) in the different languages. it turns out that computing the statistics of 3 - grams in a given language provides a \" fingerprint \" that can be used for language identification and a number of other applications. specifically, imagine the huge - dimensional vector space v", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.536221974590049, "token_count": 511, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:52.436225"} {"text": "in the different languages. it turns out that computing the statistics of 3 - grams in a given language provides a \" fingerprint \" that can be used for language identification and a number of other applications. specifically, imagine the huge - dimensional vector space v whose axes are labelled with all possible 3 - grams of unicode characters ( dim v > 1015 ). given a collection of texts in a language, you can compute the frequencies of all 3 - grams that appear in the collection, defining a ( sparse ) vector in v \" representing \" the language. we then define the distance between two languages to be the angle between their representative vectors in v. this can be computed by scaling the vectors to unit length and computing their dot product ( which is the cosine of the angle we want ). once we know the distance between each pair of languages, we can reconstruct a phylogenetic tree using any of a number of well - known algorithms. the image above was created using the so - called \" neighbor - joining \" algorithm ( which basically builds the tree in a greedy, bottom - up way ). a side - effect of the algorithm is that each edge in the tree is assigned a length, but note that the edge lengths in the rendered image have nothing to do with the computed edge lengths ( indeed, it ' s unlikely that the tree can be rendered in a distance - preserving way in two dimensions ). another side - effect of the algorithm is that the tree is connected \u2013 by definition, all languages are within a bounded distance of each other \u2013 and so near the root of the tree you ' ll see various languages which use completely different scripts joined in a more - or - less random fashion ( khmer, georgian, tamil, cherokee, etc. ). it would be easy enough to tweak the distance function or the algorithm to render languages with different scripts as separate connected components. how many languages are out there? ethnologue lists 6909 living languages in the world, but how many have some presence on the web? the answer depends greatly on what kinds of documents you include. if one takes linguistic studies into account, the number might be as high as 4000 \u2013 the open language archives community ( olac ) brings together data from linguistic archives all over the world into a single, searchable interface. the olac coverage page shows, at present, the existence of online resources for 3930 of the 6909 ethnologue languages, with more material coming online every day. the amazing odin project harvests examples of interlinear", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5752036783107723, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:52.437206"} {"text": "##able interface. the olac coverage page shows, at present, the existence of online resources for 3930 of the 6909 ethnologue languages, with more material coming online every day. the amazing odin project harvests examples of interlinear glossed text from linguistic papers, and has over 1250 languages in its database. the 1000 languages found by my web crawler are, for the most part, what you might call \" primary texts \" : newspapers, blog posts, wikipedia articles, bible translations, etc. my best guess at present is that around 1500 languages have primary texts of this kind on the web. if you know of online resources written in a language that ' s not listed on our status page, please let me know in the comments. here are a couple of closely - related ( but ill - defined ) questions : first, \" how many of the 6909 languages have a writing system? \" and second, since a great number of the texts we ' ve found are bible translations or other evangelical works, one might ask \" how many languages have a writing system that ' s used regularly by members of the speaker community? \" i ' ve looked around a bit for answers to these questions but i haven ' t found any careful studies in the literature. mash it up! first, i ' d like to thank the hundreds of people who have contributed to the project over the years by providing training texts in many of the languages, correcting errors in the language identification, editing word lists, and helping separate different dialects / orthographies. you ' ll find many of their names on the project status page. thanks also to michael cysouw who first suggested generating an image of this kind ( you can find his image, created in 2005, on the main project page ). finally, thanks to my colleagues at twitter for several helpful conversations and for their interest in the indigenous tweets project.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5131002907871625, "token_count": 390, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:52.438089"} {"text": "research and innovation that is occurring at intermountain medical center on a daily basis, \u201d says david grauer, ceo / administrator of the hospital. \u201c we \u2019 re very proud to be able to support this kind of work that will lead to significant advancements in the way care is delivered to patients. \u201d currently, there are more than 500 clinical trials underway at intermountain medical center. the smart tray is the latest in a long list of inventions by dr. ehrenkranz, who has developed several drugs and medical devices. one recent example is a simple, inexpensive test for iodine deficiency. the test, featured in the february edition of the journal thyroid, works like a home pregnancy test, eliminating the need for labs and technicians. it ' s being used in developing nations to diagnose newborns with iodine deficiency and begin treatment, preventing major public health problems such as goiter. dr. ehrenkranz is a graduate of stanford school of medicine and has served on the medical staffs of hospitals on the east coast, colorado, and arizona. he is the holder of seven patents and is widely published in the field of endocrinology. he has served in roles with the u. s. food and drug administration and the national institutes of health, as well as several professional organizations. dr. ehrenkranz, md, and a handful of other scientists, were recently honored by the university of utah for their inventions and contributions to advancing science in the state of utah.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_entanglement", "similarity_score": 0.5072417318394075, "token_count": 303, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:52.442736"} {"text": "boston, ma ( ivanhoe newswire ) - - new research aims to give doctors a unique view inside the human body using a remote - controlled capsule which could find a problem and treat it. a miniaturized doctor and his team swim through a human body to save a life in the sci - fi classic fantastic voyage. decades later, a new swimming pill could give doctors a new way to save lives. noby hata, co - inventor of the swimming endoscopic capsule, told ivanhoe, \" this capsule can stop or move or aim at the disease lesions so you can actually try to cure the lesion. \" the capsule is designed to be swallowed like a pill. doctors will be able to control the camera magnetically from outside using an mri machine \u2019 s magnetic signals. there is a coil to induce the current remotely. hata says the mri works much like a gps. \" you will see the cross section of the body and also the little capsule in the middle and you can navigate this capsule using this map as guidance. \" so far, he \u2019 s successfully tested a prototype of the capsule in a fish tank inside an mri machine. the goal is to one day be able to deliver drugs or laser treatments directly to tumors or injuries in the digestive track. dr. kunal jajoo, associate physician in the department of medicine at brigham and women \u2019 s hospital believes this could change the way colonoscopies are performed. \" it \u2019 s an amazing advance to be able to steer something that small within the body and really direct it to areas that might need therapy or biopsy or the like. \"", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5166336013029571, "token_count": 329, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:52.447058"} {"text": "the bone marrow is the principal source of the many different types of cells that circulate in your blood stream. the term \u201c myelodysplasia \u201c describes certain abnormalities in the production of these blood cells. \u201c myelodysplastic syndrome \u201d ( mds ) refer to at least five different entities, all of which interfere with the growth of blood cells in the bone marrow. the differences among them are found in the appearance of the cells under the microscope and are helpful primarily in determining prognosis. mds frequently progresses to a form of acute leukemia. leukemia is a cancer of the blood cells. but in the case of leukemia, there is an overproduction of immature cells ( blasts ) circulating in the blood and an underproduction of healthy cells. in mds, there is usually, but not always, only an underproduction of healthy cells. the progression to acute leukemia is so common that mds used to be known as \u201c preleukemia. \u201d the bone marrow contains stem cells, which have the capacity to become any of the cell types that circulate in the blood stream. these stem cells normally undergo a maturation process that results in mature cells with fixed functions : - red blood cells carry oxygen. - three types of granulocytes ( a type of white blood cell ) carry out immune functions. - two types of lymphocytes ( a type of white blood cell ) carry out immune functions. - macrophages and monocytes help us fight infection. - platelets provide a defense against bleeding and bruising. once cells have matured in the bone marrow, they are released into the blood circulation. mds interrupts the normal maturation process of blood cells. who is affected? roughly 3, 000 new cases of mds occur yearly in the united states. a similar rate of 1 to 10 per 100, 000 people occurs in the rest of the developed nations. cases without a known cause are most frequently found in older males, usually between 70 and 80 years of age ; among this group, the rate rises to 25 per 100, 000 people. the incidence of mds among younger populations is rising. this is partially due to the success of chemotherapy and radiation in treating and eradicating other forms of cancer since these therapies increase the risk of developing mds. causes and complications the exact cause of mds is unclear, but certain factors are believed to increase risk. these include radiation for the treatment of cancer, certain drugs and chemicals, genetic factors, and some birth", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.504003546092917, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:52.458297"} {"text": "if your child is diagnosed with cancer, it may feel as though you went to bed one night and woke up in an alternate universe. suddenly there are all these new words \u2014 oncology, chemotherapy, radiation \u2014 not to mention a slew of new fears and emotions. now the doctor is saying your child ' s immune system isn ' t strong enough for him or her to go to school or even visit family. if that ' s the case, chances are it ' s because your child has developed a condition called neutropenia. neutropenia is when the body has abnormally low levels of certain white blood cells ( called neutrophils ), the body ' s main defense against infection. other problems with the immune system caused by the cancer and its treatment vary among patients, but they also can be important reasons to avoid crowds of people that may expose your child to viruses. a weakened immune system when a germ enters the body, a healthy immune system springs into action, sending an army of neutrophils to the area to attack. the next time those same germs enter the body, the immune system will \" remember \" them and try to head them off before they can cause any serious trouble. someone with cancer, though, commonly has fewer neutrophils patrolling the body. in some cases, that ' s because the cancer itself damages the bone marrow, the spongy material inside the bones where all new blood cells \u2014 including neutrophils \u2014 are made. ( this is especially common with cancers like leukemia and lymphoma. ) other times it may be the cancer treatments themselves that are doing the damage. both chemotherapy ( powerful cancer - fighting drugs ) and radiation ( high - energy x - rays ) work by killing the fastest - growing cells in the body \u2014 both bad and good. that means that along with cancer cells, healthy blood cells, like neutrophils, often get destroyed too. with fewer neutrophils, a person is more prone to infection. even things the body would normally be able to fight off without much trouble, like skin infections or ear infections, become much more serious and long - lasting when a person is in a neutropenic state. that ' s why it ' s important to call the doctor right away if your child has a fever, shaking or chills, or any mouth or skin sores, which may be signs of infection. fortunately, doctors can use a blood test called an absolute neut", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5010846024105695, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:52.494132"} {"text": "\" kissine offers a new theory of speech acts which is philosophically sophisticated and builds on work in cognitive science, formal semantics, and linguistic typology. this highly readable, brilliant essay is a major contribution to the field. \" date : mon, 23 feb 2004 12 : 02 : 10 + 0100 from : cornelia tschichold < cornelia. tschichold @ unine. ch > subject : world englishes authors : melchers, gunnel ; shaw, philip title : world englishes series : the english language series publisher : arnold year : 2003 cornelia tschichold, institute of english, university of neuchatel, switzerland introduction this book is a recent addition to the growing number of textbooks on varieties of english around the world. in the preface, the two authors, both from stockholm university, describe the intended audience of the book as readers familiar with the basics of linguistics and phonetics, thus typically undergraduate students after their first year at a department of english, with english either as their native or a second or foreign language. the book has an accompanying cd, which is sold separately and therefore does not figure in this review. synopsis chapter 1 is a very short chapter on the history of english from 450 to the beginnings of modern english. the development of the language is illustrated mainly through the most accessible aspect, its loanwords. chapter 2 covers the more recent history of english, when the language spread around the globe, first to the so - called ' inner circle ' countries, later to the ' outer circle ' and finally to the ' expanding circle '. this three - circle model by kachru is adopted as the organizing principle for the book. the chapter also introduces the distinction often made between english as a second and english as a foreign language, while drawing attention to the problems of terminology and those of differing political viewpoints involved. chapter 3 discusses basic terms in language variation and provides the framework for the classification and description of the many varieties discussed in chapters 4 to 6. the authors divide variation into the areas of spelling, phonology, grammar and lexicon, and give a brief overview of the main types of variation in each area. for the description of phonology, wells ' standard lexical sets are introduced. the section on rhythm and intonation explains the concept of stress - times vs. syllable - timed rhythm and mentions high - rising terminals as the most striking phenomena in the area of intonation. the sections on lexis and on the historical origin of varieties introduce a large", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5622080378749761, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:52.526284"} {"text": ", and the authors should be praised for trying to combine most of the relevant sociolinguistic aspects with a large number of linguistic descriptions of individual varieties in a relatively small book. apart from the style, most of my criticism therefore relates to details of content. a number of sections in the book seem to be the result of compromises of various kinds : one might argue, for example, about the usefulness of a very short chapter on the roots of english, or whether such a a book is the best place for contemplating the influence of english on other languages via borrowing. possibly these pages might have been put to better use. one of my quibbles concerns the notoriously difficult problem of the translations or glosses, which have not received the necessary attention to detail. dialectal variation is illustrated with a geordie poem ( \" a hev gorra bairn / an a hev gorra wife / an a cannit see me bairn or wife / workin in the night \" ), where the word ' gorra ' is claimed to stand for the local pronunciation of ' got to ' ( p. 13 ). generally, the maps in the book are often not very useful as they do not show all areas mentioned in the text and do not distinguish between cities and provinces. to give just one example, among the dialects of england discussed in the text are those of leeds, derby, west wirral and norwich, but only leeds can be found on one of the maps. one might also wonder about the necessity of listing statistics on area, population and capital for the countries discussed, given that such data can easily be found elsewhere and is of questionable relevance in this context. within the descriptions of the individual varieties, spelling, a very accessible aspect, is not systematically commented on, e. g. south asian english is said to be \" spelt in the british style \", but british english does not have a section on spelling. in the more extensive section on phonology most of the comparisons of the lexical sets are clearly useful and could have been extended, e. g. it would have been interesting to see the australian vowels compared not just to rp, but also to american english vowels. in addition to the concept of lexical sets, much of the data used by the authors comes from wells as well, which often seems a needless repetition, especially where even the examples are taken straight from wells ( 1982 ), a study in three volumes based on data which is now more than a generation old. on", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5152617549863183, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:52.530138"} {"text": "cheshire ( 1991 ) and allerton et al ( 2002 ) finally are edited collections of papers that provide accessible further reading on a range of subtopics on world englishes. writing a relatively short textbook of such a scope is a very big bite to chew, and while i would like to congratulate the authors on their choice of content, i wish they had chosen a different style for the book and spent more time on revision and ensuring internal consistency. references allerton, d. j., skandera, p. and tschichold, c., eds. ( 2002 ). perspectives on english as a world language. basel : schwabe. bauer, l. ( 2002 ). an introduction to international varieties of english. edinburgh university press. brutt - griffler, j. ( 2002 ). world english : a study of its development. multilingual matters. cheshire, j., ed. ( 1991 ). english around the world : sociolinguistic perspectives. cambridge up. crystal, d. ( 1995 ). the cambridge encyclopedia of the english language. cambridge up. crystal, d. ( 1997 ). english as a global language. cambridge university press. jenkins, j. ( 2003 ). world englishes : a resource book for students. routledge. trudgill, p. & j. hannah ( 1994, 3rd ed. ). international english : a guide to the varieties of standard english. arnold. wells, j. c. ( 1982 ). accents of english, vols i - iii. cambridge university press. about the reviewer : about the reviewer cornelia tschichold teaches english linguistics at neuchatel university. while her research interests focus on english phraseology, computational lexicography and computer - assisted language learning, she teaches a wide range of courses in english linguistics, including courses on sociolinguistics, the history of english, and varieties of english around the world.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5148172799250839, "token_count": 396, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:52.533340"} {"text": "daughter may be exchanged for a girl who can be exchanged in turn for a wife for any member of the family ) : under the same system, one is obliged to provide a male with a female to exchange for a wife ; and permitting an unmarried father custody of his male children would probably depend rather on the existing ratio of unmarried males to unmarried females in the mother ' s compound, or on the desire of senior males to take additional wives, perhaps. hdg / as the conclusion to be drawn from all this it is suggested that the dual form of marriage, while so long - standing in the northern villages as to be fundamental to the social system, was not a primeval and unchangeable custom, but only a compromise evolved - as the result of a fight against the unsatisfactory features of exchange marriage - from an earlier system in which no other form of marriage existed. pp539 - 40. exchange marriage : certain practices were noted among the southern villages which dr meek does not actually mention : ( a ) a woman who is a proved child - bearer is ( or was ) sometimes exchanged for another woman plus money, or rather plus hoes, which were formerly the only currency ; ( b ) a woman may be exchanged for the refusal of a girl, or, on the principle of the bird in the hand, of two girls ; ( c ) re - exchange is regular during the negotiations for a marriage, and a long chain of exchanges of brides and prospective brides may be set up, but once marriage is consummated the wife is not again exchanged. bride - price : the majority of men state that their wives were obtained by purchase, not exchange, and it looks as though a system of bride - price of the common ( moslem ) type ( i. e. where the father, not the mother, has custody of the children ) is coming into existence. for instance, it was said at gembu that exchange had been rare for over 30 years, yet al the families were undoubtedly patrilocal. possibly the patrilocal bride - price system is an extension of the marriage with a purchased slave which dr meek mentions. it was evidently common in the past and is probably so now, for a girl married by bride - price, if she had borne no children within a year or two, to be reclaimed by the parents and given in exchange elsewhere. custody of children : enquiries went to show that the vast majority of children now reside in the father ' s house, despite the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5152759509400433, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:52.558185"} {"text": "( ara ) - traditionally, the term \u201c war zone \u201d elicits images of tanks, gunfire and military personnel. however, as technology evolves, so do the weapons associated with the art of warfare. most recently, the battleground has moved online, with the introduction of a new computer malware threat known as \u201c flame. \u201d flame steals information from e - operations of certain nation states \u2013 making it a vital threat to both governments and military units. based on the way flame works, it can be classified as a \u201c cyber weapon, \u201d according to kaspersky lab, a russian anti - virus firm. web attacks cost businesses $ 114 billion each year, according to a 2011 study conducted by symantec. and as more business, government and military institutions store classified information online, the probability of an attempted attack by these new forms of cyber - weaponry increases. given the likelihood for future security breaches, the need for professionals with the skills required to protect those at risk for such forms of online espionage is amplifying. the u. s. bureau of labor statistics occupational outlook handbook reports that by the year 2020, demand for cyber security experts will increase by 28 percent. much like the way the military and police serve and protect our country and its citizens, cyber security experts play a crucial role in protecting an institution \u2019 s network and information from attacks. these professionals, known as computer forensics experts, also analyze the electronic evidence, and in some cases identify and serve as expert witnesses to help prosecute the criminals responsible. bachelor \u2019 s degree programs such as computer information systems ( cis ) help prepare students for this role. many programs allow students to concentrate their studies in a variety of cyber security specialties. for example, students focusing on computer forensics will learn the skills necessary to handle the electronic evidence of criminal cases and how to identify and prosecute criminals. at devry university, students enrolled in the computer information systems bachelor \u2019 s degree program can pursue a cyber security specialization in computer forensics that allows them to gain understanding of the diversity of computer crime, and the laws and principals concerned with computer forensics and electronic evidence. they also learn how to discover data that resides in a computer system, and how to recover deleted, encrypted or damaged file information. \u201c technical knowledge is only one piece of the skillset puzzle for cyber security practitioners, \u201d says dr. ahmed naumaan, national dean for the college of engineering & information sciences at devry university. \u201c creativity and the ability to think outside the box play a", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5381876569441746, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:52.625188"} {"text": "what do we really know about creativity? very little. we know that creative genius is not the same thing as intelligence. in fact, beyond a certain minimum iq threshold \u2013 about one standard deviation above average, or an iq of 115 \u2013 there is no correlation at all between intelligence and creativity. we know that creativity is empirically correlated with mood - swing disorders. a couple of decades ago, harvard researchers found that people showing \u2018 exceptional creativity \u2019 \u2013 which they put at fewer than 1 per cent of the population \u2013 were more likely to suffer from manic - depression or to be near relatives of manic - depressives. as for the psychological mechanisms behind creative genius, those remain pretty much a mystery. about the only point generally agreed on is that, as pinker put it, \u2018 geniuses are wonks. \u2019 they work hard ; they immerse themselves in their genre. could this immersion have something to do with stocking the memory? as an instructive case of creative genius, consider the french mathematician henri poincare, who died in 1912. poincare \u2019 s genius was distinctive in that it embraced nearly the whole of mathematics, from pure ( number theory ) to applied ( celestial mechanics ). along with his german coeval david hilbert, poincare was the last of the universalists. his powers of intuition enabled him to see deep connections between seemingly remote branches of mathematics. he virtually created the modern field of topology, framing the \u2018 poincare conjecture \u2019 for future generations to grapple with, and he beat einstein to the mathematics of special relativity. unlike many geniuses, poincare was a man of great practical prowess ; as a young engineer he conducted on - the - spot diagnoses of mining disasters. he was also a lovely prose stylist who wrote bestselling works on the philosophy of science ; he is the only mathematician ever inducted into the literary section of the institut de france. what makes poincare such a compelling case is that his breakthroughs tended to come in moments of sudden illumination. one of the most remarkable of these was described in his essay \u2018 mathematical creation \u2019. poincare had been struggling for some weeks with a deep issue in pure mathematics when he was obliged, in his capacity as mine inspector, to make a geological excursion. \u2018 the changes of travel made me forget my mathematical work, \u2019 he recounted. having reached coutances, we entered an omnibus to go some place or other. at the moment i put my foot on the step the idea came", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5205476708740284, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:52.644153"} {"text": "geological excursion. \u2018 the changes of travel made me forget my mathematical work, \u2019 he recounted. having reached coutances, we entered an omnibus to go some place or other. at the moment i put my foot on the step the idea came to me, without anything in my former thoughts seeming to have paved the way for it, that the transformations i had used to define the fuchsian functions were identical with those of non - euclidean geometry. i did not verify the idea ; i should not have had time, as, upon taking my seat in the omnibus, i went on with a conversation already commenced, but i felt a perfect certainty. on my return to caen, for conscience \u2019 s sake, i verified the result at my leisure. how to account for the full - blown epiphany that struck poincare in the instant that his foot touched the step of the bus? his own conjecture was that it had arisen from unconscious activity in his memory. \u2018 the role of this unconscious work in mathematical invention appears to me incontestable, \u2019 he wrote. \u2018 these sudden inspirations \u2026 never happen except after some days of voluntary effort which has appeared absolutely fruitless. \u2019 the seemingly fruitless effort fills the memory banks with mathematical ideas \u2013 ideas that then become \u2018 mobilised atoms \u2019 in the unconscious, arranging and rearranging themselves in endless combinations, until finally the \u2018 most beautiful \u2019 of them makes it through a \u2018 delicate sieve \u2019 into full consciousness, where it will then be refined and proved. poincare was a modest man, not least about his memory, which he called \u2018 not bad \u2019 in the essay. in fact, it was prodigious. \u2018 in retention and recall he exceeded even the fabulous euler, \u2019 one biographer declared. ( euler, the most prolific mathematician of all \u2013 the constant e takes his initial \u2013 was reputedly able to recite the aeneid from memory. ) poincare read with incredible speed, and his spatial memory was such that he could remember the exact page and line of a book where any particular statement had been made. his auditory memory was just as well developed, perhaps owing to his poor eyesight. in school, he was able to sit back and absorb lectures without taking notes despite being unable to see the blackboard. it is the connection between memory and creativity, perhaps, which should make us most wary of the web. \u2018 as our use of the web makes it harder for us to lock information into our biological memory,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5763846696307225, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:52.650632"} {"text": "this function unlocks a region in an open file. unlocking a region enables other processes to access the region. bool unlockfileex ( handle hfile, dword dwreserved, dword nnumberofbytestolocklow, dword nnumberofbytestolockhigh, lpoverlapped lpoverlapped ) ; [ in ] handle to a file that contains a region locked by the lockfileex function. the file handle must have been created with the generic _ read or generic _ write access right. reserved. set to zero. [ in ] low - order portion of the length of the byte range to unlock. [ in ] high - order portion of the length of the byte range to unlock. [ in ] pointer to an overlapped structure that is used with the unlock request. this structure contains the file offset of the beginning of the unlock range. nonzero indicates success. zero indicates failure. for extended error information, call getlasterror. unlocking a region of a file releases a previously acquired lock on the file. the region to unlock must correspond exactly to an existing locked region. two adjacent regions of a file cannot be locked separately and then unlocked using a single region that spans both locked regions. if a process terminates with a portion of a file locked or closes a file that has outstanding locks, the locks are unlocked by the os. however, the time it takes for the os to unlock these locks depends upon available system resources. therefore, explicitly unlock all locked files when a process ends. otherwise, access to these files can be denied if the os has not yet unlocked them.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5080974504879617, "token_count": 338, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:52.669792"} {"text": "both devices rely on injectable solutions of radiopharmaceuticals, which are drugs that are labeled with radioactive isotopes. as the solution circulates throughout the body, it tends to accumulate in malignant cells. the congregated radiopharmaceuticals emit gamma - rays, which are sensed as light by the devices and then converted into electronic signals that can be rendered as a visible image. \" what we will be looking to do is develop minimally invasive instrumentation, \" keppel says. \" we want to be able to locate and diagnose cancers more effectively. everything coming out of the center, at least in the immediate future, will be focused on finding better ways to locate or image those radiopharmaceuticals. \" eastern virginia medical school ( evms ) in norfolk will be joining with cami to establish a graduate program in medical physics. it will be the first such program in virginia, and the first in the country at an historically black college. any devices resulting from the collaboration will be evaluated both nationally and in clinical programs conducted at tidewater - area hospitals. keppel is in the process of writing proposals that would fund center personnel in medical physics, engineering and applied technology. in addition to five students and two part - time administrative assistants, keppel expects up to 10 individuals from hampton university, the lab, and evms to staff cami. \" we pool expertise in one place and we get the word out, \" she says. \" the idea is to become an international resource for medical physics and to invite physicians, companies and patient advocacy groups to partner with us. \" groundbreaking for a new cami research facility on campus at hampton university is scheduled for later this spring. when complete in 2003, the center will enclose 12, 000 square feet in two stories, housing primarily research labs contact : linda ware doe / thomas jefferson national accelerator facility", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5738488322488382, "token_count": 387, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:52.724734"} {"text": "using voting records, the researchers found out political party affiliation for 35 of the men and 47 of the women in that study. political parties aren ' t a perfect match with ideology, but they come very close, the researchers wrote feb. 13 in the journal plos one. most democrats hold liberal values, while most republicans hold conservative values. comparing the democrat and republican participants turned up differences in two brain regions : the right amygdala and the left posterior insula. republicans showed more activity than democrats in the right amygdala when making a risky decision. this brain region is important for processing fear, risk and reward. meanwhile, democrats showed more activity in the left posterior insula, a portion of the brain responsible for processing emotions, particularly visceral emotional cues from the body. the particular region of the insula that showed the heightened activity has also been linked with \" theory of mind, \" or the ability to understand what others might be thinking. while their brain activity differed, the two groups ' behaviors were identical, the study found. schreiber and his colleagues can ' t say whether the functional brain differences nudge people toward a particular ideology or not. the brain changes based on how it is used, so it is possible that acting in a partisan way prompts the differences. the functional differences did mesh well with political beliefs, however. the researchers were able to predict a person ' s political party by looking at their brain function 82. 9 percent of the time. in comparison, knowing the structure of these regions predicts party correctly 71 percent of the time, and knowing someone ' s parents ' political affiliation can tell you theirs 69. 5 percent of the time, the researchers wrote. this article originally appeared on livescience. com. more from livescience. com :", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.508003670910289, "token_count": 364, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:52.737970"} {"text": "body, \u201d pfaff found that the nervous system protein gnrh promotes reproductive behavior as well as directing the pituitary to stimulate the ovaries and testes. this action of gnrh renders instinctive behaviors congruent with the physiology of reproductive organs elsewhere in the body pfaff \u2019 s lab subsequently discovered that gnrh - producing neurons are not actually born in the brain as other neurons are. instead, during embryonic development, they are born in the olfactory epithelium. once born, they migrate up the nose and into the forebrain. in humans, interruption of that migration, especially in men, causes a state in which the body does not produce adequate amounts of the sex hormone testosterone. this hypogonadal state is associated with a loss of libido. in 2003, pfaff received an nih merit award for the study of generalized arousal, responsible for activating all behavioral responses.. his team formulated the first operational definition of nervous system arousal, enabling scientists to measure arousal quantitatively in laboratory animals, as well as in human beings. in humans, deficits in arousal contribute to such cognitive problems as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, autism and alzheimer ' s disease. erosion of arousal also may account for some of the mental difficulties that people face as they age. understanding generalized arousal may help scientists develop pharmacological methods to enhance alertness during the day and sleep at night. analyzing the mechanisms of arousal may also lead to a more precise anesthesiology. pfaff has made fundamental contributions to our understanding of how the administration of sex hormones can affect health. pfaff \u2019 s lab recently showed that giving hormone doses in pulses, rather than as a steady exposure, may maximize the benefits and limit the side effects now associated with hormone therapies. by giving estrogen replacement to the rats, the scientists studied the actions of the hormone at the level of the brain cell ' s protective outer membrane, and inside the nucleus where the cell ' s dna is housed. they found that both the membrane and the dna pathways are crucial, with one facilitating the other, in triggering hormone - dependent gene expression and female mating behavior. by limiting the estrogen exposure of to short pulses, the total dose can be kept much smaller than with steady delivery, and therefore some of the negative effects will be reduced. born in rochester, n. y., on december 9, 1939, he received the a. b. degree magna cum laude from harvard college in", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5212502926883106, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:52.954272"} {"text": "be kept much smaller than with steady delivery, and therefore some of the negative effects will be reduced. born in rochester, n. y., on december 9, 1939, he received the a. b. degree magna cum laude from harvard college in 1961 and a ph. d. from the massachusetts institute of technology in 1965. he held a national merit scholarship, harvard national scholarship, woodrow wilson fellowship, mit president ' s award fellowship, national institutes of health predoctoral fellowship and national science foundation postdoctoral fellowship. pfaff joined the rockefeller university in 1966 as a postdoctoral fellow. he was named assistant professor in 1969, associate professor in 1971, granted tenure in 1973 and promoted to full professor in 1978. he is a member of the u. s. national academy of sciences and a fellow of the american academy of arts and sciences. he also is a member of several scientific organizations related to studies of the central nervous system. he is the author of estrogens and brain function ( springer, 1980 ), drive : neurobiological and molecular mechanisms of sexual motivation ( mit press, 1999 ), brain arousal and information theory ( harvard university press, 2005 ) and the neuroscience of fair play : why we ( usually ) follow the golden rule ( dana press, 2007 ). he has edited the physiological bases of motivation ( 1982 ), ethical questions in brain and behavior ( 1984 ), genetic influences on the nervous system ( crc press, 1999 ) and hormones, brain and behavior ( 5 volumes, academic press, 2002 ). he also is on the editorial boards of several scientific journals. pfaff and his first wife, the poet stephanie strickland, have three children : robin ( palo alto, calif. ), alexander ( new york, n. y. ) and douglas ( new york, n. y. ).", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5083321482080316, "token_count": 372, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:52.955293"} {"text": "invasion of privacy the right of privacy is a common - law ( court - made ) cause of action that is a fairly new legal development. the u. s. constitution contains no direct references to the right of privacy. there are few statutes that affect privacy and most invasion of privacy lawsuits that publishers may face are of the common - law type. an action for invasion of privacy is actually comprised of four distinct torts ( legal wrongs ). these are : intrusion upon seclusion ; appropriation of name or likeness ; publicity given to private life ; and publicity placing the person in a false light. each separate cause of action is addressed below. note : to sue successfully for invasion of privacy, a plaintiff only has to prove one of the four torts, not all of the four torts. the right of privacy competes with the freedom of the press as well as the interest of the public in the free dissemination of news and information, and these permanent public interests must be considered when placing the necessary limitations upon the right of privacy. pennsylvania courts have held that an action based on such right must not become a vehicle for establishment of a judicial censorship of the press. back to top. intrusion upon seclusion one who intentionally intrudes, physically or otherwise, upon the solitude or seclusion of another or his private affairs or concerns, is subject to liability to the other for invasion of his privacy, if the intrusion would be highly offensive to a reasonable person. to be liable for intrusion upon seclusion, the plaintiff must prove the following elements : 1. invasion of a secluded place or privacy : the defendant ( the offender ) must invade the plaintiff ' s ( the person suing ) personal or private space. the definition of this invasion is very broad. invasion may be : by physical intrusion into a place where the plaintiff has secluded himself. by use of the defendant ' s senses to oversee or overhear the plaintiff ' s private affairs ( such as eavesdropping or spying with a telescope ), or some other form of investigation or examination into plaintiff ' s private concerns ( such as illegally obtaining someone ' s credit report ). 2. objectionable intrusion : the intrusion must be of a type that would be highly offensive to the ordinary reasonable person. 3. invasion of private affairs or matters : the interference with the plaintiff ' s privacy must be substantial ( however, if the event reported occurs in public, there is no expectation of privacy ). examples of intrusion upon privacy include placing microphones or cameras in someone ' s bedroom or hacking into their computer.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5030746297266315, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:52.985365"} {"text": "with the plaintiff ' s privacy must be substantial ( however, if the event reported occurs in public, there is no expectation of privacy ). examples of intrusion upon privacy include placing microphones or cameras in someone ' s bedroom or hacking into their computer. however, where the information that is reported pertains to the public interest as well as a party ' s private interest, that individual ' s right of privacy will be weighed against the public interest. if the event being reported is in the public interest ( a newsworthy event ), it will, in all likelihood, be immune to an invasion of privacy lawsuit. an example of this would be a car accident. although it involves the personal affairs of a few people ( or even only one person ), the accident is reportable because it is a newsworthy event. therefore, a person cannot sue a newspaper for invasion of privacy over a story about a car accident that includes the driver ' s name. photographs taken in public are also not violative of one ' s privacy. back to top. appropriation of name or likeness appropriation of name or likeness occurs when someone appropriates the name or likeness of another for their own use or benefit. action for misappropriation of right of publicity protects against commercial loss caused by appropriation of an individual ' s personality for commercial exploitation. it gives the individual exclusive right to control the commercial value of his or her name and likeness to prevent others from exploiting that value without permission. it is similar to a trademark action with the person ' s likeness, rather than the trademark, being the subject of the protection. courts have denied plaintiffs lawsuits unless there is a finding that the defendant obtains an economic benefit from using the plaintiff ' s name. additionally, the courts are unlikely to find that there has been an appropriation of the plaintiff ' s likeness unless the unauthorized use was part of an advertisement or a promotion. if such an appropriation is for a newsworthy event, the person ' s right to privacy is not violated. an example of this is if a photograph of someone patronizing a new restaurant is published as part of a story publicizing the opening of the restaurant. the patron cannot sue the newspaper for appropriation of name or likeness because the photograph is being used for a newsworthy event. however, if a store is using someone ' s picture to advertise a new line of clothes, and they have not received permission from that person to use the picture, that person ' s likeness has been wrongly appropriated. back to top. publicity given to", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5056042572103483, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:52.988632"} {"text": "an ordinary person. because of this lessened expectancy of privacy, a newspaper can publish a biography of a public figure without fear of being sued for invasion of privacy. no permission is needed to do such a story. additionally, the newspaper can include some facts that would otherwise be an invasion of privacy for a person who is not a public figure. care must be taken that these otherwise private facts are within the scope of the story. examples of these facts would be a public figure ' s familial background, associates, or specific events in their life that shape them into the person that they are, or that shed light as to their guilt or innocence. public figures ( those persons who, by their accomplishments or place in life, give the public a legitimate interest in their affairs, such as politicians, professional athletes, and even personal injury claimants ) face a somewhat lessened right to privacy because more of their actions are of legitimate public concern than they would be if the public figure were an ordinary person. because of this lessened expectancy of privacy, a newspaper can publish a biography of a public figure without fear of being sued for invasion of privacy. no permission is needed to do such a story. additionally, the newspaper can include some facts that would otherwise be an invasion of privacy for a person who is not a public figure. care must be taken that these otherwise private facts are within the scope of the story. examples of these facts would be a public figure ' s familial background, associates, or specific events in their life that shape them into the person that they are, or that shed light as to their guilt or innocence. back to top. publicity placing the person in a false light one who gives publicity to a matter concerning another that places the other before the public in a false light is subject to liability to the other for invasion of his privacy if the false light in which the other was placed would be highly offensive to a reasonable person. examples include a newspaper publishing an innocent person ' s picture as part of a story about convicted felons or including reporting that someone was involved in a domestic dispute when, in fact, there was no such dispute. publicly placing a person in a false light also includes falsely stating someone ' s views, such as saying that someone is a member of the ku klux klan. an important exception is when the published matter is in the public interest ( newsworthy ), such as an item dealing with an accident or the background of a candidate for public office. when the published matter is in", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5229493494004641, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:52.991980"} {"text": "this site is used for testing new functionality and bug fixes. things may not always work the way you expect. for the production site, please go to http : / / www. pdb. org looking at structures : dealing with coordinates the primary information stored in the pdb archive consists of coordinate files for biological molecules. these files list the atoms in each protein, and their 3d location in space. these files are available in several formats ( pdb, mmcif, xml ). a typical pdb formatted file includes a large \" header \" section of text that summarizes the protein, citation information, and the details of the structure solution, followed by the sequence and a long list of the atoms and their coordinates. the archive also contains the experimental observations that are used to determine these atomic coordinates. when you start exploring the structures in the pdb archive, you will need to know a few things about coordinate files. major topics are included here. atoms and hetatms a typical pdb format file will contain atomic coordinates for a diverse collection of proteins, small molecules, ions and water. each atom is entered as a line of information that starts with a keyword : either atom or hetatm. by tradition, the atom keyword is used to identify proteins or nucleic acid atoms, and keyword hetatm is used to identify atoms in small molecules. following this keyword, there is a list of information about the atom, including its name, its number in the file, the name and number of the residue it belongs to, one letter to specify the chain ( in oligomeric proteins ), its x, y, and z coordinates, and an occupancy and temperature factor ( described in more detail below ). this information gives you a lot of control when exploring the structure. for instance, most molecular graphics programs enable you to color identified portions of the molecule selectively - - for example, to pick out all of the carbon atoms and color them green, or to pick one particular amino acid and highlight it. the left image shows myoglobin ( pdb entry 1mbo ) using the default representation in mbt protein workshop. it shows a ribbon diagram for the protein, and ball - and - stick for the small molecules. in the right image, we have changed the representation to show all atoms, using the information in each atom record to color the molecules differently. this clearly shows the heme group in bright red, and a bound oxygen molecule in turquoise. tip : by default,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5631324092951466, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:53.010300"} {"text": "right image, we have changed the representation to show all atoms, using the information in each atom record to color the molecules differently. this clearly shows the heme group in bright red, and a bound oxygen molecule in turquoise. tip : by default, many molecular graphics programs do not display the water positions in a pdb file, even though they are often important to the function and interaction of biological molecules. most of these programs have a way to display them, if you use their methods for atom selection. chains and models biological molecules are hierarchical, building from atoms to residues to chains to assemblies. coordinate files contain ways to organize and specify molecules at all of these levels. as described above, the atom names and residue information are included in each atom record. the higher - order information is identified by keywords that separate blocks of atom records, such as ter and model. protein and nucleic acid chains are specified by the ter keyword, as well as a one - letter designation in the coordinate records. the chains are included one after another in the file, separated by a ter record to indicate that the chains are not physically connected to each other. most molecular graphics programs look for this ter record so that they don ' t draw a bond to connect different chains. pdb format files use the model keyword to indicate multiple molecules in a single file. this was initially created to archive coordinate sets that include several different models of the same structure, like the structural ensembles obtained in nmr analysis. when you view these files, you will see dozens of similar molecules all superimposed. the model keyword is now also used in biological assembly files to separate the many symmetrical copies of the molecule that are generated from the asymmetric unit ( for more information, see the tutorial on biological assemblies ). two useful coloring schemes allow you to explore the different chains in any given pdb file. first, you may color each chain differently to show the packing of different chains in the molecule as shown in the bottom image. then, you can color each chain using a rainbow of colors from one end of the chain to the other to highlight its folding characteristics as shown at the top. both of these methods are available in most molecular graphics programs. the molecule shown here is hemolysin from pdb entry 7ahl. if we were able to hold an atom rigidly fixed in one place, we could observe its distribution of electrons in an ideal situation. the image would be dense towards the center with the density falling off further from the nucleus. when you look", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.567970618876947, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:53.013256"} {"text": "by the temperature factors. high values, indicating lots of motion, are in red and yellow, and low values are in blue. notice that the interior of the protein has low b - values and the amino acids on the surface have higher values. you can click on the picture for an interactive jmol view. tip : temperature factors are a measure of our confidence in the location of each atom. if you find an atom on the surface of a protein with a high temperature factor, keep in mind that this atom is probably moving a lot, and that the coordinates specified in the pdb file are only one possible snapshot of its location. occupancy and multiple conformations macromolecular crystals are composed of many individual molecules packed into a symmetrical arrangement. in some crystals, there are slight differences between each of these molecules. for instance, a sidechain on the surface may wag back and forth between several conformations, or a substrate may bind in two orientations in an active site, or a metal ion may be bound to only a few of the molecules. when researchers build the atomic model of these portions, they can use the occupancy to estimate the amount of each conformation that is observed in the crystal. for most atoms, the occupancy is given a value of 1, indicating that the atom is found in all of the molecules in the same place in the crystal. however, if a metal ion binds to only half of the molecules in the crystal, the researcher will see a weak image of the ion in the electron density map, and can assign an occupancy of 0. 5 in the pdb structure file for this atom. occupancies are also commonly used to identify sidechains or ligands that are observed in multiple conformations. the occupancy value is used to indicate the fraction of molecules that have each of the conformations. two ( or more ) atom records are included for each atom, with occupancies like 0. 5 and 0. 5, or 0. 4 and 0. 6, or other fractional occupancies that sum to a total of 1. the two images shown are taken from the high - resolution structure of myoglobin in entry 1a6m : glutamine 8 is on the left, and tyrosine 151 on the right. in both cases, the depositors interpreted the experimental data as showing two conformations of the amino acid, with occupancies of", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5719439950164931, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:53.017565"} {"text": "thinking and reasoning 2 ( 1 ) : 33 \u2013 49 ( 1996 ) | abstract | | we postulate the testing principle : that individuals ' ' act like statisticians ' ' when they face uncertainty in a decision problem, ranking alternatives to the extent that available evidence allows. the testing principle implies that completeness of preferences, rather than the sure - thing principle, is violated in the ellsberg paradox. in the experiment, subjects chose between risky and uncertain acts in modified ellsberg - type urn problems, with sample information about the uncertain urn. our results show, consistent with the testing principle, that the uncertain urn is chosen more often when the sample size is larger, holding constant a measure of ambiguity ( proportion of balls of unknown colour in the urn ). the testing principle rationalises the ellsberg paradox. behaviour consistent with the principle leads to a reduction in ellsberg - type violations as the statistical quality of sample information is improved, holding ambiguity constant. the testing principle also provides a normative rationale for the ellsberg paradox that is consistent with procedural rationality. | | keywords | | no keywords specified ( fix it ) | | through your library | | configure | similar books and articles edward e. schlee ( 1997 ). the sure thing principle and the value of information. theory and decision 42 ( 1 ) : 21 - 36. ronald n. giere ( 1970 ). an orthodox statistical resolution of the paradox of confirmation. philosophy of science 37 ( 3 ) : 354 - 362. patrick maher ( 1999 ). inductive logic and the ravens paradox. philosophy of science 66 ( 1 ) : 50 - 70. horacio arlo - costa & jeffrey helzner, iterated random selection as intermediate between risk and uncertainty. jeffrey helzner ( 2009 ). on the application of multiattribute utility theory to models of choice. theory and decision 66 ( 4 ) : 301 - 315. katie steele ( 2007 ). distinguishing indeterminate belief from \u201c risk - averse \u201d preferences. synthese 158 ( 2 ) : 189 - 205. horacio arlo - costa & jeffrey helzner ( 2010 ). ambiguity aversion : the explanatory power of indeterminate probabilities. synthese 172 ( 1 ). jurgen eichberger & david kelsey ( 1999 ). e - capacities and the ellsberg paradox. theory and decision 46 ( 2 ) : 107 - 138. pr", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_entanglement", "similarity_score": 0.6138171655302664, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:53.029253"} {"text": "an important discovery has been made with respect to the mystery of \u201c handedness \u201d in biomolecules. researchers led by sandra pizzarello, a research professor at arizona state university, found that some of the possible abiotic precursors to the origin of life on earth have been shown to carry \u201c handedness \u201d in a larger number than previously thought. the work is being published in this week \u2019 s early edition of the proceedings of the national academy of sciences. the paper is titled, \u201c molecular asymmetry in extraterrestrial chemistry : insights from a pristine meteorite, \u201d and is co - authored by pizzarello and yongsong huang and marcelo alexandre, of brown university. pizzarello, in asu \u2019 s department of chemistry and biochemistry, worked with huang and alexandre in studying the organic materials of a special group of meteorites that contain among a variety of compounds, amino acids that have identical counterparts in terrestrial biomolecules. these meteorites are fragments of asteroids that are about the same age as the solar system ( roughly 4. 5 billion years. ) scientists have long known that most compounds in living things exist in mirror - image forms. the two forms are like hands ; one is a mirror reflection of the other. they are different, cannot be superimposed, yet identical in their parts. when scientists synthesize these molecules in the laboratory, half of a sample turns out to be \u201c left - handed \u201d and the other half \u201c right - handed. \u201d but amino acids, which are the building blocks of terrestrial proteins, are all \u201c left - handed, \u201d while the sugars of dna and rna are \u201c right - handed. \u201d the mystery as to why this is the case, \u201c parallels in many of its queries those that surround the origin of life, \u201d said pizzarello. years ago pizzarello and asu professor emeritus john cronin analyzed amino acids from the murchison meteorite ( which landed in australia in 1969 ) that were unknown on earth, hence solving the problem of any contamination. they discovered a preponderance of \u201c left - handed \u201d amino acids over their \u201c right - handed \u201d form. \u201c the findings of cronin and pizzarello are probably the first demonstration that there may be natural processes in the cosmos that generate a preferred amino acid handedness, \u201d jeffrey bada of the scripps institution of oceanography, la jolla, calif., said at the time. the new pnas work was made", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5510534618647998, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:53.053141"} {"text": "may be natural processes in the cosmos that generate a preferred amino acid handedness, \u201d jeffrey bada of the scripps institution of oceanography, la jolla, calif., said at the time. the new pnas work was made possible by the finding in antarctica of an exceptionally pristine meteorite. antarctic ices are good \u201c curators \u201d of meteorites. after a meteorite falls - - and meteorites have been falling throughout the history of earth - - it is quickly covered by snow and buried in the ice. because these ices are in constant motion, when they come to a mountain, they will flow over the hill and bring meteorites to the surface. \u201c thanks to the pristine nature of this meteorite, we were able to demonstrate that other extraterrestrial amino acids carry the left - handed excesses in meteorites and, above all, that these excesses appear to signify that their precursor molecules, the aldehydes, also carried such excesses, \u201d pizzarello said. \u201c in other words, a molecular trait that defines life seems to have broader distribution as well as a long cosmic lineage. \u201d \u201c this study may provide an important clue to the origin of molecular asymmetry, \u201d added brown associate professor and co - author huang. source : arizona state university explore further : university of illinois biophysicists measure mechanism that determines fate of living cells", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5293846482881032, "token_count": 284, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:53.053742"} {"text": "industrial pipe systems are inaccessible and narrow. the pipes can be vertical and have junctions. just as challenging, leakage points in the water system must be located, the condition of oil and gas pipelines must be checked and ventilation systems need to be cleaned. in the main, today \u2019 s robots are not that clever. they cannot climb or navigate in vertical pipes \u2013 and very few have active joints. cybernetics and optical measurement scientists at sintef are working on a solution. navigation by light and image with experience and knowledge acquired with snake robots anna konda and aiko as a starting point, a team is now developing an intelligent pipe inspection robot on wheels that will be able to climb, navigate intersections and at any given time know its location in the pipe system. the inspection robot will be able to move in pipes of various diameters, right down to 20 cm. cybernetics scientists are developing the propulsion system while a team of optics scientists is working on the new robot \u2019 s visual system. \u201c we are currently developing the vision system than will enable the robot to navigate, \u201d says jens thielemann at sintef ict. \u201c in the meantime, we are using the lego robot mindstormer to collect the data to train the vision system. this lego robot has a camera attached and moves around the pipe following a pre - programmed map. the next step will be to utilise the vision system as input to control the actual snake robot we are going to develop. \u201d the camera that will provide the new robot \u2019 s vision is an off the shelf time - of - flight camera that provides a bathymetric chart of the pipe system using inflected light. \u201c combined with our algorithms, the robot will be able to navigate and move forward on its own, \u201d says thielemann. \u201c the robot knows when a left or right turn is approaching and also contains a built - in path description detailing what tasks it should carry out in different situations. functions as a train \u201c given our previous work on snake robots, we have become good at controlling mechanisms that are linked, \u201d says sintef cybernetics scientist erik kyrkjeb\u00f8. \u201c we now want to develop a robot with 10 - 11 joint modules, each with an identical pair of wheels cast in plastic. the weight must be well distributed between the joints. for example, can we put the camera and accelerator motor in two different joint modules? the robot will function as a train when operating horizontally. such robots already exist, but we want to develop a", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.520700382361162, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:53.059506"} {"text": ". the weight must be well distributed between the joints. for example, can we put the camera and accelerator motor in two different joint modules? the robot will function as a train when operating horizontally. such robots already exist, but we want to develop a robot that can climb too. \u201d the scientists have designed several versions of the pipe inspection robot and have tested different solutions in order to make the new robot both mobile and compact. they have now come up with a design they have faith in. when the robot enters a vertical pipe, it lifts its head in the pipe and meets the pipe wall. it can then either move sideways with its abdomen against the pipe and twist itself upwards or it can topple backwards, attach itself to the pipe wall, in the same way as we would put our feet against a shaft wall to hold on, and then roll upwards. the scientists emphasise that the project is at the design stage. in june, two of the 11 joint modules will be tested to verify the concept and they hope to demonstrate a prototype model by the end of the year. this comprises just phase one of an industrial development, but the enthusiastic scientists are confident of succeeding in the foreseeable future. the final version of the robot will be constructed of aluminium and is planned to be 1. 5 m long. source : aase dragland explore further : nasa : austin, calling austin. 3 - d pizzas to go", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5096582538364303, "token_count": 286, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:53.060579"} {"text": "scientific investigations report 2005 - 5232 the carbonate - rock aquifer of the great basin is named for the thick sequence of paleozoic limestone and dolomite with lesser amounts of shale, sandstone, and quartzite. it lies primarily in the eastern half of the great basin and includes areas of eastern nevada and western utah as well as the death valley area of california and small parts of arizona and idaho. the carbonate - rock aquifer is contained within the basin and range principal aquifer, one of 16 principal aquifers selected for study by the u. s. geological survey \u2019 s national water - quality assessment program. water samples from 30 ground - water sites ( 20 in nevada and 10 in utah ) were collected in the summer of 2003 and analyzed for major anions and cations, nutrients, trace elements, dissolved organic carbon, volatile organic compounds ( vocs ), pesticides, radon, and microbiology. water samples from selected sites also were analyzed for the isotopes oxygen - 18, deuterium, and tritium to determine recharge sources and the occurrence of water recharged since the early 1950s. primary drinking - water standards were exceeded for several inorganic constituents in 30 water samples from the carbonate - rock aquifer. the maximum contaminant level was exceeded for concentrations of dissolved antimony ( 6 \u03bcg / l ) in one sample, arsenic ( 10 \u03bcg / l ) in eleven samples, and thallium ( 2 \u03bcg / l ) in one sample. secondary drinking - water regulations were exceeded for several inorganic constituents in water samples : chloride ( 250 mg / l ) in five samples, fluoride ( 2 mg / l ) in two samples, iron ( 0. 3 mg / l ) in four samples, manganese ( 0. 05 mg / l ) in one sample, sulfate ( 250 mg / l ) in three samples, and total dissolved solids ( 500 mg / l ) in seven samples. six different pesticides or metabolites were detected at very low concentrations in the 30 water samples. the lack of voc detections in water sampled from most of the sites is evidence thatvocs are not common in the carbonate - rock aquifer. arsenic values for water range from 0. 7 to 45. 7 \u03bcg / l, with a median value of 9. 6 \u03bcg / l. factors affecting arsenic concentration in the carbonate - rock aquifer in addition to geothermal heating are its natural occurrence in the aquifer material and time", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5135595462702525, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:53.140074"} {"text": ". 7 \u03bcg / l, with a median value of 9. 6 \u03bcg / l. factors affecting arsenic concentration in the carbonate - rock aquifer in addition to geothermal heating are its natural occurrence in the aquifer material and time of travel along the flow path. most of the chemical analyses, especially for vocs and nutrients, indicate little, if any, effect of overlying land - use patterns on ground - water quality. the water quality in recharge areas for the aquifer where human activities are more intense may be affected by urban and / or agricultural land uses as evidenced by pesticide detections. the proximity of the carbonate - rock aquifer at these sites to the land surface and the potential for local recharge to occur through the fractured rock likely results in the occurrence of these and other land - surface related contaminants in the ground water. water from sites sampled near outcrops of carbonate - rock aquifer likely has a much shorter residence time resulting in a potential for detection of anthropogenic or land - surface related compounds. sites located in discharge areas of the flow systems or wells that are completed at a great depth below the land surface generally show no effects of land - use activities on water quality. flow times within the carbonate - rock aquifer, away from recharge areas, are on the order of thousands of years, so any contaminants introduced at the land surface that will not degrade along the flow path have not reached the sampled sites in these areas. first posted february, 2006 part or all of this report is presented in portable document format ( pdf ) ; the latest version of adobe reader or similar software is required to view it. download the latest version of adobe reader, free of charge. schaefer, d. h., thiros, s. a., and rosen, m. r., 2005, ground - water quality in the carbonate - rock aquifer of the great basin, nevada and utah, 2003 : u. s. geological survey scientific investigations report 2005 - 5232, 41 p. description of study area study design and methods appendix 1. water - quality constituents analyzed in ground - water samples from wells and springs in the carbonate - rock aquifer, nevada and utah", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5027368603324716, "token_count": 466, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:53.142074"} {"text": "the stated mission of sage is to be viable free open source alternative to magma, maple, mathematica, and matlab. sage \u2019 s predecessors, known as hecke and manin, came about because william stein needed to write them as part of his research in number theory. started by william in 2005 during his time at harvard university, sage combines best - of - breed free open source mathematics software, packaging and unifying them through a common interface. many researchers in number theory, including william himself, use this common interface to build upon and extend the functionalities of underlying packages for number theory research. such software packages include givaro, mpir, ntl, pari / gp, and many others too numerous to list here. students, teachers, professors, researchers throughout the world use sage because they require a comprehensive free open source mathematics package that offers symbolic and numerical computation. most of the time, people are happy with what sage has to offer. as is common throughout the free open source software ( foss ) world, many people often identify cases where sage lacks certain mathematics functionalities that they require. and so they delve into the underlying source code that comprises sage in order to extend it for their purposes, or expose functionalities of underlying packages shipped with sage in order to use their favourite mathematics software packages from within sage. the sage - combinat team is comprised of researchers in algebraic combinatorics. the team \u2019 s stated mission is to improve sage as an extensible toolbox for computer exploration in algebraic combinatorics, and foster code sharing between researchers in this area. for detailed information about why sage exists, see william \u2019 s personal mathematics software biography. in the first few years of sage \u2019 s existence, the project was called \u201c sage \u201d. this acronym stood for \u201c software for algebra and geometry experimentation \u201d. starting around 2007 and early 2008, the name \u201c sage \u201d was widely adopted. think of \u201c sage \u201d as a name for a free open source mathematics software project, just as \u201c python \u201d is a name for a free open source general purpose programming language. whenever possible, please use the name \u201c sage \u201d instead of \u201c sage \u201d to avoid confusing the sage project with a computer project called sage. you pronounce \u201c sage \u201d similar to how you would pronounce \u201c sage \u201d which refers to a wise person, or \u201c sage \u201d which refers to a plant. some people pronounce \u201c sage \u201d as \u201c sarge \u201d, similar to how you would pronounce debian sarge", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5474552454828756, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:53.188425"} {"text": "would pronounce \u201c sage \u201d which refers to a wise person, or \u201c sage \u201d which refers to a plant. some people pronounce \u201c sage \u201d as \u201c sarge \u201d, similar to how you would pronounce debian sarge. however you pronounce \u201c sage \u201d, please do not confuse the sage project with an accounting software by the same name. sage is a volunteer based project. its success is due to the voluntary effort of a large international team of students, teachers, professors, researchers, software engineers, and people working in diverse areas of mathematics, science, engineering, software development, and all levels of education. the development of sage has benefited from the financial support of numerous institutions, and the previous and ongoing work of many authors of included components. a list of direct contributors can be found on the sage development map and the history of changes can be found in the high - level changelog. refer to the acknowledgment page of the sage website for an up - to - date list of financial and infrastructure supporters, mirror network hosting providers, and indirect contributors. a standard rule in the mathematics community is that everything is laid open for inspection. the sage project believes that not doing the same for mathematics software is at best a gesture of impoliteness and rudeness, and at worst a violation against standard scientific practices. an underlying philosophical principle of sage is to apply the system of open exchange and peer review that characterizes scientific communication to the development of mathematics software. neither the sage project nor the sage development team make any claims to being the original proponents of this principle. the development model of sage is largely inspired by the free software movement as spearheaded by the free software foundation, and by the open source movement. one source of inspiration from within the mathematics community is joachim neubuser as expressed in the paper and in particular the following quotation from his paper : you can read sylow ' s theorem and its proof in huppert ' s book in the library without even buying the book and then you can use sylow ' s theorem for the rest of your life free of charge, but... for many computer algebra systems license fees have to be paid regularly for the total time of their use. in order to protect what you pay for, you do not get the source, but only an executable, i. e. a black box. you can press buttons and you get answers in the same way as you get the bright pictures from your television set but you cannot control how they", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5579104904203475, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:53.189853"} {"text": "you do not get the source, but only an executable, i. e. a black box. you can press buttons and you get answers in the same way as you get the bright pictures from your television set but you cannot control how they were made in either case. with this situation two of the most basic rules of conduct in mathematics are violated : in mathematics information is passed on free of charge and everything is laid open for checking. not applying these rules to computer algebra systems that are made for mathematical research... means moving in a most undesirable direction. most important : can we expect somebody to believe a result of a program that he is not allowed to see? moreover : do we really want to charge colleagues in moldava several years of their salary for a computer algebra system? similar sentiments were also expressed by andrei okounkov as can be found in in particular the following quotation : computers are no more a threat to mathematicians than food processors are a threat to cooks. as mathematics gets more and more complex while the pace of our lives accelerates, we must delegate as much as we can to machines. and i mean both numeric and symbolic work. some people can manage without dishwashers, but i think proofs come out a lot cleaner when routine work is automated. this brings up many issues. i am not an expert, but i think we need a symbolic standard to make computer manipulations easier to document and verify. and with all due respect to the free market, perhaps we should not be dependent on commercial software here. an open - source project could, perhaps, find better answers to the obvious problems such as availability, bugs, backward compatibility, platform independence, standard libraries, etc. one can learn from the success of tex and more specialized software like macaulay2. i do hope that funding agencies are looking into this. sage was not written from scratch. most of its underlying mathematics functionalities are made possible through foss projects such as an up - to - date list can be found on the page for the standard packages repository. the principle programming languages of sage are python and cython. python is the primary programming and interfacing language, while cython is the primary language for optimizing critical functionalities and interfacing with c libraries and c extensions for python. sage integrates over 90 foss packages into a common interface. on top of these packages is the sage library, which consists of over 700, 000 lines of new python and cython code. see oh", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5658309763486827, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:53.191218"} {"text": "our cells generate most of the energy they need in tiny structures inside them called mitochondria, which can be thought of as the cells ' powerhouses. mitochondria have their own dna, independent of the cell ' s nuclear genome, which is compelling similar to the dna of bacterial genomes. what this suggests is that many thousands of years ago, mitochondria were not just components of our cells, but were in fact unicellular organisms in their own right. according to this hypothesis \u2013 the endosymbiotic theory \u2013 mitochondria ( and possibly some other organelles ) originated as free - living bacteria which later became incorporated inside other cells in a symbiotic relationship. like man - made powerhouses, mitochondria produce hazardous by - products as well as useful energy. they are the main source of free radicals in the body \u2013 hugely reactive particles which cause damage to all cellular components through oxidative stress. they attack the first thing they come across, which is usually the mitochondrion itself. this hazardous environment has put the genes located in the mitochondrion at risk of mutational damage, and over many years of evolutionary pressure the mitochondrial dna has gradually moved into the cell ' s nucleus, where it is comparatively well - protected from the deleterious effects of free - radicals alongside all of the cell ' s other dna. this is called allotopic expression, and it has moved all but thirteen of the mitochondrion ' s full complement of at least one thousand genetic instructions for proteins into the ' bomb - shelter ' of the nucleus. however, the remaining thirteen genes in the mitochondrion itself are subject to the ravages of free - radicals, and are likely to mutate. mutated mitochondria, as aubrey de grey has identified, may indirectly accelerate many aspects of ageing, not least when their mutation causes them to no longer produce the required energy for the cell, in turn impairing the cell ' s functionality. in order to combat the down - stream ageing damage as a consequence of mitochondrial mutation, de grey believes that the mitochondrial dna damage itself needs to be repaired or rendered harmless. his characteristically bold solution to this problem is to put the mutations themselves beyond use by creating backup copies of the remaining mitochondrial genetic material and storing them in the safety of the cell ' s nucleus. allotopically expressed here, like the rest of the mitochondrial dna, any deletions in the mitochondrial dna can be safely overwritten", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5609894943529994, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:53.233195"} {"text": "creating backup copies of the remaining mitochondrial genetic material and storing them in the safety of the cell ' s nucleus. allotopically expressed here, like the rest of the mitochondrial dna, any deletions in the mitochondrial dna can be safely overwritten by the backup master copy, which is much less likely to mutate hidden away from the constant bombardment of free radicals. there are several difficulties to this solution, not least the fact that the remaining proteins are extremely hydrophobic and so don ' t ' want ' to be moved at all, and additionally the code disparity between the language of the mitochondrial dna and the nuclear dna which makes a simple transplantation without translation impossible. even if this engineered solution to the problem proves impracticable, at the very least the theory is sound. if we can devise a way systematically defend our mitochondria from their own waste products, we will drastically reduce the number of harmful free radicals exported throughout our bodies, thereby reducing preventing a lot of the damage that distinguishes the young from the old, extending and improving the quality of our lives as a result. dr aubrey de grey, a gerontologist from cambridge, believes that ageing is a disease that can be cured. like man - made machines, de grey sees the human body as a system which ages as the result of the accumulation of various types of damage. and like machines, de grey argues that this damage can be periodically repaired, potentially leading to an indefinite extension of the system ' s functional life. de grey believes that just as a mechanic doesn ' t need to understand precisely how the corrosive processes of iron oxidation degrades an exhaust manifold beyond utility in order to successfully repair the damage, so we can design therapies that combat human ageing without understanding the processes that interact to contribute to our ageing. all we have to do is understand the damage itself. de grey is confident that he has identified future technologies that can comprehensively remove the molecular and cellular lesions that degrade our health over time, technologies which will one day overcome ageing once and for all. in order to pursue the active development and systematic testing of these technologies, de grey has made it part of his mission to break the ' pro - ageing trance ' that he sees as a widespread barrier to raising the funding and stimulating the research necessary to successfully combat ageing. de grey defines this trance as a psychological strategy that people use to cope with ageing, fuelled from the incorrect belief that ageing is forever unavoidable. this", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5897505737434732, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:53.236348"} {"text": "to raising the funding and stimulating the research necessary to successfully combat ageing. de grey defines this trance as a psychological strategy that people use to cope with ageing, fuelled from the incorrect belief that ageing is forever unavoidable. this trance is coupled with the general wisdom that anti - ageing therapies can only stretch out the years of debilitation and disease which accompany the end of most lifetimes. de grey contends that by repairing the pathologies of ageing we will in fact be able to eliminate this period completely, postponing it with new treatments for indefinitely longer time periods so that no - one ever catches up with the damage caused by their ageing. to get over our collective ' trance ' it is worth realising that this meme has made perfect psychological sense until very recently. given the traditional assumption that ageing cannot be countered, delayed or reversed, it has paid to make peace with such a seemingly immutable fact, rather than wasting one ' s life preoccupied with worrying about it. if we follow de grey ' s rationale that the body is a machine that can be repaired and restored, we have to accept that there are potential technologies that can effectively combat ageing, and thus the trance can no longer be rationally maintained. telomeres are repetitive dna sequences which cap the ends of chromosomes, protecting them from damage and potentially cancerous breakages and fusings. they act as disposable buffers, much as the plastic aglets at the end of shoelaces prevent fraying. each time a cell divides, the telomores get shorter as dna sequences are lost from the end. when telomeres reach a certain critical length, the cell is unable to make new copies of itself, and so organs and tissues that depend on continued cell replication begin to senesce. the shortening of telomeres plays a large part in ageing ( although not necessarily a causal one ), and so advocates of life extension are exploring the possibility of lengthening telomeres in certain cells by searching for ways to selectively activate the enzyme telomerase, which maintains telemore length by the adding newly synthesized dna code to their ends. if we could induce certain parts of our bodies to express more telomerase, the theory goes, we will be able to live longer, healthier lives, slowing down the decline of ageing. every moment we ' re fighting a losing battle against our telomeric shortening ; at conception our telomeres consist of roughly", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.578813851131473, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:53.238535"} {"text": "the theory goes, we will be able to live longer, healthier lives, slowing down the decline of ageing. every moment we ' re fighting a losing battle against our telomeric shortening ; at conception our telomeres consist of roughly 15, 000 dna base pairs, shrinking to 10, 000 at birth when the telomerase gene becomes largely deactivated. without the maintenance work of the enzyme our telomeres reduce in length at a rate of about 50 base pairs a year. when some telomeres drop below 5, 000 base pairs, their cells lose the ability to divide, becoming unable to perform the work they were designed to carry out, and in some cases also releasing chemicals that are harmful to neighbouring cells. some particularly prominent cell - types that are affected by the replicative shortening of telomeres include the endothelial cells lining blood vessels leading to the heart, and the cells that make the myelin sheath that protects our brain ' s neurons. both brain health and heart health are bound to some degree to the fate of cells with a telomeric fuse. the correlation between telomere length and biological ageing has motivated a hope that one day we will be able to prevent and perhaps reverse the effects of replicative senescence by optimally controlling the action of telomerase. the complexity of synthesizing proteins for specific purposes is so great that predicting the amino acid sequences necessary to generate desired behaviour is a huge challenge. mutations far away from the protein \u2019 s active site can influence its function, and the smallest of changes in the structure of an enzyme can have a large impact on its catalytic efficacy \u2013 a key concern for engineers creating proteins for industrial applications. even for a small protein of only 100 amino acids long there are more possible sequences than there are atoms in the universe. what this means is that an exhaustive search through the space of all possible proteins for the fittest protein for a particular purpose is essentially unachievable, just as a complete search through all possible chess games to decide the absolutely optimal next move is computationally impractical. this is true both for scientists and for nature. this means that even though evolution has been searching the space of all possible proteins for billions of years for solutions to survival, it has in fact explored only a minute corner of all possible variations. all evolved solutions are likely to be ' good enough ' rather than the absolute optimum \u2013 it just so happens that the ones already ' discovered ' are sufficient to create and maintain the diversity and richness of", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5167188273738649, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:53.240911"} {"text": "only a minute corner of all possible variations. all evolved solutions are likely to be ' good enough ' rather than the absolute optimum \u2013 it just so happens that the ones already ' discovered ' are sufficient to create and maintain the diversity and richness of life on planet earth. new ways of efficiently searching this vast space of possible sequences will reveal proteins with properties that have never before existed in the natural world, and which will hopefully provide answers to many of our most pressing problems. directed evolution not only provides a faster way of searching this space than many other methods, but it also leaves a complete ' fossil record ' of the evolutionary changes that went into evolving a specific protein, providing data on the intermediate stages which will offer insight after detailed study into the relationship between protein sequence and function. unlike natural evolution, directed evolution can also explore sequences which aren ' t directly biologically relevant to a single organism ' s survival, providing a library of industrially relevant proteins, and perhaps one day creating bacteria capable of answering worldwide problems caused by pollution and fossil fuel shortage. neo - evolution is factorially faster than normal evolutionary processes. our genetically engineered organisms have already neo - evolved \u2013 shortcutting traditional evolution to produce desirable results without the costly time - delay of selection over hundreds or thousands of generations. higher - yielding and insecticide - resistant crops have been engineered through the painstaking modification of individual genes, achieving better results than years of selective breeding in a fraction of the time. genetic engineering of humans, both embryonic and those already alive, will perhaps one day bring the benefits of this new type of evolution to our bodies. at the moment, we simply do not understand how dna sequences encode useful functions, and so genetic engineering remains a tremendously costly and laborious process. it cost $ 25 million and took 150 person - years to engineer just a dozen genes in yeast to cause it to produce an antimalarial drug, and commercial production has yet to begin. the amount of time and money required to effect a beneficial result through genetic engineering \u2013 even if it involves relatively simple changes to only a dozen genes \u2013 is so costly that the transformative idea of neo - evolved humans has been kept at a safe distance. but there are other ways to neo - evolve that might make the possibility of too - good - to - miss genetic enhancements in humans a reality before long. earlier this year, for instance, the national academy of engineering awarded its draper prize to francis arnold and willem stemmer for their independent work towards ' directed evolution ', a technique which harness", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_computing", "similarity_score": 0.5472402993128099, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:53.242130"} {"text": "to - miss genetic enhancements in humans a reality before long. earlier this year, for instance, the national academy of engineering awarded its draper prize to francis arnold and willem stemmer for their independent work towards ' directed evolution ', a technique which harnesses the power of traditional evolution in a highly optimized environment to accelerate the evolution of desirable proteins with properties not found in nature. rather than attempt to manually code the strings of individual dna letters necessary to effect a particular trait, directed evolution and its associated ' evolution machines ' take a prototype ' parent ' gene, create a library of genetic variants from it and apply selection pressures to screen for the strains that produce the desired trait, iterating this process with the best of each batch until the strongest remain. this was first evidenced in 2009, when geneticist harris wang used directed evolution to create new proteins in e. coli bacteria that would produce more of the pigment that makes tomatoes red than was previously possible. to achieve this genetic modification without manually fine - tuning each gene, wang synthesized 50, 000 dna strands which contained modified sequences of genes that produce the pigment, and multiplied them in his evolution machine. after repeating the process 35 times with the results of each cycle fed into the next, he produced some 15 billion new strains, each with a different combination of mutations in the target pigment - producing genes. of these new strains, some produced up to five times as much pigment as the original strain, more than the entire biosynthesis industry had ever achieved. the process took days rather than years. there are three distinct possibilities for how technological and medical advancement will impact future human evolution. the first contingency is that the human species will undergo no further natural selection, because we may have already advanced to a position of evolutionary equipoise, where our technologies have artificially preserved genes that would otherwise have been removed by natural selection ; evolution no longer has a chance to select. as a species we already control our environment to such an extent that traditional evolutionary pressures have been functionally alleviated \u2013 we adapt the environment to us rather than the other way around. indeed, local mobility and international migration allow populations to genetically integrate to such a degree that the isolation necessary for evolution to take place may in fact already no longer possible. the second possibility is that we will continue to evolve in the traditional way, through inexorable selection pressures exerted by the natural environment. the isolation necessary to allow the impact of any environmental changes to be selected for in the population will now be on the planetary scale,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.533431634317758, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:53.243291"} {"text": "we will continue to evolve in the traditional way, through inexorable selection pressures exerted by the natural environment. the isolation necessary to allow the impact of any environmental changes to be selected for in the population will now be on the planetary scale, enabled by colonization of distant space. the third possibility is that we will evolve in an entirely new way, guided not by unconscious natural forces but by our own conscious design decisions. in this neo - evolution we would use genetic engineering to eliminate diseases like diabetes, protect against strokes and reduce the risks of cancer. we would be compressing a natural process which takes hundreds of thousands of years into single generations, making evolutionarily advantageous adjustments ourselves. from an economic perspective, cheating is a simple cost - benefit analysis, where the probability of being caught and the severity of punishment must be weighed against how much stands to be gained from cheating. behavioural economist dan ariely has conducted experimental studies to test whether there are predictable thresholds for this balance, and how they can be influenced. in one study, ariely gave participants twenty maths problems with only five minutes to solve them. at the end of the time period, ariely paid each participant one dollar for each correctly answered question ; on average people solved four questions and so received four dollars. ariely tempted some members of the study to cheat, by asking them to shred their paper, keep the pieces and tell him how many questions they answered correctly. now the average number of questions solved went up to seven ; and it wasn ' t because a few people cheated a lot, but rather that everyone cheated a little. hypothesizing that we each have a \u201c personal fudge factor \u201d, a point at which we can still feel good about ourselves despite having cheated, ariely ran another experiment to examine how malleable this standard was. before tempting participants to cheat, ariely asked them to recall either ten books they read at school or to recall the ten commandments. those who had tried to recall the commandments \u2013 and nobody in the sample managed to get them all \u2013 did not cheat at all when given the opportunity, even those that could hardly remember any of the commandments. when self - declared atheists were asked to swear on the bible before being tempted to cheat in the task, they did not cheat at all. cheating was also completely eradicated by asking students to sign a statement to the effect that they understood that the survey falls under the \u201c mit honor code \u201d, despite mit having no such code. in an additional", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5549091222268638, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:53.244713"} {"text": "task, they did not cheat at all. cheating was also completely eradicated by asking students to sign a statement to the effect that they understood that the survey falls under the \u201c mit honor code \u201d, despite mit having no such code. in an additional variant of the same experiment, ariely tried to increase the fudge - factor and to encourage cheating. a third of particpants were told to hand back their results paper to the experimenters, a third were told to shred it and ask for x number of dollars for x completed questions, and a third were told to shred their results and ask for x tokens. for this last group, tokens were handed out, and the participants would walk a few paces to the side and exchange their tokens for dollars. this short disconnect between cash and token encouraged cheating rates to double in this last group. putting these results in a social context, ariely ran yet another variant of the experiment, to see how people would react when they saw examples of other people cheating in their group. subjects were given envelopes filled with money, and at the end of the experiment they were told to pay back money for the questions that they did not complete. an actor was planted in the group, without the knowledge of the other participants. after thirty seconds the actor stood up and announced that he had finished all of the questions. he was told that the experiment was completed for him, and that he could go home ( i. e. keeping the contents of the envelope ). depending on whether he was wearing a shirt identifying him as from the same university as the rest of the students in the test or not, cheating went either up or down respectively. carnegie mellon students would cheat more if he was identified as a carnegie mellon student, whilst cheating would decrease if he was identified by a university of pittsburgh shirt. ariely ' s results show that the probability of getting caught doesn ' t influence the rate of cheating so much as the norms for cheating influence behaviour : if people in your own group cheat, you are more likely to cheat as well. if a person from outside of your group cheats, the personal fudge factor increases, and the likelihood of cheating drops, just as it did with the ten commandments experiment, reminding people of their own morality. the stock market combines a worrying cocktail of features from these experiments. it deals with ' tokens ', stocks and derivatives and not ' real ' money. stocks are many steps removed from real money, and for long portions of time. this", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5556356694789703, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 7, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:53.246279"} {"text": "morality. the stock market combines a worrying cocktail of features from these experiments. it deals with ' tokens ', stocks and derivatives and not ' real ' money. stocks are many steps removed from real money, and for long portions of time. this encourages cheating. any enclaves of cheating will be reinforced by people mirroring the behaviours of those around them, and this is precisely what happened in the enron scandal. here is a syllogism that is deeply embedded in western society. welfare is maximized by maximizing individual freedom. individual freedom is maximized by maximizing choice. welfare increases with more choice. supermarkets are an embodiment of this belief. they are symbols of affluence and empowerment conferred through their superabundance of choice. the range of products they offer is dizzying. so disorientingly so, in fact, that too many options have paralyzing effects, making it very difficult to choose at all \u2013 a fact that completely undermines the belief that maximizing choice has unqualified beneficial effects. if we finally do manage to make a decision and overcome this paralytic effect, too much choice diminishes the satisfaction that can be gained compared with choices made between fewer options. this is because if the choice you make leaves you feeling dissatisfied in any way it is easy to simulate the myriad of other choices that could have been better. these imagined alternatives, conjured from the myriad real alternatives, can induce regret which dilutes the satisfaction from your choice, even if it was a good one. the wider the range of options, the easier it becomes to regret even the smallest disappointment in your decision. a wider range of choice also makes it easier to imagine the attractive features of the alternatives that have been rejected, once more diminishing the sense of satisfaction with the chosen alternative. this phenomenon is known as the opportunity cost, the sacrificial loss of other opportunities when a choice is made : choosing to do one thing is choosing not to do many other things. many of these other choices will have attractive features which will make whatever you have chosen less attractive, no matter how good it really is. the maximization of choice leads to an escalation of expectations, where the best that can ever be hoped for is that a decision meets expectations. in a world of extremely limited choice, pleasant surprises are possible. in a world of unlimited choice, perfection becomes the expectation : you could always have made a better choice. when there is only one choice on offer, the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_entanglement", "similarity_score": 0.5388445987204643, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 8, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:53.248786"} {"text": "that a decision meets expectations. in a world of extremely limited choice, pleasant surprises are possible. in a world of unlimited choice, perfection becomes the expectation : you could always have made a better choice. when there is only one choice on offer, the responsibility for the outcome of that ' choice ' is outside of your control, and so any disappointment resulting from that decision can safely be blamed on external factors. but when you have to choose between hundreds of options it becomes much easier to blame oneself if anything is less than perfect. it is perhaps no coincidence that as choice has proliferated and standards have risen in the past few generations, so has the incidence of clinical depression and suicide. what this means is that there is a critical level of choice. some societies have too much, others patently too little. at the point at which there is too much choice in a critical proportion of our lives, our welfare is no longer improved. too much choice is paralytic and dissatisfying, and too little is impoverishing. we don ' t want perfect freedom and nor do we want the absence of it ; somewhere there is an optimal threshold, and affluent, materialist societies have probably already passed it. our uniquely large pre - frontal cortex enables us to simulate experiences, allowing us to compare potential futures and make judgements based on these simulations. the difficulty in deciding which of several simulations we prefer arises because we are surprisingly poor at analyzing what makes us happy. seemingly obvious questions such as ' would you prefer to become paraplegic or win the lottery? ' are obscured by the extraordinary fact that one year after each event, both groups report being equally happy with their lives. a preference for one alternative over another can be measured in its ability to confer happiness, and, contrary to all of our impulses, there can be no rational preference in this example when considered over a sufficiently long time - period, as there is no reported qualitative difference between the two levels of happiness after a single year. this is a result of the impact bias, the tendency of our emotional simulator to overestimate the intensity of future emotional states, making you believe that the difference in two outcomes is greater than it really is. in short, things that we would unthinkingly consider important, like getting a promotion or not, passing an exam, or not or gaining or losing a romantic partner, frequently have far less impact, of a much lower intensity and a much lower duration than we expect them to have. indeed, in an astonishing study published", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5235944150002851, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 9, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:53.250206"} {"text": "getting a promotion or not, passing an exam, or not or gaining or losing a romantic partner, frequently have far less impact, of a much lower intensity and a much lower duration than we expect them to have. indeed, in an astonishing study published in 1996, it was found that even major life traumas had no effect on subjective well - being ( with very few exceptions ) if they had not occurred in the past three months 1. the reason for this remarkable ability is that our views of the world change to make us feel better about whatever environment we find ourselves in over a period of time. everything is relative, and we make happiness where we would otherwise believe there to be none. to truncate a well - known quotation from milton, \u201c the mind is its own place, and in itself can make a heaven of hell \u201d. daniel gilbert, professor of psychology at harvard, calls this ' synthesizing happiness '. synthetic happiness differs from ' natural ' happiness in that natural happiness is what we feel when we get what we wanted, and synthetic happiness is what we ( eventually ) feel when we don ' t get what we wanted. the mistake we make is believing that synthetic happiness is inferior to natural happiness. this mistake is perpetuated by a society driven by an economic system which relies on people believing that getting what you want makes you happier than not getting what you want ever could. we can resist this falsehood by remembering that we possess within ourselves the ability to synthesize the commodity that we always pursue, and that we consistently overrate the emotional differences between two choices. - 1. suh, eunkook, ed diener, and frank fujita. \" events and subjective well - being : only recent events matter. \" journal of personality and social psychology 70. 5 ( 1996 ) : 1091 - 102. print. optical illusions are a visual proof of a built - in irrationality in the way we reason. in some illusions we can be shown two lines of equal lengths and yet perceive one to be longer than the other. even when we see visual proof that the lines are in fact of equal length, it ' s impossible to overcome the sense that the lines are different \u2013 it ' s as if we cannot learn to override our intuitions. in the case of optical illusions, our intuition is fooled in a repeatable, predictable fashion, and there is not much we can do about it without modifying the illusion itself, either by measuring it or by obscuring some part of it. dan ariel", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5748313017786767, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 10, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:53.251529"} {"text": "the case of optical illusions, our intuition is fooled in a repeatable, predictable fashion, and there is not much we can do about it without modifying the illusion itself, either by measuring it or by obscuring some part of it. dan ariely, a behavioural psychologist currently teaching at duke university, reminds us that optical illusions are a big deal. vision is one of the best things that we do \u2013 we are evolutionarily designed to be good at it, and a large part of our brain is dedicated to being good at it, larger than is dedicated to anything else. the fact that we make such consistent mistakes, and are repeatedly fooled by optical illusions should be troubling. if we make mistakes in vision, what kind of mistakes will we make in those things that we have no evolutionary reason to be any good at? in new and elaborate environments like financial markets, we don ' t have a specialized part of the brain to help us, and we don ' t have a convenient visual illustration with which to easily demonstrate the mistakes we make. is our sense of our decision making abilities ever consistently compromised? ariely suggests that we are victims of decision making illusions in much the same way we are victims of optical illusions. when answering a survey, for instance, we feel like we are making our own decisions, but many of those decisions in fact lie with the person who designed the form. this is strikingly shown by the disparity in the percentage of people in different european countries who indicated that they would be interested in donating their organs after death, as illustrated by a 2004 paper by eric johnson and daniel goldstein. consent rates in france, belgium, hungary, poland, portugal, france and austria were over 99 %, whilst the uk, germany and denmark all had rates of below 20 %. this huge difference didn ' t arise due to strong cultural differences, but through a simple difference in the way the question on the form was presented. in countries with a low consent rate, the question was as an opt - in choice, as in ' check the box if you wish to participate in the organ donor programme '. people didn ' t check the box, leaving the form in its ' default ' state. those presented with the inverse question, an explicit opt - out rather than explicit opt - in, also left the box unchecked. both groups tended to accept whatever the form tacitly suggested the default position was. the two types of forms created strongly separated groups of consenting donors and non - consenting donors across", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_entanglement", "similarity_score": 0.5529110255533444, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 11, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:53.252964"} {"text": "algebraic reasoning in grades two through five : effects of teacher practices, characteristics and professional development algebra is a gatekeeper ( moses & cobb, 2001 ). long before students enter an algebra i course in the high school, the foundations for algebra are being developed in elementary school through algebraic reasoning. research ( rowan, chiang, and miller, 1997 ) confirms a direct correlation ( r =. 03, p =. 05 ) between teachers ' content knowledge and student achievement in the learning and understanding of mathematics. the need for teachers to be well equipped to develop students ' algebraic reason is apparent ( lambdin, 1999, ma, 2000 ). ^ this study explores how teachers ' practices, characteristics, and professional development relate to student achievement and ; thereby, gain greater understanding and awareness of the role algebraic reasoning performs in teaching and learning at the elementary school level. the following two research questions directed this study : ( 1 ) to what extent and in what manner can variation in student achievement on problems involving algebraic reasoning be explained by teacher practices, characteristics and professional development? ( 2 ) what teaching practices focused on algebraic reasoning have the greatest impact on student achievement? ^ this study utilized a mixed method research design that examined classroom practices of grades 2 - 6 elementary teachers, n = 62, and their n = 1550 students in 17 urban and suburban schools in rhode island. data were gathered through a participant questionnaire utilizing a 1 - 5 point likert - scale survey instrument developed by the researcher. following the collection of the data, focus groups, n = 18, were conducted with volunteer participants. the qualitative data obtained from the focus groups were analyzed by generating themes and patterns to describe the findings. descriptive statistics ( frequencies, percents, and means ) were computed for each variable. multiple regression analysis was use to determine the magnitude of the relationship between teaching practices and professional development related to student achievement. ^ the findings of the study revealed the variables, teaching practices and professional development, used to calculate multiple regression ( r =. 055, p =. 70 ) were not found to be significantly related. in addition, current professional development on algebraic reasoning is not meeting the needs of the teachers and the connections between teacher knowledge / practices and algebra content require strengthening. the findings emanated from the focus groups and from the open ended questions on the questionnaire suggested teachers are not equipped to teach algebraic reasoning. these findings have recently been collaborated in the national math panel advisory panel ( 2008 ) report. recommendation are made as well as suggestions for additional future research specific to professional development and algebraic reasoning", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5680685411522781, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:53.256123"} {"text": "by david houle, special to cnn editor \u2019 s note : david houle is a futurist and author of the blog evolution shift. he is the author of \u201c the shift age \u201d, \" shift ed : a call to action for transforming k - 12 education \" and \" entering the shift age. \" he has been a contributor to oprah. com. houle is futurist - in - residence at the ringling college of art + design in sarasota, florida. ( cnn ) - when people find out that i am a futurist, they ask me what that means. in speaking and writing, i act as a catalyst to get people, the market and the world to think about the future, then facilitate a conversation about it. there \u2019 s one area that \u2019 s desperately in need of that conversation : education. in the next decade, there will be more transformation at all levels of education than in any 10 -, 20 -, or perhaps 50 - year period in history. generational forces at play will accelerate these changes. the aging baby boomers - who i call the \u201c bridge generation, \u201d as they have bridged education from the middle of the 20th century to now - are retiring in ever increasing numbers. they have held on to the legacy thinking about education, remembering how they were taught. their retirement opens up the discussion about transformation. at the same time, we have the rising digital natives as the students of tomorrow. this generation, born since 1997, is the first that was likely to grow up with a computer in the house, high - speed internet, parents with cell phones and often a touch screen app phone as their first phone. they are the first generation of the 21th century with no memory of the 20th. they are the first generation born into the information - overloaded world ; for them, that \u2019 s simply the way it is. the digital natives are different than prior generations and need new models for education. let \u2019 s take a quick look for all levels of education to see what some major transformations will be : a child born in 2009 is one of the younger digital natives. in upper - middle class households, they are the first children for whom all content can be found on screens. they are using touch screen and other interactive computing devices starting as early as 2, and therefore walk into the first day of preschool or nursery school with a level of digital skills. this will spark greater use of digital devices and interactive learning at this first level of education. classrooms will increasingly have interactive", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5184691947441574, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:53.262720"} {"text": "computing devices starting as early as 2, and therefore walk into the first day of preschool or nursery school with a level of digital skills. this will spark greater use of digital devices and interactive learning at this first level of education. classrooms will increasingly have interactive touch screen devices. neuroscience is in a golden age. we have discovered more about the working of the brain and for the sake of this level of education the development of a child \u2019 s brain in the past 20 years than in all time prior. it will become clear that, to the degree that we can bring this knowledge into pre - k education, we can more fully develop the minds and learning of young children. the elevation and integration of digital interactivity is soaring in k - 12 education. school districts are setting up cloud computing to provide always - available information for always - connected education communities. schools that used to make students turn off cellular devices during the school day are allowing them to remain on and become an integral part of the classroom education. if all of the world \u2019 s knowledge and information are just a few keystrokes away, why make the classroom the only unconnected place students experience? self - directed learning - the interaction of the student with learning courses on a computer - will accelerate education and provide more students with the opportunity to learn at a challenging pace. connectivity will bring the world ever more into the classroom and will allow for the grammar school and the high school to be more involved in the local community and the larger global community. higher education is approaching bubble status. the costs have risen rapidly, beyond the ability of most families to pay. debt is being taken on at unprecedented levels and in an economic climate that is not providing the high - paying jobs necessary for that debt to be retired. at the same time, employers complain of a skills gap : the inability to hire employees with the skills needed to perform these new technologically demanding jobs. given these challenges, i can see three major changes coming to higher education during the next decade : first, there will be a dual level of degree granted. the traditional path, costing more than $ 100, 000 with four years of being on campus, will continue. the nontraditional one, perhaps initially a certificate rather than degree program, will cost perhaps $ 10, 000 to $ 20, 000 and will rely on the taking of video and online courses and the passing of exams. this will allow the student a financially viable choice, the university with a new revenue stream and the employer with a comparative choice for hiring. it will also open up higher education", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5015176264931327, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:53.265052"} {"text": "i \u2019 ve been looking for a good, easy to read document outlining the latest climate science research and putting it in context for copenhagen and i think i \u2019 ve found it. today in sydney, the climate change research centre, a unit of the university of new south wales, released the copenhagen diagnosis. it \u2019 s free to download or view online in a nice rich text format so credit to the centre for making it accessible in multiple attractive formats. but most praise has to be reserved for the 26 contributing authors who have laid out the science to make it easy to understand for a layman like myself. chapters cover aspects of climate science including \u201c the atmosphere \u201d, \u201c permafrost and hydrates \u201d and \u201c global sea level \u201d. throughout are scattered common questions about climate change and answers designed to clear up confusion. an example : \u201c are we just in a natural warming phase, recovering from the \u2018 little ice age? \u2018. the document, once pictures and the reference section is including is a slim 50 pages. if you want something to get yourself up to speed on the science ahead of copenhagen this could well be the document to download. its even better if you have a colleague willing to run across the road and get it bound for you as i have! the executive summary of the copenhagen diagnosis, which i \u2019 ve excerpted below gives the basics you need to know if even 50 pages is too much to handle as we head into the highly - stressful ( for everyone other than academics ) end of year period. the diplomats and politicians soon to board flights to denmark could do worse than slip a copy of the copenhagen diagnosis into their cabin luggage. the most significant recent climate change findings are : surging greenhouse gas emissions : global carbon dioxide emissions from fossil fuels in 2008 were nearly 40 % higher than those in 1990. even if global emission rates are stabilized at present - day levels, just 20 more years of emissions would give a 25 % probability that warming exceeds 2\u00b0c, even with zero emissions after 2030. every year of delayed action increases the chances of exceeding 2\u00b0c warming. recent global temperatures demonstrate human - induced warming : over the past 25 years temperatures have increased at a rate of 0. 19\u00b0c per decade, in very good agreement with predictions based on greenhouse gas increases. even over the past ten years, despite a decrease in solar forcing, the trend continues to be one of warming. natural, short - term fluctuations are occurring as usual, but there have been no significant changes in the underlying warming trend. acceleration of melting", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5356514636814174, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:53.270664"} {"text": "- why are these threats possible? because computers are little more than tools. the term \" computer \" is very descriptive despite all of the abstraction that we attempt to layer on top of them ; it is a device that \" computes \", plain and simple. whether, at any given nanosecond, it is computing the color of a pixel in a ui, the address of data in its memory, etc, it is no more or less than an incredibly fast binary calculator hooked up to a lot of peripheral components that provide inputs to and outputs from the basic programming the cpu is currently churning its way through. given that, the question of \" why \" has a simple answer ; tools can be used for good or ill. hammers can pound nails or skulls. saws can cut wood or flesh. and computers can sequence dna to find the cure for cancer, or steal your bank account information. - why doesn ' t the computer just do the things it is supposed to? it does. it does exactly what it is told to do by the program that it is currently executing. the problem is that the program the computer is currently executing isn ' t necessarily something you told it to execute explicitly by the stroke of a key or the click of a mouse. for a very long time now, we ' ve used multiple layers of software ( and hardware ) to allow for modularity ; any computer can have any hardware plugged into it, and run any program to work with it ( at least that ' s the theory ). more recently we have invented layers to allow a computer to juggle many programs at once. these layers of abstraction such as the os, virtual machines, daemons ( services ), etc, which hide what the computer is really doing on any given clock, can be manipulated by an attacker to run software without your conscious knowledge. - why do some people write malware, instead of programs with a constructive purpose beyond doing damage and violating the law?... some men aren ' t looking for anything logical, like money. they can ' t be bought, bullied, reasoned, or negotiated with. some men just want to watch the world burn. - alfred pennyworth, the dark knight for most \" black hats \", the mayhem they cause is fun, it ' s entertaining, the same way you or i would enjoy a video game in a completely sandboxed environment. they, however, are doing things in the real world. same layer of digital separation between you and the consequences of your actions,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5478265489065582, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:53.289333"} {"text": "it ' s entertaining, the same way you or i would enjoy a video game in a completely sandboxed environment. they, however, are doing things in the real world. same layer of digital separation between you and the consequences of your actions, with the added thrill of knowing it ' s real. - does computer insecurity exist because of the nature of computers? to a point, yes. computers are powerful, but they are extremely dumb. they require humans to do their thinking for them, to design them in a way that is difficult to subvert, to program them in a way that is difficult to subvert, and to use them in a way that is difficult to subvert. the inherent difficulty of this is similar to the inherent difficulty ( maybe the impossibility ) of designing a \" completely foolproof system \" : a common mistake that people make when trying to design something completely foolproof is to underestimate the ingenuity of complete fools. - douglas adams in both cases, you ' re very simply trying to pre - emptively outsmart someone willing to spend a lot of time and effort finding a way to misuse what you ' re designing once the finished product has left your hands. you effectively have to come up with the same ideas that the other person would have, and incorporate mechanisms to defeat that line of thinking. the more complex the system is internally, the more of those ideas become possible, and the less likely you are to have thought of everything. the more you put in place to prevent misuse, the more complexity you add. it ' s a vicious cycle.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.6000874537869949, "token_count": 326, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:53.290019"} {"text": "hugh pickens writes writes \" until recently, geothermal power systems have exploited only resources where naturally occurring heat, water, and rock permeability are sufficient to allow energy extraction but now geothermal energy developers plan use a new technology called enhanced geothermal systems ( egs ) to pump 24 million gallons of water into the side of the dormant newberrry volcano, located about 20 miles south of bend, oregon in an effort to use the earth ' s heat to generate power. \" we know the heat is there, \" says susan petty, president of altarock energy, inc. of seattle. \" the big issue is can we circulate enough water through the system to make it economic. \" since natural cracks and pores do not allow economic flow rates, the permeability of the volcanic rock can be enhanced with egs by pumping high - pressure cold water down an injection well into the rock, creating tiny fractures in the rock, a process known as hydroshearing. then cold water is pumped down production wells into the reservoir, and the steam is drawn out. natural geothermal resources only account for about 0. 3 percent of u. s. electricity production, but a 2007 massachusetts institute of technology report projected egs could bump that to 10 percent within 50 years, at prices competitive with fossil - fuels. \" the important question we need to answer now, \" says usgs geophysicist colin williams, \" is how geothermal fits into the renewable energy picture, and how egs fits. how much it is going to cost, and how much is available. \" \"", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.523585090905422, "token_count": 321, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:53.314359"} {"text": "- \u0434\u0438\u0433\u0430\u0440 \u0438\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0444\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u0432\u0430\u0448\u0438\u043d\u0433\u0442\u043e\u043d \u043a\u043e\u043b\u0443\u043c\u0431\u0438\u044f, \u0448\u0430\u0431\u043b\u043e\u043d : \u0438\u0435\u043b\u043e\u0442\u0438 washington is a state in the pacific northwest of the united states. the state is named after george washington, the first president of the united states. as of the 2000 census, the state population was approximately 5. 9 million and the state work force numbered about 3. 1 million. residents are called \" washingtonians \" ( emphasis on the third syllable, pronounced as tone ). it should not be confused with washington, d. c., the nation ' s capital city. to avoid confusion, the city is often called simply d. c. and the state is often called washington state. washington is bounded by the pacific ocean to the west ; oregon to the south ( the columbia river forming most of this border ) ; idaho to the east and british columbia, canada to the north. it is famous for scenery of breathtaking beauty and sharp contrasts. high mountains rise above evergreen forests and sparkling coastal waters. its coastal location and puget sound harbors give it a leading role in trade with alaska, canada, and the pacific rim. puget sound ' s many islands are served by the largest ferry fleet in the united states. washington is a land of contrasts. the deep forests of the olympic peninsula are among the rainiest places in the world and the only rainforests ( such as the hoh rain forest ) in the continental united states, but the flat semi - desert that lies east of the cascade range stretches for long distances without a single tree. snow - covered peaks tower above the foothills and lowlands around them. mount rainier, the highest mountain in the state, appears to \" float \" on the horizon southeast of seattle and tacoma on clear days. the eastern side of the state can be divided into two regions : the okanogan highlands and the columbia river basin. areas under the management of the national park service include : - ebey ' s landing national historical reserve near coupeville - fort vancouver national historic site at vancouver - klondike gold rush seattle unit national historical park in seattle - lake chelan national recreation area near stehekin - lake roosevelt national recreation area along the columbia river - lewis and clark national historic trail - mount rainier national park - nez perce national historical park - north cascades national park near marblemount - olympic national park at port angeles - ross lake national recreation area at new", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5142459982678622, "token_count": 509, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:53.358331"} {"text": "here are two cartoons from jay hosler ( blog ), biologist and author / illustrator of the sandwalk adventures : an adventure in evolution told in five chapters and author of the forthcoming evolution : the story of life on earth ( cover art below ) : visual representation in science is the study of how images can inform an understanding of scientific practice and the production and dissemination of knowledge. there will be at least two worskshops on this topic in the next year ( here and here ). the description of one describes images as \u201c occupy [ ing ] a special place \u2026 for their power to encapsulate scientific knowledge, their capacity to communicate to various publics, and their flexibility in the production of meanings by the interaction of producers and users. \u201d for this month \u2019 s edition of the history of science blog carnival, the giant \u2019 s shoulders and it \u2019 s theme of visuals and representations in science, i thought i \u2019 d share some information about darwin and evolution in cartoons and caricatures. jonathan smith looked at visual representation within darwin \u2019 s various books in his 2006 book charles darwin and victorian visual culture ( cambridge studies in nineteenth - century literature and culture ) ( you can read the first chapter as a pdf ). one could look at darwin portraiture and photography, maybe janet browne has, and how specific images have been used to push a particular way of looking at darwin. the darwin year saw many books looking at darwin and his impact on art. constance clark \u2019 s 2001 article in the journal of american history, \u201c evolution for john doe : pictures, the public, and the scopes trial debate, \u201d is about the \u201c role of visual images of evolutionary ideas published during the [ scopes ] debate. \u201d and heather brink - roby \u2019 s article \u201c natural representation : diagram and text in darwin \u2019 s \u2018 on the origin of species, \u201d in victorian studies, looks at how darwin used diagram and text \u201c not simply to argue for, but also as evidence of, his theory. \u201d also, analyses of the march of progress imagery of evolution and other representations ( like trees of life ) would fit into visual representations ( see here and here, and of course gould \u2019 s wonderful life : the burgess shale and the nature of history, specifically chapter 1, \u201c iconography of an expectation \u201d ). where do political cartoons and caricatures fit into this? surely, such images were avenues of knowledge for the public, and how a cartoon represented darwin or evolution ( anti - evolution, pro - evolution, etc. ) had an impact", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5252756713481943, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:53.385211"} {"text": "\u201d ). where do political cartoons and caricatures fit into this? surely, such images were avenues of knowledge for the public, and how a cartoon represented darwin or evolution ( anti - evolution, pro - evolution, etc. ) had an impact on the viewer, and evolution was used as a means to comment on society and culture or whatever was in the news. i know of at least two historians of science who have published on the topic : browne, janet. \u201c darwin in caricature : a study in the popularisation and dissemination of evolution. \u201d proceedings of the american philosophical society 145 : 4 ( december 2001 ) : 496 - 509. ( also, see my post 19th - century caricature prints with tyndall, darwin caricatures at the primate diaries, and darwin caricatures at genomicron ) davis, edward b. \u201c fundamentalist cartoons, modern pamphlets, and the religious image of science in the scopes era. \u201d in religion and the culture of print in modern america, edited by charles lloyd cohen and paul s. boyer, 175 - 98. madison : university of wisconsin press, 2008. davis presented at the history of science society meeting in 2009 on \u201c demonizing evolution, \u201d sharing some of the fundamentalist cartoons. since google books won \u2019 t let me see the cartoons in the article, i \u2019 m not sure if those in his talk are the same as those in his article, but i will share a few from his talk : these cartoons in the era of the scopes trial present evolution as : dangerous to one \u2019 s faith ( learning about and accepting evolution will creep into one \u2019 s religious life ), \u201c modern \u201d education is cheating on god and the bible ; evolution is anti - religion ; evolution is sacred and religious itself ; the theory of evolution is collapsing, full of speculation and not fact - based. much of these claims are still used today, by many creationists and intelligent design proponents who spend more time trying to discredit evolution than convincing us that their view is scientific. such cartoons and anti - evolution pamphlets, according to davis, \u201c provide new insights into the intense debate about the meaning of science and the nature of religion that took place among american protestants in the 1920s. from popular publications such as these, we see just how the fundamentalists and the modernists both attempted to influence public opnion about the religious image of science in the decade of the scopes trial \u201d ( 193 ). there is a wonderful resource for political cartoons that do the opposite of", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5134078179586341, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:53.386519"} {"text": "see just how the fundamentalists and the modernists both attempted to influence public opnion about the religious image of science in the decade of the scopes trial \u201d ( 193 ). there is a wonderful resource for political cartoons that do the opposite of demonizing evolution. historian of science joe cain has brought to our attention the ephemeral journal evolution : a journal of nature, which ran from 1927 through 1938, 21 issue in all, and he provides a publication history for it in a 2003 article for archives of natural history. evolution was \u201c a monthly platform for pro - evolutionist perspectives and as a device for rebutting anti - evolutionists. it also aimed to bolster the resolve of teachers caught in the centre of curriculum debates. \u201d its purpose was laid out in the first issue : \u201d this magazine will help bridge that gap by furnishing a forum in which science itself can speak in popular language without fear of the restraints with which fundamentalists are seeking to shackle them. \u201d among the articles within evolution were scores of political cartoons. cain has made all the issues available ( also available through the biodiversity heritage library ) and a page with some of the cartoons. here are a few : unfortunately, evolution was not a great success ( hence, only 21 issues ). by its 12th issue, the journal touted its 5, 000 subscribers, and provided a list of how many by state. interestingly, it had the most subscribers in new york city ( 675 ), california ( 551 ), new york state ( 494 ), illinois ( 486 ), and ohio ( 299 ). a few others in the 100 - 200 range ( including pennsylvania ), and the rest under 100, including all states in the south. i will also point out another website, put togteher by mark aldrich, called cartooning evolution, 1861 - 1925, broken up into darwin and evolution, evolution as social comment, victorian science, fundamentalist publications, the scopes trial : northern newspapers, the scopes trial : national magazines, and the scopes trial : southern newspapers. here \u2019 s a sampling, but be sure to check out the website itself, there are many more. enjoy : in my previous post i shared a link to ncse \u2019 s images of an intelligent design vs. evolution from the banana - toting, darwin - bashing creationist ray comfort. here \u2019 s one of the images, showing a card from the game that uses this quote : \u201c scientists conced that their most cherished theories", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5331044992638156, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:53.387842"} {"text": "intelligent design vs. evolution from the banana - toting, darwin - bashing creationist ray comfort. here \u2019 s one of the images, showing a card from the game that uses this quote : \u201c scientists conced that their most cherished theories are based on embarassingly few fossil fragments and that huge gaps exst in the fossil record. \u201d a citation is given, that \u2019 s a good step : time magazine, november 7, 1977. so, what is this quote in reference to? what \u2019 s the context. the quote comes from an article titled \u201c puzzling out man \u2019 s ascent \u201d ( all online, thanks rob igo, for the link ) and here is where it falls : these developments, probably more than any others, hastened the differentiation between man and earlier hominids. explains anthropologist charles kimberlin ( \u201c bob \u201d ) brain of the transvaal museum in pretoria, south africa : \u201c meat eating and hunting were important factors. if you remained a vegetarian, the necessity for culture was not nearly as great. \u201d richard leakey too believes that hunting helped to make emerging man a social creature. says he : \u201c the hominids that thrived best were those able to restrain their immediate impulses and manipulate the impulses of others into cooperative efforts. they were the vanguard of the human race. \u201d still, doubts about the sequence of man \u2019 s emergence remain. scientists concede that even their most cherished theories are based on embarrassingly few fossil fragments, and that huge gaps exist in the fossil record. anthropologists, ruefully says alan mann of the university of pennsylvania, \u201c are like the blind men looking at the elephant, each sampling only a small part of the total reality. \u201d his colleagues agree that the picture of man \u2019 s origins is far from complete. perhaps no one is trying harder to fill in the blanks than richard leakey. picking up where his father louis left off at his death in 1972, richard \u2014 with his lake turkana discoveries \u2014 has already moved to the forefront of modern anthropology. now he is reaching out to coordinate research throughout east africa and taking the lead in sorting and assembling the thousands of fragments of evidence that may someday reveal the secrets of man \u2019 s origins. oh, the article discusses human evolution, not evolution of life on earth generally. gee, ray, do you think you could have clarified that? and, it \u2019 s not like any work in paleoanthropology has occurred over the last three decades. beware, quote", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5107278110611511, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:53.389078"} {"text": "by dr. paul o \u2019 reilly note : dr. o \u2019 reilly is a tutor at thomas aquinas college as well the vice president for development. the following text is the transcript of a lecture he presented on august 26, 2011, as part of the the st. vincent de paul lecture and concert series, endowed by barbara and paul henkels. it might seem strange that i should stand in front of you this evening to speak about catholic liberal education. it could be especially odd because i intend to consider whether there can be such a thing as catholic liberal education. why should that be an issue for us? is it not obvious that there is such a thing as catholic liberal education? surely thomas aquinas college gives testimony to its existence. our founding document, the blue book, is entitled a proposal for the fulfillment of catholic liberal education. just why would i waste your time asking about the possibility of something that so obviously exists? now i take it as obvious that there can be catholic carpenters and plumbers, there can be catholic tennis players and golfers, and there can be catholic poets and teachers. however, let us consider what it means to say that this man is a catholic plumber, or that this woman is a catholic tennis player. surely we must mean that the plumber happens to be catholic, or maybe better, the catholic happens to be a plumber, and it is coincidental that the catholic woman is a tennis player. there is not a particularly catholic way of installing a sink. the plumber could install it well or badly, but how would he install it in a catholic way? the catholic is called to be honest and forthright, but that does not mean it is inappropriate for the catholic tennis player to use the backhand during a game. isn \u2019 t it clear that the relationship between plumbing and catholicism, or tennis and the catholic faith, is coincidental? you might prefer to play tennis with a catholic, but that is, perhaps, because of the conscientious behavior displayed on the court. if we consider the parts of liberal education, especially the liberal arts themselves ( the quadrivium : geometry, arithmetic, music and astronomy ; and the trivium : grammar, logic, and rhetoric ) does it really seem to be the case that if we add catholic to any one of the parts the nature of the discipline changes? that is, is there a catholic geometry? is there a peculiar geometrical truth that could be called catholic? or is there a particularly catholic way of proving", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5081940421366469, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:53.462477"} {"text": "case that if we add catholic to any one of the parts the nature of the discipline changes? that is, is there a catholic geometry? is there a peculiar geometrical truth that could be called catholic? or is there a particularly catholic way of proving some geometrical proposition? as with the example of the plumber, isn \u2019 t it the case that catholicism does not make geometry into a different kind of activity? the term \u201c catholic geometrician \u201d names someone who just happens to be both a catholic and a geometer. it is not like the case of \u201c rational \u201d when added to animal. \u201c rational animal \u201d names a specific kind of animal, one that is not a brute. so \u201c rational \u201d does not just describe an animal that happens to be rational, \u201c rational animal \u201d actually defines a different kind of animal. but \u201c catholic geometer \u201d does not seem to do the same, for there is no kind of geometry that is particularly catholic. what we have just said about geometry also applies to arithmetic, and astronomy, to grammar and logic, and the remaining liberal arts. the basic point so far is that if the parts of liberal education are not called catholic properly, then how could the whole, composed of these parts, be called catholic in any other way than an education that happens to be acquired by catholics? however it should be pointed out that a liberal education is not just the education in the liberal arts. liberal education is the education that is sought for its own sake, and so it is suitable for the free man. as a consequence, this education is primarily speculative, that is, it is sought because it is good to know, and not because of some practical purpose. liberal education, then, would include philosophy and theology, in addition to the liberal arts. surely philosophy and theology can be specifically catholic. and if they are catholic then a catholic liberal education could simply be an education informed by philosophy and theology, both of which have a catholic character. this point has merit. there is a considerable difference between geometry, for example, and philosophy. geometry is about points, lines, figures, and magnitudes generally. these kinds of objects are not specifically catholic, so is it a surprise that that there is not a properly catholic geometry? philosophy, on the other hand, considers the nature of man, the universe, and all sorts of things that have direct bearing on the catholic faith. the philosopher might well consider whether there is evidence that god exists ; he might wonder what constitutes freedom of the will. he should consider if it is", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5422047883882606, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:53.464855"} {"text": ", and sustain him in times of difficulty, but it does not appear to be appropriate to call philosophy catholic. if this is the case, then the fact that a liberal education includes philosophy is not sufficient to call that education properly catholic. maybe it is obvious that theology, one part of a truly liberal education, would be defined by catholicism. perhaps one could argue that theology is the most important part of a liberal education. it studies the most important object \u2014 god himself \u2014 and perhaps the other parts of a liberal education are insignificant before the knowledge of the divine majesty. here we might find a reason for calling all of a liberal education catholic if theology is included as one of its parts. after all if the most important part of something has a certain character, then the whole can be described by that characteristic. much like you might call a man odd if he displays odd behavior. his hands and feet may not be odd, but you call the whole man odd because a significant part of him is odd. is this why we could call a liberal education catholic, because its most significant part, theology, is catholic? not so fast. consider how we study and discuss theology at thomas aquinas college. does it make a difference if a student is catholic or protestant, jewish, or a non - believer? in freshman theology students are encouraged to consider the evidence in the text of scripture itself, not to bring in the catechism. and in sophomore theology doesn \u2019 t the class depend on the argument that st. augustine makes, and the evidence he provides, not what this or that student believes? finally, in junior and senior theology, what is most remarkable is how argumentative, that is, how rational st. thomas \u2019 procedure is. as long as one concedes the principles that, no doubt, st. thomas believes, any student can follow the argument. so even if in itself theology is properly catholic, one can grasp the argument of the theologian without sharing his belief. so, the conclusion of all we have said so far is that catholic liberal education does not appear to be one kind of thing. it seems to be more like our previous example of a catholic plumber \u2014 a man who just happens to be catholic is also a plumber. so is this how we are to understand catholic liberal education : the education that people who happen to be catholic take part in? what if this is the case, what if all that can be said is that catholic liberal education is an education that catholics take part in, or one in which there are", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5038999570354235, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:53.469032"} {"text": "become a humanist, not an educated man. that is, if you are content simply to appreciate different positions, you might be fun to talk to at a cocktail party, but you will not know anything. you would be familiar with who thinks what, but you would be unable to make judgments about the way things are. the second supposition that i will consider is, as i said, concerning the parts of an education and it is closely related to the previous supposition. if a student studies many disciplines without integration, that is, if he thinks about science apart from theology, or mathematics independently of philosophy, he will not have a unified view about what is. he could easily tend to a kind of skepticism, because whatever he knows in natural science is not brought to bear upon his understanding of ethics, for example. or what is understood as a theological doctrine, would not be thought of as a guide to thinking rightly in some other discipline. without an effort to resolve these differences, the mind is left on its own to wander according to its own inclinations and guesses. this is a problem for us at the college as well as for other academic institutions. in our own curriculum we study the great books throughout the program. in these books there is more disagreement than agreement. and the disagreements are often about first principles, and notions so basic, that it is impossible that the authors be reconciled except in the vaguest of ways. in fact, often an attempt to reconcile these contrary positions would do violence to the views of the authors themselves. so how should we deal with the basic disagreements that we find in our own program? in the face of contrary positions, and basic disagreements, the mind will be at sea. there are at least three ways to react to fundamental disagreements among the wise. 1 ) a good approach to the conflicting positions found in the great books is to realize that if the wise have disagreements, the matter must be difficult to know. that realization should prompt you to try harder to see where the truth is. 2 ) these contrary positions could cause you to despair of any genuine intellectual advance, so you become either a skeptic, or uninterested in the examined life. 3 ) perhaps the worst reaction to the differing positions that have been considered over the centuries is to make the positions themselves the object of study. in that case, the search is no longer for the truth ; instead the object of study becomes the opinions of men. it should be granted, then, that an education properly so called must have as", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5606753417016825, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:53.471176"} {"text": "to make the positions themselves the object of study. in that case, the search is no longer for the truth ; instead the object of study becomes the opinions of men. it should be granted, then, that an education properly so called must have as its end to come to know what is true. and since there are many disciplines and many great minds studied in any educational program, there must be some order and resolution in the curriculum if the truth is to be received. now the principal way that the truth is to be made known is by an unfailing guide. that is one way in which catholic liberal education is education in the strictest sense. cardinal newman makes this point succinctly in the beginning of the book : the idea of a university. he points out that a university is a place to seek universal knowledge, and that \u201c it cannot fulfill its object duly \u2026 without the church \u2019 s assistance \u2026 the church is necessary for its integrity \u201d ( p. xxxvii, 1966 edition ). pope john paul ii quotes this same remark of cardinal newman in his apostolic constitution ex corde ecclesiae. the holy father then adds : \u201c it is the office ( officium ) of the catholic university to devote itself, without condition, to the cause of truth. \u201d he goes on to say that : \u201c the catholic university bears itself ( inclines ) towards every truth according as they are joined to the supreme truth, that is to god \u201d ( ex corde ecclesiae, # 4 ). so these preliminary remarks suggest a strategy for the rest of this lecture. if we are to understand how a liberal education can be catholic, we should first consider the end of education, that is truth, and then treat how the parts of truth are integrated. the words \u201c true \u201d or \u201c truth \u201d can be used in a number of different ways. perhaps the most common use of the term is when we say something such as : \u201c i think what you say is true. \u201d or, \u201c what you say is the truth. \u201d in this sense of the word, a claim has been made, in the form of a sentence, and one judges that what that sentence expresses conforms to the way things are. the thought expressed in the sentence, then, is true. also, a building can be described as being \u201c true \u201d to the architect \u2019 s original vision. this sense of \u201c true \u201d does not appear to refer to a statement. another sense of the word \u201c true \u201d is found when we speak of someone", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5049751369045588, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:53.472266"} {"text": "also, a building can be described as being \u201c true \u201d to the architect \u2019 s original vision. this sense of \u201c true \u201d does not appear to refer to a statement. another sense of the word \u201c true \u201d is found when we speak of someone as a \u201c true \u201d friend, or a \u201c true \u201d patriot. this use of the word \u201c true \u201d also does not seem to refer to the truth of a statement. aristotle, speaking about the first and most obvious sense of true, says that \u201c falsity and truth are not in things \u2026 but in though \u201d ( metaphysics, vi, ch. 4, 1027b26 ). he goes on to make a qualification. not everything that is in the mind would be called truth : \u201c with regard to simple concepts and \u2018 whats \u2019 falsity and truth do not exist even in thought. \u201d if i think about what a dog is, for example, to the extent that i am just doing that, i have yet to attain to the notion of truth. if i say, or think, \u201c dog, \u201d i have yet to make a claim about it. \u201c dog : true or false? \u201d that is an absurd question. so we begin by noting two things : 1 ) the true, in the first sense of the word, is not in things but it is in the mind ; 2 ) and the true is in the mind when some judgment is made, and normally that judgment is expressed in a sentence. this, according to our own experience of knowing, is the most obvious sense of truth. a third thing follows from what i have just said. although the true is in the mind, it is not the mind that principally causes the truth. if i make the statement that a centaur is a long - lived animal, that statement is false, for there is no such thing as a centaur. so although, in the most common use of the word \u201c truth, \u201d the truth is found in the mind and not in things, it is the reality of a thing that causes truth. another way of putting this is that a thing \u2019 s being is a cause of any true statement made about it. a statement is not true just because i make it ; man is not the measure of things. no, a statement is only true if what is said corresponds to some reality, some existing thing. as st. thomas puts it : \u201c \u2026 the being of a thing is the cause of the true estimation ( or judgment ) which the mind has about something.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5901224510926596, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 7, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:53.473350"} {"text": "a statement is only true if what is said corresponds to some reality, some existing thing. as st. thomas puts it : \u201c \u2026 the being of a thing is the cause of the true estimation ( or judgment ) which the mind has about something. for the true and the false are not in things, but in the mind \u2026 \u201d ( in metaphysicorum, ii, l. 2, # 298 ). from what we have just said, we can understand the traditional account of the true as a conformity, or adequation, of the mind to things. as st. thomas puts it : \u201c a thing is not called true except according as it is adequated ( or conformed ) to an intellect, whence secondarily ( per posterius ) the true is found in things, primarily ( per prius ) however it is found in the intellect \u201d ( de veritate, 1, a. 2 ). note, however, what st. thomas says here : although the true, in the primary sense, is found in the mind, a thing can be said to be true in a secondary sense if that thing conforms to an intellect. i think what this means is that if one considers the intellect one can see that it can know things simply for their own sake ; that is, one can have a kind of speculative knowledge, but also the intellect thinks about things that can be made. the architect obviously thinks about the design of a house. when that house is built, presuming it is built according to his plan, then the house can be said to conform to what he had in mind. the house then can be called true, because it conforms to what the architect had in his mind. a brief qualification about what i have just claimed : i do not intend to say that the practical intellect is the only measure of the things that it produces. so when it is claimed that the true is in the mind first, it does not mean that the human mind is the sole or primary measure of the truth. a thing can be called true to the intention of the maker and still be called false in another sense. counterfeit money is still not true currency even though it conforms to the mind of the counterfeiter. much like the way \u201c faux \u201d pearls are called false because they have a tendency to make you think they are something they are not, that is, they are false pearls because one could easily think they are real ones. this suggests to me that there are more senses of", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5397202543516175, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 8, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:53.474547"} {"text": "\u201c faux \u201d pearls are called false because they have a tendency to make you think they are something they are not, that is, they are false pearls because one could easily think they are real ones. this suggests to me that there are more senses of the word \u201c true \u201d than the two that i have outlined, but i am going to limit my consideration to these two senses. so in addition to the primary sense of truth, there is this secondary sense that, as long as what is in the mind is some art or perfection, then there will be found in the mind of the maker a cause of the truth of the thing produced. having made this qualification, i want to concentrate on the way man \u2019 s mind is related to things in the two basic ways i have pointed out, and this gives rise to two fundamental meanings of \u201c truth. \u201d now there is a significant difference in the way that a thing is related to the speculative intellect and how something relates to the practical intellect. the practical intellect, or more particularly, the art in the mind of the architect, for example, is a measure of what it produces. that is, the musical piece, to take another example, is said to be true according as it conforms to the musical principles the composer has in mind. the speculative intellect is said to have the truth according as it conforms itself to things. that is, the true judgment is one which has its basis in the way things are. so, we can see that practical thinking measures, or determines, the thing that is produced ; whereas things are what measure or determine the true judgment of speculative thinking. for the practical intellect, the art in the mind of the composer, for example, causes the thing that it produces, and so the product is called true since the effect corresponds to the cause. but the speculative intellect only attains truth if its knowledge is caused by things, that is, the mind receives things as they are, not as it wants them to be, or imagines them, or has been accustomed to think of them. st. thomas gives a nice summary of the relation of the human intellect to things : the knowledge of the human intellect is in some way caused by things : hence what follows is that knowable things are the measure of human knowledge, since the intellect judges [ what is ] true by bearing on things, and not the converse [ that is, not by the intellect determining things ] ( s. c. g. i, 62, # 512 ) so the human mind, to the extent", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5827510659583, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 9, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:53.475895"} {"text": "the intellect judges [ what is ] true by bearing on things, and not the converse [ that is, not by the intellect determining things ] ( s. c. g. i, 62, # 512 ) so the human mind, to the extent that it attains or receives the truth, is determined or measured by things. when the human mind is a principle of something made, then that thing can be called true according as it conforms to the maker \u2019 s intention. here is how st. thomas puts it : [ a ] mong created things truth is found in things and in the mind ( intellectu ) \u2026 in the mind according as the understanding that it has conforms ( adaequatur ) to things ; in things [ truth is found ] according as they imitate the divine intellect, which is their measure, as art is the measure of all artifacts. the comparison between the artist and the creator is worth noting. the artifact that the artist produces is determined by the art that he has in his mind, his mind is not conformed to it, since it is what is in his mind that has given rise to his product. the mind of god is not measured, not determined, not caused by things. rather, the divine intellect determines things in a way like the art in the mind of the architect or composer determines the building or musical piece. earlier we noted that the building designed by the architect can be called true since it conforms to the plan that he had in mind. similarly, every natural thing conforms to the ideas in the mind of god. st. thomas puts it this way : the divine intellect by its own knowledge is the cause of things. hence it is necessary that his science is the measure of things : as art is the measure of artifacts. ( scg, i, 61, # 512 ) a consequence of this is that truth would not be caused in the mind of god by the things he has produced, but the converse, that those things would be said not only to be, but to be true, according as they conform to the divine intellect. st. thomas summarizes quite nicely the main distinctions i have been trying to make. the very notion of truth implies a conformity of a thing to an intellect. however the intellect is compared to things in a twofold way : as the measure of existing things, [ that is ] the intellect which causes things ; another intellect is measured by things, [ that is ] the intellect whose knowledge is caused by things. therefore there is not", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5332343162470577, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 10, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:53.477325"} {"text": "compared to things in a twofold way : as the measure of existing things, [ that is ] the intellect which causes things ; another intellect is measured by things, [ that is ] the intellect whose knowledge is caused by things. therefore there is not truth in the divine intellect because it is conformed ( adequated ) to things, but because things are conformed to the divine intellect. ( commentary on st. john, l. 18, l. 11 ) the gospel of st. john allows us to speak more fully on this matter. for in that gospel the creation of heaven and earth is described in such a way as to make clear that all things owe their existence to god, that is, they exist and are the kind of things they are, because god said \u201c let them be. \u201d in the beginning was the word, and the word was with god, and the word was god. he was in the beginning with god ; all things were made through him, and without him was nothing made that was made. all things were made through the word. the word is the expression of the father. he is what proceeds from the father, as a concept from the father. god \u2019 s act of creation is described as due to the father bringing forth his word, and that word is that through which all things are made. as a consequence the being of all things is due to the divine intellect. clearly the truth in the divine intellect is not due to things, but all things are and are true because of the mind of god. furthermore, since the divine intellect produces its concept or word, by which all things are made, that word can be called the truth. for, as we have previously argued, the first meaning of truth is what is brought forth by the mind in conformity to what it thinks about. since the word is brought forth by the father, and is in perfect conformity to the father, the word is appropriately called the truth. st. thomas puts it this way : and so it is that the uncreated truth of the divine intellect is appropriated to the son, who is the conception itself of the divine intellect and the word of god. for truth follows a conception of the intellect. ( commentary on st. john, l. 18, l. 11 ) earlier in the commentary on the gospel of st. john, st thomas says : truth belongs properly ( per se ) to him ( christ ) because he is the word. for truth is nothing other than the conformity of a thing to the intellect,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5346156034370558, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 11, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:53.478538"} {"text": "earlier in the commentary on the gospel of st. john, st thomas says : truth belongs properly ( per se ) to him ( christ ) because he is the word. for truth is nothing other than the conformity of a thing to the intellect, and this comes about when the intellect conceives a thing as it is. therefore, the truth of our intellect belongs to our word, which is its conception. but although our word is true, it is not truth itself, since it is not through itself, but it is conformed to the thing conceived. now the truth of the divine intellect belongs to the word of god. but because the word of god is true of itself, since it is not measured by things, but things are true insofar as they come near to a likeness of him, and so it is that the word of god is truth itself. and because no one can know the truth unless he adheres to the truth, it is necessary that everyone who desires to know the truth adhere to this word. ( in john, l. 14, lec. 2 ) here we have a fundamental distinction. \u201c the word of god is true of itself, since it is not measured by things. \u201d so unlike the human mind which comes to the truth by conforming itself to things, god contains all truth because things conform to him. so how are we to reach the fullness of truth? by knowing god. a consequence of what we have said is that since god possesses the whole of truth, and every other truth depends on him and points to him. he alone is the teacher without qualification. as st. thomas explains, god is first and properly a teacher because he has doctrine from himself. ( just as god is first and properly a father because he is the begetter of another in virtue of himself, whereas all other fathers are so called because of the existence and power that they have received from god. ) any lesser truth directs the mind to the fullness of truths and, therefore, the knowledge of all truths is not fully had until they are seen in their relation to the source of truth. when jesus speaks about the truth he identifies it with himself, and he indicates that it is what makes us free. knowing the truth, which is found in god essentially, and the word personally, is what makes us free. and since the end of a liberal education is to know the truth, which enables one to live the life of a free man, it follows that the fullness of liberal education is found", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5009835618271572, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 12, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:53.479736"} {"text": "that philosophy should be called knowledge of the truth, for the end of theoretical knowledge is truth \u201d ( metaphysics, ii, ch. 1, 993b19 ). with this meaning of the word \u201c philosophy, \u201d there would not be many philosophies, because there is either truth or falsehood. so it would not be necessary to ask is this philosophy catholic? for by definition the truth attained by the human mind, the philosophical truths, would not contradict the truth revealed by god through the church. as pope leo xiii puts it in aeterni patris : those, therefore, who to the study of philosophy unite obedience to the christian faith are philosophers indeed ; for the splendor of the divine truths, received into the mind, helps the understanding, and not only detracts in nowise from its dignity, but adds greatly to its nobility, keenness, and stability. ( p. 9 ) in another sense of the word \u201c philosophy, \u201d any natural effort to know the world around us can be called philosophy and be defined by its principles and methods. in this sense of \u201c philosophy, \u201d there are as many philosophies as there are distinct approaches to understanding the world, that is, distinct principles and methods of inquiry. the philosophy of descartes would differ then from that of aristotle. and to the extent that descartes appears to hold that the soul and body are distinct substances, and he seems to hold a curious view about what substance and accidents are, to that extent cartesian philosophy would not be a catholic philosophy, even though descartes was a catholic. in fides et ratio, john paul ii seems to use this sense of the word \u201c philosophy. \u201d he distinguishes philosophies by their principles and methods. however, that still makes the passage i quoted earlier curious : \u201c the church has no philosophy of her own nor does she canonize any one particular philosophy in preference to others. \u201d how are we to understand this passage in light of centuries of papal teaching extolling the philosophy of st. thomas? for example, pope pius xi : we consider that thomas should be called not only the angelic, but also the common or universal doctor of the church ; for the church has adopted his philosophy for her own, as innumerable documents of every kind attest. ( studiorum ducem # 11 ) the first thing to note about the quotation from fides et ratio is that john paul ii refers to a text from pius xii \u2019 s humani gene", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5264128175948133, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 16, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:53.485081"} {"text": "as innumerable documents of every kind attest. ( studiorum ducem # 11 ) the first thing to note about the quotation from fides et ratio is that john paul ii refers to a text from pius xii \u2019 s humani generis. in that passage pius xii considers the church \u2019 s relationship to philosophy : \u201c [ t ] he church cannot be bound to any philosophical system which exists for a brief period of time \u2026 \u201d he then goes on to say that only those things composed from common consent of catholic doctors are not based on a weak foundation because they are \u201c supported by principles and notions deduced from a true knowledge of created things. \u201d clearly pius xii is warning the faithful about basing their judgments on philosophical fads, among which he includes \u201c idealism \u201d and \u201c existentialism, \u201d for these \u201c systems \u201d incline one to \u201c dogmatic relativism. \u201d it is important to note that john paul ii \u2019 s remarks, generally translated as : \u201c the church has no philosophy of her own nor does she canonize any one particular philosophy in preference to others \u201d is to be understood in terms of the text from pius xii that he refers us to. a sign of this is that later in the same encyclical he speaks about the \u201c incomparable value of the philosophy of st. thomas \u2026 [ and that ] the thought of the angelic doctor seems \u2026 the best way to recover the practice of a philosophy consonant with the demands of faith \u201d ( f + r # 57 ). one last point, if one looks to the latin text of fides et ratio, it becomes clear that the passage i have been quoting is very loosely translated, and, as a result, might give a false impression. as literally as i can put it, the passage should be rendered as follows : the church does not hold forth her very own philosophy, nor does she have preference for one to the detriment of others. what the holy father is saying, then, is that the church urges the faithful to seek for truth wherever it can be found. she is not bound to this or that philosophy, especially not to philosophies that are popular and so could be a fad. the church does not reject truth found in any particular philosophical school, but she also has a longstanding endorsement of the perennial philosophy found in st. thomas aquinas \u2019 teaching. so there is a catholic philosophy, a philosophy that is a handmaid to the truth revealed by god, and taught by his church. that", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5235035419699783, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 17, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:53.486081"} {"text": "part of twisted. internet. protocol view source view in hierarchy implements interfaces : twisted. internet. interfaces. iconsumer | method | | write | | the producer will write data by calling this method. | | method | | registerproducer | | register to receive data from a producer. | | method | | unregisterproducer | | stop consuming data from a producer, without disconnecting. | inherited from adapter : | method | | _ _ init _ _ | | set my ' original ' attribute to be the object i am adapting. | | method | | _ _ conform _ _ | | i forward _ _ conform _ _ to self. original if it has it, otherwise i simply return none. | | method | | isuper | | forward isuper to self. original | register to receive data from a producer. this sets self to be a consumer for a producer. when this object runs out of data ( as when a send ( 2 ) call on a socket succeeds in moving the last data from a userspace buffer into a kernelspace buffer ), it will ask the producer to resumeproducing ( ). resumeproducing will be called once each time data pauseproducingwill be called whenever the write buffer fills up and resumeproducingwill only be called when it empties. | parameters | | producer | | ( type : |", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5066313883838873, "token_count": 292, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:53.519926"} {"text": "classifying critical points so let \u2019 s say we \u2019 ve got a critical point of a multivariable function. that is, a point where the differential vanishes. we want something like the second derivative test that might tell us more about the behavior of the function near that point, and to identify ( some ) local maxima and minima. we \u2019 ll assume here that is twice continuously differentiable in some region around. the analogue of the second derivative for multivariable functions is the second differential. this function assigns to every point a bilinear function of two displacement vectors and, and it measures the rate at which the directional derivative in the direction of is changing as we move in the direction of. that is, if we choose coordinates on given by an orthonormal basis, we can write the second differential in terms of coordinates this matrix is often called the \u201c hessian \u201d of at the point. as i said above, this is a bilinear form. further, clairaut \u2019 s theorem tells us that it \u2019 s a symmetric form. then the spectral theorem tells us that we can find an orthonormal basis with respect to which the hessian is actually diagonal, and the diagonal entries are the eigenvalues of the matrix. so let \u2019 s go back and assume we \u2019 re working with such a basis. this means that our second partial derivatives are particularly simple. we find that for we have and for, the second partial derivative is an eigenvalue which we can assume ( without loss of generality ) are nondecreasing. that is,. now, if all of these eigenvalues are positive at a critical point, then the hessian is positive - definite. that is, given any direction we have. on the other hand, if all of the eigenvalues are negative, the hessian is negative definite ; given any direction we have. in the former case, we \u2019 ll find that has a local minimum in a neighborhood of, and in the latter case we \u2019 ll find that has a local maximum there. if some eigenvalues are negative and others are positive, then the function has a mixed behavior at we \u2019 ll call a \u201c saddle \u201d ( sketch the graph of near to see why ). and if any eigenvalues are zero, all sorts of weird things can happen, though at least if we can find one positive and one negative eigenvalue we know that the critical point can \u2019 t be a", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6019996875066407, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:53.523941"} {"text": "to see why ). and if any eigenvalues are zero, all sorts of weird things can happen, though at least if we can find one positive and one negative eigenvalue we know that the critical point can \u2019 t be a local extremum. we remember that the determinant of a diagonal matrix is the product of its eigenvalues, so if the determinant of the hessian is nonzero then either we have a local maximum, we have a local minimum, or we have some form of well - behaved saddle. these behaviors we call \u201c generic \u201d critical points, since if we \u201c wiggle \u201d the function a bit ( while maintaining a critical point at ) the hessian determinant will stay nonzero. if the hessian determinant is zero, wiggling the function a little will make it nonzero, and so this sort of critical point is not generic. this is the sort of unstable situation analogous to a failure of the second derivative test. unfortunately, the analogy doesn \u2019 t extent, in that the sign of the hessian determinant isn \u2019 t instantly meaningful. in two dimensions a positive determinant means both eigenvalues have the same sign \u2014 denoting a local maximum or a local minimum \u2014 while a negative determinant denotes eigenvalues of different signs \u2014 denoting a saddle. this much is included in multivariable calculus courses, although usually without a clear explanation why it works. so, given a direction vector so that, then since is in, there will be some neighborhood of so that for all. in particular, there will be some range of so that. for any such point we can use taylor \u2019 s theorem with to tell us that for some. and from this we see that for every so that. a similar argument shows that if then for any near in the direction of. now if the hessian is positive - definite then every direction from gives us, and so every point near satisfies. if the hessian is negative - definite, then every point near satisfies. and if the hessian has both positive and negative eigenvalues then within any neighborhood we can find some directions in which and some in which.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6059305900042358, "token_count": 457, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:53.524833"} {"text": "pope lived during a period of intense and varied scientific activities \u2014 the development of the microscope, and newton ' s formulation of a theory explaining the gravitational basis of the universe, for example \u2014 which revealed a great deal about the nature of things : for pope, these discoveries seemed to provide scientific corroboration for a crucially important concept which he expressed in various ways, but which can be expressed as the fundamentally conservative notion that the physical universe itself, and man ' s place in it, are aspects of an orderly divine scheme of things which, though it is too vast for the merely human intellect to comprehend, is nevertheless both majestic and meaningful. pope ' s acceptance of this concept, and the ways in which he managed to incorporate it into his work, are revealing : contemporary scientific discoveries, that is, seemed to him to provide acceptable answers to questions which had previously been matters of religious faith or philosophical belief. with what questions does he seem to have concerned himself most? much more so than darker and more sceptical figures like swift or johnson ( who were in any case much more dubious about the validity of the very notion of scientific \" progress \" ) pope seems to have regarded contemporary scientific and technological advances \u2014 those, at any rate, which could be incorporated into his belief - system \u2014 as being somehow reassuring. incorporated in the victorian web july 2000", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6083546764283295, "token_count": 270, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:53.561014"} {"text": "mit professor \u2019 s book digs into the eclectic, textually linked reading choices of people in medieval london. cambridge, mass. - - following the 1997 creation of the first laser to emit pulsed beams of atoms, mit researchers report in the may 16 online version of science that they have now made a continuous source of coherent atoms. this work paves the way for a laser that emits a continuous stream of atoms. mit physicists led by physics professor wolfgang ketterle ( who shared the 2001 nobel prize in physics ) created the first atom laser. a long - sought goal in physics, the atom laser emitted atoms, similar in concept to the way an optical laser emits light. \" i am amazed at the rapid progress in the field, \" ketterle said. \" a continuous source of bose - einstein condensate is just one of many recent advances. \" because the atom laser operates in an ultra - high vacuum, it may never be as ubiquitous as optical lasers. but, like its predecessor, the pulsed atom laser, a continuous - stream atom laser may someday be used for a variety of applications in fundamental physics. it could be used to directly deposit atoms onto computer chips, and improve the precision and accuracy of atomic clocks and gyroscopes. it could aid in precision measurements of fundamental constants, atom optics and interferometry. a continuous stream laser could do all of these things better than a pulsed atomic laser, said co - author ananth p. chikkatur, a physics graduate student at mit. \" similar to the optical laser revolution, a continuous stream atom laser might be useful for more things than a pulsed laser, \" he said. in addition to ketterle and chikkatur, authors include mit graduate students yong - il shin and aaron e. leanhardt ; david f. kielpinski, postdoctoral fellow in the mit research laboratory of electronics ( rle ) ; physics senior edem tsikata ; mit affiliate todd l. gustavson ; and david e. pritchard, cecil and ida green professor of physics and a member of the mit - harvard center for ultracold atoms and the rle. a new form of matter an important step toward the first atom laser was the creation of a new form of matter - the bose - einstein condensate ( bec ). bec forms at temperatures around one millionth of a degree kelvin, a million times colder than interstellar space. ketterle ' s group had developed novel cooling techniques that were key to", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.6307052704983962, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:53.580180"} {"text": "the bose - einstein condensate ( bec ). bec forms at temperatures around one millionth of a degree kelvin, a million times colder than interstellar space. ketterle ' s group had developed novel cooling techniques that were key to the observation of bec in 1995, first by a group at the university of colorado at boulder, then a few months later by ketterle at mit. it was for this achievement that researchers from both institutions were honored with the nobel prize last year. ketterle and his research team managed to merge a bunch of atoms into what he calls a single matter - wave, and then used fluctuating magnetic fields to shape the matter - wave into a beam much like a laser. to test the coherence of a bec, the researchers generated two separate matter - waves, made them overlap and photographed a so - called \" interference pattern \" that only can be created by coherent waves. the researchers then had proof that they had created the first atom laser. since 1995, all atom lasers and bec have been produced in a pulsed manner, emitting individual pulses of atoms several times per minute. until now, little progress has been made toward a continuous bec source. while it took about six months to create a continuous optical laser after the first pulsed optical laser was produced in 1960, the much more technically challenging continuous source of coherent atoms has taken seven years since ketterle and colleagues first observed bec in 1995. a new challenge creating a continuous bec source involved three steps : building a chamber where the condensate could be stored in an optical trap, moving the fresh condensate and merging the new condensate with the existing condensate stored in the optical trap. ( the same researchers first developed an optical trap for becs in 1998. ) the researchers built an apparatus containing two vacuum chambers : a production chamber where the condensate is produced and a \" science chamber \" around 30 centimeters away, where the condensate is stored. the condensate in the science chamber had to be protected from laser light, which was necessary to produce a fresh condensate, and also from hot atoms. this required great precision, because a single laser - cooled atom has enough energy to knock thousands of atoms out of the condensate. in addition, they used an optical trap as the reservoir trap, which is insensitive to the magnetic fields used for cooling atoms into a bec. the researchers also needed to figure out how to move the fresh condensate -", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.6513137756459401, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:53.582066"} {"text": "##nsate. in addition, they used an optical trap as the reservoir trap, which is insensitive to the magnetic fields used for cooling atoms into a bec. the researchers also needed to figure out how to move the fresh condensate - chilled to astronomically low temperatures - from the production chamber to the science chamber without heating them up. this was accomplished using optical tweezers - a focused laser light beam that traps the condensate. finally, to merge the new condensate with the existing condensate in the science chamber, they moved the new condensate in the tweezers into the science chamber by merging the condensates together. a bucket of atoms if the pulsed atom laser is like a faucet that drips, chikkatur says the new innovations create a sort of bucket that collects the drips without wasting or changing the condensate too dramatically by heating it. this way, a reservoir of condensate is always on hand to replenish an atom laser. the condensate pulses are like a dripping faucet, where the drops are analogous to the pulsed bec production. \" we have now implemented a bucket ( our reservoir trap ), where we collect these drips to have continuous source of water ( bec ), \" chikkatur said. \" although we did not demonstrate this, if we poke a hole in this bucket, we will have a steady stream of water. this hole would be an outcoupling technique from which we can produce a continuous atom laser output. \" the big achievement here is that we have invented the bucket, which can store atoms continuously and also makes sure that the drips of water do not cause a lot of splashing ( heating of becs ), \" he said. the next step would be to improve the number of atoms in the source, perhaps by implementing a large - volume optical trap. another important step would be to demonstrate a phase - coherent condensate merger using a matter wave amplification technique pioneered by the mit group and a group in japan, he said. this work is funded by the national science foundation, the office of naval research, the army research office, the packard foundation and nasa.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.6247463846576145, "token_count": 452, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:53.583454"} {"text": "forth lesson 0 why bother? forth is weird compared to most popular computer languages. until you learn how, it is hard to read because it is not based on the syntax of algebraic expressions. but it is worth learning because a running forth system gives you an extraordinary degree of low - level control over the system. unlike most other programming environments that put up walls to hide or block access to \" unauthorized \" things, forth makes it easy to get at anything, at any level from low to high. forth syntax here is syntactically - valid line of forth code : this is a test 123 456 don ' t try to guess what it does ; in fact it doesn ' t necessarily actually work, because some of the symbols might not be defined. but it is syntactically valid. it consists of 6 words, \" this \" \" is \" \" a \" \" test \" \" 123 \" \" 456 \". words are separated by white space - spaces, tabs, and newlines. in most cases, spaces and newlines are the same. another syntactically valid line : asdf foo jello @ w # $ % ^, t / % $ 1a2qw2 gibbet that ' s 6 words. one of them is pretty strange, consisting mostly of punctuation, but it is a word nevertheless. any string of printing characters is a word, though most forth implementations limit valid word names to 31 or fewer characters. left to right execution the forth interpreter is very simple. it parses the next word ( i. e. it skips whitespace, then collects characters until it sees another whitespace character ) and executes it. that is it in a nutshell. so if you are trying to understand a forth program in detail, you have to look at each word in turn and work out what it does. that sounds simple, but it will trip you up if you insist on looking for algebra. just go left to right, one word at a time. with practice, you will learn enough of the forth vocabulary ( the meanings of standard words ) so that you can see what is going on at a glance, without having to puzzle out each individual word. it is just like learning to read - it is tedious until you get the basic vocabulary down, then it is easy. thus endeth the lesson.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.518727319708072, "token_count": 478, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:53.587375"} {"text": "enology - n. : a science that deals with wine and wine making the v & e department combines the sciences of viticulture and enology in a single research and teaching unit that encompasses all of the scientific disciplines that impact grape growing and winemaking. for over one hundred years the university of california has maintained an active and productive program in research and education in viticulture and enology. the continuing excellence of the department has enabled california growers and vintners to develop practices that have allowed the golden state to achieve its potential and become a premier wine - producing region. our students are innovators. we prepare our students to advance the art and science of grape growing and winemaking the department of viticulture & enology teaches students to think critically, based on an understanding of the sciences that are the foundation of grape growing and winemaking. our programs are based on a comprehensive preparation in mathematics and statistics, chemistry and biochemistry, microbiology and plant biology. the focus of our coursework is to provide our students the underlying principles so that they can understand current practices. our graduates learn from practicing winemakers, viticulturists, and apply their understanding to create their own styles and practices - the result is many of the finest wine...", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5059823356049942, "token_count": 258, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:53.588885"} {"text": "| first detailed look at rna dicer | scientists have gotten their first detailed look at the molecular structure of an enzyme that nature has been using for eons to help silence unwanted genetic messages. a team of researchers with berkeley lab and the university of california, berkeley, used x - ray crystallography at als beamlines 8. 2. 1 and 8. 2. 2 to determine the crystal structure of dicer, an enzyme that plays a critical role in a process known as rna interference. the dicer enzyme is able to snip a double - stranded form of rna into segments that can attach themselves to genes and block their activity. with this crystal structure, the researchers learned that dicer serves as a molecular ruler, with a clamp at one end and a cleaver at the other end a set distance away, that produces rna fragments of an ideal size for gene - silencing. rna \u2014 ribonucleic acid \u2014 has long been known as a multipurpose biological workhorse, responsible for carrying dna ' s genetic messages out from the nucleus of a living cell and using those messages to make specific proteins in a cell ' s cytoplasm. in 1998, however, scientists discovered that rna can also block the synthesis of proteins from some of those genetic messages. this gene - silencing process is called rna interference and it starts when a double - stranded segment of rna ( dsrna ) encounters the enzyme dicer. dicer cleaves dsrna into smaller fragments called short interfering rnas ( sirnas ) and micrornas ( mirnas ). dicer then helps load these fragments into a large multiprotein complex called risc, for rna - induced silencing complex. risc can seek out and capture messenger rna ( mrna ) molecules ( the rna that encodes the message of a gene ) with a base sequence complementary to that of its sirna or mirna. this serves to either destroy the genetic message carried by the mrna outright or else block the subsequent synthesis of a protein. until now, it has not been known how dicer is able to recognize dsrna and cleave those molecules into products with lengths that are exactly what is needed to silence specific genes. the berkeley researchers were able to purify and crystallize a dicer enzyme from giardia intestinalis, a one - celled microscopic parasite that can infect the intestines of humans and animals. this dicer enzyme in giardia is identical to the core of a dicer enzyme", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5304331832704829, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:53.630674"} {"text": "a dicer enzyme from giardia intestinalis, a one - celled microscopic parasite that can infect the intestines of humans and animals. this dicer enzyme in giardia is identical to the core of a dicer enzyme in higher eukaryotes, including humans, that cleaves dsrna into lengths of about 25 bases. in this work, the researchers describe a front view of the structure as looking like an axe. on the handle end there is a domain that is known to bind to small rna products, and on the blade end there is a domain that is able to cleave rna. between the clamp and the cleaver is a flat - surfaced region that carries a positive electrical charge. the researchers propose that this flat region binds to the negatively charged dsrna like biological velcro, enabling dicer to measure out and snip specified lengths of sirna. when you put the clamp, the flat area, and the cleaver together, you get a pretty good idea as to how dicer works. the research team is now using this structural model to design experiments that might reveal what triggers dicer into action. in addition, one size does not fit all for dicer : different forms of the dicer enzyme are known to produce different lengths of sirna, ranging from 21 to 30 base pairs in length or longer. having identified the flat - surfaced positively charged region in dicer as the \" ruler \" portion of the enzyme, the researchers speculate that it may be possible to alter the length of a long connector helix within this domain to change the lengths of the resulting sirna products. the researchers would like to see what happens when you take a natural dicer and change the length of its helix. research conducted by i. j. macrae and k. zhou ( university of california, berkeley, and howard hughes medical institute ) ; f. li, a. repic, a. n. brooks, and w. z. cande ( university of california, berkeley ) ; p. d. adams ( berkeley lab ) ; and j. a. doudna ( university of california, berkeley, howard hughes medical institute, and berkeley lab ). research funding : national institutes of health. operation of the als is supported by the u. s. department of energy, office of basic energy sciences. publication about this research : i. j. macrae, k. zhou, f. li, a. repic, a. n. brooks, w", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5028035267478049, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:53.643659"} {"text": "[ author ' s note : although i am employed by the japanese american national museum, this article should not be construed as coming from the national museum. instead, this article is my personal opinion and should be taken as such. ] over the last month, i have posted articles about my grandfather and what happened to him during the second world war. much of my grandfather \u2019 s story was not unique. approximately 120, 000 japanese americans were illegally incarcerated during the war, their only crime was looking like the enemy. the majority of those incarcerated were american citizens. when most people refer to where the japanese american were held, they use the term : internment camp. but the term is not only inaccurate but also hides what they really were : concentration camps. before you get angry or offended, let me explain. according to the merrian webster dictionary, a concentration camp is \u201c a camp where persons ( as prisoners of war, political prisoners, or refugees ) are detained or confined. \u201d the definition of a concentration camp describes exactly what happened to the japanese americans during wwii, where they were political prisoners confined in a camp. one of the reasons people are reluctant to use the term is because they don \u2019 t want to imply what happened in the united states was similar to what happened to jews and others in europe. but i believe what happened in europe was not a concentration camp but much much worse. a more accurate term would be \u201c death camp, \u201d because the main purpose of the european camps was to torture and kill its prisoners. in the book, common ground : the japanese american national museum and the culture of collaborations, the museum curators addressed this debate : a \u201c concentration camp \u201d is a place where people are imprisoned not because of any crimes they committed, but simply because of who they are. although many groups have been singled out for such persecution throughout history, the term \u201c concentration camp \u201d was first used at the turn of the century in the spanish american and boer wars. during world war ii, america \u2019 s concentration camps were clearly distinguishable from nazi germany \u2019 s. nazi camps were places of torture, barbarous medical experiments and summary executions : some were extermination centers with gas chambers. six million jews were slaughtered in the holocaust. many others, including gypsies, poles, homosexuals and political dissidents were also victims of the nazi concentration camps. in recent years, concentration camps have existed in the former soviet union, cambodia and bosnia. despite differences, all had one thing in common : the people in power removed a", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5083999805460726, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:53.689979"} {"text": "t the only euphemism. here is a short list of some of the other more egregious ones : this last one is so unbelievable ( and not very well known ), i feel it is important to expand on it a little. in the evacuation order, it states : all japanese persons, both alien and non - alien, will be evacuated from the above designated area by 12 : 00 o \u2019 clock noon tuesday, april 7, 1942. if an alien is someone who is not a citizen, a non - alien is a citizen. but they couldn \u2019 t say, \u201c all japanese person, both citizen and non - citizen will be evacuated \u201d because it would be too obviously unconstitutional. but if we say non - alien most people wouldn \u2019 t give it a second thought. hiding the truth of what happened behind euphemistic language doesn \u2019 t allow us as a country to learn from our mistake and make sure it doesn \u2019 t happen again. that \u2019 s why when people ask me about my family \u2019 s experience in world war ii, i always make sure to start by saying that they were incarcerated for almost six years in america \u2019 s concentration camps. if you want to learn more, i recommend reading words can lie or clarify : terminology of the world war ii incarceration of japanese americans by aiko herzig - yoshinaga. ( aiko was one of the people responsible for proving that the incarceration of japanese americans was not based on a military necessity but racism. ) finally, mako nakagawa will be speaking at the japanese american national museum on august 27, 2011 at 2pm. she will discuss euphemisms and the importance of using accurate terminology.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5031959269188743, "token_count": 345, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:53.695663"} {"text": "coming soon! nanotech on your desktop within 15 years, desktop nanofactories could pump out anything from a new car to a novel nanoweapon, says a technology commentator. and he warns that society needs to start preparing for this brave new world. mike treder from the center for responsible nanotechnology ( crn ) in new york says advanced nanotechnology, like these nanofactories, could help solve world poverty but it could also wreak economic and social chaos. \" it ' s the biggest challenge we ' ve ever faced as a species, \" says treder, who has been addressing scientists in australia this week. crn is a non - profit organisation advised among others by the so - called father of nanotechnology, dr eric drexler. the organisation says it aims to raise awareness about the benefits and dangers of molecular manufacturing, the precise assembly of products atom - by - atom. while molecular manufacturing is not yet a reality, treder says researchers are already working on building molecular - scale machines that could eventually move atoms around to make products. and he says that in less than 15 years, nanoscale factories could be making consumer products from cups and chairs to cars and house bricks. raw materials like carbon would be pumped into the nanofactory, where atoms would be rearranged to make products according to programs downloaded from the internet, says treder. treder says such desktop nanofactories could help reduce poverty and starvation in developing nations, and provide tremendous medical benefits. but society needs to guard against its potential risks. in particular, he says crn is concerned that these desktop nanofactories would lead to a nano \" arms race \" in which hard - to - detect nanoweapons could be designed, manufactured and tested much quicker than they are today. \" imagine a suitcase filled with billions of toxin - carrying flying robots that could be released anywhere to target a population, \" he says. \" you could make a suitcase full of these things overnight for a few dollars. \" the mass production of consumer goods by private desktop factories could also trigger social chaos due to economic disruption, says treder. \" if i can make my own car at home for a couple of hundred dollars with a design downloaded from the internet that means i ' m not a customer of the auto dealer down the road. \" waste from such easy manufacturing, or nanolitter, is another issue that needs to be thought about, he says. as is the prospect of nanospam. \" if someone could", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5336492919140885, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:53.703932"} {"text": "m not a customer of the auto dealer down the road. \" waste from such easy manufacturing, or nanolitter, is another issue that needs to be thought about, he says. as is the prospect of nanospam. \" if someone could send you a product online that you don ' t want but they just make it pump out of your nanofactory, how are we going to prevent that? \" experts are generally sceptical that desktop factories could exist so soon but welcome treder ' s discussion of impacts of nanotechnology on society. dr peter binks of nanotechnology victoria, a sponsor for treder ' s tour, says his organisation does not \" yet buy into the idea \" of the desktop factory. \" but we don ' t dismiss it either, \" he says. \" we think there are a large number of technical hurdles to be overcome. \" william price, professor of nanotechnology at the university of western sydney says desktop factories may be possible but technical issues will mean this will not be within 15 years. professor chennupati jagadish of the australian research council nanotechnology network, which is also a sponsor for the tour, thinks treder ' s views are imaginative and futuristic. \" expecting those sorts of machines in 15 years is probably too optimistic, \" he says, estimating they would be more like 30 or 40 years away, if at all. and it ' s this challenge that makes professor ned seeman, of new york university, who is involved in self - assembling arrays of dna machines, sceptical of treder ' s claims. \" i think this suggestion is wildly optimistic, \" he says. \" most of the basic principles have not been demonstrated, much less in a ' desktop ' context. \" but even he is not willing to rule the technology out completely. \" one hundred years from now anything is possible. \"", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.541975386816236, "token_count": 383, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:53.704772"} {"text": "accessmylibrary provides free access to millions of articles from top publications available through your library. over the years, countless scholarly works have been written about the african - american experience. in addition to examining the african - american ' s place in american history, some scholars have taken special interest in the black family, black youth, and black urban life ( billingsley, 1968 ; frazier, 1939 ; glasgow, 1980 ; glick & mills, 1974 ; gutman, 1976 ; hill, 1973 ; moynihan, 1965 ; wilson, 1987 ). as early as 1908, w. e. b. dubois wrote the negro american family and, years before that, described black life in the city of philadelphia ( 1899 ). since that time, except for that of a handful of scholars, interest in these subjects has waxed and waned, invariably increasing after incidents of urban unrest and turmoil such as the riots of the 1960s. the most recent riot, occurring in los angeles in may 1992, and escalating incidences of senseless urban violence have combined to renew scholarly, as well as public, concern for discovering why such events occur. one has only to look at statistical data compiled and interpreted in book form ( hacker, 1992 ) or data directly from the u. s. bureau of the census or from other government agencies to see why there might be unrest, despair, and even a sense of hopelessness in the black urban ghetto in general and among black young adults in particular. it is clear that these young people have much to contend with and have fewer and fewer tools to overcome the obstacles before them, obstacles that have the power to defeat them even before they are out of infancy. these are forces that weaken the black family, that undermine education, and that glorify violence. the 1990 census report indicates that african - americans make up 11. 9 percent of the total population of this country, yet they disproportionately contribute to statistics which, when translated, portray the face of ongoing human tragedy. to begin with, almost two - thirds of all black babies are now born outside marriage. this means that a large percentage of black families are headed by females. in fact, 56. 2 percent of all black families are headed by women and 55. 1 percent of these women have never been married ( hacker, 1992, pp. 67 - 74 ). more disturbing is the tendency of black teenagers to begin sexual activity at a relatively early age. it is estimated that, by age fifteen, 68. 6 percent of black", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5106584482663715, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:53.744750"} {"text": "community based adaptation the ifad adaptive approach to participatory mapping : design and delivery of participatory mapping projectssubmitted by c. baldin on fri, 2013 - 01 - 25 20 : 00 this document reports on an adaptive approach to designing and implementing participatory mapping initiatives within ifad - supported projects. the adaptive undp / gef supported cba community based adaptation project pilot sites : onamulunga school garden projectsubmitted by andrea on mon, 2011 - 09 - 26 07 : 09 the community - based adaptation programme ( cba ) is a five - year united nations development programme ( undp ) global initiative funded by the global environmental facility ( gef ). undp works with a number of partners including the united nations volunteers and the gef small grants programme ( sgp ). initial cba investments have been made in 20 communities in the northern parts of namibia ( i. e. omusati, oshana, ohangwena, oshikoto and kavango regions ). climate models suggest that these areas are particularly vulnerable and face significant climate change risks, both at present and in future. to facilitate uptake of cba strategies the onamulunga combined school project is focused on integrating adaptation to climate change into school curriculum. the pilot programme at onamulunga combined school in the oshikoto region involves training grade 9 and 10students in adaptation farming methods such as conservation tilling, water harvesting, and micro - drip irrigation and planting drought resistant crops. these methods are subsequently taken up by the students \u2019 native communities. this project directly contributes towards millennium development goals ( mdgs ) 2 and 7 and, through a special focus on the inclusion of young women and girls, to mdg 3. the project also indirectly contributes to the realization of other mdgs. there are various community based adaptation projects in namibia. the particular project discussed here is implemented by an ngo called creative entrepreneurs solutions ( ces ) that applies cba measures through self - help groups. at the onamulunga combined school in the oshikoto region, grade 9 and 10 students receive practical lessons in how to implement improved farming methods for a future affected by climate change. results and learning : according to a recent field visit by an independent assessor, the onamulunga garden project has achieved many of the intended results. various sites at the school have been prepared for crop agriculture using the latest conservation tilling methods for dry land crops and micro - drip irrigation for vegetables", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5002651083779298, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:53.786766"} {"text": "measures through self - help groups. at the onamulunga combined school in the oshikoto region, grade 9 and 10 students receive practical lessons in how to implement improved farming methods for a future affected by climate change. through equipping the students with relevant agricultural adaptation skills, the pilot programme is designed to sow the seeds for uptake and wider spread of adaptation measures throughout the community. - outcome 1 : enhanced adaptive capacity allows communities to reduce their vulnerability to adverse impacts of future climate hazards. - outcome 2 : national policies and programmes promote replication of best practices derived from cba projects. - outcome 3 : cooperation among member countries promotes innovation in adaptation to climate change including variability. project status : under implementation primary beneficiaries : major stakeholders are : the onamulunga combined school ; creative entrepreneurs solutions ( ces ). primary beneficiaries are the grade 9 and 10 students, their families and the communities living within the pilot areas, as well as other schools in the wider area. undp / gef supported cba community based adaptation project pilot sites : university of namibia \u2013 ogongo campus : the sweet - stem sorghum researchsubmitted by andrea on mon, 2011 - 09 - 26 06 : 42 the community - based adaptation programme ( cba ) is a five - year united nations development programme ( undp ) global initiative funded by the global environmental facility ( gef ). undp works with a number of partners including the united nations volunteers and the gef small grants programme ( sgp ). initial cba investments have been made in 20 communities in the northern parts of namibia ( i. e. omusati, oshana, ohangwena, oshikoto and kavango regions ). climate models suggest these areas are particularly vulnerable and face significant climate change risks, both at present and in future. to facilitate uptake of cba strategies, one project focuses on research into sweet - stem sorghum varieties that are better suited to altered climatic conditions. the purpose is to cultivate one variety that is not only stronger, but also presents the ideal mix of multi - purpose applications, such as food, fodder / silage and sugar extract for ethanol ( biofuel ). the project pursues multifaceted objectives of food security, environmental sustainability and universal education. these objectives address the three millennium development goals ( mdgs ) 1, 2, and 7. now entering its final stage, the researchers are focusing on three remaining sorghum varieties. one", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5018052806012436, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:53.790233"} {"text": "between them, in the opposite direction. an \" awakening from above \" may change nature, but it does not, in and of itself, change human nature. in it, no human effort has been expended. those to whom it happens are passive. while it lasts, it is overwhelming ; but only while it lasts. thereafter, people revert to what they were. an \" awakening from below \", by contrast, leaves a permanent mark. because human beings have taken the initiative, something in them changes. their horizons of possibility have been expanded. they now know they are capable of great things, and because they did so once, they are aware that they can do so again. an awakening from above temporarily transforms the external world ; an awakening from below permanently transforms our internal world. the first changes the universe ; the second changes us. two examples. the first : before and after the division of the red sea, the israelites were confronted by enemies : before, by the egyptians, after by the amalekites. the difference is total. before the red sea, the israelites were commanded to do nothing : stand still and you will see the deliverance god will bring you today... god will fight for you ; you need only be still. ( 14 : 13 - 14 ). facing the amalekites, however, the israelites themselves had to fight : moses said to joshua, ' choose men and go out and fight the amalekites ( 17 : 9 ). the first was an \" awakening from above \", the second an \" awakening from below. \" the difference was palpable. within three days after the division of the sea, the greatest of all miracles, the israelites began complaining again ( no water, no food ). but after the war against the amalekites, the israelites never again complained when facing conflict ( the sole exception - when the spies returned and the people lost heart - was when they relied on hearsay testimony, not on the immediate prospect of battle itself ). the battles fought for us do not change us ; the battles we fight, do. the second example : mount sinai and the tabernacle. the torah speaks about these two revelations of \" god ' s glory \" in almost identical terms : the glory of god settled on mount sinai. for six days the cloud covered the mountain, and on the seventh day god called to moses from within the cloud. then the cloud covered the tent of meeting, and the glory of god filled the tab", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5333042321280572, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:53.825702"} {"text": "labeling and rating systems an interpretation of the library bill of rights libraries do not advocate the ideas found in their collections or in resources accessible through the library. the presence of books and other resources in a library does not indicate endorsement of their contents by the library. likewise, providing access to digital information does not indicate endorsement or approval of that information by the library. labeling and rating systems present distinct challenges to these intellectual freedom principles. labels on library materials may be viewpoint - neutral directional aids designed to save the time of users, or they may be attempts to prejudice or discourage users or restrict their access to materials. when labeling is an attempt to prejudice attitudes, it is a censor \u2019 s tool. the american library association opposes labeling as a means of predisposing people \u2019 s attitudes toward library materials. prejudicial labels are designed to restrict access, based on a value judgment that the content, language, or themes of the material, or the background or views of the creator ( s ) of the material, render it inappropriate or offensive for all or certain groups of users. the prejudicial label is used to warn, discourage, or prohibit users or certain groups of users from accessing the material. such labels sometimes are used to place materials in restricted locations where access depends on staff intervention. viewpoint - neutral directional aids facilitate access by making it easier for users to locate materials. the materials are housed on open shelves and are equally accessible to all users, who may choose to consult or ignore the directional aids at their own discretion. directional aids can have the effect of prejudicial labels when their implementation becomes proscriptive rather than descriptive. when directional aids are used to forbid access or to suggest moral or doctrinal endorsement, the effect is the same as prejudicial labeling. many organizations use rating systems as a means of advising either their members or the general public regarding the organizations \u2019 opinions of the contents and suitability or appropriate age for use of certain books, films, recordings, web sites, games, or other materials. the adoption, enforcement, or endorsement of any of these rating systems by a library violates the library bill of rights. when requested, librarians should provide information about rating systems equitably, regardless of viewpoint. adopting such systems into law or library policy may be unconstitutional. if labeling or rating systems are mandated by law, the library should seek legal advice regarding the law \u2019 s applicability to library operations. libraries sometimes acquire resources that include ratings as part of their packaging. librarians should not", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5049928283197738, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:53.833698"} {"text": "the word \u201c hermeneutic \u201d is often used to refer to a method or style of interpretation commonly associated with the interpretation of scripture. no doubt there are any number of hermeneutical methods a person can use when approaching scripture : hermeneutic of rationalism, historical critical method, hermeneutic of trust, etc. any person can, regardless of personal belief, approach scripture using any hermeneutic they see fit to use. however, not ever hermeneutic is equal and not ever hermeneutic is useful in fostering spiritual growth and developing a deeper relationship with christ. the catholic church has never accepted many of the modern critical methods and hermeneutics used in biblical interpretation and biblical criticism in their totality ; she has found them time and time again useful but inadequate in being able to give a complete interpretation of scripture, for it is that each has their own pitfalls and stumbling blocks, which more often results in an emptying of meaning from scripture than in a richer understanding of scripture. many of these modern critical methods fall under what scholars have named a hermeneutic of suspicion. in short, a hermeneutic of suspicion operates from the mindset that scripture cannot be trusted in its current form. that the modern mind cannot and does not have access to the meaning of scripture without first running it through certain textual and analytical filters. a hermeneutic of suspicion encourages the reader to suspect the credibility of scripture and those who interpret scripture operating from a different hermeneutic. a hermeneutic of suspicion stands contrary to what dei verbum, the document from vatican ii on divine revelation, states : \u201c holy mother church has firmly and with absolute constancy held, and continues to hold, that the four gospels just named, whose historical character the church unhesitatingly asserts, faithfully hand on what jesus christ, while living among men, really did and taught for their eternal salvation... the sacred authors wrote the four gospels... told us the honest truth about jesus. for their intention in writing was that either from their own memory and recollections, or from the witness of those who \u201c themselves from the beginning were eyewitnesses and ministers of the word \u201d we might know \u201c the truth \u201d concerning those matters about which we have been instructed ( \u00a7 19 ). \" the vatican ii document even stands in union with pope benedict \u2019 s xvi \u2019 s utterance of \u201c i trust the gospels \u201d in his recent book jesus of nazareth ( xx", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5048018301581648, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:53.853311"} {"text": "to scripture : \u201c what kind of conversation can we have with scripture if we enter into that conversation already suspicious of that conversation we are about to have? \u201d some of the students held that the bible was exempt from the above approach. as it was, many of these students had scripture professors who approached scripture with suspicion and had passed on that suspicion to their students. so it was no surprise that the rules changed when applied to scripture. this was a problem. for by being unable to converse freely, fully, and openly with scripture and being only able to approach scripture with suspicion turns scripture into a kind of supermarket tabloid fit with aliens, biblical doomsday prophecy, and bigfoot \u2019 s baby. scripture becomes a book of hearsay akin to hearing a story from a friend who heard it from a friend who knows a fellow who says it \u2019 s true. further by conversing suspiciously with scripture, scripture resembles a fisherman \u2019 s story about the \u2018 big one \u2019 that got away. where on the fisher \u2019 s first telling, the fish is a reasonable size about \u2018 ye big \u2019 as he would demonstrate with his hands spread apart. while on the fisher \u2019 s last telling of the story, the fisher, equipped only with a rod and reel in a 8 - foot skiff, with his wits alone to protect him, fights moby dick himself long through the night and into the wee hours of the morning until the fish finally tires and surfaces next to the vessel in time only for the fisher \u2019 s line or pole to break before a net sizable enough can be reached, and all the while his camera, on the other side of the boat, cannot be reached in time to document the story that is, only after exaggeration and misinformation have been stripped away can the real meaning be determined. this is a take on scripture highly contrary from the recommendations of vatican ii, the holy father and is different from how the saints conversed with scripture. finally, to approach scripture with suspicion is to, by default, approach other parts of the doctrines of faith with the same suspicion, for much of catholic theology is derived from scripture. as mentioned earlier, to operate from a hermeneutic of suspicion is to be suspicious of not only scripture but also the church who vouches for it. furthermore to not trust scripture means that one does not trust the inspiration or the person whom inspired the holy texts : the holy spirit. we know that wherever one person of the trinity is present so are the other two and every act of god is always tri", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5038575633811246, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:53.858625"} {"text": "science fair project encyclopedia cryonics is the practice of preserving organisms, or at least their brains, for possible future revival by storing them at cryogenic temperatures where metabolism and decay are almost completely stopped. an organism held in such a state ( either frozen or vitrified ) is said to be cryopreserved. barring social disruptions, cryonicists believe that a perfectly vitrified person can be expected to remain physically viable for at least 30, 000 years, after which time cosmic ray damage is thought to be irreparable. many scientists in the field, most notably ralph merkle and brian wowk, hold that molecular nanotechnology has the potential to extend even this limit many times over. to its detractors, the justification for cryonics is unclear, given the primitive state of preservation technology. advocates counter that even a slim chance of revival is better than no chance. in the future, they speculate, not only will conventional health services be improved, but they will also quite likely have expanded even to the conquering of old age itself ( see links at the bottom ). therefore, if one could preserve one ' s body ( or at least the contents of one ' s mind ) for, say, another hundred years, one might well be resuscitated and live indefinitely long. but critics of the field contend that, while an interesting technical idea, cryonics is currently little more than a pipedream, that current \" patients \" will never be successfully revived, and that decades of research, at least, must occur before cryonics is to be a legitimate field with any hope of success. probably the most famous cryopreserved patient is ted williams. the popular urban legend that walt disney was cryopreserved is false ; he was cremated, and interred at forest lawn memorial park cemetery. robert heinlein, who wrote enthusiastically of the concept, was cremated and his ashes distributed over the pacific ocean. timothy leary was a long - time cryonics advocate, and signed up with a major cryonics provider. he changed his mind, however, shortly before his death, and so was not cryopreserved. obstacles to success damage from ice formation cryonics has traditionally been dismissed by mainstream cryobiology, of which it is arguably a part. the reason generally given for this dismissal is that the freezing process creates ice crystals, which damage cells and cellular structures \u2014 a condition sometimes called \" whole body freezer burn \" \u2014 so as to render any future repair impossible", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5661763089331618, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:53.869095"} {"text": "which it is arguably a part. the reason generally given for this dismissal is that the freezing process creates ice crystals, which damage cells and cellular structures \u2014 a condition sometimes called \" whole body freezer burn \" \u2014 so as to render any future repair impossible. cryonicists have long argued, however, that the extent of this damage was greatly exaggerated by the critics, presuming that some reasonable attempt is made to perfuse the body with cryoprotectant chemicals ( traditionally glycerol ) that inhibit ice crystal formation. according to cryonicists, however, the freezer burn objection became moot around the turn of the millennium, when cryobiologists greg fahy and brian wowk, of twenty - first century medicine developed major improvements in cryopreservation technology, including new cryoprotectants and new cryoprotectant solutions, that greatly improved the feasibility of eliminating ice crystal formation entirely, allowing vitrification ( preservation in a glassy rather than frozen state ). in a glass, the molecules do not rearrange themselves into grainy ice crystals as the solution cools, but instead become locked together while still randomly arranged as in a fluid, forming a \" solid liquid \" as the temperature falls below the glass transition temperature. alcor life extension foundation, the world ' s largest cryonics provider, has since been using these cryoprotectants, along with a new, faster cooling method, to vitrify whole human brains. they continue to use the less effective glycerol - based freezing for patients who opt to have their whole bodies preserved, since vitrification of an entire body is beyond current technical capabilities. the only other full - service cryonics provider in the world, the cryonics institute, is currently testing its own vitrification solution. current solutions being used for vitrification are stable enough to avoid crystallization even when a vitrified brain is warmed up. this has recently allowed brains to be vitrified, warmed back up, and examined for ice damage using light and electron microscopy. no ice crystal damage was found. however, if the circulation of the brain is compromised, protective chemicals may not be able to reach all parts of the brain, and freezing may occur either during cooling or during warming. cryonicists argue, however, that injury caused during cooling can be repaired before the vitrified brain is warmed back up, and that damage during rewarming can be prevented by adding more cryoprotectant in", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5580263743984724, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:53.870303"} {"text": "cooling or during warming. cryonicists argue, however, that injury caused during cooling can be repaired before the vitrified brain is warmed back up, and that damage during rewarming can be prevented by adding more cryoprotectant in the solid state, or by improving rewarming methods. some critics have speculated that because a cryonics patient has been declared legally dead, their organs are dead, and thus unable to allow cryoprotectants to reach the majority of cells. cryonicists respond that it has been empirically demonstrated that, so long as the cryopreservation process begins immediately after legal death is declared, the individual organs ( and perhaps even the patient as a whole ) remain biologically alive, and vitrification ( particularly of the brain ) is quite feasible. critics have often quipped that it is easier to revive a corpse than a cryonically frozen body. many cryonicists might actually agree with this, provided that the \" corpse \" were fresh, but they would argue that such a \" corpse \" may actually be biologically alive, under optimal conditions. a declaration of legal death does not mean that life has suddenly ended \u2014 death is a gradual process, not a sudden event. rather, legal death is a declaration by medical personnel that there is nothing more they can do to save the patient. but if the body is clearly biologically dead, having been sitting at room temperature for a period of time, or having been traditionally embalmed, then cryonicists would hold that such a body is far less revivable than a cryonically preserved patient, since any process of resuscitation will depend on the quality of the structural and molecular preservation of the brain, which is largely destroyed by ischemic damage ( from lack of blood flow ) within minutes or hours of cardiac arrest, if the body is left to sit at room temperature. traditional embalming also largely destroys this crucial neurological structure. cryonicists would also point out that the definitions of \" death \" and \" corpse \" currently in use may change with future medical advances, just as they have changed in the past, and so they generally reject the idea that they are trying to \" raise the dead \", viewing their procedures instead as highly experimental medical procedures, whose efficacy is yet to be either demonstrated or refuted. some also suggest that if technology is developed that allows mind transfer, revival of the frozen brain might not even be required ; the mind of the patient could instead be \" uploaded \" into an entirely", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5670470379156386, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:53.871338"} {"text": "whose efficacy is yet to be either demonstrated or refuted. some also suggest that if technology is developed that allows mind transfer, revival of the frozen brain might not even be required ; the mind of the patient could instead be \" uploaded \" into an entirely new substrate. the biggest drawback to current vitrification practice is a costs issue. because the only really cost - effective means of storing a cryopreserved person is in liquid nitrogen, possibly large - scale fracturing of the brain occurs, a result of cooling to \u2212196\u00b0c, the temperature of liquid nitrogen. fracture - free vitrification would require inexpensive storage at a temperature significantly below the glass transition temperature of about \u2212125\u00b0c, but high enough to avoid fracturing ( \u2212150\u00b0c is about right ). alcor is currently developing such a storage system. alcor believes, however, that even before such a storage system is developed, the current vitrification method is far superior to traditional glycerol - based freezing, since the fractures are very clean breaks that occur even with traditional glycerol cryoprotection, and the loss of neurological structure is still less than that caused by ice formation, by orders of magnitude. while cryopreservation arrangements can be expensive ( currently ranging from $ 28, 000 to $ 150, 000 ), most cryonicists pay for it with life insurance. the elderly, and others who may be uninsurable for health reasons, will often pay for the procedure through their estate. others simply invest their money over a period of years, accepting the risk that they might die in the meantime. all in all, cryonics is actually quite affordable for the vast majority of those in the industrialized world who really want it, especially if they make arrangements while still young. even assuming perfect cryopreservation techniques, many cryonicists would still regard eventual revival as a long shot. in addition to the many technical hurdles that remain, the likelihood of obtaining a good cryopreservation is not very high because of logistical problems. the likelihood of the continuity of cryonics organizations as businesses, and the threat of legislative interference in the practice, don ' t help the odds either. most cryonicists, therefore, regard their cryopreservation arrangements as a kind of medical insurance \u2014 not certain to keep them alive, but better than no chance at all and still a rational gamble to take. brain vs. whole - body cryopreservation during the 1980s,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5654683619447742, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:53.872420"} {"text": "cryopreservation arrangements as a kind of medical insurance \u2014 not certain to keep them alive, but better than no chance at all and still a rational gamble to take. brain vs. whole - body cryopreservation during the 1980s, the problems associated with crystallization were becoming better appreciated, and the emphasis shifted from whole body to brain - only or \" neuropreservation \", on the assumption that the rest of the body could be regrown, perhaps by cloning of the person ' s dna or by using embryonic stem cell technology. the main goal now seems to be to preserve the information contained in the structure of the brain, on which memory and personal identity depends. available scientific and medical evidence suggests that the mechanical structure of the brain is wholly responsible for personal identity and memories ( for instance, spinal cord injury victims, organ transplant patients, and amputees appear to retain their personal identity and memories ). damage caused by freezing and fracturing is thought to be potentially repairable in the future, using nanotechnology, which will enable the manipulation of matter at the molecular level. to critics, this appears a kind of futuristic deus ex machina, but while the engineering details remain speculative, the rapidity of scientific advances over the past century, and more recently in the field of nanotechnology itself, suggest to some that there may be no insurmountable problems. and the cryopreserved patient can wait a long time. with the advent of vitrification, the importance of nanotechnology to the cryonics movement may begin to decrease. some critics, and even some cryonicists, question this emphasis on the brain, arguing that during neuropreservation some information about the body ' s phenotype will be lost and the new body may feel \" unwanted \", and that in case of brain damage the body may serve as a crude backup, helping restore indirectly some of the memories. partly for this reason, the cryonics institute preserves only whole bodies. some proponents of neuropreservation agree with these concerns, but still feel that lower costs and better brain preservation justify preserving only the brain. historically, cryonics began in 1962 with the publication of the prospect of immortality by robert ettinger. in the 1970s, the damage caused by crystallization was not well understood. two early organizations went bankrupt, allowing their patients to thaw out, bringing the matter to the public eye, at which point the problem with cellular damage became more well known and the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5537133062083075, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:53.873665"} {"text": "boson or bogus, billion - dollar bull? by hank mills salt lake city, utah july 9, 2012 salt lake city, utah - - the universe is a mysterious place, and we understand very little about how it works. sadly, the challenges our civilization faces such as war, poverty, pollution, economic turmoil, and \" black swan \" events may not allow humanity to exist long enough to figure it out before our species goes extinct. if we are to learn how the universe works, breakthrough technologies like cold fusion ( lenr ) need to be pursued, instead of multibillion dollar projects such as the search for the higgs boson that will have very few real - world applications in the short - to - medium term. what humanity needs at this moment are working technologies that can allow us to overcome the issues that threaten our civilization. the cold fusion - based energy catalyzer, known colloquially as the e - cat, is just such a technology because it could allow for almost unlimited energy production utilizing only tiny amounts of cheap, non - polluting fuel. the home version of the e - cat is expected to be available commercially in the next six months at a cost $ 600 or less. the energy catalyzer has cost andrea rossi, a successful and colorful italian engineer, virtually everything he has - perhap smore than $ 1 million dollars in all. by contrast, it took $ 9 billion and 30 years of work and 9, 000 scientists to build the large hadron accelerator in geneva that they say \" may have \" discovered the so - called \" god particle, \" the theoretical construct known as the higgs boson. the united states contributed $ 531 million of that, and it uses enough power for 120, 000 homes or the entire canton of geneva, switzerland. it costs the united kingdom enough to buy a beer for everyone in the country. with cold fusion technology, funded by less than $ 100 millioon, humanity could gain a tool that could allow for large - scale desalinization of water and the resulting transformation of deserts into productive farmland, along with a massive reduction in the co2 pollution that fuels global warming. the e - cat utilizes tiny amounts of nickel powder, hydrogen gas, and undisclosed ( for proprietary reasons ) catalysts to produce nuclear reactions, with the result being a massive release of energy in the form of heat. in every way, this technology matches what i had hoped for throughout my childhood and later on in my life : in addition, the millions of jobs created around the world", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.6128521178141552, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:53.884117"} {"text": "reactions, with the result being a massive release of energy in the form of heat. in every way, this technology matches what i had hoped for throughout my childhood and later on in my life : in addition, the millions of jobs created around the world by a cold - fusion revolution would galvanize the global economy and end the current global recession - and do it all safely, without fukushima - like events. to be blunt, cold - fusion technology holds the potential to transform our world from a planet of poverty, war and self - destruction into a place of enlightened prosperity. on the other hand, the existence of the higgs boson offers no near - term benefits to humanity. it may give us a bit more knowledge about the universe, but no one claims that even one single technology that could be immediately developed using this knowledge. if the existence of the higgs boson could yield a warp drive, free - energy device, gravity - modifying device, or other breakthrough in a reasonable period of time, perhaps the billions of dollars spent would be worth it. but the truth is that just like hot fusion research, the search for the higgs boson is a boondoggle. due to the lack of any near - term benefits, the funds could be better spent elsewhere. if a fraction of the money spent on the search for the higgs boson had been put into cold fusion research 20 years ago, there would be no energy crisis today. instead, cold fusion devices that could produce kilowatts of power and very high temperatures - like the e - cat - would have been quickly developed and commercialized. instead of putting money into practical technologies that could benefit all mankind in the near term, the career scientists naysayed exotic technologies like cold fusion, and lobbied for billions of dollars in additional funding for giant hot fusion reactors and particle colliders. all these years later, we have seen little or no return on the investment in the form of technological advancement. we are still stuck with rockets for propulsion and burning fossil fuels for energy. literally, we are still in a technological dark age when it comes to the most fundamental of technologies - energy and propulsion. ( if you don ' t count the \" black, \" off - budget projects that use taxpayer money with no taxpayer benefit, and actually have the agenda of making us all slaves. ) i do not want to call the search for the higgs field or the higgs boson totally meaningless. however, i think nicola tesla ' s work ( although still ignored by", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.6280921793611445, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:53.885180"} {"text": "benefit, and actually have the agenda of making us all slaves. ) i do not want to call the search for the higgs field or the higgs boson totally meaningless. however, i think nicola tesla ' s work ( although still ignored by the mainstream ) into the nature of the ether is much more meaningful. he worked for years to find ways of harnessing the ether to allow for practical applications. some of these applications, such as wireless power transfer and superluminal communication via longitudinal waves in the ether, and his black box that provided electrical power ( from the ether ) to run an electrical vehicle - have been replicated. others have not yet been replicated, so far as we know. but if a fraction of the billions of dollars spent on hot fusion and the search for the higgs boson were utilized to fund inventors with the open - mindedness of tesla, knowledge of how the universe works would be opened up to us very quickly. my personal belief is that all the most important breakthroughs and discoveries will come from projects that can be performed in an ordinary lab, with a modest amount of funding. i think expensive multibillion - dollar projects that require monstrous reactors and miles - long particle accelerators belong in the future - if ever - after we have solved the more immediate issues facing our civilization. once our civilization is stabilized and poverty is a thing of the past, after we stop fighting wars over oil and the destruction of our environment has been reduced, then it may be time for larger - scale projects. of course, by that time, the smaller - scale projects may have figured almost everything out that the monolithic projects were designed to explore. by then, the commercialization of cold fusion, free energy, gravity modification, faster - than - light drives and other technologies may have provided us with a more complete knowledge of how the universe works. i think the e - cat is a key example of a technology that was developed on a modest budget that will provide both solutions to the challenges our civilization faces and a huge wealth of information about how our universe works. in fact, cold fusion may end up telling us more about how our universe works than the existence of the higgs boson. in my opinion, once the world recognizes that cold fusion is a reality, it will turn the discovery of the higgs boson into a footnote in history. also, it will expose how a field of study in which researchers are often forced to work on shoestring budgets can yield greater benefits for humanity than research that receives", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5998732169029086, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:53.886285"} {"text": "of content, but also 21st century skills that are transferable across disciplines and into life after k - 12 schooling. through this standard, students can communicate and collaborate, both in person with their teams and across the globe, giving an opportunity for global education. using the right tools for the authentic purposes of collaboration and communication, students can engage in innovative pbl projects. student net # 3 : research and information fluency students apply digital tools to gather, evaluate and use information. when we unpack this standard, one of the key words here is \u201c inquiry. \u201d students are not simply doing research. pbl projects require students to engage in in - depth inquiry on a specific topic through posing questions, researching and interpreting data, and reporting it. however, as students move through this cycle of inquiry, they may find incomplete data, require further information or make mistakes. this net lets students know that revision and reflection are critical to the inquiry process. in addition, it leverages higher - order thinking skills like synthesis and evaluation, which can ensure that pbl projects are stimulating deep learning. student net # 4 : critical thinking, problem solving, and decision making students use critical thinking skills to plan and conduct research, manage projects, solve problems and make informed decisions using appropriate digital tools and resources. pbl projects must engage students in critically thinking around content, and they often have students attempt to solve a problem. in addition, this standard really pushes for student - centered learning. it is on the students to manage themselves, make decisions and more. the teacher \u2019 s role is more of guide on the side, with \u201c just in time \u201d moments of instruction to help students with critical thinking and problem solving. pbl projects also leverage the 21st century skill of critical thinking and problem solving through assessment. student net # 5 : digital citizenship students understand human, cultural and societal issues related to technology, and practice legal and ethical behavior. as students engage in technology - rich projects, it is important to model and practice digital citizenship. explicit instruction, lessons and activities must take place to ensure that students are creating good \u201c digital footprints. \u201d in addition, this is a great theme inspiration for a pbl project. from a technology class to a language arts class, you can have students make recommendations about digital policy or teach other members of the school community and beyond how to be good digital citizens. as you build your pbl projects, consider how the iste nets can support your work. the nets will not only help to hone and refine a pbl project, but", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_entanglement", "similarity_score": 0.5252984087103891, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:53.896537"} {"text": "submitted to : international journal of food microbiology publication type : peer reviewed journal publication acceptance date : february 20, 2004 publication date : september 1, 2004 citation : liming, s. h., bhagwat, a. a. 2004. application of molecular beacon - - real - time pcr technology to detect salmonella species contaminating fruits and vegetables. international journal of food microbiology. 95 : 177 - 187. interpretive summary : conventional methods in food may take up to one week to accurately predict the presence of human pathogens. considering the limited shelf life of produce, rapid methods for pathogen detection are required. real - time detection of salmonella strains will broaden our ability to screen large number of samples in a short time. in this study, a dna hybridization based detection method for salmonella enterica serovar typhimurium, based on polymerase chain reaction ( pcr ) is developed to enable near - instantaneous detection and quantitative analysis. the modified protocol requires less than 24 hours and is compatible for future high throughput sample analyses requirements. detection of human pathogens from fresh produce is a crucial step in implementing food safety. both the fresh produce industry and consumers will benefit from the results of this research. an oligonucleotide probe that becomes fluorescent upon hybridization to the target dna ( molecular beacon ; mb ) was used in a real - time polymerase chain reaction ( pcr ) assay to detect the presence of salmonella species. a fluorogenic mb - probe was designed to recognize the iaga ( invasion associated gene ), which is highly specific to all salmonella species that we tested. as few as 1 to 4 colony - forming units ( cfu ) per pcr reaction could be detected. the capability of the assay to detect salmonella species from artificially inoculated fresh - cut produce such as cantaloupe, mixed - salad, cilantro, and alfalfa sprouts was demonstrated. in addition, a comparison of two commercially available kits utilizing mb - pcr ( iq - check, bio - rad laboratories ) and conventional aoac - approved pcr ( bax, dupont qualicon ) was performed on artificially inoculated produce. as few as 4 cfu / 25 g of produce were detected after 16 h of enrichment in buffered peptone broth. these assays could be carried out entirely in sealed pcr tubes, enabling a rapid and high throughput detection of salmonella species in a large number of", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5240471262361512, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:53.910478"} {"text": "we are banishing darkness from the night. electric lights have been shining over cities and towns around the world for a century. but, increasingly, even rural areas glimmer through the night, with mixed \u2013 and largely unstudied \u2013 impacts on wildlife. understanding these impacts is a crucial conservation challenge and bats, as almost exclusively nocturnal animals, are ideal subjects for exploring the effects of light pollution. previous studies have confirmed what many city dwellers have long noted : some bats enjoy a positive impact of illumination by learning to feed on insects attracted to streetlights. my research, however, demonstrates for the first time an important downside : artificial lighting can disrupt the commuting behavior of a threatened bat species. this project, using a novel experimental approach, was supported in part by bci student research scholarships. artificial lighting is a global phenomenon and the amount of light pollution is growing rapidly, with a 24 percent increase in england between 1993 and 2000. since then, cultural restoration projects have brought lighting to old docks and riversides, placing important river corridors used by bats and other wildlife at risk of disturbance. studies of bats ' foraging activity around streetlights find that these bats are usually fast - flying species that forage in open landscapes, typically species of pipistrellus, nyctalus, vespertilio and eptesicus. such bats are better able than their slower cousins to evade hawks, owls and other birds of prey. for our study, we chose the lesser horseshoe bat ( rhinolophus hipposideros ), a shy, slow -? ying bat that typically travels no more than about 1. 2 miles ( 2 kilometers ) from its roost to forage each night, often flying no more than 16 feet ( 5 meters ) from the ground. the species is adapted for feeding in cluttered, woodland environments. its global populations are reported decreasing and the species is endangered in many countries of central europe. the united kingdom provides a european stronghold for the lesser horseshoe bat, with an estimated population of around 50, 000. these bats ' slow flight leaves them especially vulnerable to birds of prey, so they leave their roosts only as the light fades and commute to foraging areas along linear features such as hedgerows. hedgerows are densely wooded corridors of shrubs and small trees that typically separate fields from each other and from roadways. such features are important commuting routes for many bat species, which use them for protection from predators and the elements. we suspected that lesser horseshoe bats would avoid illuminated areas, largely because", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5031865845867771, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:53.946072"} {"text": "after sunset when the lights were turned on. light pollution significantly delayed the bats ' commuting behavior. interestingly, the activity began a few minutes earlier ( 23 minutes after sunset ) on the first, but not the second, noise night. it is possible that some bats emerged early to investigate the generator noise. we clearly demonstrated how artificial lighting disrupts the behavior of lesser horseshoe bats. we found no evidence of habituation : at least on our timescale, the bats did not become accustomed to the illumination and begin returning to normal activity or timing. these results suggest that light pollution may fragment the network of commuting routes used by lesser horseshoe bats, causing them to seek alternate, and probably longer, paths between roosting and foraging habitats. for some bats, this increased flight time can increase energy costs and stress, with potential impacts on reproductive success. it is critical, therefore, that light pollution be considered in conservation efforts. light pollution is an increasing global problem with negative impacts on such important animal behaviors as foraging, reproduction and communication. yet lighting is rarely considered in habitat - management plans and streetlights are specifically excluded from light - pollution legislation in england and wales. i plan to use these results as the basis for recommendations for changes in policy, conservation and management for bat habitat in areas that are subject to development. this knowledge is fundamental for understanding the factors that impact bat populations not only in the united kingdom but around the world, and in developing effective bat - conservation actions. i hope these findings will also help guide further research. scientists need to determine what levels of lighting particular bat species can tolerate, so we can take appropriate measures to limit the impact. these might include reducing illumination at commuting times, directing light away from commuting routes and constructing alternative flight routes. we sincerely hope this research and similar studies will cause both officials and the public to think more about the consequences of artificial lighting on bats and other wildlife. emma stone is a ph. d. student at the university of bristol and a researcher at the university ' s school of biological sciences. this project earned her the national vincent weir scientific award from the bat conservation trust of the united kingdom. visit her project website for more information : www. batsandlighting. co. uk. this research was originally published in the journal current biology, with co - authors gareth jones and stephen harris.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5002753586304032, "token_count": 477, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:53.950591"} {"text": "we believe that textbooks should teach critical thinking. | about bju press what is \u201c critical thinking \u201d? nearly everyone in educational circles uses the term \u201c critical thinking \u201d \u2014 in fact, it is so commonly used that it has become almost meaningless. just what is critical thinking \u2014 and what is it not? let \u2019 s start with what it is not. although many educators use test scores, grades, and fact - recall activities to gauge educational excellence, none of these truly measure critical - thinking skills. all education consists of two essential elements : subject matter ( \u201c what to think \u201d ) and the correct way to understand and evaluate the subject matter ( \u201c how to think \u201d ). memorization is key to the first element. critical thinking is key to the second. in short, then, critical thinking is analyzing and evaluating thinking with the goal of improving it. according to the foundation for critical thinking ( found at criticalthinking. org ), it is \u201c that mode of thinking \u2014 about any subject, content, or problem \u2014 in which the thinker improves the quality of his or her thinking by skillfully analyzing, assessing, and reconstructing it. \u201d thinking critically is thinking in order to evaluate. it means making reasoned judgments. it is using criteria to judge the quality of something. and its ultimate goal is further improvement of thinking skills. critical thinking goes hand - in - hand with creative thinking. sound creative thinking requires both the intellectual discipline to judge and evaluate and the originality and productivity to create. why should christians be concerned with thinking critically? the god of the bible is a god of reason and order. god asks us to know truth ( ps. 46 : 10 ), but he also wants us to understand truth ( luke 24 : 45 ). both knowing and understanding are key. but beyond both knowledge and understanding, is the quality of discernment ( judgment or evaluation ) that distinguishes the godly from the ungodly ( 1 cor. 2 : 14 \u2013 15 ). the role of the textbook in teaching critical thinking of course, a textbook provides the factual base for studying a subject. but its worldview, its methods of teaching, its depth of content, and its literary quality should promote critical and creative thinking that is foundationally biblical. textbook content clearly plays an important role in what the teacher teaches, but the teacher \u2019 s edition of the textbook should offer help in promoting good thinking skills. that is why teacher \u2019 s editions from bju press provide you with key questions for discussion, discovery activities that complement your", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5373083894238277, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:53.970589"} {"text": "the following glossary provides definitions for terms and descriptions for acronyms that are used in the aml handbook. this glossary does not supersede definitions in relevant laws or regulations. abandoned mine : an abandoned hardrock mine on or affecting public lands administered by the blm, at which exploration, development, mining, reclamation, maintenance, and inspection of facilities and equipment, and other operations ceased as of january 1, 1981 ( the effective date of the blm \u2019 s surface management regulations codified at 43 cfr subpart 3809 ) with no evidence demonstrating that the miner intends to resume mining. for many abandoned mines, no current claimant of record or viable potentially responsible party exists. abandoned mines generally include a range of mining impacts, or features that may pose a threat to water quality, public safety, and / or the environment. abandoned mine land ( aml ) program : a blm program that focuses on reclaiming hardrock abandoned mine lands on or affecting public lands administered by the blm. the primary goal of the program is to remediate and reduce actual or potential threats that pose physical safety risks and environmental degradation. the blm applies risk - based criteria and uses the watershed approach to establish project priorities. the program also works to return mine - impacted lands to productive use ( s ). applicable and relevant and appropriate requirements ( arars ) : arars are state, local, and federal standards that are directly applicable or may be considered relevant and appropriate to the circumstances on the site. arars include clean - up standards, standards of control, and other environmental protection requirements, criteria, or limitations. these standards are an inherent part of the scoping process, but will affect the long - term remediation, especially in the setting of clean - up standards and meeting other land use regulations. categorical exclusion : a category of actions ( identified in agency guidance ) that do not individually or cumulatively have a significant effect on the human environment and for which neither an ea nor an eis is required ( 40 cfr 1508. 4 ). environmental and disposal liability ( edl ) : an anticipated future outflow or other sacrifice of resources ( e. g., costs ) associated with cleanup due to past or current operations that have environmental closure requirements or a release of hazardous substances, pollutants, and contaminants on blm lands or facilities. geographic information system ( gis ) : a computer system capable of storing, analyzing, and displaying data and describing places on the earth \u2019 s surface. government", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5428742739619347, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:53.978099"} {"text": "hazardous substances, pollutants, and contaminants on blm lands or facilities. geographic information system ( gis ) : a computer system capable of storing, analyzing, and displaying data and describing places on the earth \u2019 s surface. government performance and results act ( gpra ) : the gpra ( pub. l. 103 - 62, aug. 3, 1993, 107 stat. 285 ) holds federal agencies accountable for using resources wisely and achieving program results. gpra requires agencies to develop plans for what they intend to accomplish, measure how well they are doing, make appropriate decisions based on the information they have gathered, and communicate information about their performance to congress and to the public. hardrock : this term is used here strictly in the context of the aml program and has traditionally been used by the blm and other agencies to apply to non - coal mining environments where environmental risks such as acid - mine drainage, heavy metal contamination, and threats to water quality and the environment are of concern. hardrock minerals in this context, generally include, but are not limited to gold, silver, copper, lead, zinc, magnesium, nickel, molybdenum, tungsten, uranium, and select other minerals where priority aml problems may occur. most hardrock minerals are locatable under the mining law of 1872. non - hardrock minerals include coal ( which is addressed by the office of surface mining and state coal reclamation programs ) and some common - variety mineral materials, such as sand and gravel. hazardous substances : cercla term identifying those substances designated pursuant to section 1321 ( b ) ( 2 ) ( a ) of title 33, or 42 usc 9602, or listed in 40 cfr 302 or 355. hazardous substance release : any spilling, leaking, pumping, pouring, emitting, emptying, discharging, injecting, escaping, leaching, dumping, or disposing into the environment ( including the abandonment or discarding of barrels, containers, and other closed receptacles containing any hazardous substance or pollutant or contaminant ). hazardous waste : refers to a solid waste, or combination of solid wastes, which because of its quantity, concentration, or physical, chemical, or infectious characteristics may pose a substantial threat to human health and the environment. mine : an underground opening or open pit used for the purpose of extracting minerals. mines commonly include features, such as shafts, adits, pits, trenches, tunnels, waste rock dumps,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5226169680458334, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:53.979239"} {"text": "a substantial threat to human health and the environment. mine : an underground opening or open pit used for the purpose of extracting minerals. mines commonly include features, such as shafts, adits, pits, trenches, tunnels, waste rock dumps, tailings, and structures including, but not limited to, mills, buildings, head frames, hoists, and loading chutes. potentially responsible party ( prp ) : any individual or entity, including current and past owners, operators, transporters, arrangers, or generators who may be liable for clean - up costs for hazardous substances under cercla section 107 ( a ) or for injuries to natural resources on public lands from hazardous substance releases under section 311 ( f ) of the cwa and cercla section 107 ( f ). project : the investigation, cleanup of safety risks, stabilization, or reclamation of an abandoned mine land site or sites. a project may include one or more individual abandoned mines. the project area may be based on geologic, geographic, hydrologic, watershed, ownership, or other legal boundaries, or based on practical or logistical convenience, and is often contiguous. remedial action : permanent remedy taken to prevent or minimize the release of hazardous substances into the environment. long - term actions ( 5 - 8 years ) are necessary to return a site to its original conditions. removal action : short - term actions necessary to remove or mitigate a release or threat of release of hazardous substances. site : the area identified as being impacted by physical safety and / or environmental hazards. this can include any area where hazardous substances have been released or have migrated. the area size is influenced by the extent of the investigation, migration, evaluation, and past, current, and future clean - up activities. special status species : includes proposed species, listed species, and candidate species under the esa ; state - listed species ; and the blm state director - designated sensitive species ( see blm manual 6840 - special status species management strategic plan : a plan that establishes the overall direction for the blm. this plan is guided by the requirements of gpra, covers a 5 - year period, and is updated every 3 years. it is consistent with flpma and other laws affecting the public lands. total maximum daily load ( tmdl ) : pursuant to the clean water act, an estimate of the total quantity of pollutants ( from all sources : point, nonpoint, and natural ) that may be allowed into waters without exceeding applicable water quality criteria. watershed : this term", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5763658389785842, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:53.980411"} {"text": "both experts and upstarts claim to see unlimited potential in shared wisdom. yet seasoned mentors too often advise clever cronies to operate much like themselves, with little regard for rapidly changing horizons. mindguides invite mutual mentoring few would disagree \u2013 it \u2019 s time to shift tutoring approaches to reflect more balanced and reciprocal coaching. guidance based on mutual brainpower potential, and experience from differences, rather than on entitlement, age or seniority. in my capstone management course, lead innovation with the brain in mind, one newly coined term \u2013 mindguiding \u2013 changes the management structure of any organization. how so? mindguiding, defines a reciprocal learning - leading process, that highlights neural pathways to innovative results. it \u2019 s a new way to lead big ideas, and learn new talents at the same time. it sidesteps moodiness of a few senior players, but supports serotonin - led innovations at many levels. using 10 brainpowered tools below \u2013 mindguides set a mutual stage for clever results across diverse teams. new neuro - discoveries change the roles of mentors from sage - on - the - stage mentality into more of a mindguide to the side, who comes to teams in learning or discovery roles. just as mindguides see their role less as lecturer or talker, they also listen with their brains \u2013 in ways that open new opportunities for those they support. 1. focus on gender preferences and interests : according to researcher dr. michael phillips, a neuroradiologist at the indiana university school of medicine, indianapolis, brain scans showed that men listen to language which is located in the left brain, for instance, while women use both sides, including the right brain \u2019 s more creative capabilities. dr. robyn mcmaster points out that women or men lead better \u2013 when they focus in novel ways, on engaging others \u2019 interests. mindguides value men, value women \u2013 and facilitate both \u2013 while mentors tend replicate old boy practices to include female brainpower. suggested brainpowered tool : vary communications \u2013 seek out people who differ from you \u2013 so that novelty enters the mix in ways that teach both genders. new research about novelty \u2019 s power for mental growth shows how original ideas offer positive experiences to those who take advantage and learn from differences. 2. technology changes how brains learn and how mindguides lead : digital sound bites shift topics frequently, and allow for specific searches on multiple topics. these new learning practices also rewire brains to catch brief bits of significant information, rather", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5538399658029688, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:53.992386"} {"text": "from differences. 2. technology changes how brains learn and how mindguides lead : digital sound bites shift topics frequently, and allow for specific searches on multiple topics. these new learning practices also rewire brains to catch brief bits of significant information, rather than remain focused for long periods on any one detail. technology, however, offers challenges to mindguides not familiar with digital approaches and their impact on brainpower. suggested brainpowered tool : sketch diagrams to link abstract or boring technology ideas onto something already known or experienced. new mechanical ideas make more sense to you when mindguides hook complex concepts onto familiar or concrete experiences. links and bridges help mindguides to advance from difficult or boring digital information in ways that accommodate new innovations. 3. new digital imaging devices prove that listening changes the brain when acted upon. imaging such as pet, fmri, and magnetoencephalography ( meg ) generate interactive images to show the anatomy of the brain. they also show brain operations involved in listening. listening operates from three regions of the brain that support how we listen and how we learn to listen better by acting on what we hear. suggested brainpowered tool : brainpowered tool : apply one technical insight learned so that brainpower increases and multiple intelligences expand in the interactive mindguide active listening process. 4. mindguides identify familiar features to highlight big picture : by observing cortical activity when people hear words researchers are beginning to see how people categorize words they hear. the back half of the brain \u2019 s cortex is devoted to recognizing familiar patterns, such as a cat \u2019 s meow, a baby \u2019 s cry or a familiar business brand. suggested brainpowered tool : brainpowered tool : ask, ask, ask! question with two feet to draw out unique contributions, that become doable big picture solutions for stubborn real life problems. 5. mindguides apply what \u2019 s learned, with more focus on listening : while mentor hearing differs - is more automatic, and can be less effective. modern brain images show that when you really focus on listening, you engage areas in the prefrontal cortex. this area of your brain organizes and prioritizes what you hear, and stokes actions that as fuster ( 2003 ) points out, allows you to use what you hear to interact with the world. focus helps you to create meaning by holding what you hear in your working memory, match it up with what you already know, and predict what to do with what you hear. suggested brainpowered tool : mindguides apply what \u2019", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5705622035884181, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:53.993421"} {"text": "with the world. focus helps you to create meaning by holding what you hear in your working memory, match it up with what you already know, and predict what to do with what you hear. suggested brainpowered tool : mindguides apply what \u2019 s learned in ways that embrace differences, such as gaps between genders, or differences between an ethical and unethical worker. it may simply be distinctives between different rhythms in background music at work. mindguides capitalize on differences to discover and lead innovative directions for renewed results. 6. music or speech impacts emotions, impact moods in ways that motivate people, and can add to focus for mindguiding. great music, such as baroque stimulates the brain to listen more effectively. to ensure good attention, it \u2019 s important to offer multiple ways for people to recognize parts of what is communicated. when print dominates a culture, for instance, learning skills can begin to fade. with new social media, variety however, has escalated. new media and technologies such as ipods or even the web \u2013 have increased people \u2019 s listening capabilities, and raised its importance. suggested brainpowered tool : mindguides seek advice about ideal learning settings from diverse leaders you admire, and act on advice received. in so doing, mindguides engage the plasticity that reshapes human brains to advance in multiple ways. 7. mindguides communicate with tone that connect growth to emotions so that new insights stick. other advantages are given when interactivity is possible, so that mindguiding experiences link to people \u2019 s unique preferences. learning depends on levels of commitment and also on developing expertise and talent to communicate with tone often seen in innovative mindguides. suggested brainpowered tool : mindguides step back from heated situations, tame an amygdala, and hear heated issues through the other person \u2019 s perspective. 8. awesome rewards come from mixing in different communication approaches. researchers found that some music genres offer the same kind of pleasurable learning experiences as food, drugs or sex, for instance. the enjoyable act of engaging music \u2013 releases dopamine, a neurotransmitter connected to pleasurable rewards. the key is to create a pleasant setting for every mindguiding session. suggested brainpowered tool : mindguides laugh at themselves \u2013 yet run from cynicism, that brings cortisol. they focus more than most mentorships \u2013 on spreading serotonin chemicals. serotonin and other neurotransmitters for well being support mindguide", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5878198995648518, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:53.994716"} {"text": "laugh at themselves \u2013 yet run from cynicism, that brings cortisol. they focus more than most mentorships \u2013 on spreading serotonin chemicals. serotonin and other neurotransmitters for well being support mindguides \u2019 learning and leading skills. do you see similar approaches in typical mentor programs? 9. social media offers more integrated views on mindguiding topics. for that reason, a wider and more integrated approach has altered what people come to crave in the kind of opposing views presented by radio stations such as npr in the us or cbc in canada. suggested brainpowered tool : mindguides invite personal stories to respectfully create curiosity for multiple sides of issues. mentors, in contrast, often tend to hear only what they already believe, until they apply altered dynamic neuro discoveries for mutual learning. 10. mindguiding improves the brain \u2019 s hardwiring. each time a person interacts with others and with new insights that interest, they strengthen their capabilities to interact with additional new ideas and with different approaches. suggested brainpowered tool : repeat or do one key nugget learned. lack of doing or applying, creates passivity habits operated from the brain \u2019 s basal ganglia. each time people act on what they learn, they rewire brain cell connectors and reshape mental ability. ready to reshape learning abilities stored in your brain? you \u2019 ve likely noticed that \u2013 in each brainpowered tool above, diversity and rawboned talent become mental assets for more than what mentoring views as minions \u2019 benefit. in mindguiding approaches \u2013 both sides learn in all sessions, and both sides also lead at times. how could typical mentoring practices in former teams \u2013 morph into mutually beneficial learning opportunities from mindguiding where you work? | mita window words and brainpowered tool distinctives for mindguides | | 1. question | | - possibilities as a way to aha solutions that add cognitive boosts to others. | | 2. target | | - improvements from others \u2019 perspectives, rather than critique results | | 3. expect | | - quality differences so people become capital & knowledge is shared | | 4. move | | - multiple intelligences into action as tools for team problem solving | | 5. reflect | | - with innovation celebration that engages the wider community | | 6. risk | | - building goodwill across differences to cultivate caring & curious setting | | 7. laugh | | - at self to increase serotonin & decrease cortisol", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5056757586091877, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:53.996112"} {"text": "educator resources for treefrog treasure treefrog treasure is a platformer game that allows students to practice math concepts as they explore different worlds as a frog character. when certain obstacles are reached, students must properly identify a target symbol, whole number, or fraction on a number line to collect gems and complete the level. hints are provided to help students reach the correct answer when mistakes are made. the game is a great differentiation tools, as it automatically adjusts to students \u2019 performance to provide appropriate levels of mathematical complexity. for teacher resources, visit space science institute in this lesson plan which is adaptable for grades 2 - 5, students will use brainpop resources and an online math game to explore fractions and match and / or compare fractional amounts. common core state standard alignment : ccss. math. cont. 3. nf. a. 2a represent a fraction 1 / b on a number line diagram by defining the interval from 0 to 1 as the whole and partitioning it into b equal parts. recognize that each part has size 1 / b and that the endpoint of the part based at 0 locates the number 1 / b on the number line. ccss. math. cont. 3. nf. a. 2b represent a fraction a / b on a number line diagram by marking off a lengths 1 / b from 0. recognize that the resulting interval has size a / b and that its endpoint locates the number a / b on the number line.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5449344542131129, "token_count": 302, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:53.999765"} {"text": "focusing on cancer stem cells many solid tumors appear to have a small population of stem cells that are partially resistant to chemotherapy and can perpetuate themselves indefinitely. these cancer stem cells thus far have been isolated from breast and brain tumors as well as blood. the exact origin of these cancer stem cells remains to be defined. with mounting evidence to support the hypothesis that genetic alterations in tissue stem cells may represent the origins of some cancers, the time is right to more vigorously explore the properties, mechanisms, and vulnerabilities of this subset of cells. the presence of such cells, first demonstrated in acute myeloid leukemia patients, provides a different and exciting model with which to further explore cancer biology. as a result, nci is establishing a trans - nih group of scientists interested in embryogenesis and cancer stem cell biology to advance the study of the underlying mechanisms in these processes. establishing this group will facilitate the sharing of data, reagents, and animal models, and also provide a meaningful scientific interface with similar groups of extramural scientists. isolating and studying cancer stem cells should give us new insights into cancer and therapies. a defining characteristic of cancer stem cells is their ability to self - renew while giving rise to a diverse population of cells. in this respect, cancer stem cells are like embryonic stem cells, and the lessons of embryology, in which the role of stem cells are well defined, are crucial to understanding their role in carcinogenesis. the mechanisms that allow controlled growth and migration of cells during the development of complex organisms from a single cell may be the same genetically programmed signal pathways that, when left unregulated in the adult organism, allow the development of tumors. tumors are, in essence, complex \" organs \" complete with neovasculature and phenotypically altered supporting tissues. relatively little is known about the mechanisms of self - renewal, but researchers are beginning to identify potential genes and pathways involved. this could eventually lead to targets for intervening in the process, but without disrupting the behavior of normal tissue stem cells. some good news in this regard was reported last month. researchers at the dana - farber cancer institute found differences between genetic signatures associated with self - renewal in cancer stem cells and in normal blood stem cells in mice. this suggests that it may be possible to target cancer stem cells in humans. so where do cancer stem cells come from? one theory says they start out as normal stem cells until they become altered and start producing cancer cells. another says that some more mature, differentiated cells", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.518697032565508, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:54.046306"} {"text": "scientists find trick to reverse moral opinions ( cbs news ) a new study finds that a person ' s moral compass is surprisingly easy to throw off. with nothing more than a clipboard, a survey and a small patch of glue, researchers were able to get participants to not only subconsciously change their minds but even argue the opposite of their original opinions. the study, led by lars hall of sweden ' s lund university, asked 160 volunteers to fill out a quick 2 - page survey on moral principles and the morality of current events - such as the israeli - palestinian conflict. unbeknownst to the participants, a patch of glue was stuck to the back of the survey clipboard. when flipping to the second page, the top set of statements would stick to the back of the clipboard, revealing a different set of questions but leaving the responses unchanged. published in the journal plos one, the study slightly altered the hidden statements to mean the opposite of what they said originally. one example used in the study : \" large - scale governmental surveillance of e - mail and internet traffic out to be forbidden as a means to combat international crime and terrorism. \" when the hidden statements were revealed, the original had been reworded from \" forbidden \" to \" permitted. \" participants then read the statements aloud, including the ones that had been altered, and explain their opinions. researchers found that half of participants did not detect any changes to the statements, and a full 69 percent accepted at least one of the altered statements. not only were the volunteers unlikely to spot the changes, 53 percent argued in favor of the altered statements rather than their original opinions. hall and his team have studied this phenomenon previously, calling it \" choice blindness. \" \" i don ' t feel we have exposed people or fooled them, \" hall told the journal nature. \" rather this shows something otherwise very difficult to show, [ which is ] how open and flexible people can actually be. \" the study may have ramifications concerning the accuracy of self - report questionnaires. hall believes that standard surveys \" are not good at capturing the complexity of the attitudes people actually hold. \" liane young, a psychologist at boston college who was not involved in the study, called the results \" intriguing. \" \" these findings suggest that if i ' m fooled into thinking that i endorse a view, i ' ll do the work myself to come up with my own reasons, \" she told nature. \u00a9 2012 cbs interactive inc. all rights reserved.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_entanglement", "similarity_score": 0.5394033960732448, "token_count": 505, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:54.059296"} {"text": "##eraphat sirichaisinthop and liwang cui abstractplasmodium vivax is a growing public health problem in many regions of the world as a result of re - emergence and increased transmission. this article reviews the unique biology related to p. vivax transmission and addresses potential problems associated with the control of this parasite, which depends on an in - depth knowledge of malaria transmission. the success of comprehensive control measures will require advanced laboratory and field research on this parasite, international awareness of the problem, and co - operation by members of the international malaria community to implement new knowledge and improve the management of transmission in each endemic area. abstract | full text | pdf ( 162 kb ) copyright \u00a9 2003 elsevier ltd all rights reserved. trends in parasitology, volume 19, issue 10, 452 - 460, 1 october 2003 mass administrations of antimalarial drugs 1 international vaccine institute, kwanak, po box 14, seoul, 151 - 600, korea 2 department of infectious and tropical diseases, london school of hygiene and tropical medicine, keppel st., london, uk, wc1e 7ht administration of antimalarial drugs to whole populations has been used as a malaria - control measure for more than 70 years. drugs have been administered either directly as a full therapeutic course of treatment or indirectly through the fortification of salt. mass drug administrations ( mdas ) were generally unsuccessful in interrupting transmission but, in some cases, had a marked effect on parasite prevalence and on the incidence of clinical malaria. mdas are likely to encourage the spread of drug - resistant parasites and so have only a limited role in malaria control. they could have a part to play in the management of epidemics and in the control of malaria in areas with a short transmission season. to reduce the risk of spreading drug resistance, mdas should use more than one drug and, preferably include a drug, such as an artemisinin, which has a gametocidal effect.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5022741229458612, "token_count": 400, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:54.091477"} {"text": "we seek the solution to the linear system of equations iterative methods, unlike direct methods, generate a sequence of approximate solutions to the system that ( hopefully ) converges to the exact solution. after k iterations, we obtain an approximation to the exact solution as : where is the residual after k iterations. as the difference between the exact and approaximate solution, we obtain the purpose of iterations is to drive this residual to zero. stationary iterative methods iterative methods that can be expressed in the simple form when neither b nor c depend upon the iteration count ( k ), the iterative method is called stationary iterative method. some of the stationary iterative methods are - jacobi method - gauss - seidel method - successive overrelaxation ( sor ) method and - symmetric successive overrelaxation ( ssor ) method the convergence of such iterative methods can be investigated using the fixed point theorem. nonstationary iterative methods when during the iterations b and c changes during the iterations, the method is called nonstationary iterative method. typically, constants b and c are computed by taking inner products of residuals or other vectors arising from the iterative method. some examples are : - conjugate gradient method ( cg ) - minres and symmlq - generalized minimal residual ( gmres ) - biconjugate gradient ( bicg ) - quasi - minimal residual ( qmr ) - conjugate gradient squared method ( cgs ) - biconjugate gradient stabilized ( bi - cgstab ) - chebyshev iteration", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.562855377067493, "token_count": 330, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:54.093162"} {"text": "get to the peroxisome. a specific protein signal ( pts or peroxisomal targeting signal ) of three amino acids at the c - terminus of many peroxisomal proteins signals the membrane of the peroxisome to import them into the organelle. other peroxisomal proteins contain a signal at the n - terminus. there are at least 32 known peroxisomal proteins, called peroxins, which participate in the process of importing proteins by means of atp hydrolysis. proteins do not have to unfold to be imported into the peroxisome. the protein receptors, the peroxins pex5 and pex7, accompany their cargoes ( containing a pts1 or a pts2, respectively ) all the way into the peroxisome where they release the cargo and then return to the cytosol - a step named recycling. overall, the import cycle is referred to as the extended shuttle mechanism. evidence now indicates that atp hydrolysis is required for the recycling of receptors to the cytosol. also, ubiquitination appears to be crucial for the export of pex5 from the peroxisome, to the cytosol. little is known about the import of pex7, although it has helper proteins that have been shown to be ubiquitinated. peroxisomal disorders are a class of condtions that lead to disorders of lipid metabolism. one well - known example is zellweger syndrome. peroxisomes matrix proteins are synthesized on free ribosomes in the cytosol and that these proteins are imported posttranslationally in pre - existing peroxisomes. this article contains material from the science primer published by the ncbi, which, as a u. s. government publication, is in the public domain. | this article is licensed under the gnu free documentation license. it uses material from the wikipedia article \" peroxisome \". a list of authors is available in wikipedia. |", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5152037701263247, "token_count": 413, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:54.107434"} {"text": "hydrates are crystalline solid compounds formed from water and smaller molecules in hydrocarbon fluids such as methane, ethane, propane, nitrogen, carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulfide. hydrates are a nuisance, since they can block pipelines leading to stoppage of pipeline transportation operations and hence are an important aspect of pipeline flow assurance that needs to be addressed. hydrate formation in pipeline requires three conditions to exist : 1. the right combination of temperature and pressure. hydrate formation is favored by low temperature and high pressure. 2. a hydrate former must be present. hydrate formers are the hydrocarbons mentioned as above. 3. a sufficient amount of water \u2013 not too much, not too little. certain other conditions in the pipeline enhance the formation of hydrates and are listed below : this can be either due to high velocity or agitation of the process fluid. high velocities in pipelines can occur at any sudden restrictions in the line such as a choke valve. in gas flow a large pressure drop across the choke valve causes the temperature to drop due to the joule - thomson effect which favors hydrate formation b. nucleation sites : in general terms, a nucleation site is a point where a phase transition is favored, and in this case the formation of a solid from a fluid phase. good nucleation sites for hydrate formation include an imperfection in the pipeline, a weld spot, or a pipeline fitting ( elbow, tee, valve, etc. ). silt, scale, dirt, and sand all make good nucleation sites as c. free water : free - water is not necessary for hydrate formation, but the presence of free - water certainly enhances \u201c hysys \u201d has a utility called \u201c hydrate formation utility \u201d which predicts the hydrate formation temperature of any defined stream for a given stream pressure and the hydrate formation pressure for a given stream temperature. most process engineers having access to \u201c hysys \u201d would find it convenient to use this utility to determine hydrate forming conditions. in addition to \u201c hysys \u201d an old dos based program with the name \u201c csmhyd \u201d developed by the \u201c colorado school of mines \u201d also predicts the hydrate formation pressure for a given temperature. this program is available for free download at : in addition to \" hysys \" and \" csmhyd \", i had done some of my own investigation and compilation on the subject of hydrate formation conditions in natural gas. the focus of", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5242660383696505, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:54.111840"} {"text": "this program is available for free download at : in addition to \" hysys \" and \" csmhyd \", i had done some of my own investigation and compilation on the subject of hydrate formation conditions in natural gas. the focus of this investigation was to find out whether there were some empirical methods to determine the \u201c hydrate formation temperature \u201d given only the natural gas pressure and the molecular weight / specific gravity of the gas. my investigation was successful considering that i found not one but several empirical methods to determine the \u201c hydrate formation temperature \u201d given only the natural gas pressure and the specific gravity or molecular weight of the gas. an important point to note is that while both \u201c hysys \u201d and \u201c csmhyd \u201d require that the gas composition be known, whereas the empirical methods i investigated do not require natural gas composition as such. just the natural gas molecular weight or the natural gas specific gravity allow the determination of the \u201c hydrate formation temperature \u201d. the end result of this detailed investigation resulted in the generation of an excel workbook where these empirical methods have been represented with example calculations. this blog entry shares the excel workbook. download the ms excel spreadsheet here any comments and observations would be welcomed from the readers and members of \u201c cheresources \u201d. references for the hydrate formation mechanism are as follows : natural gas hydrates \u2013 a guide for engineers by john carroll section 20 - gpsa engineering data book, 11th ed.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5235776616173904, "token_count": 295, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:54.112878"} {"text": "paroxysmal supraventricular tachycardia ( psvt ) definition : paroxysmal supraventricular tachycardia ( psvt ) is episodes of rapid heart rate that start in a part of the heart above the ventricles. \" paroxysmal \" means from time to time. psvt ; supraventricular tachycardia causes, incidence, and risk factors : normally, the chambers of the heart ( atria and ventricles ) contract in a coordinated manner. - the contractions are caused by an electrical signal that begins in an area of the heart called the sinoatrial node ( also called the sinus node or sa node ). - the signal moves through the upper heart chambers ( the atria ) and tells the atria to contract. - after this, the signal moves down in the heart and tells the lower chambers ( the ventricles ) to contract. the rapid heart rate from psvt may start with events that take place in many different areas above the lower heart chambers ( ventricles ). psvt can occur with digitalis toxicity and with conditions such as wolff - parkinson - white syndrome. the condition occurs most often in young people and infants. the following increase your risk for psvt : symptoms usually start and stop suddenly, and can last for a few minutes or several hours. they can include : other symptoms that can occur with this condition : signs and tests : a physical examination during a psvt episode will show a rapid heart rate. it may also show bounding pulses in the neck. the heart rate may be over 100, and even more than 250 beats per minute ( bpm ). in children, the heart rate tends to be very high. there may be signs of poor blood circulation such as light - headedness. between episodes of psvt, the heart rate is normal ( 60 to 100 bpm ). an ecg during symptoms shows psvt. an electrophysiology study ( eps ) may be needed for an accurate diagnosis and to recommend the best treatment. because psvt comes and goes, to diagnose it patients may need to wear a 24 - hour holter monitor. for longer periods of time, another tape of the rhythm recording device may be used. if you do not have symptoms or any other heart condition, psvt may not need treatment. if you have an episode of psvt, there are techniques you can try", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5335207908019007, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:54.122908"} {"text": "using flow cytometry to compare the dynamics of photoreceptor outer segment phagocytosis in ips derived rpe cells. invest ophthalmol vis sci light entering the eye activates photoreceptor neurons that convert the stimulus into electrical impulses. these impulses are passed back through the eye and into the brain where they form the basis ofvision. the rod and cone photoreceptors are highly dependent on other retinal cell types to function properly. retinal pigment epithelium ( rpe ) cells are especially important ; these protect the photoreceptors from light - induced toxicity by consuming the tips of the photoreceptor cells that are routinely damaged by intense light exposure. rpe cells perform this essential task ( named phagocytosis ) on a daily basis. if rpe cells die or become dysfunctional, i. e. by not effectively performing phagocytosis, photoreceptors will invariably die. this phenomenon occurs in human diseases including age - related macular degeneration ( amd ), the leading cause of vision loss in the elderly. a promising potential therapy is to implant rpe generated from stem cells into the back of the eye to replaced diseased patient cells. several groups, including our own, have shown that this therapy works very well in rats with spontaneous retinal degeneration, but several technical questions remain about how well the implanted cells function compared with actual rpe cells. since phagocytosis is such a critical function we developed a unique way to test how well rpe cells can phagocytose the tips of the photoreceptor cells before implantation. we utilized a method named flow cytometry that is used to measure fluorescence in single cells. rpe cells can become fluorescent if they are \u201c fed \u201d photoreceptor outer segments that are treated with green fluorescent biomarkers. we waited several hours after feeding the cells and then measured the amount of green fluorescence they were emitting. in this study we were able to demonstrate that rpe cells we generated from stem cells chronologically phagocytosed equal numbers of photoreceptor outer segments as well as actual human rpe cells do. we also showed using flow cytometry that the stem cell derived rpe generated the correct cellular machinery required for efficient phagocytosis. we suggest, therefore, that this technique be employed in the field to determine if stem cell derived", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5297711025850609, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:54.137794"} {"text": "what is it? social studies, history, information technology change, ways of life - mail - order catalogues on this site - photographs of artifacts from eaton ' s catalogues ( links - teacher hints ( below ) - ask students to select an object from the list of photographs below. - by using the historical catalogue pages from this site, and with the help of the indexes, students must find out it was used, what it was used for, and what it cost. - foot warmer - shoe and harness repair kit - pair of sad iron handles and bases - meat grinder - foot - powered sewing machine - electric toaster - electric washing machine. foot warmer, ca? on a cold winter ' s night in a home heated by a a stoneware foot warmer filled with hot water would have been a welcome to a bed. foot warmers were also used in carriages and in early didn ' t have heaters. shoe and harness repair kit, ca 1900 this \" combination family cobbler / tinker & contained the tools required to perform repairs to shoes and horse in this kit were children - and adult - sized lasts, or shoe forms, a hammer, a tack hammer, a leather punch, and a variety of nails. pair of sad iron bases and handles, ca 1900 - 50 before women used electric irons to press clothes and they used sad irons. sad irons were usually sold as sets with one wooden handle and three cast iron bases. women heated two or three bases wood stove at a time. they attached the handle to one preheated base, used to iron until it cooled down, and then replaced it with a heated base from meat grinder, ca 1910 - 50 at a time when people raised their own livestock and did own butchering, many people made their own sausages and ground meats by a hand - powered meat grinder. after clamping the grinder to a table, they drop chunks of meat into the funnel - like hopper and turn the handle. an blade inside would grind up the meat and the resulting ground meat would out through the opening on the side into a sausage casing or a bowl. foot - powered sewing machine, ca 1910 - 50 eaton ' s offered its own brand of sewing machine in catalogues. this eatonia sewing machine would have been fastened to a cabinet with a foot - pedal underneath. by pumping the pedal with her foot guiding the fabric with her hands, a woman could have sewn clothing that modeled on the latest catalogue fashions. electric toaster, ca", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5431650807677857, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:54.145007"} {"text": "february 24, 2013 in sustainable development embargoed until 1800 gmt on sunday 24 february by alex kirby a united nations scheme intended to guarantee everyone access to clean energy could help to keep global temperature rise below 2\u00b0c, researchers say, although it would not achieve this without sharp cuts in emissions of all the main greenhouse gases. london, 24 february \u2013 eradicating poverty by making modern energy supplies available to everyone is not only compatible with measures to slow climate change, a new study says. it is a necessary condition for it. but the authors say the scheme to provide sustainable energy worldwide will not by itself be enough to keep the global average temperature rise below the widely accepted international target level of 2\u00b0c. while the scheme can help measures to tackle climate change, it cannot achieve that by itself. the scheme, the un \u2019 s sustainable energy for all initiative ( se4all ), if it proves successful, could make a significant contribution to cutting greenhouse gas emissions, according to the analysis from the international institute for applied systems analysis ( iiasa ) and eth zurich. the study, published in nature climate change, shows that reaching the three energy - related goals of se4all would cut ghg emissions and is achievable. \u201c achievement of the three objectives would provide an important entry point into stringent climate protection \u201d, says joeri rogelj, eth zurich researcher and iiasa - affiliated scientist, who led the study. it found that the short - term goals, due to be reached by 2030, would help achieve long - term climate targets. but to ensure stringent climate objectives were reached, se4all would need to be matched by other measures, the researchers say. se4all \u2018 necessary \u2013 but not sufficient \u2019 se4all \u2019 s objectives include providing universal access to modern energy, doubling the share of renewable energy globally, and doubling the rate of improvement in energy efficiency \u2013 all by 2030. while the objectives do not explicitly address climate change, sustainable energy is accepted as vital for cutting ghg emissions : 80 % of co2 from human activities comes from the global energy system, including transport, buildings, industry, and electricity, heat, and fuel production. \u201c doing energy right will promote the millennium development goals and at the same time kick - start the transition to a lower - carbon economy \u201d, says iiasa researcher david mccollum, who also worked on the study. \u201c but the un \u2019 s objectives must be complemented by a global agreement on controlling ghg emissions. \u201d se", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5317406414148913, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:54.161118"} {"text": "according to a team of scientists at australia \u2019 s commonwealth scientific and industrial research organisation, despite previous research finding that nanoparticles do not penetrate the skin, it remains debatable as to whether this remains true under normal conditions of using sunscreen. at a global nanomaterials safety workshop in london earlier this month, dr maxine mccall showcased her team \u2019 s progress on \u2018 dermal absorption from sunscreens containing zinc oxide particles \u2019 revealing that two special sunscreens were made especially for a human study whereby one contained nanoparticles of zinc oxide and the other larger ( non - nano ) particles to determine if there was a dependence on particle size for dermal absorption. according to dr. mccall, most in vitro studies to assess dermal penetration of nanoparticles are conducted for a period of up to 24 hours, and that the oecd wpmn is currently assessing whether a number of test guidelines, developed for chemicals, are applicable to nanomaterials. \u201c our results imply that longer study periods may need to be considered when assessing dermal penetration and absorption of nanoparticles and we are communicating this information to the oecd wpmn, \u201d the expert told cosmeticsdesign - asia. com. the human study involved the team of scientists applying sunscreen twice daily for five days as well as obtaining numerous blood and urine samples before, during, and after the period at the beach. \" the method we used to detect the traceable zinc is highly sensitive, \" explains mccall. \" the first detection of traceable zinc from zno particles in the sunscreens were found in the blood at the end of the second day at the beach and after a total of 4 sunscreen applications, levels continued to increase after sunscreen application ceased, \" she adds. the expert went on to further reveal that the blood and urine samples from the females with the sunscreen with nanoparticles had slightly higher levels of traceable zinc than those of the sunscreen with larger particles. however, dr. mccall concludes by informing this publication that the total amounts of traceable zinc detected from the sunscreens were very small when compared with amounts of natural zinc normally present in the human body. sccs view on the matter.. the ec ' s scientific committee on consumer safety recently announced it had reviewed its toxicological evidence and found no evidence that zno nanoparticles are absorbed through skin and or via the oral route. and concluded that the use of zinc oxide nanoparticles, at a", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5022630073328245, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:54.365797"} {"text": "literature, in theory, is to enlighten a future. indeed the oldest form of interpretation was divination. one hoped to interpret the design of things. cicero said in his essay on divination, \" thus, in the beginning the world was so made that certain signs come before certain events. \" shelley said cryptically in his \" defence of poetry \" : \" poets are the heirophants of an unapprehended inspiration ; the mirrors of the gigantic shadows which futurity casts upon the present. \" the european social philosophy called phenomenology lays out a \" horizon of expectation \" as the basis for hermeneutics, the study of interpretation as intentionality. interpretation is a projection forward, said martin heidegger. as he asserted in being and time, \" the basic tense of existentialism is the future. \" ernst bloch taught that art and literature latently exhibit what he called an \" anticipatory illumination \" ( vor - schein, \" to shine before \" ). karl popper, the philosopher who featured the social science of unexpected consequences, spoke of a \" searchlight \" metaphor for the very act of knowing. to know is to conjecture forward, to project a light in a dark direction some works of literature are specifically designed to warn against what might happen in the near future. for instance, margaret atwood \u2019 s recent sci - fi novel oryx and crake warns against bioengineering and global plagues wrought by mad scientists. in aristotle \u2019 s \" poetics \" there is a remarkable definition of literature as being a kind of hypothetical action that bears on future acts : \" the poet \u2019 s function is to describe, not the thing that has happened, but the kind of thing that might happen, for example, what is possible as being probable or necessary. \" perhaps most importantly, aristotle describes a kind of recognition that forestalls, at the last moment, a violent act about to happen that would lead to tragic consequences. his word for that kind of forestalling action that avoids a violent pitfall is anagnorisis. pre - emptive strikes assume a certain kind of interpretation of facts and events that depends upon a point of view of story telling that lays out future events as a kind of projection forward into a future that is not hypothetical but that is fixed like fate. but good writers script whole sequences of expectations that turn out to be surprises. then as possibilities are modified by actualities, the projections forward are corrected by retractions", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5707626777556709, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:54.390342"} {"text": "of projection forward into a future that is not hypothetical but that is fixed like fate. but good writers script whole sequences of expectations that turn out to be surprises. then as possibilities are modified by actualities, the projections forward are corrected by retractions backward. take the example of frankenstein. like atwood, mary shelley was worried about contemporary experiments in the artificial creation of life, such as those of galvani and erasmus darwin. the mad scientist, victor frankenstein, has succeeded in creating life, but in fleeing from his monster and by avoiding his own responsibility as creator, he has created a serial killer. nevertheless, having heard the monster \u2019 s moving narrative, victor agrees to construct a female companion. as he assembles the female being, he frets that the female has not been party to their social contract : that the pair of beings will leave europe and hide out in the wilds of america. he fantasizes that the female and her future progeny might not consider themselves bound to the original agreement. this question of binding future generations by a dated social contract is tom paine \u2019 s main argument in the rights of man, that future generations are not bound for eternity by their progenitors \u2019 written laws. so victor passionately dismembers the female monster. is his interpretation an anagnorisis that avoids a future threat of violence? or is it a pre - emptive violence that forestalls a peaceful future? was it an action that had come to maturity, or was it premature? mary shelley leaves the issue up in the air. was the bush team \u2019 s interpretation an act of prudence that forestalled the imminent action of saddam hussein \u2019 s use of weapons of mass destruction? or was it instead a premature violence that forestalled the gradualism of the united nations \u2019 deferential restraint? now the country is in a period of interpreting backward, of second guessing, and taking stock. it is not yet clear whether we are concluding a tragedy, where there will only be dead bodies all over the stage of events ; or whether we can imagine a reconciling comedy, where all the participants can gather in the end at some kind of reconciling feast. what we do know now and always is that any decision to act is based upon imperfect evidence. to choose is to select among alternative possibilities. were the evidence overwhelming, no choice as such would be necessary or indeed possible. the decision would be self evident. before the invasion the bush administration overwhelmed us with evidence of nuclear weapons of mass", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5817211490729001, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:54.393217"} {"text": "imperfect evidence. to choose is to select among alternative possibilities. were the evidence overwhelming, no choice as such would be necessary or indeed possible. the decision would be self evident. before the invasion the bush administration overwhelmed us with evidence of nuclear weapons of mass destruction and the insidious technology of bio - warfare in the semblance of our own anthrax fears. it seemed as if we had no choice but to strike then. the weapons issues were coupled with the overwhelming prognostications of imminent attacks on american people, like those that happened on 9 / 11. all members of the administration spoke as with one voice of warning. now the retractions and extenuations are taking place, and the moral of the narrative shifts with the latest disclosures. now the script is changing. now the argument is that saddam had killed overwhelming numbers of his own people over the years. was he not an imminent killer preparing to massacre americans? if not, what right does an american president have to pre - empt the role of the united nations in handling these kinds of massive but vague perils? did the bush administration conflate technological readiness to pull the trigger with moral readiness? david stands ready to hurl his stone. the minuteman leans into action, ready to fire in a minute. but the projection of a moral choice about the future should not be confused with the technical projection of a minuteman missile. the aircraft carriers that converged in battle groups from around the global oceans, the long - range bombers re - positioned on perimeter bases, the missiles programmed, all those silent men and women, were mobilized into an enormous potential energy, all leaning into action. the confluence of energies and forces all seemed so overwhelming as inevitable movements that moral choices between alternatives were lost in the univocal argument of a world power, its finger already tightening on the trigger. did the overwhelming technological readiness make the moral reason seem self evident in the mind of the bush team? the readiness is all mobilization? in greek tragedies the voice of the chorus provides running commentary on the plot. the chorus asks questions and makes assumptions during the action that are sometimes stupid, sometimes insightful, and sometimes wrong. the chorus admits to being puzzled by the actions of their leaders. did the univocal voice of the administration script a fiction for our consumption? was the plot a piece of noble propaganda? if the script was a fiction, it was not good literature, nor was it good ethics. for though literature may warn about the possibility of a coming event,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5064684688810124, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:54.396013"} {"text": "definitions for wagewe\u026ad\u0292 random house webster ' s college dictionary wagewe\u026ad\u0292 ( n. ; v. ) waged, wag \u2022 ing. ( n. ) often, wages. money that is paid or received for work or services. ref : compare living wage, minimum wage. 1 wages, recompense or return : the wages of sin is death. obs. a pledge or security. ( v. t. ) to carry on ( a battle, argument, etc. ) : to wage war. obs. to stake or wager. to pledge. ( v. i. ) obs. to contend ; struggle. origin of wage : 1275 \u2013 1325 ; me : pledge, security < af ; of guagegage1 < vl * wadium < gmc ( see wed ) wage, pay, earnings, remuneration, salary ( verb ) something that remunerates \" wages were paid by check \" ; \" he wasted his pay on drink \" ; \" they saved a quarter of all their earnings \" carry on ( wars, battles, or campaigns ) \" napoleon and hitler waged war against all of europe \" an amount of money paid to a worker for a specified quantity of work, usually expressed on an hourly basis. to wager, bet. to employ for wages ; to hire. to conduct or carry out ( a war or other contest ). to wage war origin : from wage, a northern variant of gauge, gage, from * waddi, wadja ( cognate with wedd ), from wadjo, from wadh -. akin to ve\u00feja \" to pledge \", wadi. more at wed. to pledge ; to hazard on the event of a contest ; to stake ; to bet, to lay ; to wager ; as, to wage a dollar to expose one ' s self to, as a risk ; to incur, as a danger ; to venture ; to hazard to engage in, as a contest, as if by previous gage or pledge ; to carry on, as a war to adventure, or lay out, for hire or reward ; to hire out to put upon wages ; to hire ; to employ ; to pay wages to to give security for the performance of to bind one ' s self ; to engage that which is staked or ventured ; that for which one incurs risk or danger ; prize ; gage that for which one labors ; meed ; reward ; stipulated payment for service", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5367215210726703, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:54.506822"} {"text": "for the performance of to bind one ' s self ; to engage that which is staked or ventured ; that for which one incurs risk or danger ; prize ; gage that for which one labors ; meed ; reward ; stipulated payment for service performed ; hire ; pay ; compensation ; - - at present generally used in the plural. see wages translations for wage kernerman english multilingual dictionary ( also\u02c8wages noun plural ) a regular, usually weekly rather than monthly, payment for the work that one does he spends all his wages on books ; what is his weekly wage? - salarioportuguese ( br ) - der lohngerman - \u03bc\u03b9\u03c3\u03b8\u03bf\u03c2, ( \u03bf\u03b9\u03ba\u03bf\u03bd\u03bf\u03bc\u03b9\u03ba\u03b5\u03c2 ) \u03b1\u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03b1\u03b2\u03b5\u03c2greek - salario, sueldospanish - mjesecna placacroatian - laun, kaupicelandic - \u110b\u1175\u11b7\u1100\u1173\u11b7, \u1100\u1173\u11b8\u1105\u116d, - darba algalatvian - gaji, upahmalay - l\u00f8nn, gasjenorwegian - lon, avloningswedish - ; - \uff0c chinese ( trad. ) - \u0437\u0430\u0440\u043e\u0431\u0456\u0442\u043d\u0430 \u043f\u043b\u0430\u0442\u0430ukrainian - luong tuanvietnamese - \uff0c chinese ( simp. ) get even more translations for wage \u00bb", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5514093344109348, "token_count": 293, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:54.507487"} {"text": "harris, paul l. trusting what you ' re told how children learn from others aims and scope if children were little scientists who learn best through firsthand observations and mini - experiments, as conventional wisdom holds, how would a child discover that the earth is round \u2014 never mind conceive of heaven as a place someone might go after death? overturning both cognitive and commonplace theories about how children learn, trusting what you \u2019 re told begins by reminding us of a basic truth : most of what we know we learned from others. children recognize early on that other people are an excellent source of information. and so they ask questions. but youngsters are also remarkably discriminating as they weigh the responses they elicit. and how much they trust what they are told has a lot to do with their assessment of its source. trusting what you \u2019 re told opens a window into the moral reasoning of elementary school vegetarians, the preschooler \u2019 s ability to distinguish historical narrative from fiction, and the six - year - old \u2019 s nuanced stance toward magic : skeptical, while still open to miracles. paul harris shares striking cross - cultural findings, too, such as that children in religious communities in rural central america resemble bostonian children in being more confident about the existence of germs and oxygen than they are about souls and god. we are biologically designed to learn from one another, harris demonstrates, and this greediness for explanation marks a key difference between human beings and our primate cousins. even kanzi, a genius among bonobos, never uses his keyboard to ask for information : he only asks for treats. - 272 pages - 3 halftones, 3 line illustrations, 19 graphs - harvard university press", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.561767207900344, "token_count": 343, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:54.510360"} {"text": "cytometry assays ( boyle et al., 2011 ; murtagh, 2011 ). efforts are also underway to develop more affordable ( and disposable ) poc tests for cd4 counts and several such technologies are expected to reach the market within the next few years ( figure 2 ) ( murtagh, 2011 ). lastly, hiv diagnostics have benefited from the growing momentum towards simple, multiplexed tests that can diagnose multiple infectious diseases at the point - of - care. there are now poc options available for multiplexed detection of hiv, hepatitis b and c, and syphilis ( figure 2 ). although evidence on their test performance in real world settings is limited, they offer promise of simultaneous detection of several infections, with greater convenience for patients and providers. the convergence of fields such as nanotechnology, microfluidics, proteomics, and genomics has inspired the development of novel platforms, including poc and nucleic acid amplification tests ( naats ), which enable the detection of multiple biomarkers at the point of care. also, integration of smartphone technology with such novel platforms might lead to the development of novel testing platforms that can also use mobile telephones for delivering results quickly and efficiently. hiv diagnostics : gaps and needs a key gap has been lack of simple, affordable poc options for early infant diagnosis and for viral load determination ( murtagh, 2011 ; usdin et al., 2010 ). while conventional naats are accurate and commercially available for early infant diagnosis and viral load, they are expensive and require sophisticated laboratory infrastructure that is not available in many resource - limited settings. thus, most art programs in resource - limited settings have no access to these technologies. this leads to treatment failure, impacting quality of clinical management. viral load testing that could be conducted at the poc will reduce the need for laboratory infrastructure and lower the cost for art programs ( murtagh, 2011 ). resistance assays that are currently prohibitively expensive and run only as part of clinical studies will have tremendous potential in expediting linkages to care if offered at poc. although there are currently no poc viral load assays that are commercially available, there are several technologies in development ( figure 3 shows the pipeline ) ( murtagh, 2011 ). for epidemiological and surveillance purposes, there is a felt need for an accurate, inexpensive, and easy - to - use kit that can be used to estimate hiv incidence at the population level (", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5086330744750412, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:54.552550"} {"text": "al., 2011 ). although the tb diagnostics pipeline is substantially better in 2011 than it was even 5 - 10 years ago, absence of a dipstick type of poc test continues to be a gaping hole in the pipeline ( figure 4 shows the current pipeline ) ( world health organization, 2011b ). table 2 summarizes the diagnostic options for tb that can potentially be used at the point - of - care. sputum smear microscopy, in principle, can be done at the point - of - care in a primary care setting, provided a basic microscopy facility and a trained technician are available ( steingart et al., 2007 ). unfortunately, smear microscopy is an insensitive technique and misses nearly half of all tb cases. to compensate for this, at least two sputum smears need to be stained and read, and this makes the test difficult to implement as a genuine poc test. on the positive side, smear microscopy is inexpensive, and a trained microscopist can identify several disease conditions ( e. g., malaria, filariasis, urinary tract infections ). conventional, direct ziehl - neelsen microscopy can be optimized using led fluorescence microscopy, and by using two spot sputum smears to ensure same - day diagnosis. indeed, these approaches are now endorsed by the world health organization ( who ) ( world health organization, 2011a ; world health organization, 2011e ). the recent who endorsement of xpert mtb / rif ( cepheid inc., sunnyvale, ca, usa ), an automated, cartridge - based nucleic acid amplification test ( naat ), has greatly stimulated resurgent interest in using molecular tests for rapid diagnosis of active tb and drug - resistance ( world health organization, 2011c ). while the xpert mtb / rif assay is accurate and can potentially be used outside of a laboratory setting by a minimally trained health worker, it falls short of meeting the ideal poc requirements on two important grounds : at current prices, it is expensive and unaffordable in many settings, and it requires sophisticated equipment that cannot be deployed at the community level ( pai, 2011b ). also, the pricing of xpert mtb / rif assay in the private sector in developing countries is substantially higher than the pricing for the public sector, imposing additional barriers for scale - up. for decades, researchers and the industry had pinned their hopes on ser", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5147469799364552, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:54.554894"} {"text": "al., 2009 ; dowdy et al., 2008 ; keeler et al., 2006 ). the target product profile for such an ideal tb poc test has been recently published ( table 3 ) ( batz et al., 2011 ). however, because of insufficient progress in biomarker research and because of lack of strong industry interest in tb, progress has been much slower than anticipated. in fact, efforts are being made to develop incentive prize models for successful poc tests for tb ( wilson and palriwala, 2011 ). incentive prizes are large cash rewards for achievement of specified objectives, and can be an approach to spur development of novel health technologies ( e. g., diagnostics ) for diseases of poverty and neglected diseases ( wilson and palriwala, 2011 ). while two prizes have been proposed for poc tb tests, neither has been successfully launched ( wilson and palriwala, 2011 ). while a simple, dipstick type of poc test for tb might not be ready in the near future, the landscape is looking more promising for a more decentralized, field - friendly, affordable molecular test, which can be used at the point - of - care to reduce diagnostic delays ( figure 6 ) ( niemz et al., 2011 ). these include hand - held or portable platforms, based on dna chips and / or disposable cartridges ( figure 7 ). many of the technologies under development are capable of detecting many different infectious diseases, and that makes them very attractive for scale - up. for example, a platform that can detect tb, drug - resistant tb, as well as hiv viral loads could be very helpful in a clinic setting. bridging the chasm between hiv and tb control while tb is an ancient disease, the hiv epidemic has been a problem for only 30 years. yet, a comparison of the hiv and tb diagnostics landscapes clearly suggests that research & development ( r & d ) in tb has greatly lagged behind hiv, and there may be several explanations for this big gap ( harrington, 2010 ). patients, providers, and activists have played a major role in pushing for innovations in hiv diagnosis and treatment and in lobbying for price reductions and generic products. funders, researchers, industry, and governments have responded to this pressure by supporting r & d efforts on all fronts ( drugs, diagnostics, and vaccines ). because the hiv epidemic historically began as a disease of the developed world, much of activism generated in the west helped translate the r & d into", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5084197969837772, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 8, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:54.558415"} {"text": "eight new grants administered by nida aim to channel students ' natural fascination with their behavior and their brains into appreciation and enthusiasm for neuroscience. grantees are developing k - 12 education programs that will engage young people in learning about the brain, inspire some to pursue careers in biomedical science, and increase teacher knowledge of neuroscience. the 5 - year grants are funded by the nih blueprint for neuroscience research science education, a cooperative effort among the 16 nih institutes, centers, and offices that support neuroscience research and the science education partnership award program of the division of program coordination, planning, and strategic initiatives, office of the director, national institutes of health. dr. susanna cunningham of the university of washington, seattle, will develop two programs in the neuroscience of learning and cognition for middle school science teachers, students, parents, and community groups. teachers will have the opportunity to increase their knowledge by participating in a summer institute and online professional learning community. an online project for students will be designed to broaden their knowledge of the brain and learning processes, scientific research processes, and neuroscience careers. dr. eric chudler heads a university of washington project that will teach middle school students how chemicals in plants and herbs influence health and behavior. a supplementary educational resource kit will supply teachers with inquiry - based, hands - on science activities. students may attend a summer camp to learn more about neuroscience, mental health, neurological fitness, and careers in the biomedical sciences. dr. michael kavanaugh of the university of montana, missoula, will collaborate with the exploratorium in san francisco to create the brainzone, a neuroscience learning center. designed for k - 12 students and adults, the brainzone will feature four exhibits, a computer learning laboratory to teach neuroscience lessons, and a working laboratory with research - grade electroencephalogram ( eeg ) instrumentation and materials for the study of fruit fly neurobiology. the brainzone will open in a high - profile retail mall that tallies 7 million annual visits and will also travel to isolated, underserved, rural, and tribal schools throughout the state. dr. dina markowitz of the university of rochester in new york will develop, field test, disseminate, and evaluate hands - on activities that focus on key concepts of neuroscience for high school biology students. the activities, designed so that teachers can easily integrate them into existing curricula, will also educate students about the ways in which neuroscience research directly applies to their lives as well as about careers that require neuroscience knowledge. this project will also recruit, train", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5058136704379251, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:54.613127"} {"text": "in the september issue of electrical contractor, there was an industry watch story titled \u201c efficiency from the wall to the pc, \u201d about an organization that is campaigning for more efficient power \u201c cords. \u201d there was a reference to a quote indicating only 50 percent of the power that leaves the outlet reaches the pc because energy \u201c leaks \u201d out of inefficient power cords. however, a typical pc line cord has 0. 3 ohms of resistance. if the computer consumes 720w, that is 6a on 120v circuit. the power loss in the cord is 6a ^ 2 * 0. 3 ohm = 7. 8w. relative to the computer itself, that is approximately a 1 percent loss of power delivered from the outlet, a 99 percent efficiency rating. a few readers wrote to us about the inaccurate terminology. it should have read power \u201c supplies, \u201d and, of course, energy does not literally \u201c leak \u201d out of the power cord. it is lost within the inefficient components, such as the computer \u2019 s power supply. as with most power quality issues, ohm \u2019 s and kirchoff \u2019 s laws still apply here. these rules are how we calculate the voltage and current through an electrical distribution system or an electronic circuit. next, we need another similar equation, where power = voltage \u00d7 current ( though not necessarily a simple math multiplication in most cases with today \u2019 s systems ). finally, the formula for efficiency is useful power output divided by the total electrical power consumed. in electrical engineering terms used by the utility companies, this definition equates to the parameter called \u201c power factor \u201d ( pf ). many people today use the term \u201c true power factor, \u201d which is the watts ( w ) divided by the volt - amperes ( va ). this agrees with the definition above. the w is the power used by the load. it is divided by the va, which is the power delivered by the utility company, to obtain the pf. of course, having a term called \u201c true power factor \u201d implies there is another term called \u201c false power factor, \u201d which isn \u2019 t correct ; the opposite term is \u201c displacement power factor \u201d ( dpf ), which is the cosine of the angle between the voltage and current. in the old days prior to harmonic distorted and unbalanced systems, pf and dpf would be equal \u2014 but not anymore. however, that is a discussion for another day. the web site from which the misworded", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5449679807884995, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:54.640476"} {"text": "voltage and current. in the old days prior to harmonic distorted and unbalanced systems, pf and dpf would be equal \u2014 but not anymore. however, that is a discussion for another day. the web site from which the misworded quotes originated explains the inefficiency of the individual voltage regulators on other boards within the computer, as well as the load of the heating, ventilating and air conditioning ( hvac ) systems to remove the heat from the building, and so on, further reducing the efficiency. since most hvacs today use adjustable speed drives to be more efficient, the efficiency of the heat removal depends on the load that is directly impacted by the ambient temperature and emitted temperature from the loads, among other factors. the article on the web site references an electric power research institute study on the efficiency of power supplies themselves. efficiency of just a computer \u2019 s power supply depends on a number of factors, including the percentage of full - rated power that is being drawn from power supply, operating temperature, input ac voltage level and so on. what this graph doesn \u2019 t tell is, at lower loading, the current harmonic distortion goes up. so the real efficiency would have to account for the increased losses in the power transformers due to harmonic currents. of course, the lower load means less power itself is being consumed, hence less carbon, energy and, therefore, money. you can see that determining the true efficiency of a computer needs accounting for many variables that can make the answer vary quite significantly. so, i advise anyone to take any claims of money savings through efficiency with a grain of salt. what i really think is important is not the efficiency, but the effectiveness of the power supplied. efficiency should not be confused with effectiveness : a system that wastes most of its input power but produces exactly what it is meant to is effective but not efficient. the term efficiency only makes sense in reference to the desired effect. examples include the incandescent light bulb \u2014 2 percent efficiency at emitting light ; electronic amplifier \u2014 50 percent efficiency to speakers ; and electric kettle \u2014 90 percent efficiency in boiling water. in a computer, the efficiency is significantly affected by the microprocessor. this has been brought to the forefront with amd \u2019 s introduction of its newly minted quad - core processor, which is code - named barcelona. according to infoworld, \u201c the chip delivers more than twice the combined integer and floating - point performance of its two - core predecessor at the same thermal envelope \u2026. that, to me, is", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5637079818891495, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:54.641613"} {"text": "magnetic resonance imaging ( mri ) magnetic resonance imaging ( mri ) is a test that uses a magnetic field and pulses of radio wave energy to make pictures of organs and structures inside the body. in many cases mri gives different information about structures in the body than can be seen with an x - ray, ultrasound, or computed tomography ( ct ) scan. mri also may show problems that cannot be seen with other imaging methods. for an mri test, the area of the body being studied is placed inside a special machine that contains a strong magnet. pictures from an mri scan are digital images that can be saved and stored on a computer for more study. the images also can be reviewed remotely, such as in a clinic or an operating room. in some cases, contrast material may be used during the mri scan to show certain structures more clearly. why it is done magnetic resonance imaging ( mri ) is done for many reasons. it is used to find problems such as tumors, bleeding, injury, blood vessel diseases, or infection. mri also may be done to provide more information about a problem seen on an x - ray, ultrasound scan, or ct scan. contrast material may be used during mri to show abnormal tissue more clearly. an mri scan can be done for the : how to prepare before your mri test, tell your doctor and the mri technologist if you : you may need to arrange for someone to drive you home after the test, if you are given a medicine ( sedative ) to help you relax. for an mri of the abdomen or pelvis, you may be asked to not eat or drink for several hours before the test. you may need to sign a consent form that says you understand the risks of an mri and agree to have the test done. talk to your doctor about any concerns you have regarding the need for the test, its risks, how it will be done, or what the results will mean. to help you understand the importance of this test, fill out the medical test information form ( what is a pdf document? ). how it is done a magnetic resonance imaging ( mri ) test is usually done by an mri technologist. the pictures are usually interpreted by a radiologist. but some other types of doctors can also interpret an mri scan. you will need to remove all metal objects ( such as hearing aids, dentures, jewelry, watches, and hairpins ) from your body because these objects may be attracted to the powerful magnet used for the test. you will need to take off all or most of your clothes,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.57176285871291, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:54.687182"} {"text": "metal objects ( such as hearing aids, dentures, jewelry, watches, and hairpins ) from your body because these objects may be attracted to the powerful magnet used for the test. you will need to take off all or most of your clothes, depending on which area is examined ( you may be allowed to keep on your underwear if it is not in the way ). you will be given a gown to use during the test. if you are allowed to keep some of your clothes on, you should empty your pockets of any coins and cards ( such as credit cards or atm cards ) with scanner strips on them because the mri magnet may erase the information on the cards. during the test you usually lie on your back on a table that is part of the mri scanner. your head, chest, and arms may be held with straps to help you remain still. the table will slide into the space that contains the magnet. a device called a coil may be placed over or wrapped around the area to be scanned. a special belt strap may be used to sense your breathing or heartbeat. this triggers the machine to take the scan at the right time. some people feel nervous ( claustrophobic ) inside the mri magnet. if this keeps you from lying still, you can be given a medicine ( sedative ) to help you relax. some mri machines ( called open mri ) are now made so that the magnet does not enclose your entire body. open mri machines may be helpful if you are claustrophobic, but they are not available everywhere. the pictures from an open mri may not be as good as those from a standard mri machine. see pictures of a standard mri machine and an open mri machine. inside the scanner you will hear a fan and feel air moving. you may also hear tapping or snapping noises as the mri scans are taken. you may be given earplugs or headphones with music to reduce the noise. it is very important to hold completely still while the scan is being done. you may be asked to hold your breath for short periods of time. during the test, you may be alone in the scanner room. but the technologist will watch you through a window. you will be able to talk with the technologist through a two - way intercom. if contrast material is needed, the technologist will put it in an intravenous ( iv ) line in your arm. the material may be given over 1 to 2 minutes. then more mri scans are done. an mri test usually takes 30 to 60", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5208249698329163, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:54.688249"} {"text": "contrast material is needed, the technologist will put it in an intravenous ( iv ) line in your arm. the material may be given over 1 to 2 minutes. then more mri scans are done. an mri test usually takes 30 to 60 minutes but can take as long as 2 hours. how it feels you will not have pain from the magnetic field or radio waves used for the mri test. the table you lie on may feel hard and the room may be cool. you may be tired or sore from lying in one position for a long time. if a contrast material is used, you may feel some coolness and flushing as it is put into your iv. in rare cases, you may feel : there are no known harmful effects from the strong magnetic field used for mri. but the magnet is very powerful. the magnet may affect pacemakers, artificial limbs, and other medical devices that contain iron. the magnet will stop a watch that is close to the magnet. any loose metal object has the risk of causing damage or injury if it gets pulled toward the strong magnet. metal parts in the eyes can damage the retina. if you may have metal fragments in the eye, an x - ray of the eyes may be done before the mri. if metal is found, the mri will not be done. iron pigments in tattoos or tattooed eyeliner can cause skin or eye irritation. an mri can cause a burn with some medication patches. be sure to tell your health professional if you are wearing a patch. there is a slight risk of an allergic reaction if contrast material is used during the mri. but most reactions are mild and can be treated using medicine. there also is a slight risk of an infection at the iv site. a magnetic resonance imaging ( mri ) is a test that uses a magnetic field and pulses of radio wave energy to make pictures of organs and structures inside the body. the radiologist may discuss initial results of the mri with you right after the test. complete results are usually ready for your doctor in 1 to 2 days. an mri can sometimes find a problem in a tissue or organ even when the size and shape of the tissue or organ looks normal. what affects the test reasons you may not be able to have the test or why the results may not be helpful include : many modern medical devices that do not use electronics \u2014 such as heart valves, stents, or clips \u2014 can be safely placed in most mri machines. but some newer mri machines have stronger magnets. the safety of mri scans with these stronger mri magnet", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5109251843218403, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:54.689313"} {"text": "click on a thumbnail to see the full - size image the story of why engine oil becomes engine sludge in engines that have failed prematurely, the oil has very often been transformed into a high viscosity deposit of brown or black goo, commonly referred to as \" sludge. \" by don fedak fresh engine oil is a clear, free - flowing liquid blend of base stock and additives that contains no fuel, water, coolant, dirt, or other when regular engine oil changes are neglected, normally free - flowing lubricating oil breaks down, becomes contaminated, ceases to flow, and is transformed into a thick soup of waste products. that \u2019 s when serious engine damage is imminent. why does engine oil break down, combine with contaminants, and form sludge deposits? chemistry teaches that engine oil is unstable and decomposes in the presence of oxygen at high temperature. the process, called oxidation, occurs naturally after exposure to normal operating conditions for extended periods of time and is accelerated by exposure to severe operating conditions or to excessively high temperatures. alternatively, accelerated oxidation may be triggered by a combination of any or all of these factors. during oxidation, the chemical bonds that define the oil molecules are broken, and some of the reaction products accumulate and interact to form a highly viscous complex mixture of solids, liquids, and gases that contain a variety of solid carbon - based dirt and metallic particles, as well as liquid coolant, fuel, oil and water droplets. but what can we possibly learn from a sludged engine? consider our reliable 40 - year - old 10 - hp shop compressor that has delivered zillions of cubic feet of pressurized air daily from its ambient temperature shelter. while the electric motor and the v - belts have been replaced twice, the only other routine service this air - cooled v4 compressor has received, other than having the condensed water drained from the tank, is an occasional oil change. when the used, unfiltered hd - 30 oil is drained from its crankcase it shows no evidence of contamination or oxidation and looks like fresh oil. a typical internal combustion engine is just an air compressor in which fuel is mixed with compressed air and then burned. the combustion process generates heat and a variety of reaction products, some of which enter the crankcase as blow - by and contaminate the oil, e. g., fuel, soot, water and other normal reactants, products and byproducts. even though the oil temperature is high enough to boil off and", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5207315874320064, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:54.723954"} {"text": "the crankcase as blow - by and contaminate the oil, e. g., fuel, soot, water and other normal reactants, products and byproducts. even though the oil temperature is high enough to boil off and extract all the water and other volatile contaminants via the pcv system, this crankcase broth will inevitably change into a deposit that does not drain when the oil is changed. air - cooled gas or diesel engines are just air compressors in which the engine oil is subject to oxidation because they are exposed to higher temperatures and contamination by combustion products. if the engine is liquid - cooled, the engine oil may also become contaminated with coolant. lesson # 1 : sludge deposits in internal combustion engines can indicate either stop - and - go driving, lack of proper maintenance, too low or too high an oil temperature or oil contamination. sludge formation is not a new problem. in fact, sludge deposits limited the durability of early internal combustion engines. over the years, oil base stocks were improved, detergent oil additives were developed to keep microscopic sludge - forming solid particles in suspension, anti - oxidation additives were developed to slow the formation of these sludge deposit precursors, and engine oil filters were fitted to remove suspended solid particles from the oil stream and slow the formation of flow restricting sludge deposits on internal surfaces. changes in engine oil formulation and treatment accelerated with the introduction of \" permanent \" glycol - based coolant, another oil contaminant that may accelerate sludge formation. with the recent increased popularity of wet - sleeved engines, as well as the introduction of alternative but incompatible coolants, we are seeing more engine bearing failures. lesson # 2 : sludge deposits may be due to inferior oil, deterioration of the oil additives or contamination by coolant. when \" detergent oils \" first appeared, everyone \u2019 s engine repair business increased. tired, worn out engines, full of sludge deposits because they had always been serviced with non - detergent oils, were ill advisedly transfused with detergent oil, which promptly attacked the sludge deposits. engine bearing surfaces were flooded with oil containing a high concentration of newly suspended sludge particles. and during the phase - in of detergent engine oils, a number of chemical elixirs for \" engine oil desludging \" appeared. with current engines, we often encounter similar failures when engines are accidentally overfilled and loosen normally benign engine deposits. unless you \u2019 re", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5386178396021414, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:54.726189"} {"text": "here, now, are two great whales, laying their heads together ; let us join them, and lay together our own. of the grand order of folio leviathans, the sperm whale and the right whale are by far the most noteworthy. they are the only whales regularly hunted by man. to the nantucketer, they present the two extremes of all the known varieties of the whale. as the external difference between them is mainly observable in their heads ; and as a head of each is this moment hanging from the pequod ' s side ; and as we may freely go from one to the other, by merely stepping across the deck : - - where, i should like to know, will you obtain a better chance to study practical cetology than here? in the first place, you are struck by the general contrast between these heads. both are massive enough in all conscience ; but there is a certain mathematical symmetry in the sperm whale ' s which the right whale ' s sadly lacks. there is more character in the sperm whale ' s head. as you behold it, you involuntarily yield the immense superiority to him, in point of pervading dignity. in the present instance, too, this dignity is heightened by the pepper and salt colour of his head at the summit, giving token of advanced age and large experience. in short, he is what the fishermen technically call a \" grey - headed whale. \" let us now note what is least dissimilar in these heads - - namely, the two most important organs, the eye and the ear. far back on the side of the head, and low down, near the angle of either whale ' s jaw, if you narrowly search, you will at last see a lashless eye, which you would fancy to be a young colt ' s eye ; so out of all proportion is it to the magnitude of the head. now, from this peculiar sideway position of the whale ' s eyes, it is plain that he can never see an object which is exactly ahead, no more than he can one exactly astern. in a word, the position of the whale ' s eyes corresponds to that of a man ' s ears ; and you may fancy, for yourself, how it would fare with you, did you sideways survey objects through your ears. you would find that you could only command some thirty degrees of vision in advance of the straight side - line of sight ; and about thirty more behind it. if your bitterest foe were walking straight", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5134972565433804, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:54.770265"} {"text": "you, did you sideways survey objects through your ears. you would find that you could only command some thirty degrees of vision in advance of the straight side - line of sight ; and about thirty more behind it. if your bitterest foe were walking straight towards you, with dagger uplifted in broad day, you would not be able to see him, any more than if he were stealing upon you from behind. in a word, you would have two backs, so to speak ; but, at the same time, also, two fronts ( side fronts ) : for what is it that makes the front of a man - - what, indeed, but his eyes? moreover, while in most other animals that i can now think of, the eyes are so planted as imperceptibly to blend their visual power, so as to produce one picture and not two to the brain ; the peculiar position of the whale ' s eyes, effectually divided as they are by many cubic feet of solid head, which towers between them like a great mountain separating two lakes in valleys ; this, of course, must wholly separate the impressions which each independent organ imparts. the whale, therefore, must see one distinct picture on this side, and another distinct picture on that side ; while all between must be profound darkness and nothingness to him. man may, in effect, be said to look out on the world from a sentry - box with two joined sashes for his window. but with the whale, these two sashes are separately inserted, making two distinct windows, but sadly impairing the view. this peculiarity of the whale ' s eyes is a thing always to be borne in mind in the fishery ; and to be remembered by the reader in some subsequent scenes. a curious and most puzzling question might be started concerning this visual matter as touching the leviathan. but i must be content with a hint. so long as a man ' s eyes are open in the light, the act of seeing is involuntary ; that is, he cannot then help mechanically seeing whatever objects are before him. nevertheless, any one ' s experience will teach him, that though he can take in an undiscriminating sweep of things at one glance, it is quite impossible for him, attentively, and completely, to examine any two things - - however large or however small - - at one and the same instant of time ; never mind if they lie side by side and touch each other. but if you now come to separate these two", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5827811156914703, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:54.773304"} {"text": "studies suggest that only 31 % of europe is thought to have a water supply that is either plentiful or sufficient to meet demands until 2015, and water stress indexes show a number of countries with traditionally wet climates such as belgium and bulgaria, under significant water stress. therefore, there is both a desire and a need to reduce the consumption of water over much of europe. for industry, often economics determine the viability of water recycling, which does not necessarily fall under the standards currently being set for the major water reuse schemes. while the additional annual recycling capacity in western europe is set to increase by 10 %, much of the global market is focussed on major reuse facilities based on the municipal sector. within the industrial sector there are opportunities to achieve major changes in the water cycle which can have a significant impact on total water consumption. the impact on regional water consumption by industries efforts can be massive, as industry accounts for 50 % of the water consumption in western europe. when benchmarked data across industry sectors is analysed, we find that industries ranging from paper mills, dairy, beverage, ceramic and electronics have opportunities to reduce their water consumption by around 50 %. but what are the mechanisms that drive actions in the industry water cycle, and how great can the impact be? this paper explores industrial water costs across europe, and the drivers leading to reduced water consumption. as operators of water and wastewater facilities for many industrial customers across europe, ondeo industrial solutions examine the raw water costs and the viability of recycle schemes. economics is not the only driver towards the reduction in water consumption on industrial sites. there are political and legislative drivers that can often override the economics such as the european ppc ( pollution prevention and control ) directive that can often lead to a programme of water consumption reductions. water science and technology : water supply is published as an adjunct to water science and technology, in 6 issues per year, covering new developments in water supply. papers are selected by a rigorous peer review procedure and the journal publi \u00bb read more", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5352200611506711, "token_count": 413, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:54.865692"} {"text": "an earthquake is a sudden vibration or trembling in the earth. more than 150, 000 tremors strong enough to be felt by humans occur each year worldwide ( see chance of an earthquake ). earthquake motion is caused by the quick release of stored potential energy into the kinetic energy of motion. most earthquakes are produced along faults, tectonic plate boundary zones, or along the mid - oceanic ridges ( figures 1 and 2 ). figure 1 : distribution of earthquake epicenters from 1975 to 1995. depth of the earthquake focus is indicated by color. deep earthquakes occur in areas where oceanic crust is being actively subducted. about 90 % of all earthquakes occur at a depth between 0 and 100 kilometers. ( source : u. s. geologic survey, national earthquake information center ) figure 2 : distribution of earthquakes with a magnitude less than 5. 0 relative to the various tectonic plates found on the earth ' s surface. each tectonic plate has been given a unique color. this illustration indicates that the majority of small earthquakes occur along plate boundaries. ( source : physicalgeography. net ) at these areas, large masses of rock that are moving past each other can become locked due to friction. friction is overcome when the accumulating stress has enough force to cause a sudden slippage of the rock masses. the magnitude of the shock wave released into the surrounding rocks is controlled by the quantity of stress built up because of friction, the distance the rock moved when the slippage occurred, and ability of the rock to transmit the energy contained in the seismic waves. the san francisco earthquake of 1906 involved a six meter horizontal displacement of bedrock. sometime after the main shock wave, aftershocks can occur because of the continued release of frictional stress. most aftershocks are smaller than the main earthquake, but they can still cause considerable damage to already weakened natural and human - constructed features. earthquakes that occur under or near bodies of water can give rise to tsunamis, which in cases like the december 26, 2004 sumatra - andaman island earthquake reult in far greater distruction and loss of life that the initial earthquake. earthquakes are a form of wave energy that is transferred through bedrock. motion is transmitted from the point of sudden energy release, the earthquake focus ( hypocenter ), as spherical seismic waves that travel in all directions outward ( figure 3 ). the point on the earth ' s surface directly above the focus is termed the epicenter. two different types of seismic waves have been described by geologists : body waves and surface waves", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6076978006339101, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:54.918352"} {"text": "spherical seismic waves that travel in all directions outward ( figure 3 ). the point on the earth ' s surface directly above the focus is termed the epicenter. two different types of seismic waves have been described by geologists : body waves and surface waves. body waves are seismic waves that travel through the lithosphere. two kinds of body waves exist : p - waves and s - waves. both of these waves produce a sharp jolt or shaking. p - waves or primary waves are formed by the alternate expansion and contraction of bedrock and cause the volume of the material they travel through to change. they travel at a speed of about 5 to 7 kilometers per second through the lithosphere and about 8 kilometers per second in the asthenosphere. the speed of sound is about 0. 30 kilometers per second. p - waves also have the ability to travel through solid, liquid, and gaseous materials. when some p - waves move from the ground to the lower atmosphere, the sound wave that is produced can sometimes be heard by humans and animals. figure 3 : movement of body waves away from the focus of the earthquake. the epicenter is the location on the surface directly above the earthquake ' s focus. ( source : physicalgeography. net ) s - waves or secondary waves are a second type of body wave. these waves are slower than p - waves and can only move through solid materials. s - waves are produced by shear stresses and move the materials they pass through in a perpendicular ( up and down or side to side ) direction. surface waves travel at or near the earth ' s surface. these waves produce a rolling or swaying motion causing the earth ' s surface to behave like waves on the ocean. the velocity of these waves is slower than body waves. despite their slow speed, these waves are particularly destructive to human construction because they cause considerable ground movement. earthquake magnitude and energy | table 1 : relationship between richter scale magnitude and energy released. | | 2. 0 | | 1. 3 x 108 | | smallest earthquake detectable by people. | | 5. 0 | | 2. 8 x 1012 | | energy released by the hiroshima atomic bomb. | | 6. 0 - 6. 9 | | 7. 6 x 1013 to 1. 5 x 1015 | | about 120 shallow earthquakes of this magnitude occur each year on the earth. | 6. 7 | | 7. 7 x 1014 | | northridge, california earthquake january 17, 1994. | | 7. 0 | | 2", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5259443460099917, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:54.920288"} {"text": "continental crust. recent seismic studies in the central united states have discovered one such fault located thousands of meters below the lower mississippi valley. some large earthquakes occur at particular locations along the plate boundaries. scientists believe that these areas represent zones along adjacent plates that have greater frictional resistance and stress. figure 4 : distribution of earthquakes with a magnitude less than 5 on the richter scale. ( image source : physicalgeography. net ) figure 5 : distribution of earthquakes with a magnitude greater than 7 on the richter scale. ( image source : physicalgeography. net ) the richter scale magnitude, while the most known, is one of several measures of the magnitude of an earthquake. the most commonly used are : - local magnitude ( ml ), commonly referred to as \" richter magnitude ; \" - surface - wave magnitude ( ms ) ; - body - wave magnitude ( mb ) ; and - moment magnitude ( mw ). scales 1 to 3 have limited range and applicability and do not satisfactorily measure the size of the largest earthquakes. the moment magnitude ( mw ) scale, based on the concept of seismic moment, is uniformly applicable to all sizes of earthquakes but is more difficult to compute than the other types. all magnitude scales should yield approximately the same value for any given earthquake. the severity of an earthquake can be expressed in terms of both intensity and magnitude. however, the two terms are quite different, and they are often confused. intensity is based on the observed effects of ground shaking on people, buildings, and natural features. it varies from place to place within the disturbed region depending on the location of the observer with respect to the earthquake epicenter while magnitude is related to the amount of seismic energy released at the hypocenter of the earthquake. although numerous intensity scales have been developed over the last several hundred years to evaluate the effects of earthquakes, the one currently used in the united states is the modified mercalli ( mm ) intensity scale. the lower numbers of the intensity scale generally deal with the manner in which the earthquake is felt by people. the higher numbers of the scale are based on observed structural damage. structural engineers usually contribute information for assigning intensity values of vlll or above. the following is an abbreviated description of the 12 levels of modified mercalli intensity. i. not felt except by a very few under especially favorable conditions. ii. felt only by a few persons at rest, especially on upper floors of buildings. delicately suspended objects may swing. iii. felt quite noticeably by persons indoors, especially on upper floors of", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.536699407588429, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:54.924911"} {"text": "not felt except by a very few under especially favorable conditions. ii. felt only by a few persons at rest, especially on upper floors of buildings. delicately suspended objects may swing. iii. felt quite noticeably by persons indoors, especially on upper floors of buildings. many people do not recognize it as an earthquake. standing motor cars may rock slightly. vibration similar to the passing of a truck. duration estimated. iv. felt indoors by many, outdoors by few during the day. at night, some awakened. dishes, windows, doors disturbed ; walls make cracking sound. sensation like heavy truck striking building. standing motor cars rocked noticeably. v. felt by nearly everyone ; many awakened. some dishes, windows broken. unstable objects overturned. pendulum clocks may stop. vl. felt by all, many frightened. some heavy furniture moved ; a few instances of fallen plaster. damage slight. vll. damage negligible in buildings of good design and construction ; slight to moderate in well - built ordinary structures ; considerable damage in poorly built or badly designed structures ; some chimneys broken. vlll. damage slight in specially designed structures ; considerable damage in ordinary substantial buildings with partial collapse. damage great in poorly built structures. fall of chimneys, factory stacks, columns, monuments, walls. heavy furniture overturned. ix. damage considerable in specially designed structures ; well - designed frame structures thrown out of plumb. damage great in substantial buildings, with partial collapse. buildings shifted off foundations. x. some well - built wooden structures destroyed ; most masonry and frame structures destroyed with foundations. rails bent. xl. few, if any ( masonry ) structures remain standing. bridges destroyed. rails bent greatly. xll. damage total. lines of sight and level are distorted. objects thrown into the air. earthquake damage and destruction earthquakes are a considerable hazard to humans. earthquakes can cause destruction by structurally damaging buildings and dwellings, fires, tsunamis, and mass wasting ( see figures 6 to 10 ). earthquakes can also take human lives. the amount of damage and loss of life depends on a number of factors. some of the more important factors are : - time of day. higher losses of life tend to occur on weekdays between the hours of 9 : 00 am to 4 : 00 pm. during this time interval many people are in large buildings because of work or school. large structures are often less safe than smaller homes in an earthquake. - magnitude of the earthquake and duration of the event. - distance form the earthquake ' s focus. the strength of the shock waves diminish", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5478202108606193, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:54.926794"} {"text": "jamaican sprinter usain bolt ' s record - setting performances have unleashed a wave of interest in the ultimate limits to human running speed. a new study published in the journal of applied physiology offers intriguing insights into the biology and perhaps even the future of human running speed. the newly published evidence identifies the critical variable imposing the biological limit to running speed, and offers an enticing view of how the biological limits might be pushed back beyond the nearly 28 miles per hour speeds achieved by bolt to speeds of perhaps 35 or even 40 miles per hour. the new paper, \" the biological limits to running speed are imposed from the ground up, \" was authored by peter weyand of southern methodist university ; rosalind sandell and danille prime, both formerly of rice university ; and matthew bundle of the university of wyoming. \" the prevailing view that speed is limited by the force with which the limbs can strike the running surface is an eminently reasonable one, \" said weyand, associate professor of applied physiology and biomechanics at smu in dallas. \" if one considers that elite sprinters can apply peak forces of 800 to 1, 000 pounds with a single limb during each sprinting step, it ' s easy to believe that runners are probably operating at or near the force limits of their muscles and limbs, \" he said. \" however, our new data clearly show that this is not the case. despite how large the running forces can be, we found that the limbs are capable of applying much greater ground forces than those present during top - speed forward running. \" in contrast to a force limit, what the researchers found was that the critical biological limit is imposed by time - \u2013 specifically, the very brief periods of time available to apply force to the ground while sprinting. in elite sprinters, foot - ground contact times are less than one - tenth of one second, and peak ground forces occur within less than one - twentieth of one second of the first instant of foot - ground contact. the researchers took advantage of several experimental tools to arrive at the new conclusions. they used a high - speed treadmill capable of attaining speeds greater than 40 miles per hour and of acquiring precise measurements of the forces applied to the surface with each footfall. they also had subjects ' perform at high speeds in different gaits. in addition to completing traditional top - speed forward running tests, subjects hopped on one leg and ran backward to their fastest possible speeds on the treadmill. the unconventional tests were strategically selected to test the prevailing beliefs about mechanical factors that limit human", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5168635997593963, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:54.960488"} {"text": "samuel d. evans west central experiment station university of minnesota now emeritus professor at morris, minnesota john f. moncrief department of soil, water, and climate university of minnesota gyles w. randall southern experiment station university of minnesota william e. lueschen department of agronomy and plant genetics university of minnesota formerly head of the southwest experiment station at lamberton copyright \u00a9 2002 regents of the university of minnesota. all rights reserved. management of crop residues with reduced tillage is the most cost - effective method of controlling sediment losses and reducing farming impacts on water quality. crop residues can also help reduce wind erosion and can enhance snow entrapment. one of the primary water quality concerns for the minnesota river and its tributaries is sediment, which contributes increased phosphorus ( p ) to the system. this increased p stimulates algae growth, which is followed by an increased biological oxygen demand when the algae die and decompose. this can deplete dissolved oxygen levels, resulting in game fish stress or kill. in addition to affecting sediment loss, tillage influences many interacting physical, chemical, and biological properties of soils that can have major impacts on crop production. these properties include temperature, moisture, aeration, bulk density, structure, nutrient distribution, organic matter levels, and microbial populations. various crops respond to these changes differently. the range of these changes can be amplified by extremes in tillage reduction associated with some residue management alternatives. small grain is insensitive to temperature changes but may respond to changes in the seed furrow environment and to differing weed species present. small grain is a prominent part of the agriculture in the upper minnesota river basin. following is a discussion of residue management tillage system effects on small grain production. on soils classified highly erodible land ( hel ) the general requirement is 30 percent residue cover after planting. on non - hel soils the steepness and length of the slopes will indicate the potential for significant erosion. a second soil factor that must be considered is internal drainage. poorly drained soils warm up more slowly than well - drained soils, so may require more tillage. tile drainage may improve this situation, but in some cases this may not be enough to insure consistent success with little or no tillage. a third factor is soil fertility level. having a high level of fertility is necessary if reduced tillage systems are to perform well. low fertility conditions offer too many obstacles and generally limit yields in reduced tillage systems. it is important to effectively control sediment at high soil test p levels. research has shown", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5013951748958843, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:55.004550"} {"text": "introductionfox, carnivorous mammal of the dog family, found throughout most of the northern hemisphere. it has a pointed face, short legs, long, thick fur, and a tail about one half to two thirds as long as the head and body, depending on the species. solitary most of the year, foxes do not live in dens except in the breeding season ; they sleep concealed in grasses or thickets, their tails curled around them for warmth. during the breeding season a fox pair establishes a den, often in a ground burrow made by another animal, in which the young are raised ; the male hunts for the family. the young are on their own after about five months ; the adults probably find new mates each season. foxes feed on insects, earthworms, small birds and mammals, eggs, carrion, and vegetable matter, especially fruits. unlike other members of the dog family, which run down their prey, foxes usually hunt by stalking and pouncing. they are known for their raids on poultry but are nonetheless very beneficial to farmers as destroyers of rodents. foxes are occasionally preyed upon by larger carnivores, such as wolves and bobcats, as well as by humans and their dogs ; birds of prey may capture the young. despite extensive killing of foxes, most species continue to flourish. in europe this is due in part to the regulatory laws passed for the benefit of hunters. mounted foxhunting, with dogs, became popular in the 14th cent. and was later introduced into the americas ; special hunting dogs, called foxhounds, have been bred for this sport. great britain banned foxhunting in which the hounds kill the fox in 2005. the columbia electronic encyclopedia, 6th ed. copyright \u00a9 2012, columbia university press. all rights reserved. see more encyclopedia articles on : vertebrate zoology", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5166202181650156, "token_count": 370, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:55.025087"} {"text": "stream quality assessment program a stream is a combination of all of its physical, chemical and biological characteristics. human activities shape and alter many of these characteristics. the health of our rivers and streams is closely linked to their surrounding watersheds. ecologists measure the extent to which human activities affect watershed health by gathering and recording information on physical conditions, water quality and living communities in streams and in the surrounding environment. the long - term stream monitoring program meets the requirements of state and federal regulations and supports the board of supervisors ' environmental improvement program by providing an ongoing evaluation of the streams. the program maintains a substantial database, which over time will be used to determine the overall rate of change or trends in the conditions of our waterways. based on biological data collected at 39 randomly selected locations ( see map of monitoring site locations ) throughout fairfax county in 2012, approximately 75. 0 percent of fairfax county ' s streams are in fair to very poor condition. this indicates that many of our streams are significantly impaired and lack biological diversity. the stream quality index ( sqi ) is based on annual data collected on resident populations of benthic macroinvertebrates ( animals without a backbone that live on the bottom of a stream, river, lake and are visible to the naked eye ). as benthic macroinvertebrates are good indicators of water quality, the sqi is used to evaluate long - term trends in the overall health of streams. each of the 39 randomly selected locations is placed in one of five rating categories ( excellent, good, fair, poor or very poor ) based on the diversity of benthic macroinvertebrates found in that stream segment. an index value ranging from one to five, with a higher number indicating better stream quality, is calculated for the year based on the percent of sampling locations that fall into each rating category. results from 2004 through 2012 can be found in the table below. the 2012 sqi shows a decrease in overall stream quality from 2011. over the past nine years of sampling, a very small increase in the overall index has emerged. as more data are reported annually, trends can be identified with greater certainty. | sampling year | | percent very poor | | percent poor | | percent fair | | percent good | | percent excellent | | stream quality index | stream and watershed health are evaluated using a variety of indicators such as water quality parameters, bacteria levels, resident invertebrate and fish communities and habitat conditions. the results of the yearly monitoring events are compiled into annual reports and are used to support other environmental initiatives. additional", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.518515181041878, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:55.041804"} {"text": "wool rugs have what is called a particular \" hand \" or texture that reflects the level of ' scratchiness ' found in the finished product. the manner of grooming and shearing and resulting processing of the fiber can vary widely amongst carpet producers. further complications regarding the wide range in texture is the fact that it varies considerably across the body of an individual sheep, as well as differences related to and based on the actual sex of the sheep. add in nutritional factors, age and the general health of the sheep, and you have yet another class of variables to mix into the fold. wool rugs, such as in many oriental designs, incorporate a process in which the individual weavers harvest a longer wool fiber bearing a greater overall density, sometimes twice the size of other wool fiber, thus giving rise to a very different finished wool area rug. the resulting product, whether oriental or not, retained a luster often missing from modern designs which typically utilize inappropriate or inferior wool fiber and then apply cheap but boldly hued synthetic colors to the weaving process. modern machine woven techniques lack the subtlety in coloring and texture as well as even the element of human error and irregularity uniquely found and favored in antique productions found in such places as persia or india. wool rug research into synthetic dyeing processes intensified in the 19th century as european producers sought to re - create and reproduce the complexity, design and detail of the nomadic oriental weaver. this led to a literal mass production so that european and american consumers could participate in the home furnishings phenomenon. coloring properties were expanded to accept color treatments based on fuchsin dyes, with colors ranging from fuchsin - magenta to basic red to basic violet to acid violet and red violet. oriental or contemporary design elements could now use these fuchsin dyes to achieve an initially startling effect. one drawback though, however, was that these same fuchsin dyes were highly light sensitive, and accordingly would rapidly fade or gray with exposure to normal levels of diffused sunlight. even during the first quarter of the 20th century this process was still being utilized. the result was that these chemically unstable fuchsin dyes guaranteed an underlying flow of repeat buyers who would eventually discard their now graying and dull flooring after only a short number of years of use, and purchase a new one. meanwhile, the antique market, which is based solely on organically produced vegetable dyes, continues to provid buyers with far greater wear and coloring vibrancy. \u00a9 2011 floorbiz, inc. all", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.537946740319464, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:55.101236"} {"text": "9. 0 sleepwatch \u00ae ( actigraphy ) measure of sleep on workdays and non - workdays it was hypothesized that deployment of a combination of four fatigue management technologies would result in increased sleep time ( actigraph determined ) under both canadian hours - of - service ( study phase 1 ) and u. s. hours - of - service ( study phase 2 ). however, analyses of actigraphy data for sleep episodes in the no feedback versus feedback conditions revealed no statistically significant differences in sleep duration in either the canada study phase or the u. s. study phase ( see \" prior sleep \" variable in tables 13 and 24 ). \" prior sleep \" was defined by all the sleep time found in each 24 - hour period ( from noon to noon, across consecutive days in the 2 - week period for each condition ) using an actigraphic software program called \" action 4 \" ( developed by ambulatory monitoring, inc., ardsley, ny ), as well as software that could recognize and eliminate from consideration periods of time when the actigraph was not on the wrist of a driver. although the overall comparisons of actigraphically - defined 24 - hour cumulative sleep time ( prior sleep ) were not different between the feedback and no feedback conditions, it was clear that the u. s. study phase drivers had an average of 50 minutes less sleep per day than their canadian counterparts during the no feedback condition, and 39 minutes less sleep per day than their canadian counterparts during the feedback condition ( compare \" prior sleep \" in tables 13 and 24 ). the reduced daily sleep times in the u. s. drivers were consistent with the differences between study phases in the predominant time - of - day for driving - canada drivers had approximately 75 % of their driving in daylight ( and therefore, slept mostly in the nighttime ), while u. s. drivers had approximately 90 % of their driving at night ( and therefore slept more in the daytime ). it has long been established that sleep duration is reduced when people work nights, owing to circadian biological forces and environmental factors, which alone or together can truncate daytime sleep durations. analyses were performed to determine whether the actigraphically - defined sleep duration differences of 50 minutes ( no feedback difference between canada and u. s. ) and 39 minutes ( feedback difference between canada and u. s. ) were statistically significantly different from each other. in addition, sleep durations would likely be affected by workdays and non - workdays", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5122671613659372, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:55.107162"} {"text": "the ilc promises extraordinary power in the study of the terascale. the annihilation of an electron and its antiparticle, the positron, allows the understanding of collisions to an unparalleled level of detail and precision. as others have comprehensively documented, the ilc view of the terascale, complementary to the lhc ' s perspective, makes the ilc an essential tool for unraveling new phenomena discovered at these extreme energies. it makes the ilc the top priority at fermilab for a future global facility. a superconducting ilc cavity credit : fermilab visual media services the ilc ' s opportunities for discovery have motivated the global particle physics community to come together in an effort to design the accelerator and its experimental program. the completion of the reference design report in early 2007 and the structuring of a collaborative worldwide r & d program represent successful community efforts. fermilab has contributed strongly to this effort : the design of the accelerator ; the development of superconducting radio - frequency, or scrf, technology in the u. s. ; the design of the physics and experimental program ; the site studies necessary for hosting the ilc at or near fermilab ; and the establishment of a test - beam facility for the development of ilc detectors. the ilc and related scrf efforts at fermilab make up by far the laboratory ' s largest future program. in the next phase of the ilc effort, fermilab ' s aim is to be a leader in the global engineering design and in the development of the scrf technology, steps necessary to reach a decision early in the next decade to build the ilc. fermilab is building the required infrastructure and test facilities and is coordinating the national efforts in the development of scrf technology, in collaboration with national and international partners in europe, asia and the u. s. to these efforts fermilab brings strong engineering capability, accelerator physics expertise and technology development skills. innovative detectors will be key to exploiting the ilc physics opportunities. in general, an improvement in resolution of both tracking and calorimetric detectors over the present state - of - the - art detectors will allow experimenters to distinguish the signals of new physics from backgrounds much more efficiently. fermilab has a strong instrumentation development effort in collaboration with laboratories and universities across the world. just as important for the global ilc effort, fermilab has developed and will operate a flexible high - energy test beam to provide", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6003666045234979, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:55.112968"} {"text": "much more efficiently. fermilab has a strong instrumentation development effort in collaboration with laboratories and universities across the world. just as important for the global ilc effort, fermilab has developed and will operate a flexible high - energy test beam to provide a variety of particles and energies for testing detector technologies. a simulation of the decay of a z + higgs to four jets in an ilc detector credit : norman graf fermilab ' s goal is to host the ilc. geographically and geologically, the site is nearly optimal and could house the central facilities of the ilc, such as damping rings and experimental halls. two important aspects of fermilab ' s activities over the next three years are the study of the site and the design of conventional facilities necessary for the engineering design and working with the neighboring communities on issues associated with hosting the ilc in the region. fermilab has vigorously collaborated with local residents over the last two years, first with the community task force and currently with the ilc citizens ' task force and the envoy program. these activities will strengthen over the next three years of engineering design. finally, fermilab is strengthening its engineering capabilities as the laboratory moves toward the design of global accelerators. unlike the case of the detector community, which is accustomed to building detectors collaboratively across continents, much less collaboration has taken place in the development of global accelerators. the ilc is breaking new ground in this regard, and it is important that fermilab have the strongest engineering capabilities and systems in place in order to lead in the integration of components produced around the world into a functioning accelerator. the ilc is key to the future of u. s. particle physics and to fermilab ' s future.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5076359585672489, "token_count": 351, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:55.113887"} {"text": "\" ph. d. dissertation, gottingen, 1921. this dissertation forms the basis for the material in the present article. nicoladoni, a. johannes bunderlin von linz und die oberosterreichischen taufergemeinden in den jahren 1525 - 1531. berlin, 1893. oyer, john. \" the writings of luther against the anabaptists. \" mennonite quarterly review 27 ( april 1953 ). oyer, john. \" the writings of melanchthon against the anabaptists. \" mennonite quarterly review 26 ( october 1952 ). paulus, nikolaus. protestantismus und tolerant im sechzehnten jahrhundert. freiburg i. br., 1911. richter, a. l. die evangelischen kirchenordnungen des 16. jahrhunderts, 1, 2. weimar, 1846. schraepler, horst. \" die rechtliche behandlung der taufer in wurttemberg, hessen, baden, kurpfalz und der deutschen schweiz in den jahren 1525 - 1618. \" tubingen doctoral dissertation, 1956. sehling, emil, ed. die evangelischen kirchenordnungen des 16. jahrhunderts i, part i. leipzig, 1902. wappler, paul. inquisition und ketzerprozesse in zwickau zur reformationszeit. leipzig, 1908. wiswedel, wilhelm. bilder and fuhrergestalten aus dem taufertum. 3 v. kassel : j. g. oncken verlag, 1928 - 1952. adapted by permission of herald press, harrisonburg, virginia, and waterloo, ontario, from mennonite encyclopedia, vol. 3, pp. 129 - 132. all rights reserved. for information on ordering the encyclopedia visit the herald press website. \u00a91996 - 2013 by the global anabaptist mennonite encyclopedia online. all rights reserved. to cite this page : mla style : crous, ernst and wilhelm wiswedel. \" juridical procedures relating to the anabaptists. \" global anabaptist mennonite encyclopedia online. 1957. web. 23 may 2013. http : / / www. gameo. org / encyclopedia / contents / j864. html. apa style : crous, ernst and wilhelm wiswedel. ( 1957 ). jurid", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.503882023942998, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 9, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:55.185036"} {"text": "and coatings, hob tool design characteristics, process speeds and feeds, hob shifting strategies, wear characteristics, etc. the paper will also discuss the use of a common denominator method for evaluating hob tool life in terms of meters ( or inches ) per hob tooth as an alternative to tool life expressed in parts per sharpening. there are great advantages in dry hobbing, not only for friendliness toward the environment, but also for increasing productivity and for decreasing manufacturing cost. dry hobbing, however, often causes failures in hob cutting edges or problems with the surface quality of gear tooth flanks. these difficulties are not present when hobbing with cutting oil. pinching and crushing of generated chips between the hob cutting edge and the work gear tooth flank is considered a major cause of those problems. gear hobbing is a generating process. the term generating refers to the fact that the gear tooth form cut is not the conjugate form of the cutting tool, the hob. during hobbing both the hob and the workpiece rotate in a continuous rotational relationship. during this rotation, the hob is typically fed axially with all the teeth being gradually formed as the tool traverses the work face ( see fig. 1a ). this is part ii of a two - part series on the basics of gear hobbing. part i discussed selection of the correct type of hobbing operation, the design features of hobs and hob accuracy. this part will cover sharpening errors and finish hob design considerations. the first part of this article, which ran in the september / october 1994 issue, explained the fundamentals of gear hobbing and some of the latest techniques, including methods of hob performance analysis and new tool configurations, being used to solve specific application problems. in this issue, the author continues his exploration of hobbing by describing the effects of progress on requirements in accuracy, as well as the latest in materials, coating and dry hobbing. we make a lot of single - start worm and worm gear sets, and it always seems as though we ' re buying another special hob. we also do a lot of spur gear cutting, and the spur gear hobs and the worm gear hobs look alike, so we wonder why we cannot use the standard hobs for cutting worm gears too. can we do this? two questions on hobbing cover the various types of hobs and their unusual names, as well as the importance of hob swivel angle. today ' s high technology hobs are", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5328623104161564, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:55.227523"} {"text": "prolong tool life \u2014 is shown by means of gear finish hobbing. typical profile angle deviations that occur with increasing tool wear are discussed. finally, an approach is presented here to attain improved profile accuracy over the whole tool life of the finishing hob. chicago - results of recent studies on residual stress in gear hobbing, hobbing without lubricants and heat treating were reported by representatives of infac ( instrumented factory for gears ) at an industry briefing in march of this year. can a gear profile generated by the hobbing method be an ideal involute? in strictly theoretical terms - no, but in practicality - yes. a gear profile generated by the hobbing method is an approximation of the involute curve. let ' s review a classic example of an approximation. many people in the gear industry have heard of skiving, a process wherein solid carbide or inserted carbide blade hobs with 15 - 60 degrees of negative rake are used to recut gears to 62 rc. the topic of this article is the use of neutral ( zero ) rake solid carbide hobs to remove heat treat distortion, achieving accuracies of agma 8 to agma 14, din 10 - 5 and improving surface finish on gears from 8 dp - 96 dp (. 3 module -. 26 m. ). in addition to the face milling system, the face hobbing process has been developed and widely employed by the gear industry. however, the mechanism of the face hobbing process is not well known. with reference to the machining of an involute spur or helical gear by the hobbing process, this paper suggests a new criterion for selecting the position of the hob axis relative to the gear axis. the gear hobbing process is a generating type of production operation. for this reason, the form of the hob tooth is always different from the form of the tooth that it produces. several innovations have been introduced to the gear manufacturing industry in recent years. in the case of gear hobbing \u2014 the dry cutting technology and the ability to do it with powder - metallurgical hss \u2014 might be two of the most impressive ones. and the technology is still moving forward. the aim of this article is to present recent developments in the field of gear hobbing in conjunction with the latest improvements regarding tool materials, process technology and process integration. the art of gear hobbing has advanced dramatically since the development and introduction of unique machine and tool features such as", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5247532188048402, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:55.231964"} {"text": "is to present recent developments in the field of gear hobbing in conjunction with the latest improvements regarding tool materials, process technology and process integration. the art of gear hobbing has advanced dramatically since the development and introduction of unique machine and tool features such as no backlash, super rigidity, automatic loading of cutting tools, cnc controls, additional machine power and improved cutter materials and coatings. it is essential to utilize all these features to run the machine economically. to meet the future goals of higher productivity and lower production costs, the cutting speeds and feeds in modern gear hobbing applications have to increase further. in several cases, coated carbide tools have replaced the commonly used high speed steel ( hss ) tools. today, as part of filling a typical gear hobbing or shaping machine order, engineers are required to perform an spc acceptance test. this spc test, while it is contractually necessary for machine acceptance, is not a machine acceptance test. it is a process capability test. it is an acceptance of the machine, cutting tool, workholding fixture, and workpiece as integrated on the cutting machine, using a gear measuring machine, with its work arbor and evaluation software, to measure the acceptance elements of the workpiece. in the past gear manufacturers have had to rely on hob manufacturers ' inspection of individual elements of a hob, such as lead, involute, spacing, and runout. these did not always guarantee correct gears, as contained elements may cause a hob to produce gears beyond tolerance limits. fig. 1 shows the effects of positive and negative rake on finished gear teeth. incorrect positive rake ( a ) increase the depth and decreases the pressure angle on the hob tooth. the resulting gear tooth is thick at the top and thin at the bottom. incorrect negative rake ( b ) decreases the depth and increases the pressure angle. this results in a cutting drag and makes the gear tooth thin at the top and thick at the bottom. question : when cutting worm gears with multiple lead stock hobs we find the surface is \" ridged \". what can be done to eliminate this appearance or is to unavoidable? this article examines the dry hobbing capabilities of two cutting tool materials \u2014 powder metallurgical high - speed steel ( pm - hss ) and cemented carbide. cutting trials were carried out to analyze applicable cutting parameters and possible tool lives as well as the process reliability. to consider the influences of the machinability of different workpiece materials, a case hardening", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5194844056814172, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:55.233712"} {"text": "hss ) and cemented carbide. cutting trials were carried out to analyze applicable cutting parameters and possible tool lives as well as the process reliability. to consider the influences of the machinability of different workpiece materials, a case hardening steel and a tempered steel were examined. for environmental and economic reasons, the use of coolant in machining processes is increasingly being questioned. rising coolant prices and disposal costs, as well as strains on workers and the environment, have fueled the debate. the use of coolant has given rise to a highly technical system for handling coolant in the machine ( cooling, filtering ) and protecting the environment ( filter, oil - mist collector ). in this area the latest cutting materials - used with or without coolant - have great potential for making the metal - removal process more economical. the natural progression to completely dry machining has decisive advantages for hobbing. hobbing is one of the most fundamental processes in gear manufacturing. its productivity and versatility make hobbing the gear manufacturing method of choice for a majority of spur and helical gears. in today \u2019 s manufacturing environment, shorter and more efficient product development has become the norm. it is therefore important to consider every detail of the development process, with a particular emphasis on design. for green machining of gears, the most productive and important process is hobbing. in order to analyze process design for this paper, a manufacturing simulation was developed capable of calculating chip geometries and process forces based on different models. as an important tool for manufacturing technology engineers, an economic feasibility analysis is implemented as well. the aim of this paper is to show how an efficient process design \u2014 as well as an efficient process \u2014 can be designed. it takes confidence to be the first to invest in new manufacturing technology. but the payback can be significant. that has been the experience at the ford motor company ' s transmission & chassis division plant at indianapolis, in, which boasts the world ' s first production application of dry hobbing. the objective, according to dr. - ing. hansjorg geiser, head of development and design for gear machines at liebherr, was to develop and design a combined turning and hobbing machine in which turning, drilling and hobbing work could be carried out in the same clamping arrangement as the hobbing of the gearings and the subsequent chamfering and deburring processes. prior to the introduction of titanium nitride to the cutting tool industry in the early 1980s, there was very little", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.560406252644751, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:55.236783"} {"text": "the same clamping arrangement as the hobbing of the gearings and the subsequent chamfering and deburring processes. prior to the introduction of titanium nitride to the cutting tool industry in the early 1980s, there was very little progress in the general application of hobbing in the gear cutting industry. the productivity gains realized with this new type of coating initiated a very active time of advancement in the gear manufacturing process. gear gashing is a gear machining process, very much like gear milling, utilizing the principle of cutting one or more tooth ( or tooth space ) at a time. the term \" gashing \" today applies to the roughing, or roughing and finishing, of coarse diametral pitch gears and sprockets. manufacturing these large coarse gears by conventional methods of rough and finish hobbing can lead to very long machining cycles and uneconomical machine utilization. the following is a general overview of some of the different factors that lead to the specific design. and the selection of the correct tool for a given hobbing application. load - carrying capacity of gears, especially the surface durability, is influenced by their tooth surface roughness in addition to their tooth profiles and tooth traces. precision gears play a vital role in today ' s economy. through their application, automobile transmissions are more compact and efficient, ships sail faster, and diesel locomotives haul more freight. today great emphasis is being placed upon the reduction of noise in all gear applications and, to be quiet, gears must be accurate. as we approach the problem of hard gear processing, it is well to take a look at the reason for discussing it at this time. in our present economic atmosphere throughout the world, more and more emphasis is being placed upon efficiency which is dictated by higher energy costs. our company manufactures a range of hardened and ground gears. we are looking into using skiving as part of our finishing process on gears in the 4 - 12 module range made form 17 crnimo6 material and hardened to between 58 and 62 rc. can you tell us more about this process? hobbing is probably the most popular gear manufacturing process. its inherent accuracy and productivity makes it a logical choice for a wide range of sizes. some results of evaluation by this method in the automotive industry. the newer profile - shifted ( long and short addendum ) gears are often used as small size reduction gears for automobiles or motorcycles. the authors have investigated the damage to each cutting edge when small size mass - produced gears with shifted profiles are used at high speeds", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5224682410632694, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:55.238979"} {"text": "profile - shifted ( long and short addendum ) gears are often used as small size reduction gears for automobiles or motorcycles. the authors have investigated the damage to each cutting edge when small size mass - produced gears with shifted profiles are used at high speeds. nc and cnc metal cutting machines are among the most popular machine tools in the business today, there is also a strong trend toward using flexible machining centers and flexible manufacturing systems. the same trend is apparent in gear cutting. currently the trend toward cnc tools has increased, and sophisticated controls and peripheral equipment for gear cutting machines are now available ; however, the investment in a cnc gear machine has to be justified on the basis of economic facts as well as technical advantages. the seemingly simple process of placing a uniform chamfer on the face ends of spur and helical gears, at least for the aerospace industry, has never been a satisfactory or cost effective process. i would like to comment on david arnesen ' s article, \" dry hobbing saves automaker money, improves gear quality, \" in the nov / dec, 1996 issue. q & a with liebherr ' s dr. alois mundt. new tool from lmt - fette provides combination of operations. flute index flute index or spacing is defined as the variation from the desired angle between adjacent or nonadjacent tooth faces measured in a plane of rotation. agma defines and provides tolerance for adjacent and nonadjacent flute spacing errors. in addition, din and iso standards provide tolerances for individual flute variation ( fig. 1 ). this article describes a method of obtaining gear tooth profiles from the geometry of the rack ( or hob ) that is used to generate the gear. this method works for arbitrary rack geometries, including the case when only a numerical description of the rack is available. examples of a simple rack, rack with protuberances and a hob with root chamfer are described. the application of this technique to the generation of boundary element meshes for gear tooth strength calculation and the generation of finite element models for the frictional contact analysis of gear pairs is also described. investment in advanced new manufacturing technologies is helping to reinvent production processes for bevel gear cutters and coarse - pitch hobs at gleason - delivering significant benefits downstream to customers seeking shorter deliveries, longer tool life and better results. the cutting tool is basic to gear manufacturing. whether it ' s a hob, broach, shaper cutter or edm wire", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5263291057627216, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 7, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:55.240127"} {"text": "analysis to their own situations by the formidabilty of the mathematical calculations. i am making the following small suggestion concerning the evaluation of the constant terms. a brief introduction to the subject of thin film coatings and their application to gear hobs and shaper cutters is followed by a detailed description of the chemical vapor deposition process and the physical vapor deposition process. advantages and disadvantages of each of these processes is discussed. emphasis is placed upon : application engineering of coated gear tools based on laboratory and field test results. recommendations are suggested for tool design improvements and optimization of gear cutting operations using coated tools. productivity improvements potentially available by properly utilizing coated tools are considered in terms of both tool cost and machining cost. new material technology allows for more efficient and flexible hobbing. in this paper a new method for the introduction of optimal modifications into gear tooth surfaces \u2014 based on the optimal corrections of the profile and diameter of the head cutter, and optimal variation of machine tool settings for pinion and gear finishing \u2014 is presented. the goal of these tooth modifications is the achievement of a more favorable load distribution and reduced transmission error. the method is applied to face milled and face hobbed hypoid gears. bevel gear manufacturers live in one of two camps : the face hobbing / lapping camp, and the face milling / grinding camp. the quality of the finished gear is influenced by the very first machining operations of the blank. since the gear tooth geometry is generated on a continuously rotating blank in hobbing or shaping, it is important that the timed relationship between the cutter and workpiece is correct. if this relationship is disturbed by eccentricities of the blank to its operating centerline, the generated gear teeth will not be of the correct geometry. during the blanking operations, the gear ' s centerline and locating surfaces are established and must be maintained as the same through the following operations that generate the gear teeth. indexable carbide insert ( ici ) cutting tools continue to play a pivotal role in gear manufacturing. by offering higher cutting speeds, reduced cycle times, enhanced coatings, custom configurations and a diverse range of sizes and capabilities, ici tools have proven invaluable for finishing and pre - grind applications. they continue to expand their unique capabilities and worth in the cutting tool market. nowadays, finish hobbing ( which means that there is no post - hobbing gear finishing operation ) is capable of producing higher quality gears and is growing in popularity. this article is part four of an eight - part series on the tribol", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5480543605184803, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 9, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:55.244020"} {"text": "available with many as stock catalog products. helical gears can drive either nonparallel or parallel shafts. when these gears are used with nonparallel shafts, the contact is a point, and the design and manufacturing requirements are less critical than for gears driving parallel shafts. the forming of gear teeth has traditionally been a time - consuming heavy stock removal operation in which close tooth size, shape, runout and spacing accuracy are required. this is true whether the teeth are finished by a second forming operation or a shaving operation. in order to increase the load carrying capacity of hardened gears, the distortion of gear teeth caused by quenching must be removed by precision cutting ( skiving ) and / or grinding. in the case of large gears with large modules, skiving by a carbide hob is more economical than grinding when the highest accuracy is not required. high - speed machining using carbide has been used for some decades for milling and turning operations. the intermittent character of the gear cutting process has delayed the use of carbide tools in gear manufacturing. carbide was found at first to be too brittle for interrupted cutting actions. in the meantime, however, a number of different carbide grades were developed. the first successful studies in carbide hobbing of cylindrical gears were completed during the mid - 80s, but still did not lead to a breakthrough in the use of carbide cutting tools for gear production. since the carbide was quite expensive and the tool life was too short, a tin - coated, high - speed steel hob was more economical than an uncoated carbide hob. bodine electric co. of chicago, il., has a 97 - year history of fine - and medium - pitch gear manufacturing. like anywhere else, traditions, old systems, and structures can be beneficial, but they can also become paradigms and obstacles to further improvements. we were producing a high quality product, but our goal was to become more cost effective. carbide hobbing is seen as a technological innovation capable of enabling a dramatic, rather than an incremental, enhancement to productivity and cost savings. recent trends in gear cutting technology have left process engineers searching for direction about which combination of cutting tool material, coating, and process technology will afford the best quality at the lowest total cost. applying the new technologies can have associated risks that may override the potential cost savings. the many interrelated variables to be considered and evaluated tend to cloud the issue and make", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5313862629371171, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 11, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:55.251398"} {"text": ", and process technology will afford the best quality at the lowest total cost. applying the new technologies can have associated risks that may override the potential cost savings. the many interrelated variables to be considered and evaluated tend to cloud the issue and make hobbing process development more difficult. increased productivity in roughing operations for gear cutting depends mainly on lower production costs in the hobbing process. in addition, certain gears can be manufactured by shaping, which also needs to be taken into account in the search for a more cost - effective form of production. traditionally, profile and lead inspections have been indispensable portions of a standard inspection of an involute gear. this also holds true for the worm of a worm gear drive ( ref. 1 ). but the inspection of the profile and the lead is rarely performed on a worm wheel. one of the main reasons is our inability to make good definitions of these two elements ( profile and lead ) for the worm wheel. several researchers have proposed methods for profile and lead inspections of a worm wheel using cnc machines or regular involute and lead inspections of a worm wheel using cnc machines or regular involute measuring machines. hu and pennell measured a worm wheel ' s profile in an \" involute \" section and the lead on the \" pitch \" cylinder ( ref. 2 ). this method is applicable to a convolute helicoid worm drive with a crossing angle of 90 degrees because the wheel profile in one of the offset axial planes is rectilinear. this straight profile generates an involute on the generated worm wheel. unfortunately, because of the hob oversize, the crossing angle between the hob and the worm wheel always deviates from 90 degrees by the swivel angle. thus, this method can be implemented only approximately by ignoring the swivel angle. another shortcoming of this method is that there is only one profile and one lead on each flank. if the scanned points deviated from this curve, it produced unreal profile deviation. octrue discussed profile inspection using a profile checking machine ( ref. 3 ). conical involute gears, also known as beveloid gears, are generalized involute gears that have the two flanks of the same tooth characterized by different base cylinder radii and different base helix angles. in the past, the blades of universal face hobbing cutters had to be resharpened on three faces. those three faces formed the active part of the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5233704634516717, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 12, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:55.252669"} {"text": "the same tooth characterized by different base cylinder radii and different base helix angles. in the past, the blades of universal face hobbing cutters had to be resharpened on three faces. those three faces formed the active part of the blade. in face hobbing, the effective cutting direction changes dramatically with respect to the shank of the blade. depending on the individual ratio, it was found that optimal conditions for the chip removal action ( side rake, side relief and hook angle ) could just be established by adjusting all major parameters independently. this, in turn, results automatically in the need for the grinding or resharpening of the front face and the two relief surfaces in order to control side rake, hook angle and the relief and the relief angles of the cutting and clearance side. quality gear manufacturing depends on controlled tolerances and geometry. as a result, ferritic nitrocarburizing has become the heat treat process of choice for many gear manufacturers. the primary reasons for this are : 1. the process is performed at low temperatures, i. e. less than critical. 2. the quench methods increase fatigue strength by up to 125 % without distorting. ferritic nitrocarburizing is used in place of carburizing with conventional and induction hardening. 3. it establishes gradient base hardnesses, i. e. eliminates eggshell on tin, tiain, crc, etc. in addition, the process can also be applied to hobs, broaches, drills, and other cutting tools. in 1961 i presented a paper, \" calculating conjugate helical forms, \" at the semi - annual meeting of the american gear manufacturers association ( agma ). since that time, thousands of hobs, shaper cutters and other meshing parts have been designed on the basis of the equations presented in that paper. this article presents the math of that paper without the formality of its development and goes on to discuss its practical application. this article summarizes the development of an improved titanium nitride ( tin ) recoating process, which has, when compared to conventional recoat methods, demonstrated tool life increases of up to three times in performance testing of hobs and shaper cutters. this new coating process, called super tin, surpasses the performance of standard tin recoating for machining gear components. super tin incorporates stripping, surface preparation, smooth coating techniques and polishing before and after recoating. the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5092029426496973, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 13, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:55.254440"} {"text": ", to auctions and into farmers ' back yards. the traditional way of controlling the quality of hypoid gears ' tooth flank form is to check the tooth flank contact patterns. but it is not easy to exactly judge the tooth flank form quality by the contact pattern. in recent years, it has become possible to accurately measure the tooth flank form of hypoid gears by the point - to - point measuring method and the scanning measuring method. but the uses of measured data of the tooth flank form for hypoid gears have not yet been well developed in comparison with cylindrical involute gears. in this paper, the tooth flank form measurement of generated face - milled gears, face - hobbed gears and formulate / generated gears are reported. the authors discuss the advantages and disadvantages of scanning and point - to - point measuring of 3 - d tooth flank forms of hypoid gears and introduce some examples of uses of measured data for high - quality production and performance prediction. the dictionary of american biography describes him as \" one of the founders of the gear - cutting industry in the united state. \" he built the first hobbing machine for cutting spur gears. he founded the companies that are now boston gear and philadelphia gear corp. imagine the $ 10 bill with the face of edwin r. fellows on it and on the back, a picture of his invention : the gear shaping machine. or the $ 5 bill with george b. grant and a picture of the first hobbing machine, which he built. when parts you manufacture pass through numerous processes such as deep hole drilling, machining, hobbing and grinding, a cmm is essential when your customers require 100 percent in - process and final inspection. there are several methods available for improving the quality of spur and helical gears following the standard roughing operations of hobbing or shaping. rotary gear shaving and roll - finishing are done in the green or soft state prior to heat treating. a treasure trove of gear and power components for aspiring engineers and dedicated hobbyists. dollhouses may be toys for children, but an old - time working miniature machine shop is the ultimate toy for a self - proclaimed hobby machinist like greg bierck. one of the major problems of plastic gear design is the knowledge of their running temperature. of special interest is the bulk temperature of the tooth to predict the fatigue life, and the peak temperature on the surface of the tooth to avert surface failure. this paper presents the results of an experimental method that uses an infrared radiometer to", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5338400646986985, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 15, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:55.257380"} {"text": "temperature. of special interest is the bulk temperature of the tooth to predict the fatigue life, and the peak temperature on the surface of the tooth to avert surface failure. this paper presents the results of an experimental method that uses an infrared radiometer to measure the temperature variation along the profile of a plastic gear tooth in operation. measurements are made on 5. 08, 3. 17, 2. 54, 2. 12 mm module hob cut gears made from nylon 6 - 6, acetal and uhmwpe ( ultra high molecular weight polyethylene ). all the tests are made on a four square testing rig with thermoplastic / steel gear pairs where the plastic gear is the driver. maximum temperature prediction curves obtained through statistical analysis of the results are presented and compared to data available from literature. two major processes used for cutting gears, hobbing and shaping. this article describes advanced machine design and cutter materials for gear shaping. a universal gear is one generated by a common rack on a cylindrical, conical, or planar surface, and whose teeth can be oriented parallel or skewed, centered, or offset, with respect to its axes. mating gear axes can be parallel or crossed, non - intersecting or intersecting, skewed or parallel, and can have any angular orientation ( see fig. 1 ) the taper gear is a universal gear. it provides unique geometric properties and a range of applications unmatched by any other motion transmission element. ( see fig. 2 ) the taper gear can be produced by any rack - type tool generator or hobbing machine which has a means of tilting the cutter or work axis and / or coordinating simultaneous traverse and infeed motions. traditional methods of manufacturing precision gears usually employ either hobbing or shaper cutting. both of these processes rely upon generating the conjugate tooth form by moving the work - piece in a precise relation to the tool. recently, attention has been given to forming gear teeth in a single step. advantages to such a process include reduced production time, material savings, and improved performance characteristics. drawbacks include complicated tool designs, non - uniformity of gears produced throughout the life of the tooling, and lengthy development times. after shaping or hobbing, the tooth flanks must be either chamfered or duburred. here it is paramount that the secondary burr produced will not be formed into the flank, but to the face of the gear, because during hardening, the secondary burr will straighten up and, due to its extreme hardness, will", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5633318374313805, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 16, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:55.258479"} {"text": "the jordan river, which cuts through israel and jordan, largely reflects the scarcity of water in the region. the above picture shows a rare flooding event in the jordan river in the winter of 2003 at the baptist site ( well - known in christianity ). just several months later, during the summer of 2003, the river was dry again, as shown below at a site close to abdalla bridge. courtesy of avner vengosh. data collected from more than 6, 000 selected sampling points reveal that more than 10 percent of the water resources in the mediterranean basin have boron levels exceeding 1 milligram per liter, the new e. u. drinking water standard. we found that the highest values of boron are in areas associated with geothermal activity, such as in tuscany, italy, and chalkidiki, greece. in addition, we discovered high boron levels in the groundwater basins in the central part of cyprus and in the southern coastal aquifer that is shared between israel and the gaza strip. in order to delineate the origin of boron and salinity in these groundwater basins, we investigated the chemical and isotopic compositions of the boron - contaminated groundwater. boron has two stable isotopes that are distributed unevenly among different geological materials and natural water resources. because different sources of water pollution have unique isotopic fingerprints, we were able to use the boron isotopes to identify clearly the source of the water contamination. for example, the boron isotopic ratios in seawater, wastewater and rocks vary significantly. thus, when groundwater is contaminated, the imprinted isotopic signature of these different sources is preserved, serving as a tracer for delineating their origin. similarly, the application of other isotopes such as oxygen, hydrogen and strontium provide a clue to the origin of the polluted water. by integrating these chemical tools, we discovered that the boron contamination in the mediterranean groundwater basins is derived primarily from natural processes. in the cornia basin in tuscany, we found that boron leaching from sediments into local groundwater is associated with seawater intrusion, reflecting a complex history of boron uptake and release by clay minerals. in western chalkidiki, the mixing of groundwater with underlying thermal water rich in boron caused the boron contamination. in cyprus, water - rock interaction is the main mechanism for the boron enrichment in the water. in the southern coastal aquifer of israel and the gaza strip, we discovered that boron pollution is associated with the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5175002622076867, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:55.305790"} {"text": "caused the boron contamination. in cyprus, water - rock interaction is the main mechanism for the boron enrichment in the water. in the southern coastal aquifer of israel and the gaza strip, we discovered that boron pollution is associated with the migration of saline groundwater from israel into the gaza strip. the chemical and isotopic compositions of the groundwater in these studies clearly indicate that the boron problem in the mediterranean water resources, on the whole, is derived from natural ( geogenic ) sources rather than anthropogenic ones. our results have several implications for the management of national and transboundary groundwater resources in the mediterranean basin and for the remediation of boron. perhaps most importantly, we are challenging the conventional perception that the boron contamination in these countries is a source of human pollution. for years, companies added boron to detergents because it is an excellent bleaching agent thus resulting in the formation of boron - rich sewage. moreover, similar to other inorganic ions, boron is not removed during standard sewage treatment processes and even treated wastewater typically has high boron concentrations. thus, as a precautionary measure, environmental regulators in both cyprus and israel have chosen a particular strategy to reduce boron contamination : mandating regulations that restrict the amount of boron that can be added to detergents. although the reduction in boron in treated sewage may prove to be beneficial for agriculture because there will be less boron contamination in the irrigation water, these regulations will have negligible effects for improving drinking water. for a country that soon will join the european union, such as cyprus, it will only be able meet its obligation to abide by e. u. standards for drinking water by pursuing an alternative strategy that calls for technological intervention to remove boron. to date, israel has yet to adopt an official drinking water standard for boron, despite the new proposals for desalination calling for 0. 5 milligrams per liter boron in desalinated water. thus, israel already faces a similar challenge to cyprus. in short, because boron contamination in all our investigated cases comes from natural geochemical background pollution and hence cannot be prevented, the only way to address the boron problem is through treatment of the drinking water. at present in italy and israel, water authorities mix the boron - rich water with high - quality water to reduce the level of boron in the water supplied for both drinking and agricultural purposes. however, the longevity of dilution as a solution is limited,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5137757937664716, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:55.309174"} {"text": "in italy and israel, water authorities mix the boron - rich water with high - quality water to reduce the level of boron in the water supplied for both drinking and agricultural purposes. however, the longevity of dilution as a solution is limited, primarily due to the diminishing amount of high - quality water that is available. as a result, our research has focused on the creation of alternative water resources, through the application of technological solutions such as improved desalination and the introduction of new techniques for boron removal from the water. reverse osmosis desalination has tremendous potential for a supply of new water for the 21st century, especially in areas of the world where water is scarce or the quality is inadequate. its widespread application, however, is hampered by the fact that reverse osmosis desalination does not remove boron sufficiently ( only 60 percent ). as a result, desalination of seawater does not reduce the boron level below the new standard for drinking water in the european union ( and will be also problematic for the non - european mediterranean countries adopting a similar drinking water standard for boron ). therefore, additional removal techniques must be introduced in order to bring boron levels down to drinking standards. different partners in the boremed project have developed several independent methodologies for removing boron from water. in cyprus, boremed partners have utilized boron - specific resins combined with a small - scale reverse osmosis to reduce the amount of boron in the groundwater for local users. in israel, boremed partners have succeeded in removing boron by optimization of reverse osmosis processes such as multi - step desalination. other partners from the netherlands have established a new method of boron removal through co - precipitation with hydroxides. in addition, a joint israeli - turkish team invented a new technique for boron removal through reacting seawater with fly ash and coal materials. this method is particularly useful in mediterranean countries such as turkey, where fly ash is abundant and cheap. each of the new different methodologies has its own benefits and costs. ultimately, the e. u. countries that face a boron problem will have to adopt one of these new technologies in order to be in compliance with the new drinking water standard for boron. through an integration of geochemistry, hydrogeology, numerical modeling and policy analysis, we also have devised a potential management solution to the water crisis in the gaza strip. the local aquifer underlying the gaza strip is perhaps one of the most stressed resources", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5449284643348682, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:55.312170"} {"text": "integration of geochemistry, hydrogeology, numerical modeling and policy analysis, we also have devised a potential management solution to the water crisis in the gaza strip. the local aquifer underlying the gaza strip is perhaps one of the most stressed resources in the mediterranean basin in terms of water quantity and quality : chloride concentrations reach 1, 500 milligrams per liter ( six times the e. u. standard ) ; nitrate concentrations reach 400 milligrams per liter ( eight times the e. u. standard ) ; and boron concentrations reach 3. 5 milligrams per liter ( more than three times the e. u. standard ). over the past five decades, the amount of water pumped from the gaza aquifer has far exceeded the natural water replenishment. as the water level has declined, the water quality has become unsuitable for human consumption, owing to the high levels of salinity, boron and nitrate pollution. nevertheless, more than 1 million people depend entirely upon this aquifer for drinking and irrigation water. the boremed project has mapped boron distribution in groundwater from the southern mediterranean coastal aquifer and the gaza strip. the different colors represent boron concentration in milligrams per liter. in most parts of the aquifer and the gaza strip, the boron concentration exceeds the drinking standard of 1 milligram per liter for the european union. courtesy of avner vengosh. our chemical and isotopic data show that most of the salinity phenomenon in the gaza strip is derived from flow of natural saline groundwater from israel towards the gaza strip. as a result, the southern coastal aquifer does not resemble a classic upstream - downstream dispute over a transboundary aquifer : israels upstream pumping of the saline groundwater can potentially reduce the salinization rates of groundwater in the gaza strip rather than cause downstream harm. numerical simulation of different pumping scenarios confirms our hypothesis that increasing pumping along the gaza strip border combined with desalination and supply to the gaza strip, as well as moderate reduction of pumping within the gaza strip, would improve the water quality of groundwater there. moreover, our finding that the salinity problem in the gaza strip is partially natural de - politicizes the water issue and offers a practical solution for the water crisis in the gaza strip that has win - win benefits for both the palestinian territory and israel. clearing the way the promulgation of a new drinking water standard for boron in the european union has forced both e. u", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5146444956353304, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:55.317836"} {"text": "teens using technology - backlit devices can impact on sleep new research from the lighting research center ( lrc ) at rensselaer polytechnic institute, new york, indicates that teenagers who use backlit technology, such as tablet devices, for two hours before bed, may have their sleeping patterns disrupted. at this time of year in australia, many teens are studying for their final hsc exams and using computers for extended periods. being aware of backlit technology ' s possible effects on sleep and melatonin release, may help parents advise their teens on how to ensure they get sufficient sleep. we know that sleep has an impact on learning and information retention so we ' ve written about this topic before. for more information on sleep and teens, please read : backlit devices may interrupt sleeping patterns the new lrc research shows that a two - hour exposure to electronic devices with self - luminous ' backlit ' displays causes melatonin suppression, which might lead to delayed bedtimes, especially in teens. \u201c our study shows that a two - hour exposure to light from self - luminous electronic displays can suppress melatonin by about 22 %. stimulating the human circadian system to this level may affect sleep in those using the devices prior to bedtime, \u201d said professor figueiro. and until manufacturers develop more \u201c circadian - friendly \u201d electronic devices that increase or decrease light exposure based on time of day, figueiro recommends \" dimming these devices at night as much as possible in order to minimize melatonin suppression, and limiting the amount of time spent using these devices prior to bedtime. \u201d your teens might not want to hear this information during other times of the year when they want to play games on tablet - style devices but perhaps during final exam times, they ' ll be more receptive to this information. morning light helps teens sleep another field study by the lrc in 2010 indicated that teenagers are likley to have better sleep if they have more exposure to morning light. during term time, high schools have schedules requiring teenagers to be in school early in the morning, so teens often miss some morning light. however, during a study break, your teen has an opportunity to change this pattern and possibly benefit from more and better sleep. \u201c as teenagers spend more time indoors, they miss out on essential morning light needed to stimulate the body \u2019 s 24 - hour biological system, which regulates the sleep / wake cycle, \u201d said professor figueiro. in this study it was found that students who wore special glasses to prevent short - wavelength (", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5126591870654098, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:55.357001"} {"text": ", whereas written information is seen as non - confrontational. the introduction of written information on storage and measurement to be given out at the time of dispensing of methadone may be one possible solution to ensuring that patients remain aware of the risks inherent in irresponsible custody of their methadone and what steps to take to reduce this risk. studies of the relative effectiveness of written versus verbal information on patient information retention and subsequent action do not, however, show any advantage of written over verbal presentation [ 13, 14 ]. the overall view is that providing the information in both forms provides a range of options which may match the patients ' preferred mode of receiving information. the provision of information on the safe storage of methadone is recalled by a minority of patients, and the vast majority of patients do not store their methadone in a locked cupboard or other secure location. the audit we have reported will be repeated following the provision of written information to patients in addition to verbal information at the point that they commence their methadone treatment. this will be reinforced at the point where patients transfer from supervised consumption at the pharmacy to home consumption as part of a progressive relaxation of restrictions in more stable patients. the author ( s ) declare that they have no competing interests. rnb conceived of the audit, devised the methodology and drafted the manuscript rm supervised the data collection and performed the telephone survey ns participated in the design of the study and performed the data analysis all authors read and approved the manuscript the authors extend their thanks to the patients and pharmacists who gave their time to contribute to the audit and to gretta bloor for micro - editing of the final version of the manuscript. bmj 1996, 313 : 1481. pubmed abstract bmj 1999, 318 : 329 - 330. pubmed abstract bmj 1991, 303 : 922 - 923. pubmed abstract bmj 1999, 318 : 1137. pubmed abstract hum toxicol 1987, 6 : 303 - 314. pubmed abstract", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5113308448710069, "token_count": 412, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 7, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:55.385274"} {"text": "as minerals and water, functions within plants ' stems and roots. the reproductive system too has been specially designed in every species of plant. there are complex structures within each and every one of these mechanisms. and these mechanisms function in connection with one another. if one is missing, the others cannot carry out their tasks. as an example let us take a plant which just lacks a transport system. it is impossible for such a plant to carry out photosynthesis, because the vessels necessary to carry the essential water are missing. even if the plant managed to produce food, it would be unable to transport this to other parts of the body, and would eventually die. as in this example, all the systems present in a plant are obliged to function flawlessly. any flaws or defects in the existing structure will mean that the plant cannot carry out its functions, and this will result in the death of the plant and the disappearance of the species. when these structures are studied in detail and in depth in the chapters that follow, a most complex and quite flawless design will emerge. when the variety of plants in the world is considered and evaluated, these extraordinary structures seem even more striking. there are more than 500, 000 types of plant in the world. and each species possesses its own special planning within itself and features particular to that species. together with the same perfect basic systems found in all of them, there is also an unparalleled diversity in terms of reproductive systems, defence mechanisms, colour, and design. the only unchanging thing in all this is the reality that the parts of the plants ( leaves, roots, stems ) and many other mechanisms, must exist at once and with no defects so that the general system, the body, can function. modern scientists attribute to such systems an \" irreducible complexity. \" in the same way that a motor will not work if one of its cogs is missing, in plants the absence of just one system, or a single functional failure in any one of the parts of the system, will lead to the death of the plant. all of a plant ' s systems have this feature of irreducible complexity. the complex systems, which must all be present at the same time, and this unbelievable variety bring to mind the question : \" how did these perfect systems in plants emerge? \" once again, let us ask some questions to find the answer to this one. let us think how the functioning of the most important and best known of the mechanisms in plants, photosynthesis, and the transport systems linked", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5708820755572099, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:55.413332"} {"text": "systems in plants emerge? \" once again, let us ask some questions to find the answer to this one. let us think how the functioning of the most important and best known of the mechanisms in plants, photosynthesis, and the transport systems linked to it, came about. can the trees and flowers which we see all around us at all times have themselves formed such perfect systems as to bring about a phenomenon such as photosynthesis, some parts of which are still not fully understood, in their own bodies? did plants choose to use carbon dioxide ( co2 ), of the gases in the air, to produce food? did they themselves determine the amount of co2 they would use? could plants have designed those mechanisms which make up the root system and which enable them to take the materials necessary for photosynthesis from the soil? did plants bring about a transport system where different types of tubes are used for transporting nutrients and water? as ever, defenders of the theory of evolution searching for an answer to the question of how plants emerged have resorted to \" chance \" as their only remedy. they have claimed that from one species of plant which came about by chance, an infinite variety of plants have emerged, again by chance, and that features such as smell, taste, and colour, particular to each species, again came about by chance. but they have been unable to give any scientific proof of these claims. evolutionists explain moss turning into a strawberry plant, or a poplar, or a rose bush, by saying that conditions brought about by chance differentiated them. whereas when just one plant cell is observed, a system so complex will be seen as could not have come about by minute changes over time. this complex system and other mechanisms in plants definitively disprove the coincidence scenarios put forward as evolutionist logic. in this situation just one result emerges. every structure in plants has been specially planned and designed. and this shows us that there is a superior intelligence which drew up this flawless plan. and the owner of this superior intelligence, god, the lord of all the worlds, shows proofs of his flawless creation to human beings. god announces his dominion over living creatures and his incomparable creation in this verse :", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5392604717176748, "token_count": 447, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:55.415317"} {"text": "walker - warburg syndrome is a congenital disorder of the central nervous system involving fatal neurological lesions. multiple malformations of the brain, eyes, and muscle tissue distinguish wws from similar malformation syndromes. it is also known by the acronym hard + / - e syndrome ( hydroencephalus, agyri, retinal dysplasia, plus or minus \" e \" for encephalocele ). affected individuals typically show a combination of severe brain, eye, and muscle defects. multiple malformations of the brain include type ii lissencephaly, a condition in which the brain lacks normal convolutions and is unusually smooth without folds. eighty - four percent of the babies with wws have macrocephaly ( an enlarged head ). in half of these cases, the macrocephaly is apparent at birth, and in a quarter of the cases it develops postnatally. hydrocephalus, or excessive accumulation of cerebrospinal fluid around the brain, occurs in 95 % of infants with wws. this fluid fills abnormally large ventricles or spaces in the brain. fifty percent of affected infants have an encephalocele, or gap in the skull that does not seal. the meninges or membranes that cover the brain may protrude through this gap. the formation of an encephalocele may be associated with the failure of the neural tube to close during development of the fetus. a malformed cerebellum characterizes the syndrome as well as distinct muscle abnormalities, including congenital muscular dystrophy. ocular defects occur in 100 % of infants with wws. the most common are abnormally small eyes and retinal abnormalities, which arise from the improper development of the light sensitive area at the back of the eye. cataracts may also be present and more than three quarters of the infants born with wws have a defect in the anterior chamber of the eye. wws syndrome leads to severely retarded mental development and is often lethal in infancy. wws is inherited in an autosomal recessive pattern. offspring of parents who have had one affected infant have a 25 % chance of having wws. the locations of the causitive genes remains unknown. wws is extremely rare. cases described in the literature cite siblings with wws born to consanguineous ( closely related ) parents as well as cases in families not known to be at risk. signs and symptoms clinical", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.504368431748274, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:55.434963"} {"text": "theologist, as they present to us the last reflex of the ideas which prevailed in iran during the five centuries which preceded and the seven which followed the birth of christ, a period which gave to the world the gospels, the talmud, and the qur \u2019 an. persia, it is known, had much influence on each of the movements which produced, or proceeded from, those three books ; she lent much to the first heresiarchs, much to the rabbis, much to mohammed. by help of the parsi religion and the avesta, we are enabled to go back to the very heart of that most momentous period in the history of religious thought, which saw the blending of the aryan mind with the semitic, and thus opened the second stage of aryan thought. inquiries into the religion of ancient persia began long ago, and it was the old foe of persia, the greek, who first studied it. aristotle 5, hermippus 6 ; and many others 7 wrote of it in books of which, unfortunately, nothing more than a few fragments or merely the titles have come down to us. we find much valuable information about it, scattered in the accounts of historians and travellers, extending over ten centuries, from herodotus down to agathias and procopius. it was never more eagerly studied than in the first centuries of the christian era ; but that study had no longer anything of the disinterested and almost scientific character it had in earlier times. religious and philosophic sects, in search of new dogmas, eagerly received whatever came to them bearing the name of zoroaster. as xanthus the lydian, who is said to have lived before herodotus, had mentioned zoroastrian \u03bb\u03bf\u03b3\u03b9\u03b1 8, there came to light, in those later times, scores of oracles, styled \u03bb\u03bf\u03b3\u03b9\u03b1 \u03c4\u03bfu \u03b6\u03c9\u03c1\u03bf\u03b1\u03c3\u03c4\u03c1\u03bf\u03c5, or ' oracula chaldaica sive magica, ' the work of neo - platonists who were but very remote disciples of the median sage. as his name had become the very emblem of wisdom, they would cover with it the latest inventions of their ever - deepening theosophy. zoroaster and plato were treated as if they had been philosophers of the same school, and hierocles expounded their doctrines in the same book. proclus collected seventy tetrads of zoroaster and wrote commentaries on them 9 ; but we need hardly say that zoro", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5259149077999221, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:55.658525"} {"text": "difference is just a proof of the two systems being independent of one another. kleuker pointed out the incorrectness of the statement ; but, being unable to account for the identity of the words, he flatly denied it. kleuker was more successful in the field of philology : he showed, as anquetil had done, that zend has no arabic elements in it, and that pahlavi itself, which is more modern than zend, does not contain any arabic, but only semitic words of the aramean dialect, which are easily accounted for by the close relations of persia with aramean lands in the time of the sassanian kings. he showed, lastly, that arabic words appear only in the very books which parsi tradition itself considers modern. another stanch upholder of the avesta was the numismatologist tychsen, who, having begun to read the book with a prejudice against its authenticity, quitted it with a conviction to the contrary. ' there is nothing in it, ' he said, ' but what befits remote ages, and a man philosophising in the infancy of the world. such traces of a recent period as they fancy to have found in it, are either understandings, or belong to its later portions. on the whole there is a marvellous accordance between the zend - avesta and the accounts of the ancients with regard to the doctrine and institutions of zoroaster. plutarch agrees so well with the zend books that i think no one will deny the close resemblance of doctrines and identity of origin. add to all this the incontrovertible argument to be drawn from the language, the antiquity of which is established by the fact that it was necessary to translate a part of the zend books into pahlavi, a language which was obsolete as early as the time of the sassanides. lastly, it cannot be denied that zoroaster left books, which were, through centuries, the groundwork of the magic religion, and which were preserved by the magi, as shown by a series of documents from the time of hermippus. therefore i am unable to see why we should not trust the magi of our days when they ascribe to zoroaster those traditional books of their ancestors, in which nothing is found to indicate fraud or a modern hand 21. ' two years afterwards, in 1793, was published in paris a book which, without directly dealing with the avesta, was", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.50338799333668, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 7, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:55.668998"} {"text": "to zoroaster those traditional books of their ancestors, in which nothing is found to indicate fraud or a modern hand 21. ' two years afterwards, in 1793, was published in paris a book which, without directly dealing with the avesta, was the first step taken to make its authenticity incontrovertible. it was the masterly memoir by sylvestre de sacy, in which the pahlavi inscriptions of the first sassanides were deciphered for the first time and in a decisive manner. de sacy, in his researches, had chiefly relied on the pahlavi lexicon published by anquetil, whose work vindicated itself - - better than by heaping up arguments - - by promoting discoveries. the pahlavi inscriptions gave the key, as is well known, to the persian cuneiform inscriptions, which were in return to put beyond all doubt the genuineness of the zend language. tychsen, in an appendix to his commentaries, pointed to the importance of the new discovery : ' this, ' he writes, ' is a proof that the pahlavi was used during the reign of the sassanides, for it was from them that these inscriptions emanated, as it was by them - - nay, by the first of them, ardeshir babagan - - that the doctrine of zoroaster was revived. one can now understand why the zend books were translated into pahlavi. here, too, everything agrees, and speaks loudly for their antiquity and genuineness. ' about the same time sir william jones, then president of the royal asiatic society, which he had just founded, resumed in a discourse delivered before that society the same question he had solved in such an off - hand manner twenty years before. he was no longer the man to say, ' sied - il a un homme ne dans ce siecle de s \u2019 infatuer de fables indiennes? ' and although he had still a spite against anquetil, he spoke of him with more reserve than in 1771. however, his judgment on the avesta itself was not altered on the whole, although, as he himself declared, he had not thought it necessary to study the text. but a glance at the zend glossary published by anquetil suggested to him a remark which makes sir william jones, in spite of himself, the creator of the comparative grammar of sanskrit and zend. ' when i perused the zend glossary, ' he writes,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5022126680679038, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 8, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:55.670065"} {"text": "glossary published by anquetil suggested to him a remark which makes sir william jones, in spite of himself, the creator of the comparative grammar of sanskrit and zend. ' when i perused the zend glossary, ' he writes, ' i was inexpressibly surprised to find that six or seven words in ten are pure sanscrit, and even some of their inflexions formed by the rules of the vyacaran 22, as yushmacam, the genitive plural of yushmad. now m. anquetil most certainly and the persian compiler most probably, had no knowledge of sanscrit, and could not, therefore, have invented a list of sanscrit words ; it is, therefore, an authentic list of zend words, which has been preserved in books or by tradition ; it follows that the language of the zend was at least a dialect of the sanscrit, approaching perhaps as nearly to it as the pracrit, or other popular idioms, which we know to have been spoken in india two thousand years ago 23. ' this conclusion, that zend is a sanskrit dialect, was incorrect, the connection assumed being too close ; but it was a great thing that the near relationship of the two languages should have been brought to light. in 1798 father paulo de st. barthelemy further developed jones ' s remark in an essay on the antiquity of the zend language 24. he showed its affinity with the sanskrit by a list of such zend and sanskrit words as were least likely to be borrowed, viz. those that designate the degrees of relationship, the limbs of the body, and the most general and essential ideas. another list, intended to show, on a special topic, how closely connected the two languages are, contains eighteen words taken from the liturgic language used in india and persia. this list was not very happily drawn up, as out of the eighteen instances there is not a single one that stands inquiry ; yet it was a happy idea, and one which has not even yet yielded all that it promised. his conclusions were that in a far remote antiquity sanskrit was spoken in persia and media, that it gave birth to the zend language, and that the zend - avesta is authentic : ' were it but a recent compilation, ' he writes, ' as jones asserts, how is it that the oldest rites of the parsis, that the old inscriptions of the persians, the accounts of the zoroastrian religion in the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5242799616889455, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 9, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:55.671189"} {"text": "the explanation of zend forms. thus he succeeded in tracing the general outlines of the zend lexicon and in fixing its grammatical forms, and founded the only correct method of interpreting the avesta. he also gave the first notions of a comparative mythology of the avesta and the veda, by showing the identity of the vedic yama with the avesta yima, and of traitana with thraetaona and feridun. thus he made his ' commentaire sur le yasna ' a marvellous and unparalleled model of critical insight and steady good sense, equally opposed to the narrowness of mind which clings to matters of fact without rising to their cause and connecting them with the series of associated phenomena, and to the wild and uncontrolled spirit of comparison, which, by comparing everything, confounds everything. never sacrificing either tradition to comparison or comparison to tradition, he knew how to pass from the one to the other, and was so enabled both to discover facts and explain them. at the same time the ancient persian inscriptions at persepolis and behistun were deciphered by burnouf in paris, by lassen in bonn, and by sir henry rawlinson in persia. thus was revealed the existence, at the time of the first ach\u00e6menian kings, of a language closely connected with that of the avesta, and the last doubts as to the authenticity of the zend books were at length removed. it would have required more than an ordinary amount of scepticism to look still upon the zend as an artificial language, of foreign importation, without root in the land where it was written, and in the conscience of the people for whom it was written, at the moment when a twin language, bearing a striking likeness to it in nearly every feature, was suddenly making itself heard from the mouth of darius, and speaking from the very tomb of the first ach\u00e6menian king. that unexpected voice silenced all controversies, and the last echoes of the loud discussion which had been opened in 1771 died away unheeded 31. click on footnote numbers to return to the text above 1 at the battle of nihavand ( 642 a. c. ) 2 ahura mazda. 3 they settled first at sangan, not far from daman ; thence they spread over surat, nowsari, broach, and kambay ; and within the last two centuries they have settled at bombay, which now contains the bulk of", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5102063686219699, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 13, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:55.682319"} {"text": "- hhmi news - scientists & research - janelia farm - science education - resources & publications browse all resources by typeanimation ( 3 ) book / manual ( 4 ) cd ( 1 ) classroom activity ( 12 ) college course ( 6 ) curriculum ( 11 ) game ( 1 ) kit ( 1 ) lab ( 9 ) lesson plan ( 5 ) publication ( 23 ) software ( 3 ) tutorial ( 5 ) video ( 24 ) website ( 47 ) wiki ( 2 ) by topicbiochemistry ( 14 ) biodiversity ( 3 ) bioengineering ( 3 ) bioethics ( 3 ) bioinformatics ( 8 ) biology ( 104 ) biotechnology ( 9 ) cell biology ( 3 ) chemistry ( 17 ) earth science ( 1 ) ecology ( 9 ) engineering ( 1 ) evolution ( 10 ) general science ( 15 ) genetics ( 29 ) genomics ( 13 ) immunology ( 2 ) infectious diseases ( 1 ) life science ( 65 ) mathematics ( 9 ) medicine ( 6 ) microarrays ( 5 ) microbiology ( 3 ) molecular biology ( 34 ) neuroscience ( 7 ) physics ( 5 ) plants ( 2 ) professional development ( 35 ) research methods ( 12 ) science communication ( 2 ) systems biology ( 1 ) by grade levelk - 16 ( 1 ) 4 - 8 ( 1 ) k - 5 ( 6 ) medical school ( 6 ) k - 3 ( 2 ) k - 8 ( 2 ) k - 12 ( 9 ) 6 - 8 ( 18 ) 9 - 12 ( 52 ) college ( 101 ) graduate ( 21 ) folded - list study tool this article describes the folded - list study technique, a method designed by professor of biology paul heideman at the college of william and mary, to give students a fast and efficient way to learn, recall, and apply key science concepts. ( it is designed to be used in conjunction with the \u201c minute sketch \u201d tool, which is available within this database. ) this document explains the method : using a blank piece of paper folded lengthwise into four sections, students create one column for words and one for sketches or images. in the words column, they write the term or phrase for the first key concept. in the next column, they create a simple sketch to represent the concept. they keep adding words and sketches until the page is filled ( although, over time, they should be able to condense all the essential material from one entire lecture on the top half of one sheet ). next, students fold the earlier columns behind and engage in repeated sketching and", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5406184646542415, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:55.693522"} {"text": "until the page is filled ( although, over time, they should be able to condense all the essential material from one entire lecture on the top half of one sheet ). next, students fold the earlier columns behind and engage in repeated sketching and writing of these concepts in columns three and four. the recopying and rethinking of these concepts engages a student \u2019 s motor memory and visual cortex. dr. heideman says that his method forces students to extract the essentials from a large amount of material and learn the key concepts as sequential events. it is an active - learning method that engages students \u2019 attention and allows them to review material quickly and to assess how much they have accomplished within a given time. dr. heideman says the method can be applied to other study techniques, such as concept mapping. program director : margaret somosi saha, ph. d. award years : 1989, 1998, 2002, 2006 summary : the college of william and mary is a public research university in williamsburg, virginia. its hhmi - funded educational initiatives emphasize the importance of interdisciplinary and integrative approaches to education and research. they include : - the development of a biological mathematics program ( which includes substantial curricular changes and the addition of new faculty positions ), the strengthening of the interdisciplinary neuroscience major, and the establishment of a new undergraduate applied science minor. - the enhancement of both introductory biology and chemistry and upper - level immunology, molecular genetics, physiology, and neurophysiology laboratories through new equipment and expanded laboratory exercises. - the hhmi freshman research program in biology and chemistry and related sciences, which allows participating students to conduct independent research with a faculty mentor very early in their college careers \u2014 as freshmen. many of these students have the opportunity to continue their research during the following summer and throughout the next three years. - student participation in the national genomics research initiative ( ngri ), a national experiment in both research and education sponsored by hhmi \u2019 s science education alliance. through this initiative, groups of freshmen at selected colleges participate in an authentic research experience \u2014 integrated into an introductory laboratory course \u2014 on the genetics of phages or bacteriophages ( viruses that infect bacteria ). freshmen in the college of william and mary \u2019 s program discovered a new life form, a bacteriophage they named crimd. - the expansion of a summer fellowship program to include students at thomas nelson community college and three neighboring hbcu \u2014 hampton university, norfolk state university, and virginia state", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6030258660275544, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:55.695875"} {"text": "a new life form, a bacteriophage they named crimd. - the expansion of a summer fellowship program to include students at thomas nelson community college and three neighboring hbcu \u2014 hampton university, norfolk state university, and virginia state university. students in this program have the option of continuing their research project throughout the academic year and receive an hourly stipend and weekend transportation and carpooling. - partnerships with hampton university, norfolk state university, and virginia state university to enable faculty to work together with research students at both the home campus and the college of william and mary. the objective and anticipated outcomes are to establish lasting collaborations that improve opportunities for publication and the development of ideas for competitive grant proposals, either independently or in collaboration with faculty from the college of william and mary. - the saturday and summer enrichment programs, which allow young children with high abilities to explore specialized areas of science, mathematics, and the arts and humanities. - the science training and research program ( star ), a four - week residential summer enrichment program that serves high - school juniors from disadvantaged backgrounds. the program, which offers core science and mathematics courses and an opportunity to visit research centers and laboratories, is designed to introduce students to the world of science, research, and technology. - a series of \u201c update courses \u201d tailored to help middle and high - school teachers develop both a knowledge base and practical experience with topics \u2014 such as microbiology and molecular biotechnology \u2014 that are the stated components of the standards of learning for the commonwealth of virginia. participants also help design teaching modules that help integrate the science topics into the classroom.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5353235920366113, "token_count": 322, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:55.696691"} {"text": "we think of the five senses as exclusive to living things processing sights and sounds requires eyes, ears and, most important, a brain \u2014 right? but what if your hardware shared your senses? in the era of cognitive computing, systems learn instead of passively relying on programming. as a result, emerging technologies will continue to push the boundaries of human limitations to enhance and augment our senses with machine learning, artificial intelligence ( ai ), advanced speech recognition and more. no need to call for superman when we have real super senses at hand. this year ibm presents the 5 in 5 in five sensory categories, through innovations that will touch our lives and see us into the future. from ibm ' s chief innovation officer read what he says about the 5 in 5 the poll is closed, but you can follow up and continue the discussion on ibm ' s people for a smarter planet facebook page. touch : you will be able to touch through your phone in the 1970s, when a telephone company encouraged us to \" reach out and touch someone, \" it had no idea that a few decades later that could be more than a metaphor. infrared and haptic technologies will enable a smart phone ' s touchscreen technology and vibration capabilities to simulate the physical sensation of touching something. so you could experience the silkiness of that catalog ' s egyptian cotton sheets instead of just relying on some copywriter to convince you. associate director, ibm research, retail analytics sight : a pixel will be worth a thousand words recognition systems can pinpoint a face in a crowd. in the future, computer vision might save a life by analyzing patterns to make sense of visuals in the context of big data. in industries as varied as healthcare, retail and agriculture, a system could gather information and detect anomalies specific to the task \u2014 such as spotting a tiny area of diseased tissue in an mri and applying it to the patient ' s medical history for faster, more accurate diagnosis and treatment. senior manager, intelligent information management hearing : computers will hear what matters before the tree fell in the forest, did anyone hear it? sensors that pick up sound patterns and frequency changes will be able to predict weakness in a bridge before it buckles, the deeper meaning of your baby ' s cry or, yes, a tree breaking down internally before it falls. by analyzing verbal traits and including multi - sensory information, machine hearing and speech recognition could even be sensitive enough to advance dialogue across languages and cultures. ibm research scientist taste : digital taste buds will help you eat smarter the challenge of providing food \u2014 whether it '", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5573213708792031, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:55.735346"} {"text": "almost one million school children think professor green is a scientist, says study almost one million school children aged five to 16 think rapper professor green is a scientist, according to research. children are more familiar with mark zuckerberg, the creator of facebook ( 68 % correctly identified him ), than physicist albert einstein who discovered the theory of relativity ( only 45 % correctly identified him ), the poll by haier home appliances reveals. although one in five children ( 19 % ) know and love tv professor brian cox, a large proportion are unable to identify a number of significant, heavyweight names from the world of science and innovation, including charles darwin ( 63 % unable to identify ), louis pasteur ( 75 % ), thomas edison ( 62 % ) and isaac newton ( 61 % ). despite spending an average 17 hours and 34 minutes in front a tv screen every week, almost half ( 45 % ) do not know that john logie baird invented the television. in fact, a quarter of eight - year - olds think david cameron invented it ( 23. 83 % ). other key findings from the survey are : : around a third five - year - olds ( 35 % ) think boris johnson discovered gravity : : almost a quarter of eight - year - olds ( 22 % ) think stephen hawking is a hairdresser : : around a fifth of seven - year - olds ( 22 % ) believe thomas edison created facebook : : nearly a tenth of children ( 8 % ) think charles darwin was a reality tv star : : around one in 20 school children ( 6 % ) believe the x factor judge tulisa contostavlos created penicillin. around a third of key stage three pupils ( 35 % ) do not know that isaac newton discovered gravity, despite energy transfer and physical processes being part of the school curriculum. jeff moody, sales and marketing director of haier home appliances uk, said : \" it is eye opening to discover that children of today are more aware of popular figures like mark zuckerberg than men and women who have made iconic discoveries and inventions that have revolutionised the modern world. \" at haier, we put science at the very heart of everything we do and we passionately believe the future of innovation lies in the scientific interest and imagination of the next generation. \" the research was commissioned as part of haier ' s let children dream campaign and supports its partnership with the science museum and its children ' s create it drawing wall where children are encouraged to dream up and draw their ideas and inventions. : : hai", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5117351476094394, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:55.750253"} {"text": "how does it work? read on for a thrilling example scenario! ( alternatively, skip to step 10 to find out how i made it. ) step 1 : a text - based adventure in 3d printing and alcoholism you try to get up, but your stomach climbs up your throat and tries to smother your brain. you lie back down. > drink the water. you are too far away from the water and you lack the coordination required to crawl. you doze off again, in the hope that sleep will somehow solve your predicament. you wake some time later. your head still aches. the hedgehog in your mouth has been joined by its unruly, even less healthy family. > remove the hedgehog. the hedgehog is not a literal hedgehog. it began as a simile then became a metaphor while you were napping. it represents dehydration and regret. you lurch to your feet and, after swaying on the spot for over a minute, you manage to remain upright. after another minute, so does the room. > drink the water. you drink the stale water. it feels pure and cleansing. there is not enough of it. > go to the bathroom. you stagger to the bathroom. there is a sink, a mirror, a toothbrush and a toilet which has been soiled in an unholy manner. > use the sink. you put your lips over the faucet and fumble for the taps. the water is warm, but still good. you drink until you are dizzy. the vile taste in your mouth remains. > brush your teeth. you squeeze toothpaste along the entire length of the toothbrush and, on your third attempt, insert the head of the brush into your mouth. you brush gingerly. with nothing better to occupy your mind for two minutes, you try to make sense of what happened last night. you draw blanks. you glance in the mirror. a message is printed on your forehead. > read the message.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_computing", "similarity_score": 0.5669729761404477, "token_count": 408, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:55.784992"} {"text": "hearing loss in adults what is it? hearing loss is a decrease in the ability to perceive sounds. it can be partial or total, sudden or gradual, temporary or permanent. it can affect one ear or both. in general, the risk of hearing loss increases with age. sound enters the ear and strikes the eardrum. this causes the eardrum to vibrate. the eardrum ' s vibrations are amplified through the middle ear by three tiny bones. inside the ear, the vibrations are transformed into nerve impulses. these nerve impulses travel to the brain, where they are interpreted as sounds. the outer ear and middle ear conduct sound. any injury to this part of the hearing pathway is called conductive hearing loss. sensorineural hearing loss is injury to the inner ear, eighth cranial nerve and brain. these structures produce, transmit and interpret nerve impulses. some of the most important causes of hearing loss in adults are : - middle ear disease. a bacterial infection of the middle ear can : - injure the eardrum - disrupt the middle - ear bones - cause fluid buildup - noise. loud sounds can injure delicate cells within the ear. this is a form of sensorineural hearing loss. noise - induced hearing loss can happen because of a single brief burst of an extremely loud sound. it more often results from long - term exposure to loud sounds of slightly lower intensity. - otosclerosis. an abnormal overgrowth of one or more bones in the middle ear prevents the small bones from moving normally. this is a type of conductive hearing loss. otosclerosis often runs in families. - acoustic neuroma. this noncancerous tumor grows on part of the eighth cranial nerve. this nerve carries signals to the brain. acoustic neuroma often causes dizziness and equilibrium problems in addition to gradual hearing loss. - meniere ' s disease. this typically causes dizziness, hearing loss, ringing in the ears ( tinnitus ), and a sensation of fullness or stuffiness in one or both ears. meniere ' s disease occurs when excess fluid causes swelling in the inner ear. - trauma. many types of accidents can cause hearing loss. hearing loss can result when the eardrum is injured from the force of an explosion. or it can result from a q - tip that ruptures the eardrum during an attempt to clean the ear canal. - sudden sensorineural hearing loss. this is a medical emergency. a person loses hearing over a period of three days or less", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5186992978178037, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:55.840583"} {"text": "intellectual property : what is it? why is it important to you leslie s. marell, esq. leslie s. marell, esq., law office of leslie s. marell, hermosa beach, ca 90254, 310 - 372 - 8663, email @ example. com 84th annual international conference proceedings - 1999 what is intellectual property? \" intellectual property \" is a generic term used to describe products of the human intellect that have economic value. computer software is one of the many forms of intellectual property. other examples include books, music, movies, artwork, designs and other works of authorship, names, logos, as well as certain inventions. intellectual property is \" property \" because a body of laws has been created that gives owners of such works legal rights similar in some respects to those given to owners of real estate or tangible personal property ( such as cars ). intellectual property may be owned and bought and sold the same as other types of property. but in many important respects, ownership of intellectual property is very different from ownership of a house or a car. definitions. basic definitions are required before we can deal with the real business world issues involving intellectual property law. the principal types of intellectual property legal protection are listed and defined below : trademark and trade name - patent. patent law protects inventions. patent protection is available for any new and useful process, machine, method of manufacture, composition of matter, or any new, useful improvement. by filing for and obtaining a patent from the u. s. patent and trademark office, an inventor is granted a monopoly on the use and commercial exploitation of an invention, for 20 years from the date of filing the application. in the u. s. patents are awarded to the first to invent. when multiple inventors file applications to patent the same invention, the u. s. patent office must decide who was the first inventor. therefore, it is important that the engineers maintain development records establishing the events surrounding the invention process in order to prove the date of invention. invention records may also be useful to challenge the validity of another ' s patent. - copyright. a copyright provides protection for a limited time to authors for their \" original works of authorship fixed in any tangible medium of expression. \" copyrights extend only to the expression of creations of the mind, not to the ideas themselves. the federal law governing copyrights expressly excludes from copyright protection \" any idea, procedure, process, system, method of operation, concept, principle or discovery. \" in other words,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5310673451436714, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:55.907658"} {"text": "of creations of the mind, not to the ideas themselves. the federal law governing copyrights expressly excludes from copyright protection \" any idea, procedure, process, system, method of operation, concept, principle or discovery. \" in other words, a pure idea, such as a plan to create an innovative software program, cannot be copyrighted, no matter how original or creative it is. copyright protection begins when the work is created. this means that there does not have to be a copyright notice, publication of the work or registration to secure the copyright. it is, of course, advisable to take these measures. - ownership of copyright. as a general rule, the creator of a work owns the copyright. the person who owns the copyright also automatically owns the exclusive rights to it and the rights to prevent others from copying, distributing, or preparing works based on the copyrighted materials. - works for hire : employees and independent contractors. works for hire are an important exception to the general rule that a person owns the copyright in a work he or she has created. if a work was created by an employee as part of his or her job, the law considers the product a work for hire, and the employer will own the copyright. if the creator is an independent contractor, the works will be considered works for hire only if : ( 1 ) the parties have signed a written agreement stating that the work will be a work for hire ; and ( 2 ) the work is commissioned as a contribution to a collective work, a supplementary work, an instructional text, answer material for a test, an atlas, motion picture, or an audiovisual work. thus, unless there is a contractual agreement to the contrary, and the work fits within one of the above categories the independent contractor owns the copyright. - creations by an independent contractor. the copyright developed by an independent contractor is owned by the independent contractor unless the contractor has signed an agreement to the contrary. the contract must state that the contractor conveys the copyright ownership in all works created under the contract to the engaging party. - trade secret. all that is necessary for something to be protectable as a trade secret is that ( 1 ) it gives the owner a competitive advantage ; ( 2 ) it is treated as a secret by the owner ; and ( 3 ) it is not generally known in the industry or business. a trade secret may be lost if the owner fails to identify it or take reasonable steps to protect it. otherwise, trade secret protection is perpetual. the fundamental question of trade secret law", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5395359516965857, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:55.910026"} {"text": "( 3 ) it is not generally known in the industry or business. a trade secret may be lost if the owner fails to identify it or take reasonable steps to protect it. otherwise, trade secret protection is perpetual. the fundamental question of trade secret law is, what is protectable? clear examples are discoveries, ideas, designs, and specifications. however, even the way you use knowledge and information or the assembly of information itself may be a trade secret even if everything you consider important for your secret is publicly available information. an example of this is supplier and customer lists. - trademark. patent, copyright and trade secret laws do not protect names, titles or phrases. a trademark is any word, name, logo or other symbol adopted and used by a person, manufacturer or merchant group that identifies and distinguishes its goods from those manufactured or sold by others. - license vs. sale. a license is an agreement between the owner of the intellectual property ( the licensor ) and a third party ( the licensee ) which gives permission to the licensee to use the technology in a manner that would otherwise be reserved exclusively to the licensor, as owner. for example, the licensor of the software program will convey a right to the licensee to use the program and reproduce the program under certain defined circumstances. the licensee is restricted in his or her use of the program and does not receive any ownership rights to the software. by contrast, a sale involves the transfer of an ownership interest in the property. in the case of mass marketed shrink wrap software, the buyer is purchasing a copy of the copyrighted program. however, the buyer is not purchasing an ownership interest in the intellectual property itself. the buyer is restricted by copyright law from reproducing the software ( except for backup copies ) or making derivative works. practical applications. with basic definitions in place, let us turn to some practical issues that arise in business with frequency and involve intellectual property law. - independent contractors : who owns the intellectual property? many companies turn to outside consultants to develop software, etc whether alone or in combination with company employees. from a technical and business standpoint, this may be the most practical approach. but is can raise the important legal issue of who owns the intellectual property rights to the work created? since an independent contractor is not an employee, the copyright in the software created by the independent contractor does not automatically belong to the company, as it likely would under the \" work for hire \" principles applicable to employees. instead of owning the copyright, the company", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5672662465068037, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:55.911631"} {"text": "performance. - employee issues : confidentiality ; ownership ; nonsolicitation ; noncompete - confidentiality. the issue of confidential information and the employee ' s responsibility is two pronged. the first prong relates to that confidential information which the employee either develops or learns in the course of his or her employment with the company. in general, state laws provide that an employee may not, either during or after his employment, divulge or use trade secrets which were developed by him during his employment or divulged to him by his employer, even absent an express agreement. the rationale is that a employee is in a relationship of trust and confidence with the company. in addition, most companies require that their employees sign an agreement which acknowledges that the employee will maintain the confidentiality of the company ' s trade secret information both during and after employment. the problematic aspect of this issue is raised when the employee wants to go to work for a competitor of the employer. the employee should be aware that under appropriate circumstances, the ex - employer may prevent the employee from going to work at a competitor if the following three factors are found to exist : ( 1 ) the former employee has knowledge of the first employer ' s trade secrets ; ( 2 ) the employee ' s new job duties ( and the products and technology he is working on ) are so similar to those in the former position that it would be extremely difficult for him not to rely on or use the first employer ' s trade secrets ; and ( 3 ) the former employee and the new employer cannot be depended upon to avoid using the trade secret information. the second prong relates to that confidential information provided by a third party to the employee ' s company. in those cases in which the employer signs a non - disclosure agreement to maintain the trade secrets of a third party, the employee - as an agent of the recipient company - is bound to the non - disclosure agreement and must abide by the confidentiality provisions. failure to do so may subject both the company and the employee to damages. - ownership of intellectual property. if a work was created by an employee as part of his or her job, the law considers the product a work for hire, and the employer will own the intellectual property rights to that work, as explained above. a work for hire is defined as \" a work made by an employee within the scope of his or her employment \". in many instances, the courts have considered the intellectual property rights to a product developed by the employee to belong to the employer when the employee", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.522842528811339, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:55.916457"} {"text": "ecosys ( economy, ecology and systems ) technology developing products that are kind to the environment \u2013 while still being highly economical to run \u2013 was the fundamental thinking behind the development of ecosys. kyocera introduced the cartridge - free ecosys printer concept in 1992 as a means of reducing total cost of ownership ( tco ), while improving the printer \u2019 s environmental impact. conventional printers use an imaging cartridge that integrates a photoreceptor drum, developer and toner into a single, disposable unit. when the toner is depleted, the entire cartridge is disposed of and replaced with a new unit. in contrast, ecosys printers feature a durable imaging system based on kyocera \u2019 s patented amorphous silicon print drum, a combination of ceramic and metal. with a surface that is second only to diamond in hardness, kyocera \u2019 s durable print drum is guaranteed up to 500, 000 pages on some series models. that \u2019 s because tiny ceramic particles embedded in kyocera \u2019 s toner continually polish and recondition the drum during normal printing, virtually eliminating the need for replacement of the drum and other cartridge components ( a task which is typically performed many times over the life of a conventional printer ). the result is printers and copiers which create less waste and have a lower comparable cost per print and less downtime, making them up to 50 % less expensive to operate than comparative models and much more reliable. conventional toner kit kyocera ecosys toner kit", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5162488198891009, "token_count": 310, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:56.075685"} {"text": "who have been outcast by their village for religious reasons. if only the two groups could have met in a spirit of compromise, they might have been able to live peacefully together. but the british insistence on domination, and the igbo fear and rejection of their people who convert to christianity, spell doom for umuofia. each side fears the other, and, like okonkwo, each side is so fearful of appearing weak that it will resort to violence to keep the upper hand. achebe shows that the coming of europeans to africa was not light coming to darkness, or pure evil destroying a people ; it was two imperfect societies set on a collision course from which neither could emerge whole again. achebe wrote things fall apart in english. the decision was controversial amongst african writers at the time, some of whom wanted to promote native african languages, while others accepted english. if achebe wrote in english, he was using the language of the colonizer, a non - african voice, to tell an african story, once again. but if he wrote in igbo, he was limiting the potential audience for the novel to a single group of people in nigeria. in an essay called \" the african writer and the english language, \" achebe describes the problem : for an african writing in english is not without its serious setbacks. he often finds himself describing situations or modes of thought which have no direct equivalent in the english way of life. caught in that situation he can do one of two things. he can try and contain what he wants to say within the limits of conventional english or he can try to push back those limits to accommodate his ideas... i submit that those who can do the work of extending the frontiers of english so as to accommodate african thought - patterns must do it through their mastery of english and not out of innocence. in other words, african writers can use english to change it, and turn it into a language of african experience and not just english experience. achebe changed english by infusing it with igbo syntax, usage, and vocabulary so that while things fall apart is clearly written in english, it is a new kind of english that serves an igbo purpose. - mr. brown - the first white missionary to arrive in umuofia, mr. brown is respectful and patient, never attacking clan customs or religion directly. his early success is endangered by his ill health. - the district commissioner - the highest english official in the region arrives with the missionaries and oversees the fall of the villages", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5064060167400029, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:56.110495"} {"text": "from the ' lectric law library ' s stacks search the library since the early part of this century, the federal courts have attempted to limit the uncertainty surrounding novel scientific evidence by establishing an evidentiary standard of reliability for scientific proof. frye v. u. s., 293 f. 1013 ( d. c. cir. ' 23 ), provided the standard that governed the introduction of expert evidence for more than half a century. the courts have also embraced procedures, including various forms of discovery providing for mandatory disclosure of witnesses \" who may be used at trial to present evidence under rules 702, 703, or 705, \" and requiring submission of written reports by expert witnesses, which give the parties and the courts greater opportunities to test the reliability of novel expert testimony. the standard of reliability for expert testimony and the applicable procedures in federal courts in the years proceeding the landmark 1993 daubert case had undergone significant change. as judge learned hand in \" historical and practical considerations regarding expert testimony \", 15 harv. l. rev. 40 ( 1901 - 02 ) observed at the beginning of this century, expert evidence must be reliable in order to have some \" possible weight \" on an issue and be admitted for consideration by a trier of fact. absent reliability, the evidence would not be relevant to the inquiry. in frye, the court of appeals considered an appeal from a trial court ' s refusal to admit the resultsof a test based on systolic blood pressure, offered to prove the truthfulness of a defendant in a murder prosecution. in an oft - quoted passage, the court crafted a standard to determine whether scientific evidence was sufficiently reliable to warrant consideration by a trier of fact : just when a scientific principle or discovery crosses the line between the experimental and demonstrable stages is difficult to define. somewhere in this twilight zone the evidential forces of the principle must be recognized, and while courts will go a long way in admitting expert testimony deduced from a well - recognized scientific principle of discovery, the thing from which the deduction is made must be sufficiently established to have gained general acceptance in the particular field in which it belongs. frye contemplated two stages for acceptance of new science. first, the scientific community develops a theory and determines its reliability using scientific method. this stage required experimentation with the new science ' s methodology and publication of the results for scrutiny and approval by the scientific community. second, once the new science became \" demonstrable, \" based on acceptance in the scientific community, the court could permit its", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5431415142554779, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:56.148882"} {"text": "stage required experimentation with the new science ' s methodology and publication of the results for scrutiny and approval by the scientific community. second, once the new science became \" demonstrable, \" based on acceptance in the scientific community, the court could permit its use as evidence in the courtroom. without explanation, the court of appeals chose \" general acceptance \" in the relevant scientific community as the standard for governing the admission of novel scientific evidence. under frye, the party proffering novel scientific evidence must show general acceptance by offering scientific publications, judicial decisions, evidence of practical use, or testimony by scientists on their peers ' position regarding the evidence in question. many courts, faced with determining the admissibility of a wide array of scientific evidence, favored the frye standard. often, new scientific evidence failed to survive this demanding standard. for example, mccormick on evidence reports : polygraphy, graphology, hypnotic and drug induced testimony, voice stress analysis, voice spectrograms, ion microprobe mass spectroscopy, infrared sensing of aircraft, retesting of breath samples for alcohol content, psychological profiles of battered women, and child abusers, post traumatic stress disorder as indicating rape, astronomical calculations, and blood group typing, all have fallen prey to [ frye ' s ] influence. many rationales have been offered to support the use of the frye standard as a means of excluding evidence. the justifications included : that the standard guaranteed a minimum number of knowledgeable experts ; that it promoted uniformity of decisions ; that it eliminated the need for time consuming hearings on admissibility ; and, most importantly, that it assured a method by which those best qualified to assess the validity of scientific evidence would effectively determine its admissibility. the general acceptance test of frye became the \" dominant standard for determining the admissibility of novel scientific evidence at trial. \" indeed, professor clark ' s testimony in briggs that the doll tests were \" generally accepted as indications of the child ' s sensitivity to race as a problem \" was calculated to satisfy frye. nonetheless, as justice blackmun noted in daubert, the merits and application of frye were extensively debated by commentators. professor mccormick was one of the primary critics of frye prior to the adoption of the federal rules of evidence. in 1972, he wrote : \" general scientific acceptance \" is a proper condition for taking judicial notice of scientific facts, but not a criterion for the admissibility of scientific evidence. any relevant conclusions which are supported by a qualified expert witness should be received unless there", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5304363066556661, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:56.151477"} {"text": ", he wrote : \" general scientific acceptance \" is a proper condition for taking judicial notice of scientific facts, but not a criterion for the admissibility of scientific evidence. any relevant conclusions which are supported by a qualified expert witness should be received unless there are other reasons for exclusion. particularly, probative value may be overborne by the familiar dangers of prejudicing or misleading the jury.... if the courts used this approach, instead of repeating a supposed requirement of \" general acceptance \" not elsewhere imposed, they would arrive at a practical way of utilizing the results of scientific advances. charles t. mccormick, evidence sec. 203, at 491 ( 2d ed. ' 72 ) the fed. r. evid., effective july 1, 1975, provided the first modern and uniform set of evidence rules for the trial of civil and criminal cases in the federal courts. rule 702, which governs the admission of expert testimony, does so in terms that do not expressly address reliability : if scientific, technical, or other specialized knowledge will assist the trier of fact to understand the evidence or to determine a fact in issue, a witness qualified as an expert by knowledge, skill, experience, training, or education, may testify thereto in the form of an opinion or otherwise. the advisory committee on evidence, appointed by the supreme court, formulated the language which congress adopted as rule 702. rule 702 and the accompanying advisory committee note echo mccormick ' s criticism of frye. reliability should depend on relevance rather than the general acceptance of scientific evidence. fed. r. evid. 401 defines \" relevant evidence \" as \" evidence having any tendency to make the existence of any fact that is of consequence to the determination of the action more probable or less probable than it would be without the evidence. \". rule 403 provides that relevant evidence \" may be excluded if its probative value is substantially outweighed by the danger of unfair prejudice, confusion of the issues, or misleading the jury, or by considerations of undue delay, waste of time, or needless presentation of cumulative evidence. \" rule 702 incorporates a relevancy requirement by permitting the introduction of scientific evidence which \" will assist the trier of fact to understand the evidence or to determine a fact in issue. \" surprisingly, the advisory committee note made no mention of frye. instead, the committee quoted professor mason ladd : there is no more certain test for determining when experts may be used than the common sense inquiry whether the untrained layman would", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5187297671390743, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:56.152904"} {"text": "confuse the jury. \" in 1985, the 3rd circuit decided u. s. v. downing, 753 f. 2d 1224 ( 3d cir. ' 85 ), the most significant precursor to daubert. in downing, the court considered the admissibility of expert testimony concerning the reliability of eyewitness identification. the court concluded that the language and spirit of the fed. r. evid., in addition to the experience of the courts in attempting to apply frye, suggested that an approach more flexible than the general acceptance test for the admissibility of novel scientific evidence was appropriate. downing instructed the district courts to undertake a preliminary inquiry as to the soundness of the theory or technique on which proffered scientific evidence was based. this inquiry was to include consideration of the risk that the jury would be overwhelmed, confused or misled and assessment of the materiality of the evidence to the issue in dispute. the third circuit envisioned a multi - factored analysis of the reliability of the evidence. the court permitted, but did not require, the identification of a relevant scientific community and a determination of the degree of acceptance within that community. in language reminiscent of frye, the court suggested that in many cases, the general acceptance factor was likely to be decisive. additional factors that district courts could consider included the novelty of the technique and its relationship to established modes of scientific analysis, the existence of specialized literature dealing with the technique, the likelihood that the scientific basis of the new technique has been exposed to critical scientific scrutiny, the qualifications and professional stature of the expert witness, and the potential and actual non - judicial uses of the scientific technique. according to downing, district courts should also focus on the risk of error, both the frequency with which the method leads to erroneous results and the type of error generated by the technique. finally, the district courts should consider whether the expert testimony had been offered in earlier cases to support or dispute the merits of a particular procedure. the downing opinion noted that \" other factors could be added to the list. \" the third circuit ' s articulation of a clear alternative to frye set the stage for the supreme court ' s resolution in daubert of the conflict among the circuits over the appropriate standard of reliability for scientific evidence under rule 702. the cases decided after the adoption of rule 702, but prior to daubert, reflected the different approaches of the courts described in the preceding section. occasionally, courts would restate and apply the frye general acceptance test. some courts", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5318872916376345, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:56.156466"} {"text": "rights. appellants, a dairy farmer and his wife, were convicted of willfully holding two retarded farm workers in involuntary servitude and of conspiring to deprive the workers of their constitutional right to be free from involuntary servitude154 as guaranteed by the thirteenth amendment. the couple ' s son was also convicted on the conspiracy charge. the kozminskis argued on appeal that the district court erred in admitting expert psychological testimony to show that the two victims were detained against their will. a psychologist testified that the victims ' limited mental ability, combined with the psychological pressures exerted on them by the conditions at the dairy farm, created an \" involuntary conversion \" to complete dependency. the 6th circuit, sitting en banc, held that the district court improperly admitted this evidence. the court explained : \" for expert testimony to be admissible under rule 702, a fourpart test must be met : ( 1 ) a qualified expert ; ( 2 ) testifying on a proper subject ; ( 3 ) in conformity to a generally accepted explanatory theory ; ( 4 ) the probative value of which outweighs any prejudicial effect. \" according to the 6th circuit, the only arguably relevant theory shown to have general acceptance by the trial testimony was the \" captivity syndrome \" associated with the brainwashing of prisoners of war. the appellate court was not satisfied that any established theory existed to support a conclusion that the kozminskis ' actions resulted in complete dependency on the part of the victims : \" as bad as conditions on the kozminski ' s dairy farm are alleged to be, they fall short of those found in a chinese prison camp. accordingly, captivity syndrome is inapplicable as a matter of law given the facts of this case. \" because frye ' s requirement of a generally accepted explanatory theory was not met, the court held the testimony inadmissible under rule 702. a concurring opinion in kozminski cited frye and emphasized the need to protect a defendant in a criminal case against scientific evidence which may bear an \" aura of special reliability and trustworthiness, \" even when it is based on an unproved hypothesis which has yet to obtain any degree of acceptance in its field. id. at 1199 ( krupansky, j., concurring ). a dissenting opinion urged that the frye test should not be applicable to the testimony because it was properly categorized", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_entanglement", "similarity_score": 0.5421191766935225, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:56.163027"} {"text": "obtain any degree of acceptance in its field. id. at 1199 ( krupansky, j., concurring ). a dissenting opinion urged that the frye test should not be applicable to the testimony because it was properly categorized as \" other specialized \" rather than \" scientific \" knowledge under rule 702, and as such, could be based on a subjective assessment of the victims and their conditions of confinement. id. at 1215 ( guy, j., dissenting ). the dissent, noting the abandonment of frye by the second and third circuits, also argued that the majority ' s concern with the reliability of the expert testimony could be better addressed under rule 403, which permits the exclusion of relevant evidence if its probative value is substantially outweighed, inter alia, by the danger of unfair prejudice, confusion of the issues, or misleading the jury. id. at 1214. spencer v. general elec., 688 f. supp. 1072 ( e. d. va. ' 88 ), typifies the third approach mentioned above, where the court attempts its own assessment of the scientific reliability of proffered expert testimony. spencer involved a title vii sexual harassment claim and state tort claims against a former supervisor and employer brought by an employee claiming to be a victim of rape and other sexual misconduct. at trial, the plaintiff attempted to introduce the testimony of a forensic psychiatrist that plaintiff suffered from post traumatic stress disorder ( ptsd ) as proof that the rape actually occurred. ultimately, the district court held the testimony inadmissible for this purpose. noting that ptsd is a condition recognized in psychiatry as the emotional reaction to traumatic events, such as rape, the court cited the american psychiatric assn., diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders for the proposition that ptsd may be caused by a variety of traumatic events outside the range of common experiences, such as military combat, bombing, torture, airplane crashes, or rape. in the case of rape, the condition is sometimes labeled rape trauma syndrome ( rts ). the court concluded, however, that evidence of ptsd or rts was not a scientifically reliable means of proving that a rape occurred : \" evidence of ptsd occasioned by rape \"... \" is not a scientifically reliable means of proving that a rape occurred. ptsd is simply a diagnostic category created by psychiatrists ; it is a human construct, an artificial classification of certain behavioral patterns. rts was developed by rape counselors as", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5315962507490121, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 7, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:56.164323"} {"text": "\" is not a scientifically reliable means of proving that a rape occurred. ptsd is simply a diagnostic category created by psychiatrists ; it is a human construct, an artificial classification of certain behavioral patterns. rts was developed by rape counselors as a therapeutic tool to help identify, predict, and treat emotional problems experienced by the counselor ' s clients or patients. it was not developed or devised as a tool for ferreting out the truth in cases where it is hotly disputed whether the rape occurred. unlike fingerprints, blood tests, and lie detector tests, rts was not devised to determine the ' truth ' or accuracy of a particular past event - - i. e., whether, in fact, a rape in the legal sense occurred. \"... \" the scientific evaluation of rape trauma syndrome has not reached a level of reliability that surpasses the quality of common sense evaluation present in jury deliberations. \" while the district court made its own determination of the reliability of the proffered evidence, its opinion did not completely ignore frye. the court questioned several authorities which had admitted ptsd or rts evidence under the frye test based on findings that the disorders were \" generally accepted to be a common reaction to sexual assault. \" the court opined that the relevant issue was not whether rape victims may display certain symptoms, but whether diagnosis of ptsd or rts provided scientifically reliable proof that an alleged victim was raped. thus, the court believed that, under frye, the evidence should not be admitted for this purpose. after trial, the district court held that the employee failed to prove by a preponderance of evidence that the alleged sexual assaults and rape took place. the evidence issue was not raised on appeal, and the 4th circuit affirmed. spencer v. general elec, supra. the court ' s exclusion of the psychiatric evidence of ptsd to corroborate the plaintiff ' s testimony that she was raped, on grounds that such evidence was irrelevant, seems questionable. the diagnosis of the plaintiff with a disorder that experts recognize as affecting persons who have suffered significant trauma subsequent to the date of the alleged incident was relevant because it tended to support her testimony that she had indeed been raped. such evidence is relevant even if the diagnosis standing alone did not show the cause of the condition. the court ' s evidentiary ruling in spencer has not been cited by any other federal court. nonetheless, the decision illustrates the types of issues which a court following the third line of authority must address in an effort", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.521382486015273, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 8, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:56.168986"} {"text": "what is pathology? pathology, or general pathology, is the medical specialty focused on the diagnosis of disease through analysis of blood, tissues or urine in a pathology lab. a division of pathology is anatomical pathology ( study of organs and tissues to diagnose disease ), which is broken into the following subspecialties : forensic pathology ( determining cause of death ), autopsy pathology ( performing autopsies ), surgical pathology, and cytopathology ( study of diseases on the cellular level ). other subspecialties include clinical chemical pathology ( study of antibodies, hormones, immune system and pharmacology ), clinical pathology ( working directly with patients ), hematology ( study of blood ) and microbiology ( study of bacteria, parasites and viruses ). who are pathologists? pathologists are doctors who are concerned with the diagnosis of disease, as well as prevention and treatment. these specialists use a microscope or other diagnostic tools to look at blood, urine or other body fluid specimens and detect chemical makeup in the body. based on the test results, he or she may recommend additional study of the specimen. pathologists typically work in a hospital or pathology lab, and may work in administrative roles supervising divisions of a clinical pathology lab. they may oversee special divisions of the lab, such as the blood bank, clinical chemistry, hematology, immunology and serology, and microbiology. pathologists are certified by the american board of pathology. what types of specimens does a pathologist collect? general pathology relates to the collection of a specimen or specimens for the diagnosis of disease. the types of specimens a pathologist may collect include : related articles : do it yourself lab tests new sensor could replace finger - prick testing - blood \u2013 usually drawn from a vein through a needle in the forearm, or sometimes pricked from a finger. - urine \u2013 the \u201c random method \u201d is when a patient urinates into a cup ; \u201c clean catch specimen \u201d takes a sample of urine after the outer genital area has been sanitized ; and a \u201c sterile urine test \u201d requires catheterization ( a tube inserted through the urethra into the bladder to take a sample of urine ). sometimes the patient will need to undergo several urine tests to measure changes in urine over time. - sputum ( phlegm ) \u2013 samples are taken from sputum that has been coughed into a clean container. - feces \u2013 collected by the patient into a clean plastic or cardboard container. - other bodily fluids \u2013 spinal fluid, pl", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5333184931013266, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:56.178003"} {"text": "the term unix - like is widely used to describe operating systems that share many of the characteristics of the original unix, which was written in 1969 by ken thompson at bell labs, and its early successors. the popularity of this term is mainly due to the fact that it is a very convenient and logical way of describing the numerous and diverse operating systems that fit into this category. it is also due in part to the controversy about what really is unix and how this term should be used. this controversy, in turn, has arisen largely as a result of the complex history of unix and the operating systems that have been based on it. the category of unix - like operating systems clearly includes those systems that have all three of the following characteristics : a direct source code lineage from the original unix, obvious unix characteristics and officially describe themselves as being unix. source code is the version of software as it is originally written ( i. e., typed into a computer ) by a human in plain text ( i. e., human readable alphanumeric characters ). such systems include aix ( developed by ibm ), hp - ux ( developed by hp ), irix ( developed by silicon graphics ), solaris ( developed by sun microsystems ) and true64 ( developed by compaq for alpha processors and now owned by hp ). the category of unix - like operating systems also includes unix clones. a clone is a program ( i. e., an operating system or an application program ) that has functions and behavior similar to another program but which does not contain source code from that program. the functions and behavior of the unix clones are so similar to those of the early ( and later ) versions of unix, in fact, that many knowledgeable users consider them to be unix. however, they do not have a direct lineage to the original unix source code, and most of them do not officially describe themselves as being unix. this category includes the bsds ( i. e., freebsd, netbsd, openbsd and darwin ), linux, minix, qnx and cygwin. unix - like operating systems also generally contain most or all of the enhancements and new features that were subsequently added at the university of california at berkeley ( ucb ) and which are known as the berkeley extensions. the berkeley extensions include such now nearly universal innovations as the c shell, also referred to as csh, tcp / ip ( transmission control protocol / internet protocol ), which forms the basis for both the internet and", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5682571302937869, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:56.192515"} {"text": "are known as the berkeley extensions. the berkeley extensions include such now nearly universal innovations as the c shell, also referred to as csh, tcp / ip ( transmission control protocol / internet protocol ), which forms the basis for both the internet and most local networks, virtual memory, which allows a hard disk drive ( hdd ) to simulate additional main memory, and the vi text editor. thus, it has been suggested that operating systems that refer to themselves as unix might more appropriately call themselves something such as unix / berkeley. bsd ( berkeley software distribution ), the version of unix developed at ucb in the 1970s and early 1980s, was widely considered to be a type of unix, as are its modern day descendants. in fact, bsd even included unix in its name, such as bsd unix 4. 0, which was released in october 1980. the original name for the operating system developed at bell labs was unix ( all upper case ). this term became a trademark that was eventually acquired by the open group, an industry consortium that was formed in 1996. the open group attempts to permit operating systems to call themselves unix only if they both conform to its single unix specification and pay a substantial fee ( which is one of its main sources of revenue ). thus, at least theoretically, an operating system would not have to contain any of the original unix source code or bear much superficial resemblance to the original unix to be permitted to call itself unix. adding to the complexity of the situation is the fact that there is some controversy as to whether the term unix is actually a valid trademark. this is because trademark law states that when a term becomes very widely used as a generic term ( i. e., a term that describes a class of products rather than just a single brand ) it can lose its legally protected trademark status. apple computer, which uses darwin ( a unix - like operating system based on bsd ) as the core of its increasingly popular mac os x operating system, claims that the term unix has become generic and thus that it is not a legally valid trademark. apple has vastly greater legal and financial resources than the bsds or most of the linux distributions ( i. e., versions ), and thus it is not afraid to call its operating system unix. in fact, it makes a number of statements on its website explicitly referring to itself as unix ( and not as unix - like ), including the following : \" don ' t let its elegant and easy - to - use interface fool you. beneath the surface of mac os", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5558523037651855, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:56.195535"} {"text": "makes a number of statements on its website explicitly referring to itself as unix ( and not as unix - like ), including the following : \" don ' t let its elegant and easy - to - use interface fool you. beneath the surface of mac os x lies an industrial - strength unix foundation hard at work to ensure that your computing experience remains free of system crashes and compromised performance. \" as a result, the open group is suing apple computer for alleged trademark violation. this is a necessary move for the open group, as attempting to protect a trademark from abuse can be an important factor in legal decisions about the validity of the trademark. however, some industry observers expect that this case will be settled quietly out of court because neither side wants to risk a negative judgment1. the bsd operating systems are widely regarded as free ( both in a monetary sense and with regard to use ) implementations of unix, and thus as unix. however, in contrast to apple, they make a point of not referring to themselves as being unix on their websites or other materials in order to avoid potentially costly legal problems. for example, freebsd, the most popular of the bsd systems ( at least until the recent rise of darwin ), describes itself as being \"... a very economical alternative to commercial unix\u00ae workstations. \" netbsd describes itself on its homepage as \"... a free, secure, and highly portable unix - like open source operating system available for many platforms,... \" openbsd describes itself as \"... a free, multi - platform 4. 4bsd - based unix - like operating system. \" some operating systems do not seek unix branding because the royalties would be prohibitively expensive for them due to the facts that they are updated frequently ( which would require costly recertification ) and that they are made available freely over the internet. moreover, developers of such systems generally feel that such branding would not provide any significant advantage, as their users are generally well informed and are interested in the intrinsic values of the systems rather than in their names. the term unix - like does not have any negative implication about the validity of the unix trademark. in fact, it could even be argued that it supports the trademark by providing a convenient term for describing operating systems that resemble the original unix and its early successors so that they, and their users, will not be tempted to inappropriately use the term unix. other terminology is also sometimes used to refer to unix - like operating systems, particularly un * x,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5101793260327238, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:56.198896"} {"text": "talking about economic troubles download mp3 ( right - click or option - click the link. ) i ' m susan clark with the special english program words and their stories. in the nineteen thirties, a song, \" brother, can you spare a dime?, \" was very popular in the united states. it was the time of the big depression. the song had meaning for many people who had lost their jobs. a dime is a piece of money whose value is one - tenth of a dollar. today, a dime does not buy much. but it was different in the nineteen thirties. a dime sometimes meant the difference between eating and starving. the american economy today is much better. yet, many workers are concerned about losing their jobs as companies re - organize. americans have special ways of talking about economic troubles. people in businesses may say they feel the pinch. or they may say they are up against it. or, if things are really bad, they may say they have to throw in the towel. a pinch is painful pressure. to feel the pinch is to suffer painful pressure involving money. the expression, feel the pinch, has been used since the sixteenth century. the famous english writer william shakespeare wrote something very close to this in his great play \" king lear. \" king lear says he would accept necessity ' s sharp pinch. he means he would have to do without many of the things he always had. much later, the times of london newspaper used the expression about bad economic times during the eighteen sixties. it said, \" so much money having been spent... all classes felt the pinch. \" worse than feeling the pinch is being up against it. the saying means to be in a lot of trouble. word expert james rogers says the word \" it \" in the saying can mean any and all difficulties. he says the saying became popular in the united states and canada in the late nineteenth century. writer george ade used it in a book called \" artie. \" he wrote, \" i saw i was up against it. \" sometimes a business that is up against it will have to throw in the towel. this means to accept defeat or surrender. throwing in the towel may mean that a company will have to declare bankruptcy. the company will have to take legal steps to let people know it has no money to pay its debts. word expert charles funk says an eighteen seventy - four publication called the slang dictionary explains throwing in the towel. it says the words probably come from the sport of boxing, or prizefighting. the book says the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5105040730581086, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:56.223647"} {"text": "| | this article may require copy editing for grammar, style, cohesion, tone, or spelling. ( july 2012 ) | | | this article ' s lead section may not adequately summarize key points of its contents. ( july 2012 ) | a memory management unit ( mmu ), sometimes called paged memory management unit ( pmmu ), is a computer hardware component responsible for handling accesses to memory requested by the cpu. its functions include translation of virtual addresses to physical addresses ( i. e., virtual memory management ), memory protection, cache control, bus arbitration and in simpler computer architectures ( especially 8 - bit systems ) bank switching. modern mmus typically divide the virtual address space ( the range of addresses used by the processor ) into pages, each having a size which is a power of 2, usually a few kilobytes, but they may be much larger. the bottom n bits of the address ( the offset within a page ) are left unchanged. the upper address bits are the ( virtual ) page number. the mmu normally translates virtual page numbers to physical page numbers via an associative cache called a translation lookaside buffer ( tlb ). when the tlb lacks a translation, a slower mechanism involving hardware - specific data structures or software assistance is used. the data found in such data structures are typically called page table entries ( ptes ), and the data structure itself is typically called a page table. the physical page number is combined with the page offset to give the complete physical address. a pte or tlb entry may also include information about whether the page has been written to ( the dirty bit ), when it was last used ( the accessed bit, for a least recently used page replacement algorithm ), what kind of processes ( user mode, supervisor mode ) may read and write it, and whether it should be cached. sometimes, a tlb entry or pte prohibits access to a virtual page, perhaps because no physical random access memory has been allocated to that virtual page. in this case the mmu signals a page fault to the cpu. the operating system ( os ) then handles the situation, perhaps by trying to find a spare frame of ram and set up a new pte to map it to the requested virtual address. if no ram is free, it may be necessary to choose an existing page ( known as a victim ), using some replacement algorithm, and save it to disk ( this is called \" paging \" ). with some mmus,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5242002762644722, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:56.259922"} {"text": "virtual address. if no ram is free, it may be necessary to choose an existing page ( known as a victim ), using some replacement algorithm, and save it to disk ( this is called \" paging \" ). with some mmus, there can also be a shortage of ptes or tlb entries, in which case the os will have to free one for the new mapping. in some cases a \" page fault \" may indicate a software bug. a key benefit of an mmu is memory protection : an os can use it to protect against errant programs, by disallowing access to memory that a particular program should not have access to. typically, an os assigns each program its own virtual address space. an mmu also reduces the problem of fragmentation of memory. after blocks of memory have been allocated and freed, the free memory may become fragmented ( discontinuous ) so that the largest contiguous block of free memory may be much smaller than the total amount. with virtual memory, a contiguous range of virtual addresses can be mapped to several non - contiguous blocks of physical memory. in some early microprocessor designs, memory management was performed by a separate integrated circuit such as the vlsi vi475 ( 1986 ) or the motorola 68851 ( 1984 ) used with the motorola 68020 cpu in the macintosh ii or the z8015 ( 1985 ) used with the zilog z8000 family of processors. later microprocessors such as the motorola 68030 and the zilog z280 placed the mmu together with the cpu on the same integrated circuit, as did the intel 80286 and later x86 microprocessors. while this article concentrates on modern mmus, commonly based on pages, early systems used a similar concept for base - limit addressing, that further developed into segmentation. those are occasionally also present on modern architectures. the x86 architecture provided segmentation rather than paging in the 80286, and provides both paging and segmentation in the 80386 and later processors ( although the use of segmentation is not available in 64 - bit operation ). most modern systems divide memory into pages that are 4 - 64 kb in size, often with the possibility to use huge pages from 2 mb to 512 mb in size. page translations are cached in a tlb. some systems, mainly older risc designs, trap into the os when a page translation is not found in the tlb. most systems use a hardware - based tree", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5185207758865394, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:56.261394"} {"text": "mb to 512 mb in size. page translations are cached in a tlb. some systems, mainly older risc designs, trap into the os when a page translation is not found in the tlb. most systems use a hardware - based tree walker. most systems allow the mmu to be disabled ; some disable the mmu when trapping into os code. vax pages are 512 bytes, which is very small. an os may treat multiple pages as if they were a single larger page, for example linux on vax groups 8 pages together, thus the system is viewed as having 4 kb pages. the vax divides memory into 4 fixed - purpose regions, each 1 gb in size. they are : page tables are big linear arrays. normally this would be very wasteful when addresses are used at both ends of the possible range, but the page table for applications is itself stored in the kernel ' s paged memory. thus there is effectively a 2 - level tree, allowing applications to have sparse memory layout without wasting lots of space on unused page table entries. the vax mmu is notable for lacking an accessed bit. oses which implement paging must find some way to emulate the accessed bit if they are to operate efficiently. typically, the os will periodically unmap pages so that page - not - present faults can be used to let the os set an accessed bit. arm architecture based application processors implement an mmu defined by arm ' s virtual memory system architecture. the current architecture defines ptes for describing 4 kb and 64 kb pages, 1 mb sections and 16 mb super - sections ; legacy versions also defined a 1 kb tiny page. the arm uses a two - level pagetable if using 4 kb and 64 kb pages, or just a one - level pagetable for 1 mb sections and 16 mb sections. tlb updates are performed automatically by page - table walking hardware. the ibm system / 370 has had an mmu since the early 1970s ; it was initially known as a dat ( dynamic address translation ) box. it has the unusual feature of storing accessed and dirty bits outside of the page table. they refer to physical memory rather than virtual memory. they are accessed by special - purpose instructions. this reduces overhead for the os, which would otherwise need to propagate accessed and dirty bits from the page tables to a more physically oriented data structure. this makes os - level virtualization easier. [ clarification needed ] these features have been inherited by succeeding mainframe architectures, up to the current z", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5156903145544923, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:56.262739"} {"text": "standard powerpc mmu begins two simultaneous lookups. one lookup attempts to match the address with one of 4 or 8 data block address translation ( dbat ) registers, or 4 or 8 instruction block address translation registers ( ibat ) as appropriate. the bat registers can map linear chunks of memory as large as 256 mb, and are normally used by an os to map large portions of the address space for the os kernel ' s own use. if the bat lookup succeeds, the other lookup is halted and ignored. the other lookup, not directly supported by all processors in this family, is via a so - called \" inverted page table \" which acts as a hashed off - chip extension of the tlb. first, the top 4 bits of the address are used to select one of 16 segment registers. 24 bits from the segment register replace those 4 bits, producing a 52 - bit address. the use of segment registers allows multiple processes to share the same hash table. the 52 - bit address is hashed, then used as an index into the off - chip table. there, a group of 8 page table entries is scanned for one that matches. if none match due to excessive hash collisions, the processor tries again with a slightly different hash function. if this too fails, the cpu traps into the os ( with mmu disabled ) so that the problem may be resolved. the os needs to discard an entry from the hash table to make space for a new entry. the os may generate the new entry from a more - normal tree - like page table or from per - mapping data structures which are likely to be slower and more space - efficient. support for no - execute control is in the segment registers, leading to 256 mb granularity. a major problem with this design is poor cache locality caused by the hash function. tree - based designs avoid this by placing the page table entries for adjacent pages in adjacent locations. an operating system running on the powerpc may minimize the size of the hash table to reduce this problem. it is also somewhat slow to remove the page table entries of a process ; the os may avoid reusing segment values to delay facing this or it may elect to suffer the waste of memory associated with per - process hash tables. g1 chips do not search for page table entries, but they do generate the hash with the expectation that an os will search the standard hash table via software. the os can write to the tlb. g2, g3, and early g4 chips use hardware", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5124927702882397, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:56.268370"} {"text": "not search for page table entries, but they do generate the hash with the expectation that an os will search the standard hash table via software. the os can write to the tlb. g2, g3, and early g4 chips use hardware to search the hash table. the latest chips allow the os to choose either method. on chips that make this optional or do not support it at all, the os may choose to use a tree - based page table exclusively. the x86 architecture has evolved over a very long time while maintaining full software compatibility even for os code. thus the mmu is extremely complex, with many different possible operating modes. normal operation of the traditional 80386 cpu and its successors ( ia - 32 ) is described here. the cpu primarily divides memory into 4 kb pages. segment registers, fundamental to the older 8088 and 80286 mmu designs, are not used in modern oses with one major exception : access to thread - specific data for applications or cpu - specific data for os kernels, which is done with explicit use of the fs and gs segment registers. all memory access involves a segment register, chosen according to the code being executed. the segment register acts as an index into a table, which provides an offset to be added to the virtual address. except when using fs or gs as described above, the os ensures that the offset will be zero. after the offset is added, the address is masked to be no larger than 32 bits. the result may be looked up via a tree - structured page table, with the bits of the address being split as follows : 10 bits for the branch of the tree, 10 bits for the leaves of the branch, and the 12 lowest bits being directly copied to the result. some operating systems, such as openbsd with its w ^ x feature, and linux with the exec shield or pax patches, may also limit the length of the code segment, as specified by the cs register, to disallow execution of code in modifiable regions of the address space. minor revisions of the mmu introduced with the pentium have allowed very large 4 mb pages by skipping the bottom level of the tree. minor revisions of the mmu introduced with the pentium pro introduced the physical address extension ( pae ) feature, enabling 36 - bit physical addresses via three - level page tables ( with 9 + 9 + 2 bits for the three levels, and the 12 lowest bits being directly copied to the result ; large pages become only 2 mb", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5181187673771985, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:56.269388"} {"text": "extension ( pae ) feature, enabling 36 - bit physical addresses via three - level page tables ( with 9 + 9 + 2 bits for the three levels, and the 12 lowest bits being directly copied to the result ; large pages become only 2 mb in size ). in addition, the page attribute table allowed specification of cacheability by looking up a few high bits in a small on - cpu table. no - execute support was originally only provided on a per - segment basis, making it very awkward to use. more recent x86 chips provide a per - page no - execute bit in the pae mode. the w ^ x, exec shield, and pax mechanisms described above emulate per - page non - execute support on machines x86 processors lacking the nx bit by setting the length of the code segment, with a performance loss and a reduction in the available address space. x86 - 64 is a 64 - bit extension of x86 that almost entirely removes segmentation in favor of the flat memory model used by almost all operating systems for the 386 or newer processors. in long mode, all segment offsets are ignored, except for the fs and gs segments. when used with 4 kb pages, the page table tree has four levels instead of three. the virtual addresses are divided up as follows : 16 bits unused, 9 bits each for 4 tree levels ( total : 36 bits ), and the 12 lowest bits directly copied to the result. with 2 mb pages there are only three levels of page table, for a total of 27 bits used in paging and 21 bits of offset. some newer cpus also support a 1 gb page with two levels of paging and 30 bits of offset. cpuid can be used to determine if 1 gb pages are supported. in all three cases, the 16 highest bits are required to be equal to the 48th bit, or in other words, the low 48 bits are sign extended to the higher bits. this is done to allow a future expansion of the addressable range, without compromising backwards compatibility. in all levels of the page table, the page table entry includes a no - execute bit. tanenbaum et al., recently stated that the b5000 ( and descendant systems ) have no mmu. to understand the functionality provided by an mmu, it is instructive to study a counter example of a system that achieves this functionality by other means. the b5000 was the first commercial system to support virtual memory after the atlas. it provides the two", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.540281671150252, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 7, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:56.272381"} {"text": "functionality provided by an mmu, it is instructive to study a counter example of a system that achieves this functionality by other means. the b5000 was the first commercial system to support virtual memory after the atlas. it provides the two functions of an mmu in different ways. firstly, the mapping of virtual memory addresses. instead of needing an mmu, the mcp systems are descriptor based. each allocated memory block is given a master descriptor with the properties of the block, i. e., the size, address, and whether present in memory. when a request is made to access the block for reading or writing, the hardware checks its presence via the presence bit ( pbit ) in the descriptor. a pbit of 1 indicates the presence of the block. in this case the block can be accessed via the physical address in the descriptor. if the pbit is zero, an interrupt is generated for the mcp ( operating system ) to make the block present. if the address field is zero, this is the first access to this block and it is allocated ( an init pbit ). if the address field is non - zero, it is a disk address of the block, which has previously been rolled out, so the block is fetched from disk and the pbit is set to 1 and the physical memory address updated to point to the block in memory ( another pbit ). this makes descriptors equivalent to a page - table entry in an mmu system. system performance can be monitored through the number of pbits. init pbits indicate initial allocations, but a high level of other pbits indicate that the system may be thrashing. note that all memory allocation is therefore completely automatic ( one of the features of modern systems ) and there is no way to allocate blocks other than this mechanism. there are no such calls as malloc or dealloc, since memory blocks are also automatically discarded. the scheme is also lazy, since a block will not be allocated until it is actually referenced. when memory is near full, the mcp examines the working set, trying compaction ( since the system is segmented, not paged ), deallocating read - only segments ( such as code - segments which can be restored from their original copy ), and as a last resort, rolling dirty data segments out to disk. secondly, protection. since all accesses are via the descriptor the hardware can check all", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5257037118110202, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 8, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:56.274900"} {"text": "segments ( such as code - segments which can be restored from their original copy ), and as a last resort, rolling dirty data segments out to disk. secondly, protection. since all accesses are via the descriptor the hardware can check all accesses are within bounds, and in the case of a write that the process has write permission. the mcp system is inherently secure and thus has no need of an mmu to provide this level of memory protection. descriptors are read only to user processes and may only be updated by the system ( hardware or mcp ). ( descriptors have a tag of 5 and odd - tagged words are read only \u2013 code words have a tag of 3. ) blocks can be shared between processes via copy descriptors in the process stack \u2013 thus some processes may have write permission, whereas others not. a code segment is read only, thus reentrant and shared between processes. copy descriptors contain a 20 - bit address field giving index of the master descriptor in the master descriptor array. this also implements a very efficient and secure ipc mechanism. blocks can easily be relocated since only the master descriptor needs update when a block ' s status changes. the only other aspect is performance \u2013 do mmu - or non - mmu - based systems provide better performance? mcp systems may be implemented on top of standard hardware that does have an mmu ( e. g., a standard pc ). even if the system implementation uses the mmu in some way, this will not be at all visible at the mcp level. here you can share your comments or contribute with more information, content, resources or links about this topic.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.536071476629983, "token_count": 348, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 9, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:56.276082"} {"text": "short talk bulletin - vol. xi may, 1933 no. 5 \" thou shalt not remove thy neighbor ' s landmark, which they of old have set in thine inheritance, which thou shalt inherit in the land the lord thy god hath given thee ( deuteronomy xix : 14 ). the masons \" of old time set thine inheritance \" ( masonry ) certain fundamental principles which are named as \" landmarks \" as early as the constitutions of 1723. men have quarreled about the stone markers set up as boundaries for land ever since sections of the earth were claimed as property ; in like manner have masons differed about what are and what are not landmarks of the order. in this country particularly, with forty - nine jurisdictions, each sovereign within its own territory, arguments about landmarks are never ending. this bulletin attempts not to settle any of these numerous controversies, but only to bring before the average lodge member some of the reasons why his neighbor ' s masonic landmarks may differ from those his own grand lodge may have set up for him to follow. in 1858 albert gallatin mackey, the great masonic jurist and authority, listed twenty - five fundamental principles as the true landmarks of freemasonry. although critical scholarship has since riddled the list as to accuracy, mackey ' s ideas of what constitute the essential qualities of a landmark - antiquity, universality and irrevocability - are still respected. this definition excludes from the classification of landmarks any principle which is any two of these but no the third, it is by his own standards that many critics have measured mackey ' s landmarks and found them wanting. as an example of what is meant ; it is \" ancient, \" in the sense that it was recognized in the \" constitutions \" of the grand lodge in 1723, that a grand master appoints own deputy grand master. but the practice is by no means universal. lodges are now universally governed by grand lodges, but the practice has antiquity of only two hundred and sixteen years. according to mackey ' s dicta, neither the manner of creating a deputy grand master not the fundamental governing body of the craft can be considered as landmarks. a few principles are so universally recognized that they are freely admitted to be essentials, even in jurisdictions which have no pronouncements as to the landmarks. belief in a supreme being, the volume of sacred law as a necessary part of the furniture of the lodge, that a masons must be a man are essentials all over the world, though not", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5359016119394889, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:56.293522"} {"text": "no pronouncements as to the landmarks. belief in a supreme being, the volume of sacred law as a necessary part of the furniture of the lodge, that a masons must be a man are essentials all over the world, though not necessarily listed in all jurisdictions. on the validity of certain principles all authorities agree, but differ as to their antiquity, universality and irrevocability. a substantial minority of american grand jurisdictions have officially adopted mackey ' s twenty - five ancient landmarks, but a majority either follow other compilations, use other old charges, or decline to specify what are and what are not the landmarks of the craft. the right and power of any grand lodge to determine for itself just what is and what is not \" law \" in its jurisdiction is unquestioned. therefore, when a jurisdiction sets forth any list of landmarks in its code, they have all the force of ancient landmarks in that jurisdiction, whether they are actually so or not. \" actually so \" refers to inherent nature ; that which cannot be altered by law, no matter what the lawmaking authority. the national legislature has the undoubted \" right \" to enact a law that unsupported objects must fall. \" per contra, \" it then has the right to repeal the law of gravity, and forbid things to fall when no longer supported. but it has not the \" power \" to enforce, change or suspend the law of gravity! a grand lodge which says \" thus and such is an ancient landmark \" in that jurisdiction, \" give that pronouncement the full force and effect of an ancient landmark \" in that jurisdiction, but its edict does not \" actually \" make it such. one jurisdiction follows lockwood ' s list of nineteen landmarks, of which number 8 reads : \" that every lodge has an inherent right to be represented in grand lodge by its first three officers, or their proxies. \" this is good masonic law in most jurisdictions, but not all ; the mason from this jurisdiction ( washington, d. c. ) who moves to new york or texas and there affiliates finds that this is not a landmark in either of these jurisdictions, since neither new york not texas admit wardens to grand lodge. in the general assemblies of ancient times each mason, craftsman or entered apprentice, represented himself. in grand lodges masons are represented by their officers. evidently a change has been made in the manner of governing the craft. as a landmark is not subject to change, this particular principle of law does not conform to mack", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5277408427821478, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:56.296327"} {"text": "entered apprentice, represented himself. in grand lodges masons are represented by their officers. evidently a change has been made in the manner of governing the craft. as a landmark is not subject to change, this particular principle of law does not conform to mackey ' s definition of a landmark. no wonder his neighbor ' s landmark is a matter of confusion to brethren from neighboring but differing jurisdictions! mackey ' s fourteenth landmark asserts that every mary mason has the right of visitation. just what is a \" right? \" until that word is defined this so - called landmark cannot be discussed intelligently. if it here means \" power superior to all other powers, \" then it is merely nonsense. if it here means \" privileged until a higher privilege overcomes it, \" how may it be considered to conform to the requirements of a landmark? even so, how can the word \" right \" be translated \" privilege? \" a privilege may be withdrawn ; an inherent right cannot! as many jurisdictions rule on the \" right of visit \" in different ways - even those which have adopted mackey ' s list - it can hardly be considered a true landmark, \" if \" we judge by mackey ' s own pronouncement on what constitutes a landmark and \" if \" the word \" right \" means what it says. in some jurisdictions a mason cannot visit without a good standing card ; in others any member may object to any visitor and the master must exclude ; in still others, some masters close the doors of their lodges to all visitors on election nights, and so on. occasionally there is a conflict between ritual and landmarks as adopted. a certain jurisdiction lists fifty - four landmarks, of which number 18 reads : \" every lodge, grand or subordinate, when lawfully congregated, must be regularly clothed, tyled and opened before it can proceed to work. \" many other jurisdictions agree that it is a landmark that a lodge must be \" duly tiled. \" our ancient brethren met on high hills and low vales to observe the approach of cowans and eavesdroppers. did they \" truly tile? \" california lodge no. 1 of the district of columbia was chartered to go to california during the gold rush of 1849. had that lodge ( now california no. 1 on the register of the grand lodge of california ) been wrecked going around the horn ; had only the members of the lodge, with their charter, been saved upon an otherwise uninhabited island ; if they then held meetings with no tiler - since there were no cowans or eavesdrop", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5544731691278492, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:56.301141"} {"text": "of california ) been wrecked going around the horn ; had only the members of the lodge, with their charter, been saved upon an otherwise uninhabited island ; if they then held meetings with no tiler - since there were no cowans or eavesdroppers against whom to tile - would they have violated the so - called landmark? many rituals give \" three \" as the irreducible minimum for a master mason ' s lodge ; a lodge must have a master and two wardens. if under some strange circumstances, three and only three met as a lodge, what becomes of the so - called landmark which requires a tiler? secrecy undoubtedly conforms to the classification of the three essentials of a landmark ; but about \" the means \" of securing secrecy is at least room for argument. other masonic laws, good where in force but not necessarily landmarks, are mackey ' s 8th : \" the prerogative of the grand master to make masons at sight \" and the 11th landmark of a western grand lodge which reads : \" every person, to be made a mason must be a man of lawful age, free born and ; hale and sound, as a man ought to be. \" several grand jurisdictions have enacted legislation preventing a grand master from convening an emergent lodge for the purpose of making a mason \" at sight. \" others consider that it is an inherent right of grand masters to convene emergent lodges ( that is, give a certain number of brethren a dispensation to hold a lodge ) and that no law can take this right from him. if a landmark cannot be changed, and this \" has been \" changed, is it truly a landmark, or merely a matter of common law? all will agree that no woman can be made a mason. but what becomes of the \" lawful age \" provision in the face of the fact that washington - and many another man - was made a mason before he was twenty - one? he would be a daring debater who argued that the father of his country was not regularly and legitimately initiated. the \" hale and sound \" provision is by no means universal ; many jurisdictions stick to the strict letter of the \" doctrine of the perfect youth \" while others admit the lame and the halt under a grand master ' s dispensation, worshipful master ' s judgment or even grand lodge law relaxing restrictions in favor of men of the army or navy who had arms or legs shot off in the war! a number of grand jurisdictions have never adopted any list or classification of landmarks", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5573870582049709, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:56.303068"} {"text": "moral law, the golden rule and the hope of a life everlasting. \" those who question these as landmarks usually qualify by agreeing that they are teachings of the order, but are in doubt as to just how old all of them may be, as such. dean roscoe pound, whose \" masonic jurisprudence \" is generally considered to be among the most profound analyses of landmarks, thinks seven are unquestionable : ( 1 ) belief in god ; ( 2 ) belief in the persistence of personality ; ( 3 ) a book of the law as an indispensable part of the furniture of every lodge ; ( 4 ) the legend of the third degree ; ( 5 ) secrecy ; ( 6 ) the symbolism of the operative art ; and, ( 7 ) that a mason must be a man free born and of age. \" of thirty - nine jurisdictions of our forty - nine, eighteen either have adopted, recognized or follow mackey ' s list of twenty - five landmarks ; two use the old charges, or old charges and general regulations as landmarks ; eight have adopted, recognized or follow lists of landmarks of their own, and eleven either have not adopted, do not recognize, or do not follow any special compilation of landmarks, preferring to leave the question untouched. reduced to a percentage basis, mackey is followed in 46. 1 % plus of these thirty - nine jurisdictions ; old charges and regulations in 5. 1 % ; own landmarks in 20. 5 % plus and no special list in 28. 2 % plus. obviously there is no universality of opinion as to what is and what is not a landmark, and yet all jurisdictions agree there \" are \" landmarks. many \" laws of nature \" recognized in former times are believed in no longer ; knowledge of science and of nature is in a state of flux. what appears to be the truth today may be the error of tomorrow. possibly this is true also of our conception of the ancient landmarks, and that no list of all those fundamentals of the craft which are \" actually \" landmarks is possible. both that statement and this bulletin are without prejudice to the undoubted fact that in those jurisdictions which have adopted any list of landmarks, whether all inclusive or not, the principles there denominated as landmarks have the force of landmarks within the borders of those jurisdictions.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.551948941284715, "token_count": 466, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:56.305114"} {"text": "definitionby mayo clinic staff click to enlarge | visual acuity test | | manual visual field testing | a complete eye exam involves a series of tests designed to evaluate your vision and check for eye diseases. your eye doctor may use a variety of instruments, shine bright lights directly at your eyes and request that you look through an array of lenses. each test during an eye exam evaluates a different aspect of your vision or eye health. - pediatric eye evaluations. san francisco, calif. : american academy of ophthalmology. http : / / one. aao. org / printerfriendly. aspx? cid = 2e30f625 - 1b04 - 45b9 - 9b7c - c06770d02fe5. accessed jan. 24, 2013. - comprehensive eye and vision examination. american optometric association. http : / / www. aoa. org / eye - exams. xml. accessed jan. 24, 2013. - clinical practice guidelines : comprehensive adult eye and vision examination. st. louis, mo. : american optometric association. http : / / www. aoa. org / eye - exams. xml accessed jan. 24, 2013. - riordan - eva p, et al. vaughan & asbury ' s general ophthalmology. 18th ed. new york, n. y. : the mcgraw - hill companies ; 2011. http : / / www. accessmedicine. com / resourcetoc. aspx? resourceid = 720. accessed jan. 24, 2013. - what is a doctor of optometry? american optometric association. http : / / www. aoa. org / x4891. xml. accessed jan. 24, 2013.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5233908578343497, "token_count": 366, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:56.309656"} {"text": "when exposed to cold temperatures, especially with a high wind chill factor and high humidity, or to a cool, damp environment for prolonged periods, your body ' s control mechanisms may fail to keep your body temperature normal. when more heat is lost than your body can generate, hypothermia, defined as an internal body temperature less than 95 f ( 35 c ), can result. wet or inadequate clothing, falling into cold water and even not covering your head during cold weather can increase your chances of hypothermia. signs and symptoms of hypothermia include : - slurred speech - abnormally slow breathing - cold, pale skin - loss of coordination - fatigue, lethargy or apathy - confusion or memory loss - bright red, cold skin ( infants ) signs and symptoms usually develop slowly. people with hypothermia typically experience gradual loss of mental acuity and physical ability, so they may be unaware that they need emergency medical treatment. older adults, infants, young children and people who are very lean are at particular risk. other people at higher risk of hypothermia include those whose judgment may be impaired by mental illness or alzheimer ' s disease and people who are intoxicated, homeless or caught in cold weather because their vehicles have broken down. other conditions that may predispose people to hypothermia are malnutrition, cardiovascular disease and an underactive thyroid ( hypothyroidism ). to care for someone with hypothermia : - call 911 or emergency medical assistance. while waiting for help to arrive, monitor the person ' s breathing. if breathing stops or seems dangerously slow or shallow, begin cardiopulmonary resuscitation ( cpr ) immediately. - move the person out of the cold. if going indoors isn ' t possible, protect the person from the wind, cover the head, and insulate the individual from the cold ground. - remove wet clothing. replace wet things with a warm, dry covering. - don ' t apply direct heat. don ' t use hot water, a heating pad or a heating lamp to warm the person. instead, apply warm compresses to the center of the body \u2014 head, neck, chest and groin. don ' t attempt to warm the arms and legs. heat applied to the arms and legs forces cold blood back toward the heart, lungs and brain, causing the core body temperature to drop. this can be fatal. - don ' t give the person alcohol", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5475707958932724, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:56.318087"} {"text": "see mail address, network address. a unique number identifying a node on a network. there are only two types of addresses ; hardware = osi layer 2 & internet = osi layer 3. string simple street / mailing address of referenced item - multiple address lines ( if needed ) are sequenced by \" rank \". this element under review for extension. a location in a computer system, identified by a name, number, or code label. ( 1 ) a number, character, or group of characters which identifies a given device or a storage location which may contain a piece of data or a program step. ( 2 ) to refer to a device or storage location by an identifying number, character, or group of characters. physical : a specific location in memory where a unit record, or sector, of data is stored. to return to the same area on the disc, each area is given a unique address consisting of three components : cylinder, sector and head. memory : a unique memory location. network interface cards and cpus often use shared addresses in ram to move data from each card to the pc ' s processor. the term can also refer to the unique identifier for a particular node in a network. otherwise known as a url, the unique location of a web page on the internet. can also mean your email address. for bluetooth, each bluetooth device has built into its hardware a 48 - bit device unique address. computer location where a particular item is stored. a set of characters that identifies an individual network node. ip address is a 32 - bit numeric identifier assigned to a node. the address has two parts, one for the network identifier and the other for the node identifier. all nodes on the same network must share the network address and have a unique node address. for networks connected to the internet, network addresses are assigned by the internet activities board ( iab ). addresses also include ipx addresses, the internal network number and external network number, and the media access control ( mac ) address assigned to each network card or device. a computer address is very different to a street address, but has the same function - a name for the place where other computers can find it \" living \". a unique identity of each network station on a lan or wan. a location of a web site or file on the internet. a unique memory location permitting reading or writing of data to / from that location. network interface cards and cpus often use shared addresses in ram to move data between", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5687200149221965, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:56.376816"} {"text": "on a lan or wan. a location of a web site or file on the internet. a unique memory location permitting reading or writing of data to / from that location. network interface cards and cpus often use shared addresses in ram to move data between programs. words, numbers, symbols that designate a physical or virtual location. for example : street numbers and names, countries, e - mail addresses, urls. the location of a web page on the internet, otherwise called a url. in the online world, the combination of letters, numbers, and / or symbols that will let you send e - mail to a particular person or organization. the identification of a physical or virtual distinct entity in a network. on the internet, this network address is called a url ( uniform resource locator ). for instance : http : / / www. gsh. org. [ it is important to type these accurately. the information in the header of a pdu that identifies the owner of the information in the payload. in connection - oriented protocols the address identified the virtual circuit number, and in connectionless protocols the address identifies the ultimate destination of the information. location in primary memory where data or instructions are held temporarily ; identification of a storage location similar to street addresses, computer addresses identify information ' s storage location on a computer or identify a node on a network. ( 1 ) a number that identifies a particular location in the memory, a register, or other data source or depository. ( 2 ) the location of a terminal, peripheral device, node, or any other component in a network. the series of letters or numbers that will take the user to a specific e - mail address or web site. characters that are used by a device to locate another device in a network. see also group address. a number that specifies the location of a byte in memory. the location of an internet resource. an e - mail address may take the form of firstname. lastname @ example. org. a web address looks similar to http : / / www. showtheworld. com. in reference to the internet, the name of a site that users can connect to, such as www. microsoft. com, or the address of an e - mail recipient, such as email @ example. com. a typical address starts with a protocol name ( such as ftp : / / or http : / / ) followed by the name of the organization that maintains the site. the suffix identifies the kind of organization. for example, commercial site addresses", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5861637015136936, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:56.378074"} {"text": "com. a typical address starts with a protocol name ( such as ftp : / / or http : / / ) followed by the name of the organization that maintains the site. the suffix identifies the kind of organization. for example, commercial site addresses often end with. com. the means by which a particular portion of a storage medium is identified absolute address the actual address of a location in the main store relative address the number to be added to the starting address ion order to produce the absolute address return a unique number or name assigned to all computers that are connected to the internet. see also domain name and ip address. an address is a unique identifier that determines the originating location of data or the destination of data being transmitted across a communication link. there is a distinction between a station ' s link address, a station ' s network address, and an individual process running on a station. normally refers to one ' s e - mail address which can be a series of letters and / or numbers, or when referring to a world wide web site, it is a url. refers to a location in a storage medium. addresses most frequently refer to a locations in ram. an internet machine name or location, for example, www. prolifics. com. a character string that uniquely identifies a memory location in a plc, computer, or other programmable system. the logical location of a terminal, node, peripheral device, or byte in memory in a network. the abbreviation for address is addr. a name, label, or number identifying a register, location or unit where information is stored. the address is the label given to the places in computer memory. a specific location where data is stored in a memory ; a numerical or alphabetical designation of the storage location of data. the url of a web page, such as http : / / www. anvil - graphics. com /. the location of an internet resource. an email address may take the form of firstname. lastname @ example. org. a web address looks something like http : / / www. intellisoft. co. uk. address is the term used to refer to the physical location of any piece of information and the computer on which that information resides, on the internet. addresses are also used to define where electronic mail is sent to and from. 911 address - physical location ; mailing address - owners location. a unique network location used to identify a network object such as a database service, client, interchange, or names server. tns addresses have", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5503604888185089, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:56.379198"} {"text": "where electronic mail is sent to and from. 911 address - physical location ; mailing address - owners location. a unique network location used to identify a network object such as a database service, client, interchange, or names server. tns addresses have a specific format. addresses must be unique. see tns address and well known address. an identifier defined and used by a particular protocol and associated software to distinguish one node from another. a specific location in memory, designated either numerically or by a symbolic name. a system just like a house or street address used for identifying a destination or location of information located on the internet. an example of a web address would be www. webct. com. when used within the context of the internet, an address refers to one of these pieces of information : internet email addresses or a web site address, called a uniform resource locator. like a postal address, a \" network address \" is used to locate another user for the purpose of directing mail. on the internet this is in the form : email @ example. com. francis street, perth, western australia 6000 a label such as an integer or other set of characters which identifies a register, location of device in which information is stored. either the address of a user of a system, as in an email address ( required so that the message sent can be directed to the desired person ), or the address of a site on the internet a code or series of letters, numbers and or symbols by which the internet identifies you or a location where information is stored a data structure understood by a network which uniquely identifies the recipient an identifier which is unique within the particular computing network to identify each device associated with the network a numerical identifier for the topological location of the named entity a numeric label for a specific location in memory a place where a person or organization can be located and communicated with a primary means to identify and locate a unique object a unique number or group of characters that identifies a unique user or location on the internet a virtual liaison office, not the physical location of ambai / ambai u ' s faculty and officials see uniform resource locator ( url ) the location of a word of memory in ram. in data communication, the unique code assigned to each device, workstation, user, or multicast group connect to a network. see ip address. a number uniquely identifying each node in a network. a collection of letters and numbers that tell the world whosesite it is - cf url. the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5615331320606145, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:56.380687"} {"text": ", workstation, user, or multicast group connect to a network. see ip address. a number uniquely identifying each node in a network. a collection of letters and numbers that tell the world whosesite it is - cf url. the unique code by which the internet identifies you ( also referred to as url ). most urls contain three parts : the protocol, the host name, and the folder or filename. ( network address ) internet site address come in two forms : as a set of numbers such as 22. 214. 171. 124 and alphanumeric such as nasa. gov ( both of these represent the same address, and either could be used ). an individual e - mail ' s address at this site, for example, john glenn ' s, might look like this : firstname. lastname @ example. org. ( referring to e - mail or network address ) a unique combination of letters and / or numbers which identifies a person or location sought. also referred to as a url. the location of an internet resource. a web address looks something like http : / / www. stunik. com. an e - mail address may take the form of email @ example. com. unique designation for a device on a network that lets other devices direct messages to it. identifies the author and supplies the author ' s mailing address. a hexadecimal number that represents a location in storage or memory. used to identify communication ports. to communicate with a storage device. a string of characters used in cyberspace that allows users to identify themselves. the unique code assigned to the location of a file in storage, a device in a unique system or network, or any other data source on a network. an address is the name you need to either a ) access an internet site or b ) send an email. an internet site ' s address is also referred to as a url and typically appears in the format www. address. com. email, on the other hand, appears in the form of firstname. lastname @ example. org and provides a unique identifier for your inbox so your mail can find you. there are three basic types : computer address : e. g. www. bournemouth. ac. uk e - mail address : e. g. email @ example. com url : e. g. http : / / www. bids. ac. uk internet addresses help you find people or information on the internet. people with e - mail addresses can", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.602648524347484, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:56.382326"} {"text": "- mail address : e. g. email @ example. com url : e. g. http : / / www. bids. ac. uk internet addresses help you find people or information on the internet. people with e - mail addresses can have mail delivered right to their computer. it ' s a lot like your street address which tells the post office where to deliver letters. e - mail addresses usually look like this : firstname. lastname @ example. org or email @ example. com. either a personal / business address for email ( i. e. firstname. lastname @ example. org ) or a web site address, also called a url ( i. e. www. cincinnati. com ) the actual street listing associated with the remediation site. with city and zip, constitutes the complete physical address for the site. in the context of the internet, an address is the information a web browser needs to locate a particular website. the location to which mail items are delivered. it consists of certain elements such as recipient name, street name and house number, city, state, and postal code as required by the type of mail. location of an internet site. a unique set of numbers that identifies a particular location in computer memory. the location of an internet resource. an email address may take the form of email @ example. com. a web address looks something like http : / / www. geeksnet. com. a unique name or number identifying a specific computer. addresses are used in network communications in transmitting messages to a particular machine. you can address a particular person by associating their account with the address of the machine where they have the account. for example, the \" john \" in firstname. lastname @ example. org is the account of an individual on the machine \" reliant. c - cwis. siu. edu \". this machine address is an ip ( internet protocol ) address. you must always have an ip address to use the internet. ip addresses can also be expressed numerically, e. g., 126. 96. 36. 199, which represents the same machine. the verbal names are simply easier for people to remember. the number, street, city, and zip code on a letter that tell postal workers where to deliver it the string of characters that you must give an electronic mail program to direct a message to a particular person. the term \" internet address \" often refers to an assigned number, which identifies a host on this network. a", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5079480676752808, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:56.383762"} {"text": "tell postal workers where to deliver it the string of characters that you must give an electronic mail program to direct a message to a particular person. the term \" internet address \" often refers to an assigned number, which identifies a host on this network. a unique network location used to identify a client on a network. tns addresses have a specific format. addresses must be unique. see tns address. the address is the number which identifies a computer on the internet. the location of an internet resource. an email address may take the form email @ example. com. a web address looks something like http : / / www. metrac. org. the numerical designation of a location in memory. see either ip address or email address. internet address is just like your home or apartment address, only it is in cyberspace. once you have an internet address, you have a place all your own on the internet. the location of a highway - rail grade crossing. there are three addressing systems that locate a highway - rail grade crossing : the local governmental street address the railroad milepost number the federal dot crossing number ( see dot crossing number and milepost number. ) a binary pattern used to select a location in memory. in this text, addresses are 16 bits wide. the location of an internet resource. an email address may be firstname. lastname @ example. org, a web address shall look like http : / / www. funnyjobs. co. au the location of a computer, file or peripheral device on a network. a unique identifier for a communication endpoint. this is a way of identifying a location on a network, and is used for email and internet locations. another term for a website address is url which stands for uniform resource locator. the address identifies the location of a web page on the world wide web. this is also referred to as url or uniform resource locator. a unique identifier used in sending data to a particular person or object. for example, an \" ip address \", \" mail address \" or \" ethernet address \". in online terms this commonly refers to a particular machine or computer system connected to the internet. machine ' addresses ' exist on the internet for servers for e - mail sending and receiving, web page or web site access, and almost everything functioning on the internet. internet users encounter two important types of addresses : web page addresses ( more properly called urls ) and e - mail addresses ( for sending e - mail to someone. e - mail addresses", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5265752701783651, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:56.384897"} {"text": "or web site access, and almost everything functioning on the internet. internet users encounter two important types of addresses : web page addresses ( more properly called urls ) and e - mail addresses ( for sending e - mail to someone. e - mail addresses almost always contain an @ ). used for finding people, urls, email, newsgroups. the common descriptor that identifies a property. it usually includes a building number and street name. the unique string of text that identifies the location of a web page on the world wide web. an address on the internet is described as a uniform resource locator, which can be used for any type of addressing, such as e - mails ( mailto : email @ example. com ), web pages ( http : / / www. news. com / ) and ftp sites ( ftp : / / ftp. netscape. com / pub / communicator ). instead of using domain names, it is also possible to use ip addresses. see also ftp, e - mail, ip, uniform resource locator, web page. refers to the email address of an individual or group, or the address of a site on the internet. site addresses are known as urls. a number identifying each individual locomotive and accessory decoder on a layout. when a controller is set to a particular address, only the decoder set to the corresponding address can read the instructions from the controller. an address is a word or number that refers to a storage location or port. on the internet a unique name or number combination which identifies a user or system. ex : \" firstname. lastname @ example. org \" is the address of a user known as fozz. \" xmission. com \" is the address of the system called xmission. the memory location of a data item or procedure. the expression can represent just the offset ( in which case the default segment is assumed ), or it can be in segment : offset format. the number of a particular memory or peripheral storage location. like post office boxes, each byte of memory and each disk sector has its own unique address. programs are compiled into machine language, which references actual addresses in the computer. code used to locate any person, website and / or file on the internet. the format for email addresses is username @ hostname, where username is your username, login name, or account number, and hostname is the name of the computer or internet provider you use (", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5470224067864535, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 7, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:56.386104"} {"text": "/ or file on the internet. the format for email addresses is username @ hostname, where username is your username, login name, or account number, and hostname is the name of the computer or internet provider you use ( e. g. aol ). websites and files are also identified by a unique address, or url ( uniform resource locator ). egs ' s url, for example, is www. ellisgs. com. an email address is composed of the following : email @ example. com recipiant ( username ), @, location, domain unique identifier of a web page. url ( uniformed resource locator ) is more frequently used for this purpose. a unique identifier for a computer or site online, usually a url for a web site or marked with an @ for an e - mail address. literally, it is how one computer finds the location of another computer using the internet. the physical location of a variable in memory, addresses are stored as hexadecimal numbers and are usually not directly modified by the programmer. in organization, the mailing address of the organization ( or person ). includes street number, name, city, state, zipcode, and count ry. each web page on the internet is assigned a unique recognizable address. address is also known as url ( uniformed resource locator ). see ip address or e - mail address. an address is the unique identifier you need to either a ) access the services of an internet site or b ) send e - mail. another word for internet site addresses is url. chances are you ' re already familiar with e - mail addresses. they ' re in the form of firstname. lastname @ example. org and provide a unique identifier for your in - box so your mail can find you. [ see also : url a unique combination of letters, numbers and other characters determining the recipient of an email message or the location of a computer on the internet ( e. g. a web site ). a unique alphanumeric sequence used to identify a computer transmitting or receiving data. also a location in memory. the location of an internet resource. an email address may take the form of email @ example. com a web address looks something like http : / / www. slashtime. com a unique name or number identifying a computer user or a computer. they are used in network communication in transmitting messages to a particular machine", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5197052252237573, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 8, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:56.387227"} {"text": "the form of email @ example. com a web address looks something like http : / / www. slashtime. com a unique name or number identifying a computer user or a computer. they are used in network communication in transmitting messages to a particular machine or person. in internet explorer, an address is the location of a web page. addresses can be used to identify web site, ftp site and gopher site on the internet, as well as files on an intranet. type the following address in the address box : http : / / www. dpsinfo. com / help / words. html http means the url to open is residing on a web server www. dpsinfo. com is the domain of the server help is a subdirectory under the dpsinfo. com domain on the server words. html identifies the web page being opened internet explorer gives the user the option of displaying addresses as simplified addresses ( \" friendly urls \" ) or full addresses ( urls as described above ). this value is set from the options menu, on the appearance tabsheet. when the term address is typically used on the internet, it means an e - mail address. the term url is more often used to represent web page addresses. an internet address can consist of letters, number and / or symbols. the address allows the internet to identify a computer. addresses allow people to transfer files, send email and visit web sites. a web address is the domain name or url. an e - mail address is in the form firstname. lastname @ example. org in communications, the coded representation of the source or destination of a message. ( 188 ) in data processing character or group of characters that identifies a register, a particular part of storage, or some other data source or destination. ( 188 ) to assign to a device or item of data a label to identify its location. ( 188 ) the part of a selection signal that indicates the destination of a call. to refer to a device or data item by its address. back to the top code by which the internet identifies you. the format is username @ hostname, where username is your username, login name, or account number, and hostname is the name of the computer or internet provider you use. the hostname may be a few words strung together with periods. a numerical identifier for a controller when used in computer communications. unique identifier or location of a web page. also called a", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5527588320807282, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 9, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:56.388121"} {"text": "of the computer or internet provider you use. the hostname may be a few words strung together with periods. a numerical identifier for a controller when used in computer communications. unique identifier or location of a web page. also called a web address or url ( uniformed resource locator ) 6940 villagreen view rockford, il 61107 click here to email kiki glossary - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - x - y - z a address is a unique name ( or number ) identifying a computer user or computer. addresses are used in network communications in transmitting messages to a particular person or machine. numbers and letters which locate a computer the unique identifier you need to either access a web site : http : / / www. webguest. com ( see url ) or 188. 8. 131. 52 ( see ip address ) or to send email : email @ example. com ( see email address ). the location where a person or computer expects to find or deliver a particular piece of information, such as : e - mail \u2014 \" its _ me @ workplace, \" that specifies how electronic mail can be sent to a person or organization. or a website address ( see url ) \u2014 \" http : / / www. ownpage. ownsite / beginhere \" the location of a web site on the internet - - also called a \" url. \" the address of a site can tell you something of the nature of the information that you will find there. an address that has \". gov \" at the end of the address will belong to a \" government \" site. typing \" http : / / www. nsa. gov \" in the location field will bring you to the national security agency web site. another common suffix is \". com. \" sites with this suffix are generally commercial sites. see also \" domain name. \" a location in memory ; each data item is stored at a particular memory address a name, label or number that is used to identify a location in memory ; allows each device on a single communications line to respond to its own message a name, group of numbers or bits used to identify a specific device. ( e. g. server, router, switch, printer, or computer ) on a network. there are two types of addresses in common use within the internet. they are email and ip or internet addresses. typically refers to either a website or email address. a website address", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5623372368938773, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 10, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:56.389001"} {"text": ", router, switch, printer, or computer ) on a network. there are two types of addresses in common use within the internet. they are email and ip or internet addresses. typically refers to either a website or email address. a website address appears in the form of a uniform resource locator ( url ) and is prefixed with http : / / or https : / /. either the address of a user ( usually a name, followed by ' @ ' and some other bits, separated by dots )... or the address ( ' url ' ) of an internet site ( usually preceded by ' http : / /... ' or ' ftp : / /... ' an identification ( number, name, or label ) that uniquely identifies a computer register, memory location, or storage device. the code used to designate the location of a specific piece of data within computer storage the location of a site on the internet, which in its pure form is expressed by a number. an identifier assigned to networks, stations, and other devices so that each device can be separately designated to receive and reply to message. the location of an internet resource. an email address may take the form of firstname. lastname @ example. org. a web address looks something like \" http : / / www. q2websolutions. com \" reference to a memory location. in c pointers are used to hold addresses. data structure or logical convention used to identify a unique entity, such as a particular process or network device. ( 1. ) the telephone number that remote systems use to call the system. ( 2. ) to refer to a device or an item of data by its address. ( 3. ) in word processing, the location, identified by an address code, of a specific section of the recording medium or storage. ( 4. ) in data communication, the unique code assigned to each device or workstation connected to a network. see also network user address. ( 5. ) a numbering system used in network communications to identify a specific network or host with which to communicate. addresses are often denoted in dotted decimal form. the information in an email message that determines where and how the message must be sent. addresses are found both on message headers and on message envelopes. the identifying location of a device or an area of storage ; for example, a memory register, disk sector, or network node. 2. to identify with an address. see also url there are", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5699441152172637, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 11, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:56.390025"} {"text": "on message headers and on message envelopes. the identifying location of a device or an area of storage ; for example, a memory register, disk sector, or network node. 2. to identify with an address. see also url there are three types of addresses in common use within theinternet. they are email address ; ip, internet or internetaddress ; and hardware or mac address. see also : email address, ipaddress, internet address, mac address. address mask system developed to identify and reach someone or something. about concerning the internet, there are : a ) e - mail addresses, b ) ip addresses, c ) hardware addresses, e ) urls. a slippery term, depending on context ; in e - mail world, the combination of usercode / mailname and domain designation allowing proper routing of messages to an individual ( e. g., email @ example. com or firstname. lastname @ example. org ). in a network context, an address is the end of a glorified phone jack ( a network access module or nam ), able to be designated to receive packets of data in ip ( internet protocol ) form. all internet traffic is tracked and routed by ip addressing, whether or not the addressing is manifest to the naked eye : the text address email @ example. com silently incorporates the four - digit ip address of the server known as peseta. ucdavis. edu. the number of ip addresses on a given subnet is limited by the number of ports served by the equipment in a given idf closet. think of the world wide web as a network of electronic files stored on millions of computers all around the world. hypertext links these resources together. uniform resource locators or urls are the addresses used to locate the files. the information contained in a url gives you the ability to jump from one web page to another with just a click of your mouse. when you type a url into your browser or click on a hypertext link, your browser sends a request to a remote computer, called a web server, to download one or more files. every url is unique and identifies one specific file. identifies the location of an internet resource. examples : an e - mail address ( firstname. lastname @ example. org ) ; a web address ( http : / / www. osu. edu ) ; or an internet address ( 128. 146. 999. 9 ). a way to identify an internet resource. see", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5801144852768179, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 12, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:56.391021"} {"text": "has a physical address of 0100h and a relative address or offset of 0h. there are three types of addresses in common use within the internet. they are email address ; ip, internet or internet address ; and hardware or mac address. see also : email address, ip address, internet address, mac address. the label or number identifying the memory location where a unit of information is stored. with reference to the web, an address is a string of letters and punctuation marks that identifies an email mailbox or a web site. firstname. lastname @ example. org is a sample email address, and http : / / www. techsoup. org is a sample web address. a web address is also called a url. source : techsoup. org this could be an email or web address. web addresses are also sometimes called urls. web addressed are always always in this format www. thedomain. com or http : / / thedomain. com. what about the. au or. uk endings, you ask? that ' s the country ( au stralia or nited ingdom, for instance ). american sites don ' t have the two country letters at the end of the address for the same reason that english stamps don ' t have \" england \" on them - they invented it. email addresses are always in this format : email @ example. com ( or maybe. net,. gov,. org.. edu etc ). ( 1 ) a coded representation of the destination of data, as well as of its source. multiple terminals on one communications line, for example, must each have a unique address. ( 2 ) a group of digits that makes up a telephone number. also known as the called number. ( 3 ) in software, a location that can be specifically referred to in a program. ( 4 ) a name, label, or number that identifies a location in storage, a device in a network, or any other data source. a component of a location that can be assigned a us postal service street address. ( 1 ) disks and other storage devices have numbers that identify locations by sector and by byte. retrieval software searches for the address assigned to the desired information in order to locate it. ( 2 ) used as a verb, it means what a computer can access : \" this mac can address 5 megs of ram. \" a unique network identification name which can alternatively be expressed numerically, such as 220. 127. 116. 11 or science", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5428933119546082, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 14, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:56.393402"} {"text": ") used as a verb, it means what a computer can access : \" this mac can address 5 megs of ram. \" a unique network identification name which can alternatively be expressed numerically, such as 220. 127. 116. 11 or science3. soe. umich. edu a unique network location used to identify a network object, such as a listener, oracle connection manager, or oracle names server. addresses have a specific format and must be unique. an e - mail address. a way to locate you through your internet service provider. 1. the precise location in memory or on disk where a piece of information is stored. every byte in memory and every sector on a disk have their own unique addresses. 2. to reference or manage a storage location. address - a recipient address is a collection of information that identifies a specific message recipient. it must be unique and complete to properly identify an e - mail recipient. there are four types of addresses in common use on the internet : email, ip, hardware, and url. network addresses are usually of two types : ( 1 ) the physical or hardware address of a network interface card ; for ethernet this 48 - bit address might be 0260. 8c00. 7666. the hardware address is used to forward packets within a physical network. fortunately, network users do not have to be concerned about hardware addresses since they are automatically handled by the networking software. ( 2 ) the logical or internet address is used to facilitate moving data between physical networks. the 32 - bit internet address is made up of a network number, a subnetwork number, and a host number. each host computer on the internet, has a unique address. all internet hosts have a numeric address and an english - style name. for example, the internet address for ucc ' s cyber 840 is 18. 104. 22. 168 ; its internet name is csugreen. ucc. colostate. edu. a name, decimal number or bit string used to identify a networked device. a number used by the operating system to identify a storage location. the unique code assigned to each device or workstation connected to a network. a standard internet address ( or ip address ) is a 32 - bit address field. this field contains two parts. the first part is the network address ; the second part is the host number. see also ip address. a unique name ( or number ) identifying a computer user or computer is called an address. addresses are used in network communications to transmit", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5528729351366826, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 15, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:56.394636"} {"text": "two parts. the first part is the network address ; the second part is the host number. see also ip address. a unique name ( or number ) identifying a computer user or computer is called an address. addresses are used in network communications to transmit messages to a particular person or machine. in ip ( internet protocol ) form, it consists of a series of numbers, separated by dots, which enables a machine in one part of the world to contact another ( much like a personal zip code ). also, technical reference to a specific location in a computer ' s memory. central park west at 79th street, new york, ny 10024 a memory location in a particular machine ' s ram ; a numeric identifier or symbolic name that specifies the location of a particular machine or device on a network ; and a means of identifying a complete network, subnetwork, or a node within a network. there are two separate uses of this term in internet networking : \" electronic mail address \" and \" internet address. \" an electronic mail address is the string of characters that you must give an electronic mail program to direct a message to a particular person. see \" internet address \" for its definition. there are three types of addresses in common use on the internet : email addresses, ip addresses, and uniform resource locators. examples : email address : firstname. lastname @ example. org ip address : 22. 214. 171. 1244 uniform resource locator ( url ) : http : / / www. nrtc. net secret code by which the internet identifies you so that people can send you mail. it usually looks like username @ hostname - where username is your username, or login name, or account number ; and hostname is the internet ' s name for the computer or internet provider you use. the host name can be a few words strung together with periods. a specific site ( www, ftp, gopher ) or \" mailbox \" ( e - mail ) on the internet, often the mailbox of a particular user. if referring to e - mail, an address will usually contain the \" at \" sign : @. an address is often rendered in lower case. example : email @ example. com. another name for a unique url of a web page.... a name, set of numbers, or sequence of bits used to identify devices ( computer, printer, or server ) on a network. the unique identifier for a specific location on a network", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5642073140014261, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 16, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:56.395779"} {"text": "unique url of a web page.... a name, set of numbers, or sequence of bits used to identify devices ( computer, printer, or server ) on a network. the unique identifier for a specific location on a network. there are three types of addresses in common use within the internet : e - mail addresses ; ip or internet address ; and hardware or mac addresses. wwwebfx home page computers store numbers and instructions in their store. the store is usually divided into locations each of which holds one number or instruction. each of these locations is given a designation so that it can be referred to, no matter what number or instruction it happens to contain. this designation is often called the ' address ' of the location. number or bit pattern that uniquely identifies a location in library memory. every location has a distinct address. an internet address is the name of a site you want to connect to, such as www. aga. org. also, an internet address can be the address of someone you want to send e - mail to, such as firstname. lastname @ example. org the street address that describes the physical ( geographic ) location of the front door or main entrance of a facility site. example : 123 main street. a number of reference, which identifies a unique location in a computer ' s memory. a number which identifies a location in memory where information is stored. the location of an internet resource. email address may take form email @ example. com. a web looks something like http : / / www. squareonetech. com. a number which is used to identify a location. each computer on the internet has a unique ip address, which the network uses to direct information to it. memory address is a string of digits which identifies where to read or write data. ( url - uniform resource locator ) : generally of the form www. something. com ; entering this into the address bar of your browser is the most direct way of accessing a site an exact location in memory. a program can store or retrieve data from this address. an address in a unique identifier assigned to a web page. the address is more commonly referred to as the url ( uniformed resource locator ). unique location of a person or computer on the internet. communication on the internet requires an address. an address is the location of a computer or computer resource on the internet. you can find the address in the address box ( explorer ) or the location box ( netscape ) the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5523440434945055, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 17, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:56.396892"} {"text": "or computer on the internet. communication on the internet requires an address. an address is the location of a computer or computer resource on the internet. you can find the address in the address box ( explorer ) or the location box ( netscape ) the location of an internet resource. an email address may take the form of firstname. lastname @ example. org. a web address looks something like http : / / www. crn. org. the uniform resource locator of a file contained on a network. this can be the home page of a website or any of its files. it usually appears as http : / / www. ( name ). com. there can also be addresses that include a / ( filename ) after the \". com \" reference. an address in memory is a location to which an application or a piece of hardware refers. for example, a word processor will store your document in a particular memory address while you have it open. problems occur when two things ( hardware or software ) try to use the same address. a location in the memory where a particular piece of data is stored. most commonly, an address is a person ' s email location or a web page ' s url. the location of an internet resource. an email address may take the form of name @. yourdomain. com. a web address looks something like http : / / www. domain. com. a unique number assigned to a device on a network. for example, a twinax terminal must be assigned a unique address before it is able to access the host system. internet users encounter two important types of addresses : web page addresses ( more properly called urls ) and e - mail addresses ( for sending e - mail to someone ). one example of an e - mail address is email @ example. com. in telephony, the number dialed by a calling party which identifies the party called. also known as the telephone number. the number assigned to an individual memory location. each byte in the atari has its own unique address, much like a house has a street address. the main use of this book is to provide you a roadmap to each address so you don ' t get lost. see e - mail address and host address. the unique location of an information site on the internet, a specific file ( for example, a web page ), or an email user. 1151, punchbowl street, honolulu, hawaii the location of an internet resource. an email address may take the form", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5500240194993228, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 18, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:56.400934"} {"text": "of an information site on the internet, a specific file ( for example, a web page ), or an email user. 1151, punchbowl street, honolulu, hawaii the location of an internet resource. an email address may take the form of firstname. lastname @ example. org - - a web address appears as http : / / www. insurancestop. com a unique sequence of letters or numbers for the location of data or the identity of an intelligent device. a unique identifier assigned to networks and stations that allows each device individually to receive and reply to messages. three types of addresses are commonly used on networks : e - mail address ; ip, internet, or internet address ; and hardware or mac address. see also class a / b / c address, ip address, mac address. a specific site ( www, ftp, gopher etc. ) on the internet, often the mailbox of a particular user. if referring to email, an address will usually contain the \" at \" sign : @. an address is often rendered in lower case. example : joebloggs @ btopenworld. com ( 1 ) a name, numeral, or label that designates a particular location in primary or secondary storage. ( 2 ) a location identifier for nodes in a computer network. the location of an internet resource. an email address may take the form of email @ example. com. a web address looks something like http : / / www. supanet. com. also know as the url ( uniformed resource locator ). an address by which the internet identifies you so that people can send you mail. it usually looks something like firstname. lastname @ example. org, where username is your username, login name, or account number, and ispname is the internet ' s name for the computer or internet provider you use. also see : e - mail the location of an internet resource. an email address may take the form of email @ example. com. a web address looks something like http : / / www. aic. net. au. the numerical location of a web site. example : 126. 96. 36. 199. the first six digits are a country location, the next three are a server computer location, and the last three are a location on the server computer. the numbers can range from 0 to 255. 1. physical location of a home. 2. code or path used to locate stored information in a computer", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5475337133169658, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 19, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:56.403598"} {"text": "we all like to think of ourselves as rational creatures who smartly prepare for the worst. we watch our back, weigh the odds and pack an umbrella when the skies look threatening. but although we take such precautions, we generally expect things to turn out pretty well \u2014 often better than they actually do. the belief that the future will probably be much better than the past and present is known as the optimism bias, and most of us have this tendency to overestimate the likelihood of good events happening to us and underestimate the likelihood that bad events will come crashing down. take marriage, for example. in the western world, divorce rates are higher than 40 percent : two out of five marriages end in divorce. but newlyweds estimate their own likelihood of divorce at zero. why is optimism about our personal future so resilient? it starts with what may be the most extraordinary of human talents : the ability to move back and forth through time and space in one \u2019 s mind. to think positively about our prospects, it helps to be able to imagine ourselves in the future. our capacity to envision a different time and place is critical for our survival. it allows us to plan ahead, to save resources for times of scarcity, and to endure hard work in anticipation of a future reward. while mental time travel has clear survival advantages, conscious foresight came to humans at an enormous price \u2014 the understanding that death awaits. the knowledge that old age, sickness, decline of mental power and oblivion are somewhere around the corner can be devastating. ajit varki, a biologist at the university of california at san diego, argues that the awareness of mortality on its own would have led evolution to a dead end. the despair would have brought the daily activities needed for survival to a stop. the only way that conscious mental time travel could have arisen is if it emerged along with irrational optimism. the knowledge of death had to emerge in parallel with the persistent ability to picture a bright future. the capacity to envision that future relies partially on the hippocampus, a brain structure that is crucial to memory. ( people with damage to the hippocampus are unable to recollect the past ; they are also unable to construct detailed images of future scenarios. ) but the human brain doesn \u2019 t travel in time randomly. it tends to engage in specific types of thoughts : we consider how well our kids will do in life, how we will obtain that desired job, whether our team will win. we also worry about losing loved ones,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5391259944181588, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:56.407530"} {"text": "twenty - eight years ago, arthur firstenberg had a dental x - ray. he ' s been on the run ever since. that x - ray, he says, made him excruciatingly sensitive to electromagnetic fields \u2014 the low - level radiation that emanates from power lines, microwaves, and, most vexingly, cell phones. now 58, firstenberg has spent more than a decade crisscrossing the country, trying to find the last unwireless spot in america. when cell phone towers came to new york city, he moved upstate. then he headed to mendocino, california. these days, he lives out of his ' 87 nissan station wagon in santa fe ; a house is too risky. \" your neighbor could get wifi, and then you have to leave and hunt for a new home. \" at first, i was inclined to chalk firstenberg ' s symptoms up to plain old paranoia. after all, the world health organization ' s website says \" no study [ on cell phone radiation ] has shown adverse health effects at exposure levels below international guideline limits. \" but doctors and scientists are starting to scrutinize how invisible electromagnetic fields affect human health, especially when it comes to cell phones, one of the most ubiquitous sources of microwave radiation. in 2006, a swedish study reported that 85 of 905 brain tumor patients had used mobile phones heavily for 10 years or more, and most of their tumors occurred on the side of their head where they usually held their phones. in march, after reviewing more than 100 studies on the link between cell phone use and brain cancer, a prominent australian neurosurgeon concluded that cell phones could have a broader public health impact than smoking. the list of conditions that researchers have associated with electromagnetic radiation includes trouble focusing, fatigue, headaches, sleep disturbances, and alzheimer ' s. ( and don ' t forget asthma, diabetes, cataracts, and honeybee colony collapse disorder, insists firstenberg. ) so far, no one has been able to explain exactly how these seemingly benign waves could lead to cancer, much less this laundry list of medical woes, and for that reason, few scientists are willing to say for sure that cell phone use will make you sick \u2014 or that it won ' t. the heating effect of electromagnetic waves is well understood ; it has been proved that they can burn human tissue if they ' re intense enough. ( think microwave oven. ) standards set by the federal communications commission ensure that cell phone emissions stay well below that", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.521371207315211, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:56.607233"} {"text": ". the heating effect of electromagnetic waves is well understood ; it has been proved that they can burn human tissue if they ' re intense enough. ( think microwave oven. ) standards set by the federal communications commission ensure that cell phone emissions stay well below that heating threshold. but joachim schuz, head of the department of biostatistics and epidemiology at the danish cancer society, suspects that heat isn ' t the only way radiation causes health problems. so far, no one has been able to prove definitively that its \" nonthermal \" properties have any detrimental effect on living tissue. \" you find one cell reacting, one not, \" he says. \" so you can ' t really say it ' s due to the radio waves. \" why is it easier to watch netflix movies on a pc than a mac? so you ' re about to use netflix ' s \" instant watching \" feature on your macbook, when suddenly an error message pops up : \" sorry, blame steve jobs. \" huh? wasn ' t the whole point of getting a mac to escape microsoft ' s monopolistic tentacles and have the freedom to do stuff like stream movies? the problem is that apple won ' t license its copyright - protection software to third parties like netflix. predictably, apple wouldn ' t emerge from behind its titanium curtain to answer our questions about why it won ' t let consumers use whatever video service they choose. john sullivan of the free software foundation suspects that apple wants you to buy movies only from itunes. that may keep steve jobs in black turtlenecks, but it ticks off dedicated mac users, many of whom have no doubt noticed that netflix movies play perfectly fine on a stodgy pc. \u2014 leigh ferrara have a problem? oh yes, you do. go to motherjones. com / consumer - retorts to vent about annoying products and corporate policies. selected entries will get mojo swag. since 1999, schuz has been a principal investigator for the interphone project, which has produced the largest body of epidemiological work on cell phones and cancer to date. the official results aren ' t ready yet, but 8 of the 13 countries involved have already released their initial data. several of these early studies show a strong correlation between long - term cell phone use and brain tumors, both malignant and benign. schuz cautions that the individual studies by themselves are too small to overcome some significant problems with the data. finding subjects who have brain tumors and who have used their cell phones for", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5429491022111552, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:56.608559"} {"text": "cell phone use and brain tumors, both malignant and benign. schuz cautions that the individual studies by themselves are too small to overcome some significant problems with the data. finding subjects who have brain tumors and who have used their cell phones for more than 10 years is difficult, especially considering that the tumors typically take 10 to 20 years to develop. what ' s more, people are notoriously bad at remembering how much they ' ve used their phones and which ear they hold their cell phone up to \u2014 especially if they ' re looking around for something to blame a brain tumor on. ben greenebaum, a retired physics professor and former president of the bioelectromagnetics society, an international group of radiation scientists and wireless - industry professionals, says that despite interphone ' s preliminary findings, \" i ' m not prepared to shut anything down on the basis of what i see now. \" but, he admits, \" i do think you have to be cautious and use these things when they make sense. \" he recommends using a headset whenever possible and warns that \" if you carry it on your belt, you ' ll get a higher field into your stomach, \" even when the device is turned off. \" so set it on the counter. \" don ' t try to make calls where your reception is poor \u2014 phones emit more radiation when they ' re searching for a signal. the german and french governments have recommended that parents limit children ' s cell phone use, since less is known about the effect of radiation on developing brains. of course, if you ' re really worried, you could ditch your cell phone for a quaint landline. just don ' t expect the rest of the world to follow suit. firstenberg has found that it ' s almost impossible to avoid the mobile - wielding masses. he used to ask strangers \u2014 politely \u2014 to stop talking on their phones in his presence until he got reprimanded in a grocery store for harassing a customer. \" people get offended, \" he says. \" they just don ' t know about microwave radiation. \" for the time being, the fcc is not considering any changes to its standards for cell phone radiation. yet some cell phone companies have started including a pamphlet about potential health risks with their packaging, perhaps to guard against future litigation. and schuz hasn ' t ruled out the possibility that as more data roll in, the scientific consensus could shift dramatically. \" if you ask me a year from now, \" he says, \" i might have changed my mind", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5035892208442989, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:56.610837"} {"text": "at the heart of materials science is an understanding of the microstructure of solids. \" microstructure \" is used broadly in reference to solids viewed at the subatomic ( electronic ) and atomic levels, and the nature of the defects at these levels. the microstructures of solids at various levels, especially the defects, profoundly influence the mechanical, electronic, chemical, and biological properties of solids. the phenomenological and mechanistic relationships between the microstructure and the macroscopic properties of solids are, in essence, what the materials science is all about. this is best represented by the \" materials science triangle \" : synthesis - microstructure - properties. materials engineering, on the other hand, is concerned with the design, fabrication, and testing of engineering materials. such materials must fulfill simultaneously the dimensional properties, quality control, and economic requirements. several manufacturing steps may be involved : ( 1 ) primary fabrication, such as solidification or vapor deposition of homogeneous or composite materials ; ( 2 ) secondary fabrication, including shaping and microstructural control by operations such as mechanical working, machining, sintering, joining and heat treatment and ( 3 ) testing, which measures the degree of reliability of a processed part, destructively or non - destructively. because the science of materials branches into other fields of study, the department offers joint fields of study in collaboration with other departments. a degree specializing in electronic materials is offered which provides a broad - based background in materials science, with the opportunity to specialize in semiconducting materials used in electronic and optoelectronic devices. the program incorporates several courses in electrical engineering in addition to those in the materials science curriculum. a joint major field, chemistry / materials science, is offered to students enrolled in the department of chemistry and biochemistry ( college of letters and science ). several courses in the undergraduate curriculum also play an important role in the manufacturing engineering program. the graduate program allows for specialization in one of the following fields : ceramics and ceramic processing, electronic and optical materials, and structural materials.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5957876005468488, "token_count": 423, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:56.710006"} {"text": "for sophomore / junior level courses in theories of personality, personality, individual differences. using a theorist - by - theorist approach, this comprehensive introduction to personality theory gives students the history of psychology with practical information to help them understand their own lives and their relationships with others. primary sources, abundant biographical information and supporting research are used to descibe and detail each theorist, presenting the theories of personality in an accessible and unbiased way. table of contents chapter 1 : what is personality? chapter 2 : sigmund freud chapter 3 : carl jung chapter 4 : alfred adler chapter 5 : karen horney chapter 6 : erik h. erikson chapter 7 : gordon allport chapter 8 : raymond b. cattell and hans j. eysenck chapter 9 : b. f. skinner chapter 10 : john dollard and neal miller chapter 11 : albert bandura and walter mischel chapter 12 : david m. buss chapter 13 : george kelly chapter 14 : carl rogers chapter 15 : abraham maslow chapter 16 : rollo reese may chapter 17 : a final word with coursesmart etextbooks and eresources, you save up to 60 % off the price of new print textbooks, and can switch between studying online or offline to suit your needs. once you have purchased your etextbooks and added them to your coursesmart bookshelf, you can access them anytime, anywhere. introduction to theories of personality, an, coursesmart etextbook, 8th edition format : electronic book $ 75. 99 | isbn - 13 : 978 - 0 - 205 - 81001 - 7", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5365395270007449, "token_count": 324, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:56.727859"} {"text": "the following html text is provided to enhance online readability. many aspects of typography translate only awkwardly to html. please use the page image as the authoritative form to ensure accuracy. dri dietary reference intakes for calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, vitamin d, and fluoride average of 61 mg [ 2 mmol ] / day or 5 percent of the total intake ) when intakes were calculated using usda ' s nutrient database ( pennington and wilson, 1990 ). because of the uncertainty about phosphorus values for processed foods in nutrient databases, trends in phosphorus intake may be difficult to ascertain. daily intakes of women aged 19 to 50 years from usda ' s national surveys averaged 965 mg ( 31. 1 mmol ) in 1977, 1, 039 mg ( 33. 5 mmol ) in 1985, and 1, 022 mg ( 33. 0 mmol ) in 1994 ( cleveland et al., 1996 ; usda, 1985 ). thus, it appears that intakes from foods increased about 8 percent between 1977 and 1985, but then decreased slightly between 1985 and 1994. food supply data show a larger increase in phosphorus consumption : 12 percent from 1980 through 1994 ( from 1, 480 to 1, 680 mg [ 47. 7 to 54. 2 mmol ] / day per capita ) ( usda, 1997 ). however, disappearance data may be unreliable for detecting trends because phosphate additives ( such as those in cola beverages ) are not included. disappearance data on phosphorus - containing additives show that the use of these additives has increased by 17 percent over the last decade ( calvo, 1993 ). these figures also do not reflect actual consumption, because not all phosphates included in disappearance data are actually consumed, ( for example, blends of sodium tripolyphosphate and sodium hexametaphosphate are used in brines for curing meat, but the brine is rinsed off and not consumed ). nevertheless, taken together, these data suggest a substantial increase in phosphorus consumption, in the range of 10 to 15 percent, over the past 20 years. food sources of phosphorus phosphates are found in foods as naturally occurring components of biological molecules and as food additives in the form of various phosphate salts. these salts are used in processed foods for nonnutrient functions, such as moisture retention, smoothness, and binding. in infants, dietary intake of phosphorus spans a wide range, depending on whether the food is human milk, cow milk, adapted cow milk formula", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5046800751171157, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:56.767912"} {"text": "stealth submarines. powerful aircraft carriers. the most imposing vessels in america \u2019 s navy rely on small - scale nuclear reactors to provide everything from basic propulsion to power generation. but they also depend upon an essential human element \u2013 skilled nuclear technicians, power plant operators and subsystems specialists. these highly trained, hands - on professionals perform the complex technical functions that are at the core of sub and carrier capabilities. in the nuclear operations area, you \u2019 ll have the opportunity to undergo training that \u2019 s among the most advanced the navy has to offer. not to mention the chance to work with and among some of the brightest technical professionals in the nuclear, technology and engineering fields. such are the challenges and rewards that go with being associated with one of the world \u2019 s top nuclear programs. as a member of the navy nuclear community, you \u2019 ll operate, control and maintain the state - of - the - art components that power navy aircraft carriers and submarines. that could involve doing anything from operating nuclear propulsion plant machinery to controlling auxiliary equipment that supports naval reactors to maintaining the electronic equipment used to send and receive messages, detect enemy planes and ships and determine target distance. you may also : - stand watch on generators, switchboards, control equipment and electrical equipment - repair gas turbine engines - control steam generators - operate pumps, turning gear, air compressors, air dehydrators, and engineering and control systems - inspect and maintain ship alarm systems a college degree is not required to become an enlisted member of the highly respected navy nuclear community, but an aptitude for math, science and problem solving is key \u2013 as is the ability to think fast, retain complex knowledge and work under pressure. responsibilities in the navy nuclear operations area depend upon the job rating or specialty you are in. machinist ' s mates ( mm ) operate and maintain steam turbines and reduction gears used for ship propulsion and auxiliary machinery such as turbogenerators, pumps and oil purifiers. they also maintain auxiliary machinery outside of main machinery spaces, such as electrohydraulic steering engines and elevators, refrigeration plants, air conditioning systems and desalinization plants. they may also operate and maintain compressed gas producing plants. nuclear - trained mms perform duties in nuclear propulsion plants operating reactor control, propulsion and power generation systems. electrician ' s mates ( em ) are responsible for the operation of a ship ' s electrical power generation systems, lighting systems, electrical equipment and electrical appliances. the duties include installation, operation, adjustment, routine maintenance, inspection, test and repair of", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5036790269984208, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:56.785323"} {"text": "electrician ' s mates ( em ) are responsible for the operation of a ship ' s electrical power generation systems, lighting systems, electrical equipment and electrical appliances. the duties include installation, operation, adjustment, routine maintenance, inspection, test and repair of electrical equipment. em ' s also perform maintenance and repair of related electronic equipment. nuclear - trained ems perform duties in nuclear propulsion plants operating reactor control, propulsion and power generation systems. electronics technicians ( et ) are responsible for electronic equipment used to send and receive messages, computer information systems, long range radar, and calibration of test equipment. they maintain, repair, calibrate, tune, and adjust electronic equipment used for communications, detection and tracking, recognition and identification and navigation. nuclear - trained ets perform duties in nuclear propulsion plants operating reactor control, propulsion and power generation systems. beyond being capable of general duties, each of these specialized ratings requires additional \u201c a \u201d school training to earn required qualification in the nuclear field ( nf ). as an enlisted sailor working in nuclear operations, you \u2019 ll have the opportunity to work at sea or onshore. your assignment could place you aboard a nuclear - powered submarine or on board nuclear - powered aircraft carriers. whatever your specific responsibilities, you ' ll be operating, controlling and maintaining shipboard nuclear propulsion plants. working closely with industry - leading technology and highly specialized personnel in an intense, fast - paced environment with little room for error. training and advancement to work in navy nuclear operations, you will receive some of the most advanced job training the military has to offer. after your initial recruit training, you will report to \u201c a \u201d school for technical training that ' s based on your specific job rating, and then move on to acquire advanced nuclear training. navy nuclear field ( nf ) program to become a nuclear - trained mm, em or et qualified in the nuclear field ( nf ), you must complete : - \u201c a \u201d school requirements associated with your rating - training requirements at naval nuclear power school ( nnps ) - training requirements at nuclear power training unit ( nptu ) \u201c a \u201d school for mms \u2013 the three - month machinist \u2019 s mate ( mm ) course in charleston, sc, provides you with a basic knowledge of technical mathematics and a basic understanding of the theory and operation of a steam power plant. you will learn to operate tools, test equipment, and system components, read blueprints, practice rigging techniques, and perform maintenance procedures such as packing a valve or aligning a pump coupling. from", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5374152934340491, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:56.786635"} {"text": "theory and operation of a steam power plant. you will learn to operate tools, test equipment, and system components, read blueprints, practice rigging techniques, and perform maintenance procedures such as packing a valve or aligning a pump coupling. from there, it \u2019 s on to nnps and nptu ( see description below ). \u201c a \u201d school for ems \u2013 the six - month electrician \u2019 s mate ( em ) course in charleston, sc, provides you with a basic knowledge of technical mathematics and a basic understanding of power distribution. you will solve basic equations using phasors, vector notations and basic trigonometry and analyze dc and ac circuits. you \u2019 ll have the opportunity to demonstrate working knowledge of dc and ac motors and generators. in addition, you will learn how to operate electrical equipment using controllers, and how to properly test, maintain, troubleshoot, and repair electrical circuits, motors, cables, circuit breakers, and other related electrical equipment for power distribution. from there, it \u2019 s on to nnps and nptu ( see description below ). \u201c a \u201d school for ets \u2013 the six - month electronics technician ( et ) course in charleston, sc, provides you with a basic knowledge of technical mathematics and a good working knowledge of electricity and electronics, solid - state devices, digital logic and systems, microprocessors, and instrumentation and control circuits. you will learn how to interpret schematic diagrams and use appropriate test equipment to isolate and correct faults in electronic systems. from there, it \u2019 s on to nnps and nptu ( see description below ). naval nuclear power school ( nnps ) \u2013 upon completion of \u201c a \u201d school training, mms, ems and ets then attend naval nuclear power school ( nnps ) in charleston, sc. here, you will learn theory and practical application of nuclear physics and reactor engineering. the six - month course will provide you with a comprehensive understanding of a pressurized - water naval nuclear power plant, including reactor core nuclear principles, heat transfer and fluid systems, plant chemistry and materials, mechanical and electrical systems, and radiological control. nuclear power training unit ( nptu ) \u2013 following nnps, mms, ems and ets begin prototype training in their rating specialty at one of two nuclear power training units ( nptus ) \u2013 located in charleston, sc, or ballston spa, ny. this six - month course will provide you the knowledge of the fundamentals of a naval nuclear power plant and", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_entanglement", "similarity_score": 0.5446788093571029, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:56.787742"} {"text": "their rating specialty at one of two nuclear power training units ( nptus ) \u2013 located in charleston, sc, or ballston spa, ny. this six - month course will provide you the knowledge of the fundamentals of a naval nuclear power plant and the interrelationship of its mechanical, electrical, and reactor subsystems. here, you will develop oral communications skills, as well as obtain an understanding of the physical nature of nuclear radiation, its detection, interaction with matter and human health consequences, and gain knowledge of the safe operation of a complex naval nuclear power plant and its sophisticated subsystems with an emphasis on basic industrial safety principles. in addition, you will learn to identify, troubleshoot, and correct problems in nuclear mechanical, electrical, or reactor control systems at the component level with an emphasis on reactor systems, and apply earlier technical classroom knowledge gained to the practical, safe operation of naval nuclear power plants. the educational opportunities available to nuclear - and submarine - trained enlisted sailors range from college - level classes in physics, chemistry, mathematics, electrical engineering, circuit theory, systems maintenance, communications and thermodynamics to nuclear engineering training in nuclear power plant design, construction, instrumentation and operations. the american council on education ( ace ) has verified the extensive nature and unsurpassed quality of the navy \u2019 s nuclear propulsion training program by recommending up to 77 semester hours of college credit. upon selection for nuclear and / or submarine training, you will enter the navy in paygrade e - 3. if you complete all advancement - in - rate requirements, you may advance to paygrade e - 4. enlistment and reenlistment bonuses in addition to navy salary, special duty assignment pay, and allowances for food and housing are also available. if you volunteer and are selected to serve on nuclear submarines, you are eligible for added submarine duty incentive pay from the day you graduate from nuclear training. you are required to be a u. s. citizen and less than 25 years old at the time of your enlistment. you must be a high school graduate with a diploma and with successful completion of one year of algebra, and able to meet security clearance requirements. after the navy your knowledge of traditional and nuclear power will be an asset in high demand, whether with america \u2019 s navy or the civilian sector. your advanced understanding of the operation and maintenance of sophisticated electronics will put you at the top of any civilian job candidate list. your experience, ability to work under pressure and advanced skill level will lead to opportunities to work closely with specialists in", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5151529031519795, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:56.789049"} {"text": "zen, japan and the art of democracy foreign observers have long been baffled by japan \u2019 s self - discipline in the face of multiple disaster western europe has experienced only one \" killer \" earthquake of similar magnitude to the one that struck japan on 11 march 2011. even so, the lisbon earthquake of 1755, also followed by a tsunami and fire, caused a profound though arguably short - lived crisis in western thought. the indiscriminate loss of life challenged both christian beliefs in god ' s benevolence and omnipotence and the enlightenment ' s new, humanist conception of a well - ordered universe ( the german philosopher gottfried leibniz ' s \" best of all possible worlds \" ) with man as its rational and progressive centre. leading intellectuals such as voltaire put god and nature on trial and found both guilty. believers in the wrathful old testament god argued, however, that the disaster was divine punishment for the sins of lisbon. at which voltaire thundered : \" was lisbon more sinful than london or paris? \" rousseau wrote a letter to voltaire in response, chiding him for his insults - not to god but to nature. if people had dispersed themselves throughout the natural world rather than being pent up in a crowded city, there would not have been so many deaths. the descendants of rousseau can be found among those environmentalists who see the recent catastrophe in japan as nature ' s revenge for the country ' s whaling. the lisbon earthquake was a one - off in european history. memories of it faded. god was soon back in heaven and all was right with the world. one can only imagine the effect on european thought and culture if such events had become a regular occurrence over the past two and a half centuries, as they have been in japan. since 1755, japan has experienced as many as two dozen major earthquakes, as well as countless smaller ones, reminding the people of the ever - present danger beneath their feet. but, as foreign observers always remark, the japanese accept these catastrophes with an uncomplaining stoicism and self - discipline, and without the slightest hint of theological or humanistic crisis. to understand why, we must first look at the two major religious traditions of japan, shinto and buddhism. modern shinto descends from the animistic beliefs of the ancient japanese, whose myths make clear that, like the pre - christian romans, they did not expect their gods to be unfailingly just or benevolent. the storm god in particular, susano - o ( whose name", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5416229418567005, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:56.817118"} {"text": "the flow of the river is ceaseless and its water is never the same. the bubbles that float in the pools, now vanishing, now forming, are not of long duration : so in the world are man and his dwellings. \" echoes of heraclitus. this sense of life as transient and fragile was elaborated into a more formal philosophy by dogen ( 1200 - 53 ), the thomas aquinas of zen buddhism. dogen ' s philosophy is one of impermanence and emptiness, or non - essentialism : it is not only nature that has no fixed or permanent identity ; neither does man. \" the thought of enlightenment... is the mind which sees into impermanence. \" or, more poetically : to what shall i liken the world? shaken from a crane ' s bill. impermanence ( mujo ) became a central theme of japanese art and literature and has permeated every other realm of the culture. it may seem paradoxical that, for all nature ' s savagery throughout their history, the japanese have devoted so much of their literature and art to extolling its beauty. how can one love a cruel, pitiless, indifferent nature that produces earthquakes and tsunamis? the haiku poet matsuo basho ' s answer to this conundrum comes from zen : if nature offends your ego, then transcend your ego by becoming one with nature. basho ' s life was full of loss and sorrow, but he turned to nature to transform, or \" refine \", that sorrow into what he called sabi ( literally a sense of loneliness ). this was an impersonal, ego - less state of oneness with nature and detachment from the self. for basho, poetic practice was an exercise in self - abnegation, rather like what john keats called \" negative capability \". as keats wrote : \" with a great poet, the sense of beauty overcomes every other consideration, or rather obliterates all consideration. \" the haiku poet \" empties \" himself to experience nature as it is, unfiltered through the human ego. in the work of an english nature poet such as wordsworth, poet and nature are equally present ( in \" daffodils \", he refers to himself eight times in 24 lines ). in the best of basho, the poet vanishes and only nature remains : pierce through rock. the japanese political response to disasters or unexpected national emergencies has been less inspiring. since", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5550529153805956, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:56.819662"} {"text": "manifestations of mu - incapable of taking a strong stand or any kind of independent action. fifteen prime ministers have served the emperor akihito, who is now in the 23rd year of his reign. this is a less salutary form of mujo, or impermanence, and not one that inspires in the japanese public much confidence in their leaders. in the enigma of japanese power ( 1989 ), the dutch journalist karel van wolferen describes japan as a \" stateless nation \", controlled by a faceless, unaccountable, oligarchic elite from behind the scenes. little has changed in the past 20 years. in ikiru ( 1952 ), akira kurosawa ' s film satirising bureaucracy, housewives in a poor neighbourhood of tokyo petition city hall to turn a mosquito - infested swamp into a playground. holding their children, the women are sent from one government department to another, in a dizzying round of bureaucratic buck - passing. after finally being sent back to where they started, they explode in anger : \" you ' re making a mockery of democracy! \" japan ' s postwar democracy was still in its infancy and kurosawa was trying to instruct his countrymen in a new way of thinking : that governments exist to serve their people. looking at the political establishment ' s sluggish response to crisis 60 years later, one might doubt whether they ever took the lesson to heart. two weeks after the catastrophe of 11 march, doctors in miyagi prefecture in north - eastern japan were complaining to the media that they and their patients were surviving on two balls of rice a day. the press was full of stories of citizens who had loaded their cars with noodles, rice or even restaurant food and had driven hundreds of kilometres to distribute these to victims throughout the coastal areas. they were able to do so because the roads were not clogged, as one might have expected, with military convoys distributing food and medicine and evacuating the wounded. trappings of modernity where was the government? the disaster had affected only a small part of the country ; surely a more efficient distribution of food could have been possible, given the immense resources at japan ' s command? many had asked the same question after the kobe earthquake - and that was not in an isolated region like tohoku, but in a major city in central japan. at that time, kobe ' s infamous yakuza gained considerable public esteem by distributing food to the needy and homeless far more efficiently than the state", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5072651928137886, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:56.821740"} {"text": "it, people married spouses born only a mile or two distant, people spent their entire lives in or near the village except for young men away during the world war years and disputes within the village had to be settled in a way that restored relationships or made them tolerable, because you were going to be living near that person for the rest of your life. \u201d when a society becomes modern, older ways of living don \u2019 t altogether vanish. \u201c the world of yesterday wasn \u2019 t erased and replaced by a new world of today : much of yesterday is still with us. \u201d modernity isn \u2019 t, for diamond, a condition that should triumph completely but this is not because he romanticises traditional ways of living. much of the world until yesterday is an account of the drawbacks of life in traditional societies, some of it deriving from the author \u2019 s experience during periods of fieldwork. he describes vividly how on one of his first trips, when he spent a month with a group of new guineans studying birds on a forest - covered mountain, his companions became agitated and refused to sleep in a beautiful valley where he had selected a place to set up camp at the base of a giant tree. the campsite was dangerous, the new guineans explained, because the tree was dead and might fall over and kill them all. after a number of other incidents, including one in which he nearly drowned, diamond came to see their response as an example of what he calls \u201c constructive paranoia \u201d \u2013 a sense of danger that comes with living in environments that are chronically unsafe for humans. rightly, diamond thinks that we may have something to learn from this attitude ; but he underscores clearly how it is a response to living in a world that, in some important respects, is more insecure than the one that has been built in modern times. without modern medicine, accidents are more easily fatal or permanently disabling \u2013 and there is no place in traditional cultures for the severely impaired. as diamond notes : \u201c some traditional societies, especially nomadic ones or those in harsh environments, are forced to neglect, abandon or kill their elderly. \u201d the paranoia he describes has another source in how, in traditional communities, encounters with strangers are infused with peril. when new guinean highlanders had their first sight of a european in 1933, they wept in terror. reflecting this horror of outsiders, their relations with other tribal groups were governed by more or less continuous warfare. these are not the innocent primitives of rousseauesque mythology but nor are", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5171557446886053, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:56.840186"} {"text": "their first sight of a european in 1933, they wept in terror. reflecting this horror of outsiders, their relations with other tribal groups were governed by more or less continuous warfare. these are not the innocent primitives of rousseauesque mythology but nor are they the bloodthirsty savages of victorian imperialist folklore. living as everyone lived until around 11, 000 years ago, they are human beings in many ways like ourselves. when a 50 - year - old yahi indian from northern california gave up his huntergatherer life to live in san francisco, diamond tells us, he was deeply impressed by matches and glue, thinking them the most admirable modern inventions ( later he became attached to running water, flushing lavatories and railway trains, among other amenities ). the yahi admired these modern inventions for the same reason europeans invented them : they add to the ease and enjoyment of life. for diamond, the modern world is a patchwork of such inventions but their overall impact on human well - being has been complex and mixed. the domestication of plants and animals, the emergence of large human settlements along with formal systems of justice, the expansion of states, the spread of literacy, cumulative innovation in science and technology \u2013 these are some of the developments that together produced the way we live today. along with their undoubted benefits, modern societies have their distinctive disorders, including the epidemic spread of diseases such as diabetes and hypertension that are unknown in traditional societies, unremitting time - scarcity and the cultural and cognitive losses that go with vanishing languages ( one of the remaining 7, 000 languages that are still extant disappears every nine days, diamond tells us ). as he sees it, modernity is not a unique transition that some societies have experienced at various times during the past few centuries ; it is an ongoing process whose upshot is uncertain and insecure. the fragility of civilisation is a theme that runs through much of diamond \u2019 s work. his bestselling books guns, germs and steel ( 1997 ) and collapse : how societies choose to fail or succeed ( 2005 ) have given him the reputation of being something of a doommonger. this is only to be expected, since diamond points to an undeniable but unwelcome truth. modern societies are no more immune from environmental collapse than the many that have disappeared in the past \u2013 having become so closely interconnected, they are in some ways more at risk. yet diamond \u2019 s work is about much more than the vulnera", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5032589478379546, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:56.841453"} {"text": ". modern societies are no more immune from environmental collapse than the many that have disappeared in the past \u2013 having become so closely interconnected, they are in some ways more at risk. yet diamond \u2019 s work is about much more than the vulnerabilities of advanced societies and it would be more accurate to describe him as inquiring into the environmental conditions that shape human communities. one way or another, most theories of human development privilege the kind of society in which the theorist lives. where 19th - century racial theories posited the biological superiority of europeans, the triumphal celebrations of unending economic advance that filled the airport bookstalls in the 1990s invoked the cultural superiority of american individualism \u2013 something of which we hear rather less now that the financial crisis has shown reckless debt rather than bourgeois virtue to be the chief source of america \u2019 s apparent economic outperformance in recent times. diamond \u2019 s divergence from such ways of thinking is bracing and deeply instructive. arguing that, \u201c the explanation for the differences in types of societies existing in the modern world depends on environmental differences, \u201d he suggests that human groups in the relatively few regions of the world with plants and animals suitable for domestication had a major advantage over others. food surpluses led to population growth, which in turn led to political centralisation and social stratification, the growth of cities and the rise of industrial production. rather than any built - in biological or cultural advantage, it was this environmental head start that eventually produced the modern societies we know today. diamond is one of our most consistently illuminating thinkers and the world until yesterday is a compelling account of the gains and losses that go with modern living. but if diamond is impressive in deconstructing simple - minded ideas about what it means to be modern, he does not explain why modernisation has become such a powerful myth. recent history is littered with vast political experiments aiming to impose models of modernisation on refractory societies, often incurring huge human costs. not only in russia and china in the communist era but also in many emerging countries, millions of lives have been lost or ruined by the imposition of crudely schematic plans of development. if nazism is included as a modernist ideology aiming to remake the world on a hideous new model, probably more human beings were killed in the 20th century for the sake of a vision of the future than for any other single reason. at this point, the scales tilt against modern societies. traditional cultures may live in a state of continuous warfare with each other", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.526106526713289, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:56.842832"} {"text": "about this product : this graphic shows an approximate representation of coastal areas under a hurricane warning ( red ), hurricane watch ( pink ), tropical storm warning ( blue ) and tropical storm watch ( yellow ). the orange circle indicates the current position of the center of the tropical cyclone. the black line and dots show the national hurricane center ( nhc ) forecast track of the center at the times indicated. the dot indicating the forecast center location will be black if the cyclone is forecast to be tropical and will be white with a black outline if the cyclone is forecast to be extratropical. if only an l is displayed, then the system is forecast to be a remnant low. the letter inside the dot indicates the nhc ' s forecast intensity for that time : d : tropical depression \u2013 wind speed less than 39 mph s : tropical storm \u2013 wind speed between 39 mph and 73 mph h : hurricane \u2013 wind speed between 74 mph and 110 mph m : major hurricane \u2013 wind speed greater than 110 mph nhc tropical cyclone forecast tracks can be in error. this forecast uncertainty is conveyed by the track forecast \" cone \", the solid white and stippled white areas in the graphic. the solid white area depicts the track forecast uncertainty for days 1 - 3 of the forecast, while the stippled area depicts the uncertainty on days 4 - 5. historical data indicate that the entire 5 - day path of the center of the tropical cyclone will remain within the cone about 60 - 70 % of the time. to form the cone, a set of imaginary circles are placed along the forecast track at the 12, 24, 36, 48, 72, 96, and 120 h positions, where the size of each circle is set so that it encloses 67 % of the previous five years official forecast errors. the cone is then formed by smoothly connecting the area swept out by the set of circles. there is also uncertainty in the nhc intensity forecasts. the maximum 1 - minute wind speed probability table provides intensity forecast and uncertainty information. it is also important to realize that a tropical cyclone is not a point. their effects can span many hundreds of miles from the center. the area experiencing hurricane force ( one - minute average wind speeds of at least 74 mph ) and tropical storm force ( one - minute average wind speeds of 39 - 73 mph ) winds can extend well beyond the white areas shown enclosing the most likely track area of the center. the distribution of hurricane and tropical storm force winds in this tropical cyclone can be seen in the wind history graphic linked above.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5141433054455051, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:56.860028"} {"text": "lack of physical activity ), adaptable to different cultures and communities. the research is unique in its scale and scope \u2014 the interventions will be tracked across multiple countries and multiple settings : schools, health - care centers, work places, and local communities. global development network ( gdn ) the gdn is an international organization that works with developing country researchers and policy research institutes to support the generation and sharing of world - class, policy - relevant research on development. institute of medicine, preventing the global epidemic of cardiovascular disease : meeting the challenges in developing countries the institute of medicine is convening an ad hoc committee to study the evolving global epidemic of cardiovascular disease and will offer conclusions and recommendations pertinent to its control and to a range of public and private sector entities involved with global health and development. procor is a global network promoting cardiovascular health in developing countries and other low - resource settings. procor is a program of the lown cardiovascular research foundation, a tax - exempt, nonprofit organization, based in brookline, massachusetts, usa. - 2008 - 2013 action plan for the global strategy for the prevention and control of noncommunicable diseases. world health organization, geneva, 2008. ( pdf ) * - disease control priorities in developing countries, second edition. jamison dt, breman jg, measham ar, et al, eds. oxford university press and the world bank, washington, d. c., 2006. - preventing chronic diseases : a vital investment. who global report, world health organization, geneva, 2005. - public policy and the challenge of chronic noncommunicable diseases. adeyi o, smith o, robles s. the world bank, washington, d. c., 2007. ( pdf ) * * pdf files require adobe acrobat. nabel eg, stevens s, smith r. combating chronic disease in developing countries \u2014 partners in progress. lancet, 2009. - daar as, singer pa, persad dl, pramming sk, matthews dr, beaglehole r, bernstein a, borysiewicz lk, colagiuri s, ganguly n, glass ri, finegood dt, koplan j, nabel eg, sarna g, sarrafzadegan n, smith r, yach d, bell j. grand challenges in chronic noncommunicable diseases. nature. nov 22 : 450 : 494 - 6, 2007. - abegunde d, mathers", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.515992524757994, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:56.867386"} {"text": "1. loopback test a loopback test can be used to troubleshoot serial communications. it can show problems in the serial port, the cable, or the software generating the messages without having to connect to third party hardware. by connecting the proper wires, a loopback test can verify the operation of serial communication. loopback tests can be used for rs - 232, rs - 422, and rs - 485 serial communication. for more information on rs - 232, rs - 422, and rs - 485 see the serial communication overview. note that not all serial devices, especially those with many connections on one card, allow hardware flow control on every serial output of the device. to perform a loopback test for rs - 232, the txd pin must be connected to the rxd pin. this allows the data to flow from the transmit to the receive pins. since the communication is differential for rs - 422 and rs - 485, the txd + connects to the rxd + and the txd - connects to the rxd - pins. a more advanced loopback test that allows hardware flow control will need more pins connected to allow the flow control signals to be properly passed. for rs - 232, the cts and rts pins must be connected along with the dtr and dsr pins. for rs - 422 and rs - 485, cts + should be connected to rts + and cts - should be connected to rts -. for more information about national instrument \u2019 s serial interfaces, visit ni. com / serial. de - 9 ( db9 ) connector the de - 9 connector is the most common serial connector. this connector is found on national instrument \u2019 s one and two port serial interfaces. figure 1 : pinout diagram for de - 9 connector to perform a loopback test with no hardware flow control, you will need to connect pins 2 and 3 for rs - 232 and pins 4 to 8 and 5 to 9 for rs - 422 / 485. these connections can be seen in red below ( figure 2 for rs - 232 and figure 3 for rs - 422 / 485 ). when using hardware flow control, you will need to connect pins 4 to 6 and 7 to 8 for rs - 232. pins 7 and 8 are used for rts / cts hardware flow control where pins 4 and 6 are used for dtr / dsr hardware flow control. for rs - 422 / 485, you will need to connect pins 2 to 3 and 6 to 7.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_entanglement", "similarity_score": 0.5081443713429313, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:56.873087"} {"text": "it is not recommended to use the 10p10c connector by itself to perform a loopback test due to the small separation between pins. using a 10p10c to de - 9 connector ( part number 192190 - 01 ), a looback test can be performed using the methods described above. 3. performing a loopback test in hyperterminal 1. create a new connection with any name and icon. 2. select the communications port you would like to test 3. select the type of flow control you would like to use. note that xon / xoff is software flow control and will only require that the txd and rxd pins to be connected. 4. type a message using the computer ' s keyboard. any data that shows in hyperterminal is received from the device. 4. performing a loopback test in measurement & automation explorer 1. open measurement & automation explorer and select the communications port you would like to use. 2. ensure the proper settings are selected for flow control. 3. save the settings by selecting the save button then select the open visa test panel button 4. on the write tab, type the message you would like to send ( followed by a \\ n ) then select execute 5. on the read tab, select execute and verify the message 5. performing a loopback test in labview note : for a free evaluation copy of labview, visit ni. com / trylabview 1. start labview 2. select help \u00bb find examples... 3. browse to hardware input and output \u00bb serial \u00bb basic serial write and read. vi 4. ensure the proper settings are selected, enter the string you would like to write in the \" string to write \" box, and then select the white run arrow on the toolbar.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_entanglement", "similarity_score": 0.5097075539236507, "token_count": 365, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:56.875016"} {"text": "view full version : preventitive health - food deficiencies jul 25, 2007, 12 : 10 am natural health ( http : / / www. guardiannewsngr. com / natural _ health / article08 ) how folic acid in flour slashes congenital problems dr. philippe de wals of universit laval ' s department of social and preventive medicine has published a study clearly indicating that the addition of folic acid to flours has led to a 46 per cent drop in the incidence of congenital neural tube deformation ( mainly anencephaly and spina bifida ) in canada. such deformations either result in the child ' s death or in major health problems, including physical and learning disabilities. de wals ' s work as head of a team of a dozen canadian researchers appears today in the new england journal of medicine. the neural tube is the basis of the embryo ' s nervous system. poor development of the neural tube, which is sometimes due to a lack of folic acid, can result in major health problems. folic acid is found in green vegetables, fruit, whole grains, and meat. however, even a balanced diet won ' t supply enough folic acid for a pregnant mother and the child she is carrying. before 1998, canadian medical authorities were already recommending that women in their child - bearing years consume vitamin supplements containing folic acid. \" canada decided to add folic acid to all flour produced in the country because formation of the neural tube in embryos is particularly intense during the first four weeks of pregnancy, which is before a lot of women even know they ' re pregnant. since half of canadian pregnancies are unplanned and the human body can ' t store folic acid, it is better to integrate folic acid into the food chain than to focus exclusively on taking vitamin supplements, \" stated de wals. health canada still recommends taking folic acid supplements to women in their child - bearing years. researchers de wals and fassiatou tairou of universit laval ' s faculty of medicine compared the incidence of neural tube deformations before and after the introduction of folic acid - - enriched flours for over two million births in canada. between 1993 and 1997, the incidence was 1. 58 per 1, 000 births. between 2000 and 2002, the rate dropped 46 per cent to 0. 86. the biggest improvement occurred in the parts of canada that had the highest rates of neural tube deformation before 1998 - newfoundland, prince edward island, and nova scotia", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5079688352263763, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:56.896120"} {"text": "- dealing armaments. within the last few months disarmament agreements have been reached which are without parallel in our part of the world, in this or indeed in previous centuries. in making this year ' s award of the peace prize, the nobel committee wishes to emphasise the tremendous potential which is now available for a more secure world, and for a more responsible and rational use of our resources. the way in which confrontation has been replaced by cooperation has also had its consequences in other parts of the world. several regional conflicts have been resolved, or at least come closer to a solution. the uncompromising attitude of the cold war has given way to a pattern of negotiation, in which the interests and responsibility of the regional communities themselves have replaced old ideological considerations, or the all - too - often ruthless laws of the balance of power. these changes have given the united nations a new lease of life : for the first time since its creation after the second world war this organisation has been able to play the role for which it was originally intended. it can now start to exercise its supremely important responsibility for the creation of an international community based on the rule of law and the establishment of peace between nations. the award this year of the peace prize to the president of the soviet union, mikhail gorbachev, is an historic event not least because some of the previous awards made by our committee - for example to the great champion of human rights andrei sakharov in 1975, and to the trade union leader lech walesa in 1983 - were received with cool hostility in the soviet union and in poland at the time, involving the rejection, in these countries, of all that the norwegian nobel committee stood for. on these grounds too the award constitutes a landmark. the norwegian nobel committee considers that there is thus a historical link between today ' s event and december 10th, 1975, and 1983, which augurs well for the future. the norwegian nobel committee is an independent organisation answerable neither to the government nor to the national assembly ( the storting ) of our country. the five members of the committee are only answerable to their own consciences, and their decisions are based on the personal political judgment and sound common sense of each one. the guidelines governing our work are nevertheless clearly set out : these are to be found in alfred nobel ' s testament, written nearly a hundred years ago. the award this year is very much in line with alfred nobel ' s own wishes and desires. nobel wanted the prize to be awarded to someone who had worked to promote", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5062170071715066, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:56.927137"} {"text": "to be found in alfred nobel ' s testament, written nearly a hundred years ago. the award this year is very much in line with alfred nobel ' s own wishes and desires. nobel wanted the prize to be awarded to someone who had worked to promote \" fraternity between nations \". that was the expression generally used in his day to denote the substitution of international cooperation for conflict. nobel also wished his prize to be given to someone who had actively promoted a reduction in \" standing armies \" and worked for the \" holding of peace congresses \", what we today would call disarmament and negotiation. seldom has our committee felt more in tune with alfred nobel ' s wishes than this year. it is with a special sense of satisfaction that we award the peace prize to president gorbachev. each one of us, maybe in our different ways, has experienced the tension and threat of war that have cast a dark shadow over all the post - war years. the new - found openness and willingness to cooperate shown by the soviet union, and its readiness to accept realistic compromise, have created fresh hope under his leadership. we fully realise that the soviet union is undergoing a dramatic period of transformation within its own borders : dictatorship is to be replaced by greater democracy, centralisation by the right of each republic for self - determination, a command economy by a freer market. this transformation is inevitably a painful process, involving great sacrifice. but we should like the many peoples of the soviet union to know that the respect and expectation of the outside world for their great country have never been as profound as today. there has been nothing comparable since the \" great patriotic war \", which this country and our western allies fought together against the barbarism of national socialism. at that time the road that led from world war to cold war proved disappointingly short. it is our hope that we are now celebrating the end of the cold war. mikhail sergeyevich gorbachev was born in 1931 in a small village just outside stavropol, north of the caucasus mountains, in a region that forms part of the russian republic, adjoining the ancient non - russian countries of georgia, armenia and azerbaijan, with their profound christian and muslim roots. our laureate is in fact a native of the southern soviet union. he comes of peasant stock, and was born 14 years after the great revolution which shook not only the russian empire but the entire world. he was born during the dramatic collectivisation of soviet agriculture, and grew up on a collective farm, where his father worked at a tractor station.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.52678009157027, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:56.928481"} {"text": "- dietary supplements - health conditions - healthy nutrition - cardiovascular health - skin care - natural remedies blood sugar as one of blurred vision causes \u2013 updated article with extra information diabetes is a disease with many side effects. many people refer to diabetes as the \u2018 slow poison \u2019. it causes a lot misbalance in life, affecting the whole body of the sufferer. diabetes occurs when the sugar level in the blood is too high and remains untreated for a very long time. when the sugar level is too low, hypoglycemia may result. this usually occurs when a person is suffering from diabetes and has taken too many diabetic medicines or has injected too much insulin. hypoglycemia is more dangerous than hyperglycemia. the treatment for someone with hypoglycemia is typically address in a temporary situation, by providing the patient with something that contains higher glucose ( ie : orange juice ). blurred vision in diabetes is caused by hyperglycemia which is higher levels of sugar in the body. some of the symptoms of high blood sugar are frequent urination, increased hunger and thirst, lethargy and headache. if a person is suffering from any of these symptoms he or she should immediately contact the doctor. diabetes is a major culprit for blurred vision or even vision loss. studies have shown that if you are diabetic, you have 25 times more chance than a non sufferer of losing your sight. this disorder is known as diabetic retinopathy. retinopathy has two types ; non - proliferative and proliferative. non - proliferative retinopathy is associated with the early stages of the disorder. it causes the small retinal blood vessels to break and leak. it does not call for any medical action unless the central vision of a diabetic person becomes hazy, or if straight lines appear curved. proliferative retinopathy is a severe disorder. it causes the unusual growth of retinal blood vessels inside the eye which leads to bleeding. if not detected and treated in the early stages this disorder can even cause blindness. blood sugar is a chronic disease and it affects each and every organ of the body which is why it is referred to as the \u2018 slow poison \u2019. if diabetes has not been diagnosed yet in a person, then blurred eye vision may come and go as the sugar level will increase and decrease, but once a person experiences this he or she should not take it lightly. they should immediately consult a doctor and get", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5017671094782923, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:56.945708"} {"text": "neha vapiwala, md updated by christine hill - kayser, md abramson cancer center of the university of pennsylvania last modified : march 22, 2012 sarcoma is a general medical term that refers to any cancer of the bone, muscle, or other connective tissue, such as cartilage and tendons. sarcoma has sometimes been defined as a \" tumor of fleshy consistence \", made up of cells similar to those of the growing fetus, but without proper development. sarcomas can occur in both children and adults, both males and females. in fact, there are many different types of sarcomas, depending on where the cancer cells grow and how they appear under a microscope. these different types are in turn associated with different clinical behavior, which naturally influences how they are treated. rhabdomyosarcoma is the most common type of soft tissue sarcoma found in children. it is still a rare cancer overall, accounting for about 3. 5 % of all childhood cancers. about 250 new cases of rhabdomyosarcoma are diagnosed in the united states every year. the name itself comes from a combination of 3 smaller words : rhabdo means \" rod - shaped \", myo is muscle, and sarcoma is the type of cancer, as described above. rhabdomysarcoma cells tend to look rod - shaped under a microscope, and they have several features of muscle cells. normally, as a fetus develops in the womb, cells called rhabdomyoblasts \" grow up \" to become the skeletal muscles of the body. when these cells do not mature correctly, but continue to multiply abnormally, a rhabdomyosarcoma results. rhabdomyosarcomas can occur essentially anywhere in the body, but usually occur in the head, neck, bladder, vagina, extremities and the trunk. over 85 % of all rhabdomyosarcomas occur in infants, children, and teenagers. there is no specific geographic location or racial background that has been associated with higher rates of rhabdomyosarcoma. however, asian and black children have a lower annual incidence than do white children. there also appears to be a male predominance, as boys are about 1. 5 times more likely than girls to get rhabdomyosarcoma. it is known that rhabdomyosarcomas are associated with specific chromosomal abnormalities. the exact cause of", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5168233468928907, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:56.960935"} {"text": "science center, sid and his friends explore how water travels in and out of our homes through pipes. and here ' s something sid and his friends never realized : there ' s lots of water in the world, but you can ' t drink it all! we can only use fresh water, and there aren ' t a lot of fresh water sources in the world. that ' s why it ' s important not to waste water! new \" clean air! \" ( \" why does sid ' s dad wear a mask when he paints? \" ) sid the roving reporter is investigating something strange in his backyard - - his dad is wearing a mask while painting. sid discovers that his dad is protecting his face so he doesn ' t breathe in the dirty fumes. at school, sid and his friends discover that people and animals on earth need to breathe clean air, and when we pollute the air around us, it affects the air that everyone breathes. the kids also discover that trees have a really important role in keeping our air clean! new \u201c reused robot \" ( \" where does trash go when we throw it away? \" ) sid ' s toy robot is broken, so he wants to throw it \" away. \" sid ' s mom tells him there is no such thing as \" away, \" and when we put something in the trash, we are actually creating waste. sid and his friends explore the idea that everything we throw away goes somewhere. this leads to an investigation of how to recycle and reuse items so that we make less trash. new \u201c save the stump \" ( \" can an old stump be a home for tiny creatures? \" ) sid is super excited because his dad is clearing out space in the yard for a basketball court! while sid and dad are surveying the land, sid notices a big stump teeming with little creatures! during a special field trip to the science center, sid and his friends discover that there are animal habitats all around us, even in old stumps, and if one habitat is destroyed, all of the other habitats and animals are affected. new \u201c wagstaff races \u201d / \u201c the missing metal mystery \u201d \u201c wagstaff races \u201d - wagstaff city ' s environmental club is having a \" go green go - cart race, \" fueled by alternative energy. using sun, wind, and pond scum, the gang gathers at the starting line. who will win the trophy \u2014 and most importantly, how? \u201c the missing metal mystery \u201d - who \u2019 s been stealing things from the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5084816485898824, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:57.065792"} {"text": "ray tracing and gaming - quake 4 : ray traced project quake 4 : ray traced an algorithm was invented for this work that uses rays for collision detection ( cd ). a polygon - exact cd is quite easy for direct weapons. only one ray is needed to determine the target. shooting this ray works through the exact same mechanisms and data structures as shooting a ray to get a color value in rendering. ( polygon exact collision detection using ray tracing ) for the player model a bounding sphere was approximated through many rays like in a radar system. ( bounding sphere approximated through rays ) an interesting special effect which i want to present here in more detail is water. as we expect it from nature water should reflect the surrounding environment and it should be possible to look through the water with some refractions going on. water in motion should not look flat ; there should be some visible height differences in the waves. i want to present you some examples of water in games that we have seen the last years. of course these ' optimizations ' had to be done to make the game render fast enough, so this should not be a critic of the game or company itself. it should just show how water looks today in some games, what it lacks and how it could look in ray tracing games. ( ' far cry ' ( 2004 ) : the reflection in the water shows only the mountains, not the trees. ) ( ' far cry ' : taking a close look at the reflections you see that the resolution is lower then the rest of the world. ) ( ' gothic 3 ' from 2006 : quite unspectacular water without any reflections ) the water in ' quake 4 : ray traced ' ( http : / / www. q4rt. de / ) uses an animation set of many normal maps to simulate the height differences from the waves. one ray is used for reflection on that normal maps, one ray is used to get the refraction through the water. the result is nice looking water. ( ' quake 4 : ray traced ' : the water reflects the environment and the player ) samples from q4rt in action can be seen in this video :", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5301653301933626, "token_count": 436, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:57.076676"} {"text": "gamma ray bursts are believed to be the most energetic phenomena in the universe. in one second they can emit more than 100 times the energy that the sun does throughout its entire 10 billion year life. this energy output is short lived, however, and within days the burst has faded forever beyond the reach of our telescopes. 3000 bursts having been detected through their gamma ray emission, only 30 have been seen with ground - based telescopes, and only one of these has been observed within an hour. in an ambitious project to detect the gamma ray bursts in the crucial first minute of their occurence, the school of physics has entered a collaboration with the university of michigan, los alamos national laboratories, and lawrence livermore national laboratory, to place a robotic telescope, rotse - iii, at siding spring observatory. triggered into action by a signal relayed through the internet from an earth - orbiting satellite. the specially designed mounting for rotse - iii allows it to point to any position in the sky and take an image within 5 - 10 seconds. the images are then automatically analysed for any new or rapidly varying sources, and this information is made available to other observatories throughout the world within minutes. the precise positions provided by rotse - iii are essential to allow the worlds largest telescopes to observe the gamma for the new telescope occurred in march 2001. the enclosure and weather station were installed in april 2001, with the telescope itself to be delivered in mid - 2002.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5837720467656276, "token_count": 295, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:57.091411"} {"text": "during this tutorial you will be asked to perform calculations involving trigonometric functiions. you will need a calulator to proceed. | the purpose of this tutorial is to review with you the elementary properties of the trigonometric functions. facility with this subject is essential to success in all branches of science, and you are strongly urged to review and practice the concepts presented here until they are mastered. let us consider the right - angle triangle shown in panel 1. the angle at c is a right angle and the angle a we will call \u03b8. the lengths of the sides of the triangle we will denote as p, q and r. from your elementary geometry, you know several things about this triangle. for example, you know the pythagorean relation, q\u00b2 = p\u00b2 + r\u00b2. that is, the square of the length of the side opposite the right angle, which we call the hypotenuse, is equal to the sum of the squares of the lengths of the other two sides. we know other things. for example, we know that if the lengths of the three sides of any triangle p, q and r are specified, then the whole triangle is determined, angles included. if you think about this for a moment, you will see it is correct. if i give you three sticks of fixed length and told you to lay them down in a triangle, there ' s only one triangle which you could make. what we would like to have is a way of relating the angles in the triangle, say \u03b8, to the lengths of the sides. it turns out that there ' s no simple analytic way to do this. even though the triangle is specified by the lengths of the three sides, there is not a simple formula that will allow you to calculate the angle \u03b8. we must specify it in some new way. | to do this, we define three ratios of the sides of the triangle. one ratio we call the sine of theta, written sin ( \u03b8 ), and it is defined as the ratio of the side opposite \u03b8 to the hypotenuse, that is r / q. the cosine of \u03b8, written cos ( \u03b8 ), is the side adjacent to \u03b8 over the hypotenuse, that is, p / q. this is really enough, but because it simplifies our mathematics later on, we define the tangent of \u03b8, written tan ( \u03b8 ), as the ratio of the opposite to the adjacent sides, that is r", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5377610871046692, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:57.100152"} {"text": "that is, p / q. this is really enough, but because it simplifies our mathematics later on, we define the tangent of \u03b8, written tan ( \u03b8 ), as the ratio of the opposite to the adjacent sides, that is r / p. this is not an independent definition since you can readily see that the tangent of \u03b8 is equal to the sine of \u03b8 divided by the cosine of \u03b8. verify for yourself that this is correct. all scientific calculators provide this information. the first thing to ensure is that your calculator is set to the anglular measure that you want. angles are usually measured in either degrees or radians ( see tutorial on dimensional analysis ). the angle 2\u00ba is a much different angle than 2 radians since 180\u00ba = \u03c0 radians = 3. 1416... radians. make sure that your calculator is set to degrees. now suppose that we want the sine of 24\u00ba. simply press 24 followed by the [ sin ] key and the display should show the value 0. 4067. therefore, the sine of 24\u00ba is 0. 4067. that is, in a triangle like panel 1 where \u03b8 = 24\u00ba, the ratio of the sides r to q is 0. 4067. next set your calculator to radians and find the sine of 0. 42 radians. to do this enter 0. 42 followed by the [ sin ] key. you should obtain a value of 0. 4078. this is nearly the same value as you obtained for the sine of 24\u00ba. using the relation above you should confirm that 24\u00ba is close to 0. 42 radians obviously, using your calculator to find values of sines is very simple. now find sine of 42\u00ba 24 minutes. the sine of 42\u00ba 24 minutes is 0. 6743. did you get this result? if not, remember that 24 minutes corresponds to 24 / 60 or 0. 4\u00ba. the total angle is then 42. 4\u00ba | the determination of cosines and tangents on your calculator is similar. it is now possible for us to solve the simple problem concerning triangles. for example, in panel 2, the length of the hypotenuse is 3 cm and the angle \u03b8 is 24\u00ba. what is the length of the opposite side r? the sine of 24\u00ba as we saw is 0. 4067 and", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5093064152850161, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:57.101152"} {"text": "q ) \u00b2, which [ ( p\u00b2 + r\u00b2 ) / ( q\u00b2 ) ]. the pythagorean theorem tells us that p\u00b2 + r\u00b2 = q\u00b2 so we have [ ( p\u00b2 + r\u00b2 ) / q\u00b2 ] = ( q\u00b2 / q\u00b2 ) = 1. therefore, we have ; our discussion so far has been limited to angles between 0 and 90\u00ba. one can, using the calculator, find the the sine of larger angles ( eg 140\u00ba ) or negative angles ( eg - 32\u00ba ) directly. sometimes, however, it is useful to find the corresponding angle betweeen 0 and 90\u00ba. panel 6 will help us here. | in this xy reference frame, the angle \u03b8 is clearly between 90\u00ba and 180 \u00ba, and clearly, the angle a, which is 180 - \u03b8 ( a is marked with a double arc ) can be dealt with. in this case, we say that the magnitude of sine, cosine, and tangent of \u03b8 are those of the supplement a and we only have to examine whether or not they are positive or negative. for example, what is the sine, cosine and tangent of 140\u00ba? the supplement is 180\u00ba - 140\u00ba = 40\u00ba. find the sine, the cosine and the tangent of 40\u00ba.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5190736098853446, "token_count": 280, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:57.102645"} {"text": "| may20 - 06, 05 : 24 pm | | # 1 | stuck on couple related rates problems.. 1. a ship with a long anchor chain is anchored in 11 fathoms of water. the anchor chain is being wound in at a rate of 10 fathoms / minute, causing the ship to move toward the spot directly above the anchor resting on the seabed. the hawsehole ( the point of contact between ship and chain ) is located 1 fathom above the water line. at what speed is the ship moving when there are exatly 13 fathoms of chain still out? for this problem i started with this drawing.. http : / / img. photobucket. com / albums / v4... n / untitled. jpg and then from there, i had no idea where to go... there hawsehole being 1 fathom above the water really gets to me, perhaps making the above drawing void. another thing i don ' t understand is that it says it ' s anchored in 11 fathoms of water.. how could the question be asking what speed the boat would be moving if it were at 13 fathoms? 2. a ladder 41 feet long was leaning against a vertical wall and begins to slip. its top slides down the wall whilte its bottom moves along the level ground at a constant speed of 4ft / sec. how fast is the top of the ladder moving when it is 9 feet above the ground? for this one.. i didn ' t even know what to do.. of course i drew a triangle, hypotenuse of 41 and the vertical side of 9 feet.. and then.......? mainly, i think problems such as these are really easy, but i have a really hard time picturing the problem or drawing it out. i don ' t know which numbers apply to dx / dt and dy / dt.. | may20 - 06, 05 : 48 pm | | # 2 | and tehy are asking what is the speed when there is 13 fathoms of * chain * still out, which is the length of the hypothenuse on your triangle. of course this length will be larger or equal to 12 fathoms ( it will be equal to 12 fathom when the boat will be right above the anchor ) if we call \" l \" the length of the hypothenuse, then what you want is", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5485554557365537, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:57.105770"} {"text": "epiphany can be defined as the sudden realization of the essence or meaning of something, as well as the understanding of the truth of certain situations or one \u2019 s life as a whole. in death in venice, gustav von auschenbach \u2019 s recognition of his love for and obsession with tadzio is a kind of epiphany that, while not exactly beneficial or positive marks a point in which the character experience complete clarity and begins to express honesty about his previously rejected desires. gustav von auschenbach, having led a life of dedication to his craft, prides himself on disciplined perfectionism and dignity. his life up to the point at which the novel takes place has been largely uneventful. many ominous occurrences help to illustrate gustav \u2019 s state of mind at the story \u2019 s opening. his exchange with a strange gondola rower who turns out to be a criminal, as well as his sighting of a disturbing old man dressed to look youthful are both v aguely perilous encounters which serve to establish gustav \u2019 s uneasiness. upon discovering tadzio, gustav slowly allows his principles and dignity to erode as his obsession expands. tadzio seems to tap into the lifelong desires that gustav has repressed in the interest of being fully committed to his work. the end result of this obsession, however, is the writer \u2019 s death. while not necessarily in the dark before this epiphany, von auschenbach was certainly very repressed. after feeling a vague need for a vacation, he travels to venice completely unaware of what waits for him. the obsession is something that, given his principles, is extremely hard to verbalize. however, when he finally declares, \u201c i love you, \u201d it is clear that he has accepted the truth about his feelings and desires. though neither overtly religious or spiritual, von auschenbach \u2019 s epiphany marks a change in his profound change in his state of mind and worldview and could therefore be seen as spiritual. this epiphany was solely brought on by the travel experience, before which von auschenbach had lived a stable and principled life. his deeply ingrained longings were awakened through his trip to venice and his sighting of tadzio. while von auschenbach \u2019 s venetian experience led him to a greater freedom and honesty, which is not to be ignored, his travels ultimately resulted in his mental torture and death. epiphany is not always positive, as indicated by death in venice. discovery, especially self - discovery", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5826077150939015, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:57.176531"} {"text": "experience led him to a greater freedom and honesty, which is not to be ignored, his travels ultimately resulted in his mental torture and death. epiphany is not always positive, as indicated by death in venice. discovery, especially self - discovery, can be quite painful and sometimes thoroughly detrimental. gustav von auschenbach, having lived a monotonous and increasingly stagnant life was unable to process the hard truths of his dangerous desires, considering them foreign, unpleasant, and sinful ; his inability to ever speak or reach out to tadzio being proof of this. while it was certainly a moment of complete honesty, von auschenbach \u2019 s revelation and declaration of his love led him to further introversion. the downward spiral that began with the first time he laid eyes on the young boy grew from a preoccupation to a complete obsession leaving him unable to focus on anything else and changing his worldview and philosophy to suit his festering desires. this epiphany of his uncontrollable lust led to his bizarre death but allowed him to gain a deeper knowledge of himself. in the biography of naguib mahfouz it is mentioned that the 1919 revolution in egypt greatly affected the author. while mahfouz wrote a novel more directly related to the revolution ( palace walk ) elements of revolution can be seen in the journey of ibn fattouma. ibn fattouma sets out on his journey to find gebel, a promise land of sorts. he makes his way through different societies along the way, and encounters many different lifestyles. he flees his home city because of the corruption that exists there, but as he travels through the different lands, he finds that problems exist in all societies. the idea of revolution can easily be seen in the first place fattouma settles, mashriq. the whole society is based on a free love, free thought foundation, a stark contrast to more rigid societies. even though this culture is open and free spirited, it is not without rules and regulations, and fattouma rebels against these guidelines by trying to raise his family in the ways of islam. the other lands reflect revolution through their insistence on upholding freedoms and security, and in the final land that he enters, the importance of self awareness. the majority of ibn fattouma \u2019 s resistance is passive, relating directly to the egyptian revolution, which was a non - violent effort to stop the british occupation of the country. the interesting aspect of the story lies in the final pages when ibn fattou", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5397639203052708, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:57.178378"} {"text": "a completely different angle was fascinating to me. we left the beach, but i took a part of it with me, using the feeling of looking at things in different ways to enhance the rest of my trip. i \u2019 ll never forget the feel of those wet rocks beneath my bare feet, and i \u2019 ll never forget how my trip to england forever changed the way i travel. while many of the novels we read had elements of epiphany, there were a few that stood out the most. i think that the epiphany in sputnik sweetheart is perhaps the most unique epiphany that we read about. when sumire realizes that in order to be happy with miu, she has to seek out a part of miu that no longer exists in their current reality. in many ways this relates directly to why most people travel in the first place. in many cases, travel is a tool for discovering another part of or way of life that is not evident in one \u2019 s everyday life. people travel to escape the banality of the day - to - day, and they go searching for something more. in comfort of strangers for example, colin and mary go to italy to search for a new strength that will help them improve their relationship. they too, embark into an alternate type of reality, a reality parallel to their own that is only accessible to them because they are traveling. the realization that sumire comes to is life altering, not only for sumire, but for miu and the narrator as well. by seeking out something completely different and leaving behind everything she knows, sumire leaves the people she cares about in the dark. they are greatly affected by her departure and go to great lengths trying to find her. the question is, was sumire \u2019 s epiphany a good thing or a bad thing? because we don \u2019 t follow sumire on her journey, we aren \u2019 t really aware if she found what she was looking for, but we do see the damage her disappearance does in the lives of miu and especially the narrator. in the comfort of strangers, colin and mary experienced a moment that seems to help them realize a goal of their trip. much of this class has been based around the idea of finding the authentic experience through travel. while in the bar with robert, colin and mary \u201c began to experience the pleasure, unique to tourists, of finding themselves in a place without tourists, of making a discovery, finding somewhere real \u2026 they in turn asked the serious, intent questions of tourists", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5271055418751196, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:57.189734"} {"text": "he is seen as a role model, and many teenagers and young adults have the desire to embody his lifestyle and to go on the road as he did. i think what is missing here is what he discovers at the end. how do his journeys change him, or inspire him to change ; what does he learn? i read the book before, and i remembered nothing about it. i think that says something. the novels we love the most we may forget, but when we start to read them again it comes back to us. on the road stayed a mystery all the way through. i didn \u2019 t learn anything from sal or his friends, except maybe what not to do. a concise chinese - english dictionary by xiaolu guo suggests a kind of epiphany very different from what an epiphany is traditionally thought to be. the oxford english dictionary defines epiphany as \u201c a manifestation or appearance of some divine or superhuman being, \u201d and this is typical : a religious experience. but xiaolu guo makes the idea of an epiphany a very ordinary, everyday experience, without removing the sacred from it. in the novel zhuang is living in a foreign country, learning about both the culture she is trying to become a part of and about love. the book is set up as both a dictionary and a journal. each entry is a new word : it contains the definition, provided by a dictionary, and her experiences of the word. each new word, and each new entry, is a kind of epiphany. she is not just learning words but she is learning what they mean, and how their meaning affects her life. in learning these new words and their meanings she is learning the difference between her culture at home in china and the western culture. one entry is entitled \u201c future tense, \u201d and in it she discusses love, as a chinese concept and as a western concept : \u2018 love, \u201d this english word : like other english words it has tense. \u2018 loved \u2019 or \u2018 will love \u2019 or \u2018 have loved. \u2019 all these specific tenses mean love is a time - limited thing. not infinite. it only exist in particular period of time. in chinese, love is ( ai ). it has no tense. no past and future. love in chinese means a being, a situation, a circumstance. love is existence, holding past and future. if our loved existed in chinese tense, then it will last for ever. it will be infinite. she explains that chinese does not have past", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5711217613881134, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 8, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:57.203446"} {"text": "love in chinese means a being, a situation, a circumstance. love is existence, holding past and future. if our loved existed in chinese tense, then it will last for ever. it will be infinite. she explains that chinese does not have past, present, or future tenses. everything is in one tense : this makes learning english very difficult because the chinese speaker must learn that things exist \u201c in a particulr period of time : \u201d she must learn this about love as well, but not in the abstract way in which she learns is school. she is not learning about love from a teacher in a classroom, but from a lover in the world. she must learn as she experiences. every new experience she has and every new word she learns is an epiphany. even though these epiphanies become commonplace, i think they are sacred experiences, if not in a religious sense. love is a sacred thing, and so is everything else that she learns about. everything she learns is taken for granted by those who already know it, but for her each word is something completely new, and her joy in learning words is expressed to other people. frank took my hand. \u201c thank you god \u2026 \u201d i tried to keep my eyes closed, but the urge to examine the table, the people, brian \u2013 who i had looked at many times before, but was somehow different \u2013 was overwhelming. the prayer droned on and i closed my eyes again and waited for something terrible to overtake me. the plane ride had been filled with admonitions about what i shouldn \u2019 t say and shouldn \u2019 t do and shouldn \u2019 t be. without saying anything at all, he had transmitted these fears through the stale, chilled air of the coach cabin. my hair felt too short against my neck. i couldn \u2019 t free my hands to adjust my sweater to hide my androgyny. i was stuck exposed with what i was sure was atheist, feminist whore written on my forehead. an itch began to creep up my arm. i breathed deeply and practiced acceptance. jesus looked down from above the mantle, chiding me for my feeble attempt at buddhist practice. \u201c \u2026 and thank you jesus for bringing brian and marisa safely from new york to be with us on this special day. amen. \u201d brian squeezed my hand. it was the first time he had acknowledged my presence since we \u2019 d arrived. the drive from milwaukee was the first indication that i would be spending the holiday alone with his family. his mother", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5649419653401807, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 9, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:57.205444"} {"text": "all these down on paper, i realize something vital is missing. it doesn \u2019 t crystallize \u2013 no crystals, just pebbles. \u201d in response, k recounts the story of the chinese gates built with the bones of soldiers who had died in war. \u201c when the gate was finished they \u2019 d bring several dogs over to it, slit their throats, and sprinkle their blood on the gate. \u201d the ritual was thought to revive the soldiers \u2019 souls and complete the gate. although murakami returns several more times to the baptismal blood bath, its meaning is never revealed. through his use of metaphor, murakami extends the practice of elevating the ineffable. the very thing that would make sumire ' s writing complete and perhaps, because of her sense of the inextricable link between her idea of self and her capacity to express, would sumire herself whole is \" some form of truth harboured beyond the word \" ( brook 1 ). ( 3 ) all of these themes come to a head with sumire \u2019 s last words, so to speak. sumire \u2019 s epiphany at the end of the document that k reads on her computer is simultaneously revelatory and dissatisfying for the reader. it on the one hand offers an acknowledgment of the coexistence of two worlds and hints at an explanation for sumire \u2019 s disappearance ( which would be an epiphany for the reader ) and on the other hand denies the reader closure by ending with an unanswered and perhaps unanswerable question. \u201c i \u2019 m in love with miu. with the miu on this side, needless to say. but i also love the miu on the other side just as much. the moment this thought struck me it was like i could hear \u2013 with an audible creak \u2013 myself splitting in two. as if miu \u2019 s own split became a rupture that had taken hold of me. one question remains, however. if this side, where miu is, is not the real world \u2013 if this side is actually the other side \u2013 what about me, the person who shares the same temporal and spatial plane with her? who in the world am i? \u201d there is an incapacity of language to answer the question of her own reality. the novel is ultimately just an ellipsis, a sort of meta - aposiopesis, \u201c pointing towards it without voicing it \u201d (", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.560013115025064, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 12, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:57.210480"} {"text": "let ' s talk about : cosmic collisions share with others : it has been almost 100 years since edwin hubble measured the universe beyond the milky way galaxy. today, astronomers believe that as many as 100 billion other galaxies are sharing the cosmos. most of these cosmic islands are classified by shape as either spiral or elliptical, but stargazing scientists have discovered galaxies that don ' t quite fit these molds. common to this \" irregular \" category are galaxies that interact with other galaxies. these gravitational interactions are often referred to as mergers, and their existence invites the question : is the milky way collision - prone? to evaluate the probability, look to the andromeda galaxy. located more than 2. 5 million light - years away, andromeda appears as a small fuzzy patch in the sky. however, there is nothing miniature about it. similar to the shape ( spiral ), size and mass of the milky way, andromeda is home to a trillion other stars. astronomers have known for decades that our galactic neighbor is rapidly closing in on us - - at approximately 250, 000 miles per hour. they know this because of blueshift, a measured decrease in electromagnetic wavelength caused by the motion of a light - emitting source, in this case andromeda, as it moves closer to the observer. recently, data collected from the hubble space telescope has allowed astronomers to predict a merger with certainty, in 4 billion years. our sun will still be shining, and earth will most likely survive the impact. reason being, galaxies, although single units of stars gravitationally tied together, are mostly gigantic voids. one can compare a galaxy - on - galaxy collision to the pouring of one glass of water into another. the end result is a larger collection of water, or in the case of a cosmic collision, a larger galaxy. future earth inhabitants, billions of years from now, could look up and observe only small portions of such an event because it will take 2 billion years for these cosmic islands to become one. first published november 29, 2012 12 : 00 am", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5331574080865741, "token_count": 416, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:57.221127"} {"text": "modeling is the process of taking a shape and molding it into a completed 3d mesh. the most typical means of creating a 3d model is to take a simple object, called a primitive, and extend or \u201c grow \u201d it into a shape that can be refined and detailed. primitives can be anything from a single point ( called a vertex ), a two - dimensional line ( an edge ), a curve ( a spline ), to three dimensional objects ( faces or polygons ). using the specific features of your chosen 3d software, each one of these primitives can be manipulated to produce an object. when you create a model in 3d, you \u2019 ll usually learn one method to create your model, and go back to it time and again when you need to create new models. there are three basic methods you can use to create a 3d model, and 3d artists should understand how to create a model using each technique. 1. spline or patch modeling : a spline is a curve in 3d space defined by at least two control points. the most common splines used in 3d art are bezier curves and nurbs ( the software maya has a strong nurbs modeling foundation. ) using splines to create a model is perhaps the oldest, most traditional form of 3d modeling available. a cage of splines is created to form a \u201c skeleton \u201d of the object you want to create. the software can then create a patch of polygons to extend between two splines, forming a 3d skin around the shape. spline modeling is not used very often these days for character creation, due to how long it takes to create good models. the models that are produced usually aren \u2019 t useful for animation without a lot of modification. spline modeling is used primarily for the creation of hard objects, like cars, buildings, and furniture. splines are extremely useful when creating these objects, which may be a combination of angular and curved shapes. when creating a 3d scene that requires curved shapes, spline modeling should be your first choice. 2. box modeling : box modeling is possibly the most popular technique, and bears a lot of resemblance to traditional sculpting. in box modeling, one starts with a primitive ( usually a cube ) and begins adding detail by \u201c slicing \u201d the cube into pieces and extending faces of the cube to gradually create the form you \u2019 re after. people use box modeling to create the basic shape of the model. once practiced, the technique is very quick to get acceptable results. the downside is", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5824338367544029, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:57.228271"} {"text": "the cube into pieces and extending faces of the cube to gradually create the form you \u2019 re after. people use box modeling to create the basic shape of the model. once practiced, the technique is very quick to get acceptable results. the downside is that the technique requires a lot of tweaking of the model along the way. also, it is difficult to create a model that has a surface topology that lends well to animation. box modeling is useful as a way to create organic models, like characters. box modelers can also create hard objects like buildings, however precise curved shapes may be more difficult to create using this technique. 3. poly modeling / edge extrusion : while it \u2019 s not the easiest to get started with, poly modeling is perhaps the most effective and precise technique. in poly modeling, one creates a 3d mesh point - by - point, face - by - face. often one will start out with a single quad ( a 3d object consisting of 4 points ) and extrude an edge of the quad, creating a second quad attached to the first. the 3d model is created gradually in this way. while poly modeling is not as fast as box modeling, it requires less tweaking of the mesh to get it \u201c just right, \u201d and you can plan out the topology for animation ahead of time. poly modelers use the technique to create either organic or hard objects, though poly modeling is best suited for organic models. a workflow that works the workflow you choose to create a model will largely depend on how comfortable you are with a given technique, what object you \u2019 re creating, and what your goals are for the final product. someone who is creating an architectural scene, for example, may create basic models with cubes and other simple shapes to create an outline of the finished project. meshes can then be refined or replaced with more detailed objects as you progress through the project. this is an organized, well - planned way to create a scene ; it is a strategy used by professionals that makes scene creation straightforward. beginners, on the other hand, tend to dive in headfirst and work on the most detailed objects first. this is a daunting way to work, and can quickly lead to frustration and overwhelm. remember, sketch first, then refine. likewise, when creating an organic model, beginners tend to start with the most detailed areas first, and flesh out the remaining parts later, a haphazard way to create a character. this may be one reason", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5389683419554041, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:57.229473"} {"text": "is there such a thing as too much money? by fred e. foldvary, senior editorwhat is inflation? there are two economic meanings of inflation. the first meaning is monetary inflation, having to do with the money supply. to understand that, we need to understand that the impact of money on the economy depends not just on the amount of money but also on its rate of turnover. we all know that money circulates. how fast it circulates is called its velocity. for example, suppose you get paid $ 4000 every four weeks. you are circulating $ 4000 13 times per year. then suppose you instead get paid $ 1000 each week. your total spending is the same, but now you are circulating $ 1000 52 times per year. the velocity of the money is 52, but the money you hold has been reduced to one fourth its previous amount, although the money held times the velocity is the same. the effect on the economy is the money supply times the velocity. monetary inflation is an increase in the money supply, times the velocity, which is greater than the increase in the amount of transactions measured in constant dollars. simply put, if velocity does not change, monetary inflation is an increase in money that is greater than the increase in goods. price inflation is an on - going increase in the price level. the level of prices is measured by a price index, such as the consumer price index ( cpi ). usually, price inflation is caused by monetary inflation. so let \u2019 s take a look at recent monetary inflation. the broadest measure of money is mzm, which stands for money zero maturity, funds which can be readily spent. the federal reserve bank of st. louis keeps track of various measurements of money. its data show that on an annual basis, mzm increased by 13 percent in january 2008, 36 percent in february, and 23 percent in march. these are huge increases, since gross domestic product, the total production of goods, increased at an annual rate of only. 6 percent during these months. in 2006, mzm grew at an annual rate of only 4 percent. high monetary inflation results in high price inflation. indeed, in may 2008 the consumer price index rose by 4. 2 percent from the level of may 2007. for the month, the increase for may was. 6 percent, an annual rate of 7. 2 percent. the \u201c consumer price index for all urban consumers \u201d ( cpi - u ) increased 0. 8 percent in may, before seasonal adjustment, for an annualized", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.556108325459396, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:57.239176"} {"text": "the most romantic way i have ever heard chaos theory described is, \u201c there are patterns, and even great beauty, in seemingly chaotic events. \u201d formally, chaos theory is defined as a sub - discipline of mathematics that studies complex, or dynamic, systems. these complex systems contain so many moving parts that it takes computers to calculate and model all of the movements of the system. in fact, it has been said that the emergence of this theory could not have happened without the invention and proliferation of the computer. up until what is called the quantum mechanical revolution, \u201c people believed that things were directly caused by other things. \u201d in latin it is referred to as post hoc ergo propter hoc, or after, therefore, because of it. in essence, if one thing follows another, it must have been caused by it. it is the basis of freudian psychoanalysis, \u201c a belief that malfunctions in the mind are the results of traumas suffered in the past \u201d and that regression therapy \u2014 pinpointing when and how these traumas occurred \u2014 would allow us to heal. it is called linear cause and effect. chaos theory, however, tells us that it is less about linear effect and more the existence and production of patterns caused by many different forces, the most important of which are initial conditions, popularly referred to as the butterfly effect. the butterfly effect posits that the flapping of a butterfly \u2019 s wings in south america could affect the weather in texas, meaning that the smallest, seemingly inconsequential part of a system can have a huge effect on all the other parts. simply said, \u201c unless all factors can be accounted for, large systems would be impossible to predict with total accuracy because there are too many unknown variables to track. \u201d the study of chaos theory has helped us understand simple, or everyday, phenomena such as water boiling on a stove and complex events such as how birds migrate, how vegetation spreads and the structure of stars in the night sky, but its origins stem from the study of weather systems. it all started in 1960 when edward lorentz created a weather - model on his computer at the massachusetts institute of technology. lorentz \u2019 s weather model consisted of an extensive array of complex formulas that successfully modeled, and later helped predict, the weather and turned a large, unpredictable system into one of those everyday phenomena, the daily weather forecast. this month \u2019 s quality continues in the tradition of mr. lorentz with michelle bangert \u2019 s analysis of our annual spending study, \u201c quality spending stays strong", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.6092306855306087, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:57.251304"} {"text": "network with us join us on facebook to get the latest news and updates. lauren boulden ' s story using think - alouds to get inside langston hughes ' head over my past few years of teaching, there have been multiple occasions where i have been stumped on how to present a particular concept to my students. i ' ve always been able to turn to readwritethink. org for hands - on, engaging lessons. for example, i knew i wanted my students to develop their skills when it came to interacting with text, particularly with poetry. while searching through the myriad options on readwritethink, i came upon \" building reading comprehension through think - alouds. \" at first, i planned to use the lesson exactly as written : read langston hughes ' s poem \" dream variation \" and model a think - aloud with students ; then have the students try their hand at some think - alouds using other poetry. after working out all of the details, i realized i could develop some additional skills, which would fit perfectly into the scope and sequence of my class. after completing the think - aloud to \" dream variation, \" i broke students into selected groups. each group was given a different langston hughes poem and asked to complete a think - aloud. the next day, the students were put into a new jigsaw group where they were solely responsible for sharing what their langston hughes poem conveyed. based on the meanings behind their group mates ' poems, along with using the knowledge of both their poem and \" dream variation, \" students were asked to figure out who langston hughes was as a man. what did he stand for? what were his beliefs? what did he want out of life? students used clues from the various poems to fill in a head - shaped graphic organizer to depict their understanding of who hughes could be. this simple lesson of working with poems and think - alouds turned into a few days of group communication, text deciphering, inferences, and even an author study! without great lessons available on readwritethink. org, such as \" building reading comprehension through think - alouds, \" my students would never have been able to tackle so many key reading strategies in such a short amount of time. grades 6 \u2013 8 | lesson plan | standard lesson students learn components of think - alouds and type - of - text interactions through teacher modeling. in the process, students develop the ability to use think - alouds to aid in reading comprehension tasks. lauren describes how she used readwrite", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5531795684550478, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:57.272196"} {"text": "the book of job, especially chapter 39, implies that god created the nephesh creatures ( \u201c soulish \u201d animals like birds and mammals ) to serve and / or to please human beings. they are termed soulish because god has endowed each of them with a mind, a will, and the capacity to express and experience emotions. these animals are equipped and motivated to emotionally bond with and to nurture, serve, and please other members of their species and human beings. moreover, these nephesh species were evidently endowed with this capacity before any human even existed, a characteristic that appears problematic for evolutionary or naturalistic scenarios. recently, a british team of research psychologists has published a paper announcing the discovery of a new bonding feature between humans and nephesh creatures. their study demonstrates for the first time that human yawns are contagious to domestic dogs. for their experiment they tested twenty - nine dogs from twenty - four different breeds spanning ages two to fifteen. 1 twenty - one of the dogs yawned when they observed a human do so. some dog breeds were better at catching human yawns than others. for example, the labrador breeds, known to form especially strong bonds with humans, seemed especially adept. such behavior indicates that dogs possess the capacity for empathy towards humans. however, the yawning response may reveal more. in human - human interactions contagious yawning is known to modulate levels of arousal. thus, in the words of the researchers, \u201c yawn contagion [ between humans and dogs ] may help coordinate dog - human interaction and communication. \u201d the study provides yet one more piece of scientific evidence that birds and mammals really were pre - designed before humans even existed to form emotional relationships with human beings in such a manner that they could enhance humanity \u2019 s well being. these animals serve and please us. more amazing still, each soulish species appears designed to serve and / or please us in a manner distinct from all others. - m. ramiro et al., \u201c dogs catch human yawns, \u201d biology letters 4 ( october 23, 2008 ) : 446 - 8.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_entanglement", "similarity_score": 0.5281917039354387, "token_count": 430, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:57.286267"} {"text": "billed as tools that can revolutionise the continent ' s response to emergencies. but it is not just fews net that is struggling to live up to expectations. last month, nigeria ' s emergency management agency accused state governments of ignoring early warnings of floods that killed more than an estimated 140 people and left tens of thousands homeless. in nigeria, the problem was a failure of state governments to act upon warnings by clearing drains and evacuating people living in flood plains. the weakest link similar barriers held back the famine warning in the horn of africa. \" there is a weak link between early warning and response, \" says gideon galu, a scientist with fews net based in nairobi, kenya. although fews net works with decision - makers in the national government to highlight its findings, the link - up to local authorities and rural communities relies on national government structures, he says. kenya, for example, has a food security steering group that passes scientific information on to decision - makers. nongovernmental organisations and other partners can attend meetings and get a consensus on the scale and magnitude of a problem. but the final link in the flow of information is problematic in kenya, and in ethiopia ; and it ' s particularly weak in countries like somalia where governance is fragile. there are scant resources and information dissemination networks to make sure that messages reach the local level. these failures illustrate a key obstacle that many african countries must overcome. the impact of science - based early warning systems hinges on governments ' capability ( and perhaps willingness ) to turn warnings into readiness on the ground. avoiding warning fatigue in time, the early warning community will learn from its mistakes as it establishes strong networks that reach down to the community level \u2014 an activity that fews net is working on. the organisation is also working to address the underlying vulnerability to food crises via the us feed the future programme, a us $ 3. 5 billion investment in strengthening agriculture in ethiopia, kenya and other countries. better links to local government and rural communities will also improve fews net ' s capability to collect data on variables such as rainfall and temperature, making prediction more of a two - way street, adds gulu. \" they are now able to provide us with additional data about what is happening in the field, \" he says. but there is a downside : the explosion in early warning systems means that individual warnings could grow into a cacophony of calls to emergency action that compete for policymakers ' attention and scarce resources. such ' warning fatigue ' would make it harder to discern credible", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5020957637771442, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:57.409748"} {"text": "downside : the explosion in early warning systems means that individual warnings could grow into a cacophony of calls to emergency action that compete for policymakers ' attention and scarce resources. such ' warning fatigue ' would make it harder to discern credible alerts and act on them. in that future, a warning system well - connected to decision - makers with functioning lines of communication with local officials is likely to be more effective than one where all the money has gone to improving the science while neglecting the capacity to put the evidence to good use. journalist linda nordling, based in cape town, south africa, specialises in african science policy, education and development. she was the founding editor of research africa and writes for scidev. net, nature and others. funk, c. we thought trouble was coming, nature, 476, 7 ( 2011 ) susan fm lwec ( living with environmental change | united kingdom ) 5 october 2011 this in some ways is a chilling article. however, i had a good insight into early warning fatigue at a humanitarian vision / nerc workshop to bring climate scientists into better dialogue with ngos. we role played how we ' d manage early warning of flood and it gave fascinating first hand insights into risk perception and how it varied in the room. strikes me that this is very relevant in this context all scidev. net material is free to reproduce providing that the source and author are appropriately credited. for further details see creative commons.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5070169615913587, "token_count": 295, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:57.411505"} {"text": "la jolla, calif., july 18, 2012 \u2013 in their quest to treat cardiovascular disease, researchers and pharmaceutical companies have long been interested in developing new medicines that activate a heart protein called apj. but researchers at sanford - burnham medical research institute ( sanford - burnham ) and the stanford university school of medicine have now uncovered a second, previously unknown, function for apj \u2014 it senses mechanical changes when the heart is in danger and sets the body on a course toward heart failure. this means that activating apj could actually be harmful in some cases \u2014 potentially eye - opening information for some heart drug makers. the study appears july 18 in nature. \" just finding a molecule that activates apj is not enough. what ' s important to heart failure is not if this receptor is ' on ' or ' off, ' but the way it ' s activated, \" said pilar ruiz - lozano, ph. d., who led the study. ruiz - lozano, formerly assistant professor at sanford - burnham, is now associate professor of pediatrics in the stanford university school of medicine and adjunct faculty member at sanford - burnham. stretching the heart apj is a receptor that sits on the cell surface in many organs, where it senses the external environment. when a hormone called apelin comes along and binds apj, it sets off a molecular chain reaction that influences a number of cellular functions. many previous studies have shown that apelin - apj activity directs beneficial processes such as embryonic heart development, maintenance of normal blood pressure, and new blood vessel formation. according to ruiz - lozano ' s latest study, however, apj can also be activated a second, more harmful, way that doesn ' t involve apelin. in this pathway, apj senses and responds to mechanical changes in the heart. to better understand these mechanical changes, let ' s look at a person with high blood pressure. in this case, the person ' s heart has to work harder to pump the same amount of blood at the same rate as a healthy person. to meet the increased demand, individual heart muscle cells start making more proteins, making the cells bigger. eventually, cell membranes stretch and each cell begins to pull away from its neighbor. this leads to an enlarged heart \u2014 a condition known as hypertrophy. in pathological ( disease ) conditions, hypertrophy can lead to heart failure. apj and heart failure the best way to determine the role a protein plays in a particular cellular process is to see what happens when it ' s", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5387538570663543, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:57.419150"} {"text": "mar. 20, 2007 an overexpressed protein protects human pancreatic cancer cells from being forced to devour themselves, removing one of the body ' s natural defenses against out - of - control cell growth, researchers at the university of texas m. d. anderson cancer center report in the march issue of molecular cancer research. the protein tissue transglutaminase, known by the abbreviation tg2, previously has been found by researchers at m. d. anderson and elsewhere to be overexpressed in a variety of drug - resistant cancer cells and in cancer that has spread from its original organ ( metastasized ). \" in general, you rarely see overexpression of tg2 in a normal cell, \" says kapil mehta, ph. d., professor in the m. d. anderson department of experimental therapeutics, who began 10 years ago studying tg2 as an inflammatory protein. mehta and colleagues in the past year have connected tg2 overexpression to drug - resistant and metastatic breast cancer, pancreatic cancer and melanoma. expression of tg2 is tightly regulated in a healthy cell, mehta says, and is temporarily increased in response to certain hormones or stress factors. \" however, constitutive expression of this protein in a cancer cell helps confer protection from stress - induced cell death, \" mehta says. \" we are developing tg2 as a pharmaceutical target and are now working with a mouse model to that end. \" the mechanisms by which tg2 might promote drug - resistance and metastasis have remained elusive, the researchers note. in this paper, the m. d. anderson team shows in lab experiments that inhibiting the protein in pancreatic cancer cells leads to a form of programmed cell suicide called autophagy, or self - digestion. tg2 was inhibited in two separate ways. first, the researchers blocked another protein known to activate tg2. secondly, they also directly targeted tg2 with a tiny molecule known as small interfering rna tailored to shut down expression of the protein. in both cases, the result was a drastic reduction of tg2 expression ( up to 94 percent ) and telltale signs of autophagy in the cancer cells, which became riddled with cavities called vacuoles. when autophagy occurs, a double membrane forms around a cell organ, or organelle. this autophagosome then merges with a digestive organelle called", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5045167631152914, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:57.424708"} {"text": "cancer cells, which became riddled with cavities called vacuoles. when autophagy occurs, a double membrane forms around a cell organ, or organelle. this autophagosome then merges with a digestive organelle called a lysosome and everything inside is consumed, leaving the vacuole and a residue of digested material. if enough of this happens, the cell dies. gabriel lopez - berestein, m. d., professor of experimental therapeutics and study co - author, notes that the research also shows that the self - consuming cell death prevented by tg2 is independent of a prominent molecular pathway also known to regulate autophagy called the mammalian target of rapamycin. \" targeting tg2, or its activating protein pkc, or both, presents a novel and potentially effective approach to treating patients with pancreatic cancer, \" lopez - berestein said. research in the mouse model remains in the early stages, the researchers caution. the researchers also show that the tg2 pathway also is separate from another, better known, form of programmed cell death called apoptosis. apoptosis, like autophagy, is a normal biological defense mechanism that systematically destroys defective cells by forcing them to kill themselves. in apoptosis, the cells die via damage to their nucleus and dna, with other cellular organelles preserved. autophagy kills by degrading those other organelles while sparing the nucleus. mehta ' s lab reported in a cancer research paper last september that tg2 overexpression also activates a protein called nuclear factor - kb known to play a role in regulating cell growth, metastasis and apoptosis. this pathway, mehta explained, could make tg2 an attractive target for other forms of cancer as well. co - authors with mehta and lopez - berestein are : co - first authors ugur akar, ph. d., and bulent ozpolat, m. d., ph. d., and jansina fok, all of the department of experimental therapeutics, and yasuko kondo, m. d., ph. d, of the m. d. anderson department of neurosurgery. funding for this research was provided by the national cancer institute of the national institutes of health. other social bookmarking and sharing tools : note : materials may be edited for content and length. for further information, please contact the source", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5222470808430214, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:57.425928"} {"text": "mar. 4, 2013 behind locked doors, in a lab built like a bomb shelter, perry gerakines makes something ordinary yet truly alien : ice. this isn ' t the ice of snowflakes or ice cubes. no, this ice needs such intense cold and low pressure to form that the right conditions rarely, if ever, occur naturally on earth. and when gerakines makes the ice, he must keep the layer so microscopically thin it is dwarfed by a grain of pollen. these ultrathin layers turn out to be perfect for recreating some of the key chemistry that takes place in space. in these tiny test tubes, gerakines and his colleagues in the cosmic ice lab at nasa ' s goddard space flight center in greenbelt, md., can reproduce reactions in ice from almost any time and place in the history of the solar system, including some that might help explain the origin of life. \" this is not the chemistry people remember from high school, \" says reggie hudson, who heads the cosmic ice lab. \" this is chemistry in the extreme : bitter cold, harsh radiation and nearly non - existent pressure. and it ' s usually taking place in gases or solids, because generally speaking, there aren ' t liquids in interstellar space. \" the cosmic ice lab is one of a few laboratories worldwide where researchers have been studying the ultracool chemistry of cosmic ice. with its powerful particle accelerator, the goddard lab has the special ability to mimic almost any kind of solar or cosmic radiation to drive these reactions. and that lets them dig deep to study the chemistry of ice below the surface of planets and moons as well as ice in space. recipe for disorder in a vacuum chamber about the size of a lunchbox, gerakines recreates a little patch of deep space, in all its extremes. he pumps out air until the pressure inside drops to a level a billion times lower than normal for earth, then chills the chamber to minus 433 degrees fahrenheit ( 15 kelvins ). to get ice, all that remains is to open a valve and let in water vapor. the instant the sprightly vapor molecules enter the chamber they are literally frozen in their tracks. still pointing every which way, the molecules are transformed immediately from their gaseous state into the disorderly solid called amorphous ice. amorphous ice is exactly the opposite of the typical ice on earth, which forms perfect crystals like those that make up snowflakes or frost needles. these crystals are so orderly", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.564935431738845, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:57.436765"} {"text": "gaseous state into the disorderly solid called amorphous ice. amorphous ice is exactly the opposite of the typical ice on earth, which forms perfect crystals like those that make up snowflakes or frost needles. these crystals are so orderly and predictable that this ice is considered a mineral, complete with a rating of 2. 5 on the mohs scale of hardness - - the same rating as a fingernail. though almost unheard of on earth, amorphous ice is so widespread in interstellar space that it could be the most common form of water in the universe. left over from the age when the solar system was born, it is scattered across vast distances, often as particles no bigger than grains of dust. it ' s also been spotted in comets and icy moons. the secret to making amorphous ice in the lab, gerakines finds, is to limit the layer to a depth of about half a micrometer - - thinner than a strand of spider ' s silk. \" water is such a good insulator that if the ice gets too thick, only the bottom of the sample, closer to the cooling source, will stay sufficiently cold, \" says gerakines. \" the ice on top will get warm enough to crystallize. \" the superthin ice can be spiked with all kinds of interesting chemicals found in space. one set of chemicals that gerakines works with is amino acids, which are key players in the chemistry of life on earth. researchers have spent decades identifying a whole smorgasbord of amino acids in meteorites ( including some involved in life ), as well as one found in a sample taken from a comet. \" and because water is the dominant form of frozen material in the interstellar medium and outer solar system, \" says gerakines, \" any amino acids out there are probably in contact with water at some point. \" for his current set of experiments, gerakines makes three kinds of ice, each spiked with an amorphous form of an amino acid ( either glycine, alanine or phenylalanine ) that is found in proteins. the real action begins when gerakines hits the ice with radiation. earlier studies by other researchers have looked at ice chemistry using ultraviolet light. gerakines opts instead to look at cosmic radiation, which can reach ice hidden below the surface of a planet or moon. to mimic this radiation, he uses a proton beam from the high - voltage particle accelerator, which resides in an underground room lined", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5498219881789554, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:57.438195"} {"text": "our bodies create a tremendous amount of internal heat. we normally cool ourselves by sweating and radiating heat through our skin. under certain circumstances, such as unusually high temperatures, high humidity, or vigorous exercise in hot weather, this natural cooling system may begin to fail, allowing internal heat to build up to dangerous levels. the result may be heat illness, which can come in the form of heat cramps, heat exhaustion, or heatstroke. heat cramps are brief, severe cramps in the muscles of the legs, arms, or abdomen that may occur during or after vigorous exercise in extreme heat. the sweating that occurs with vigorous exercise causes the body to lose salts and fluids. and the low level of salts causes the muscles to cramp. children are particularly susceptible to heat cramps when they haven ' t been drinking enough fluids. although painful, heat cramps aren ' t what to do : most heat cramps don ' t require special treatment. a cool place, rest, and fluids should ease your child ' s discomfort. massaging cramped muscles may also help. heat exhaustion is a more severe heat illness that can occur when a person in a hot climate or environment hasn ' t been drinking enough fluids. symptoms may include : - clammy skin - nausea and / or - hyperventilation ( rapid breathing ) what to do : - bring your child indoors or into the shade. - loosen or remove your child ' s clothing. - encourage your child to eat and drink. - give your child a bath in cool ( not cold ) water. - call your child ' s doctor for further advice. if your child is too exhausted or ill to eat or drink, intravenous fluids may be necessary. if left untreated, heat exhaustion may escalate into heatstroke, which can be fatal. the most severe form of heat illness, heatstroke is a life - threatening medical emergency. the body loses its ability to regulate its own temperature. body temperature can soar to 106 degrees fahrenheit ( 41. 1 degrees celsius ) or even higher, leading to brain damage or even death if it isn ' t quickly treated. prompt medical treatment is required to bring the body temperature under control. factors that increase the risk for heatstroke include overdressing and extreme physical exertion in hot weather with inadequate fluid intake. heatstroke can also happen when a child is left in, or becomes accidentally trapped in, a car on a hot day. when the outside temperature is 93 degrees fahrenh", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5369677312960529, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:57.471485"} {"text": "traditionally has been a common explanation for diseases of which the causes were unknown. although traditional indigenous religions generally include or accommodate belief in the efficacy of witchcraft, they generally approve of harmful witchcraft only for defensive or retaliatory purposes and purport to offer protection against it. in the past several years, interest in healing through traditional religion and through prayer reportedly has increased as hiv / aids has infected an estimated one - third of the adult population, and affordable science - based medicines effective in treating hiv / aids have remained unavailable. the witchcraft suppression act ( wsa ) criminalizes purporting to practice witchcraft, accusing persons of practicing witchcraft, hunting witches, and soliciting persons to name witches ; penalties include imprisonment for up to 7 years. the law defines witchcraft as \" the use of charms and any other means or devices adopted in the practice of sorcery, \" and provides punishments for intending to cause disease or injury to any person or animal through the use of witchcraft. since 1997 zinatha has proposed amendments to the law that would redefine witchcraft only as the practice of sorcery with the intent to cause harm, including illness, injury, or death ; however, mainstream christian churches reportedly have opposed such legislation. human rights groups also generally supported the existing wsa ; the act has been used since independence primarily to protect persons, primarily women, who have been accused falsely of causing harm to persons or crops in rural areas where traditional religious practices are strong. in march 2002, the traditional medical practitioners council, formed from members of zinatha to oversee traditional healers, called for amendments to the wsa that would authenticate the existence of witches and wizards and remove penalties for accusing persons of practicing witchcraft. there is some tension between the government and some indigenous african churches because of the latter ' s preference for prayer over science - based medical practices that result in the reduction of avoidable childhood diseases and deaths in those communities. some members of the indigenous churches and groups believe in healing through prayer only and refuse to have their children vaccinated. the ministry of health has had limited success in vaccinating children against communicable childhood diseases in these religious communities. human rights activists also have criticized these indigenous churches for their sanctioning of marriages of underage girls. president mugabe has expressed skepticism about the increasing membership in evangelical and indigenous churches and has indicated that he believes that they could be subversive. according to press reports, he has refused to meet with bishops from indigenous churches since 1997. the government maintains a monopoly", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5341792316977925, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:57.653196"} {"text": ", two catholic nuns, and a catholic brother in zaka after they met with u. s. officials. the perpetrators said the fact that the religious figures had met with u. s. diplomats suggested they were opposition supporters. although local ruling party officials later apologized to the victims, the perpetrators were not charged with any crime. several prominent evangelical, roman catholic and protestant bishops, however, did collaborate in an attempt to bring the ruling and opposition parties back to the negotiating table to re - start dialog aimed at resolving the country ' s political crisis during the period covered by this report. another area of ecumenical collaboration has been translation of the bible into the majority language, shona. several priests and ministers have worked on this project since 1987. fambidzano, which means \" walking together, \" is a relatively new grouping of indigenous churches. a south african dutch reformed church theologian and social anthropologist, inus daneel, who has researched these churches in south africa and zimbabwe, founded the organization in the mid - 1970 ' s. fambidzano was created to give the leaders of these churches more theological and biblical education, according to daneel. there is little dialog between fambidzano and the catholic church ; however, the two organizations are discussing the need to work with the indigenous churches, to which many persons are turning because of their emphasis on physical healing and spiritual salvation. zinatha is an organization that represents traditional indigenous religions. the head of that organization is a university professor and vocal anglican who is working to increase interreligious dialog between zinatha and mainstream christian churches. in 2002 zinatha members formed the traditional medical practitioners council to certify and oversee traditional healers. there were continuing reports of tensions between mainstream christian churches and practitioners of traditional indigenous religions. a notable feature of some of the indigenous churches is the acceptance of polygamy among some of its members. sexual abuse, the spread of hiv / aids, and the avoidance of modern medicines also are growing problems within these churches. in addition leaders of the christian churches reportedly opposed the repeal or modification of the wsa sought by practitioners of traditional indigenous religions. there were no reports of ritual murders associated with traditional religious practices during the period covered by this report, and the government generally enforces the law against murder in the case of ritual murders. gordon chavanduka, chairman of zinatha, reportedly has stated that the black - market demand for human body parts used in making potions has increased greatly in recent years. during the period covered by", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5028811802611413, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 9, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:57.669164"} {"text": "a geological tour of tumbledown mountain on any given fine - weather day in any of the four seasons, tumbledown mountain in township 6 north of weld ( figure 1 ), is visited by scores of people ; most in pursuit of the excellent views afforded by the bald peaks, and perhaps a few mistakenly seeking the solitude of a wilderness experience. while a few individuals may come specifically to look at the beautifully exposed bedrock here, over the course of an outing almost every visitor will develop some interest in the rocks if for no other reason than its near constant exposure along some of the popular summit trails. it is easy to guess the origin of the name \" tumbledown \" simply by viewing the south side of the mountain from any of the trails that lead to the summit. cliffs of several hundred feet bear the scars, old and new, of rock slides that have left piles of rubble ( talus ) at their bases ( figure 2 ). western maine is underlain by a regular sequence of layered metamorphic rocks which began their existence as layers of sand and mud on the edge of an ocean basin about 430 million years ago. as these sediments accumulated over millions of years, through a number of processes they gradually hardened into sandstone and shale. during the last great mountain building event that helped form the northern appalachians about 415 million years ago, these layers were folded, thrust upward, and heated. great masses of molten rock formed at depth and moved upward through the contorted layers of rock, cooling into solid rock some distance below the surface. hundreds of millions of years of erosion have now exposed the resulting granites and granodiorites at the surface of the earth. | let ' s look at some examples of these rocks. figure 3 is a photograph showing some of the thinner layers of schist and granofels that can be found near tumbledown pond. the lighter layers are quartz - feldspar granofels, and the darker layers are andalusite schist. note that while each light layer begins with a very sharp boundary on the right, there is only a gradual change to the corresponding dark layer on the left. this is a characteristic carried over from the sedimentary origins of the rock and is referred to as graded bedding. when the sediments that formed this rock were deposited, the actions of water flow were such that the coarser sand grains ( quartz and feldspar ) fell to the bottom first, followed by progressively smaller grains. deposited last during each sedimentary event were very small grains of clay, before the next slug of", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5107274324817535, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:57.676778"} {"text": "the actions of water flow were such that the coarser sand grains ( quartz and feldspar ) fell to the bottom first, followed by progressively smaller grains. deposited last during each sedimentary event were very small grains of clay, before the next slug of sediment came down and the process began anew. geologists use graded beds to determine which direction was originally up in the layers. this is important in determining which are the younger rocks in a sequence. through the process of metamorphism, the quartz and feldspar grains changed little, but the clay grains changed into a variety of minerals including micas, staurolite, and andalusite, the coarsest grains in the rocks today. so, while the grain size of the sediment originally changed from coarse to fine as one moved from right to left in each bed, the grain size change of the metamorphic minerals is just the opposite. there is a good deal of variability in the thickness of layers at tumbledown. figure 4 shows some of the most striking layering exposed near the summit. in many places the layers are several feet thick and continuous for hundreds of feet. in several places on the mountain, large folds are exposed. one of the best examples is between tumbledown pond and the eastern summit of tumbledown mountain ( figure 5 ). these folds developed at the time the northern appalachians were forming, when the rocks today at the surface were at considerable depth and subject to higher temperatures and pressures which were not uniform in all directions. both sides ( limbs ) of the fold are inclined in the same direction in what geologists term an overturned some who have ventured to tumbledown have interpreted the shape of the mountain and the pond nestled among the peaks to be volcanic in origin. while this certainly is an exciting idea, it simply isn ' t true. as we ' ve already explained, the rocks were formed in a sedimentary basin and are not at all volcanic in nature. the landscape or topography is also not of volcanic origin but formed through the interaction of several processes. | the first important factor in defining the topography is the nature of the bedrock, here composed of metamorphic rocks and granite intrusions. from the top of tumbledown, a most striking feature of the landscape is the ring of mountains the completely encircle webb lake to the south ( figure 6 ). webb lake is underlain by granite while the ring of mountains is underlain by metamorphic rocks. in particular, these metamorphic rocks were subjected to even greater heat as the originally molten granite was intruded into", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5114661936425104, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:57.677795"} {"text": "the south ( figure 6 ). webb lake is underlain by granite while the ring of mountains is underlain by metamorphic rocks. in particular, these metamorphic rocks were subjected to even greater heat as the originally molten granite was intruded into them. one consequence of this process is that the metamorphic rocks immediately surrounding the granite are slightly more resistant to erosion than any of the other rocks. granite, with its large crystals and abundant feldspar, is actually fairly susceptible to erosion. the result of all this is the ring of mountains underlain by metamorphic rocks, and the basin of webb lake, underlain by easily eroded granite. at the mount blue state park visitor ' s center there is a plaster model of the landscape which illustrates this ring of mountains well. | the greatest agent of erosion is the glaciers which swept over the landscape just a few tens of thousands of years ago and represent the second most important factor in defining the topography. as the glaciers progressed across the landscape in a southeasterly direction, they scraped soils and weathered rock off the less erodable rock units and deeply gouged the earth in the more erodable rock units. due to the complex processes of glacial flow, in many places the glaciers polished the northern slopes of mountains into rounded shapes, while they plucked broken rock without any polishing on the southern slopes of mountains. this is readily apparent in the landscape at tumbledown. on the summit the rocks are well polished, and there are numerous knobs with smoothly rounded surfaces facing north and steep, unrounded surfaces facing south ( see figure 4 ). tumbledown pond itself ( figure 7 ) was produced by this gouging and plucking action. in many places on the summit, scratches formed by rocks imbedded in the base of the glacier as it advanced across the landscape, point to the northwest from whence the | many trails ( figure 8 ) provide free public access to the summit and tumbledown pond through the auspices and stewardship of the hancock timber resources group, inc. originally published on the web as the april 1998 site of the month. last updated on april 19, 2012", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5267547388312489, "token_count": 431, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:57.678644"} {"text": "quantum teleportation leaps to new distance record a new record of roughly 60 miles has been set in the field of qubit transmission. \" this is just a transmission method, so it could have wide utility, though i expect the cost will initially make it best for huge data streams, \" said analyst rob enderle. \" something like this could turn us into a saas world. \" scientists in china have transmitted quantum bits, or qubits, over a record distance of 97 km, or roughly 60 miles. this is more than six times the distance of the previous record of 16 km, set by another team of chinese researchers in may of 2010, as reported in nature. com. the results represent a step toward the establishment of a global quantum network, and the methods used in the experiment could be utilized for satellite - based quantum communications, the scientists said. \" this is just a transmission method, so it could have wide utility, though i expect the cost will initially make it best for huge data streams, \" rob enderle, principal analyst at the enderle group, told technewsworld. this technology \" could end up changing much of the world \" because it ' s both potentially higher bandwidth and lower latency, approaching zero, and these factors \" could drive massive computer centralization on a world scale and force a massive shakeout of security, networking and computer companies, \" enderle continued. \" something like this could turn us into a saas ( software as a service ) world. \" the theory behind the experiment the latest experiment demonstrated quantum teleportation of an independent unknown state between two optical free - space links 97 km apart with multi - photon entanglement. quantum teleportation is a process for transmitting information using quantum physics to, in effect, encrypt the data transmitted. it ' s also known as entanglement - assisted teleportation. in quantum teleportation experiments, beams of lights are used to encode qubits. the encoded beam of light, which is described as quantum entangled, is split into two and transmitted. when a qubit at one receiver is observed and take a defined form, the other half of the qubit at the other receiver takes the same defined form. quantum entanglement results when particles such as photons or electrons interact physically and then become separated but remain in the same quantum state. a quantum state is a set of mathematical variables, including position, momentum and spin, that fully describes a quantum system", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_entanglement", "similarity_score": 0.7260801404246024, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:57.742919"} {"text": "even with these advances, the fuel cell wouldn \u2019 t come on instantly, and turning it on and off with every short trip in the car would cause a lot of wear and tear, reducing its lifetime. instead, it would be paired with a battery pack, as a combustion engine is in the volt, wachsman says. the fuel cell could then run more steadily, serving to keep the battery topped without providing bursts of acceleration. the researchers achieved their result largely by modifying the solid electrolyte material at the core of a solid - oxide fuel cell. in fuel cells on the market, such as one made by bloom energy, the electrolyte has to be made thick enough to provide structural support. but the thickness of the electrolyte limits power generation. over the last several years, researchers have been developing designs that don \u2019 t require the electrolyte to support the cell so they can make the electrolyte thinner and achieve high power output at lower temperatures. the university of maryland researchers took this a step further by developing new multilayered electrolytes that increase the power output still more. the work is part of a larger u. s. department of energy effort, over the past decade, to make solid - oxide fuel cells practical. the first fruits of that effort likely won \u2019 t be fuel cells in cars \u2014 so far, wachsman has only made relatively small fuel cells, and significant engineering work remains to be done. the first applications of solid oxide fuels in vehicles may be on long - haul trucks with sleeper cabs. equipment suppliers such as delphi and cummins are developing fuel cells that can power the air conditioners, tvs, and microwaves inside the cabs, potentially cutting fuel consumption by 85 percent compared to idling the truck \u2019 s engine. the delphi system also uses a design that allows for a thinner electrolyte, but it operates at higher temperatures than wachsman \u2019 s fuel cell. the fuel cell could be turned on monday, and left to run at low rates all week and still get the 85 percent reduction. delphi has built a prototype and plans to demonstrate its system on a truck next year.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5224475573353369, "token_count": 439, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:57.745897"} {"text": "- onset diabetes. \" we know that type 2 diabetes is a progressive illness where insulin secretion is high and then goes down over time, but why does it do that? this ties some connection between chloride channels and granular function to the ability of insulin to come out of the cell, \" philipson said. \" this could be an important pathway in type 2 diabetes, so it ' s not just the rare patient that ' s affected, it ' s 25 million people in the united states. \" the study, \" the granular chloride channel clc - 3 is permissive for insulin secretion, \" was published in the journal cell metabolism on october 7. alongside deriy, philipson, and nelson, erwin gomez, david jacobson, xueqing wang, jessika hopson, xiang liu, guangping zhang, and vytautas bindokas are listed as authors. all authors come from the university of chicago. funding for the research was provided by the national institutes of health and by the university of chicago diabetes research and training center. the university of chicago medicine 950 e. 61st street, third floor chicago, il 60637 phone ( 773 ) 702 - 0025 fax ( 773 ) 702 - 3171", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5152249706277497, "token_count": 256, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:57.837112"} {"text": "ph. d., director of clinical research for nmmf. \u201c shared large brains that have high blood glucose demands may explain why two completely different species - humans and dolphins - have developed similar physiological mechanisms to handle sugar. \u201d additional evidence collected from this study shows that humans and dolphins may share similar chronic disease outcomes associated with diabetes such as insulin resistance, hemochromatosis ( iron overload ) and kidney stones. model for epilepsy discovered from marine exposure to toxic algae noaa researchers found that for the first time exposing laboratory animals to a toxin produced by blooms of microscopic ocean algae can induce seizures and eventually lead to epilepsy in almost all of the animals tested. establishing this novel linkage of oceans and health offers a new perspective to researchers and clinicians studying human epilepsy. working with the marine mammal center in sausalito, calif., and other partners, scientists initially suspected a marine environmental cause of epilepsy by studying marine mammals and other wildlife with seizures that washed up on california beaches over the past decade. the seizures were found to be caused by exposure to domoic acid, a neurotoxin produced by the pseudo - nitzschia australis alga. after realizing thatsome sea lions were stranded with seizures when there were no harmful algal blooms, researchers started to believe that domoic acid poisoning may have progressed to chronic epileptic disease. chief of harmful algal blooms & analytical response at noaa ' s national centers for coastal ocean science, john ramsdell, ph. d., conducted laboratory experiments to validate the field observations seen in sea lions. his research team exposed laboratory rats to domoic acid at levels similar to what a sea lion or dolphin might ingest in the wild by eating contaminated fish. \u201c within six months of the initial exposure, 92 percent of laboratory rats tested developed epileptic disease that worsened over their lifetime, \u201d said ramsdell. \u201c the domoic acid itself is not directly causing the epilepsy, but triggers a brief period of seizures that leads to changes in the brain, resulting in spontaneous and reoccurring seizures, the hallmark of epilepsy. \u201d the type of epilepsy in the rat model resembles human temporal lobe epilepsy, as confirmed by at least one human case traced back to eating mussels contaminated with the domoic acid toxin. this research could provide important insight into how dolphins and other species, including humans, respond to domoic acid poisoning. stranded dolphins with high domoic acid levels do not", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5047237963263977, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:57.854170"} {"text": "safer from this natural hazard. \u201d the qcn, a collaborative research project between cochran and jesse lawrence of stanford university, uses computers that are installed with software and special sensors to record moderate - to - large earthquakes and aftershocks. citizen volunteers have the sensors installed externally to their desktop computers or internally to their laptop computers. these computers become seismic stations by providing the physical infrastructure, computer, internet connection, power, and the location and measurement of seismic activity. the computers are then networked using distributed computing techniques that allow scientists to monitor the sensors and retrieve earthquake data automatically. \u201c the quake - catcher network is a way to involve the public in scientific data collection in high - risk earthquake and aftershock zones in the united states and around the world and to collect seismic data in non - traditional ways, \u201d said cochran. | dr. elizabeth cochran. | by using this sensor - driven process, a great number of seismic data can be processed in a short period of time and produce nearly instantaneous detection and characterization of earthquakes. the first release of the software was in reno, nev., in april 2008. a few people from the area signed up to get the software, just in time to record a swarm of earthquakes that hit in june of that year. \u201c when the swarm of earthquakes struck reno, the information from these citizen volunteers enabled us to test our system, and from that, we learned that the sensors and data communication were working correctly, \u201d said cochran. \u201c for this set of earthquakes, we had some of the closest seismic stations to the swarm. we had records of those earthquakes that looked like typical seismograms. i was really excited that it worked. it was really fun. \u201d since then, volunteers have popped up in just about every state in the united states and across the world. after the magnitude 8. 8 earthquake struck chile in early 2010, cochran and her team enlisted 100 volunteers in chile to hook up the sensors to their computers. when the aftershocks kept occurring, the instrumentation provided invaluable information to scientists and proved the value of the qcn. \u201c in the case of chile, we could get estimates of magnitude and locations in about 20 to 30 seconds after earthquake started, \u201d said cochran. \u201c we found we can actually do well recording earthquakes this way, and eventually we hope this is a way to augment existing seismic networks to provide more precise early earthquake warning. \u201d the data cochran and her team gathered from chile was especially valuable in analyzing small scale ground shaking \u2014 how it is different", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5433238508749612, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:57.893206"} {"text": "earthquakes this way, and eventually we hope this is a way to augment existing seismic networks to provide more precise early earthquake warning. \u201d the data cochran and her team gathered from chile was especially valuable in analyzing small scale ground shaking \u2014 how it is different in one location versus a half a mile away. \u201c there is a lot of variation in ground shaking, even in small scales, \u201d said cochran. \u201c we were able to generate our own quake - catcher network shakemaps, or what seismologists call microzonation, where you can examine specific areas for earthquake hazards. this information can provide critical data to feed back into building codes and to help determine where critical infrastructure such as power plants, hospitals, water lines and transportation facilities should be built. \u201d when the magnitude 7. 0 earthquake struck new zealand in september 2010, cochran and her team deployed 180 sensors in the area. a paper on the results of the data is expected out this fall. \u201c we are in the middle of demonstrating that the data from these sensor stations in new zealand show the same amplitude and waveform characteristics as do other strong motion sensors in the area and is sufficient enough quality to produce reliable results, \u201d said cochran. in early september 2011, cochran and her team set out on an ambitious goal : to install 500 sensor stations in the san francisco bay area, a high - risk earthquake location. volunteers need to have a high speed internet connection ; a computer, about 5 years old or less that runs on a windows or macintosh operating system with a spare usb port to which the sensor can be connected ; and, a small space about the size of a post - it note for mounting the sensor. information for those interested in volunteering or learning more about the qcn is available online. \u201c i came up with the idea for the quake - catcher network by playing around on a mac laptop, and my husband pointed out that you could download a widget that would allow you to see the real - time output from the sensor, \u201d said cochran. \u201c i downloaded the widget and was seeing output from tapping i was doing on the computer, and it dawned on me that if it picked up this movement, it would probably pick up earthquake movements. i also knew about distributed computing that allows people to donate their unused cpu processing time to scientific projects and thought that combining the low cost sensors with distributed computing would be a perfect way to gather data from moderate to large earthquakes at very little cost. i discussed it with my colleague jesse lawrence who said, \u2018 that \u2019 s the coolest idea", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5214001357030293, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:57.894942"} {"text": "scientific projects and thought that combining the low cost sensors with distributed computing would be a perfect way to gather data from moderate to large earthquakes at very little cost. i discussed it with my colleague jesse lawrence who said, \u2018 that \u2019 s the coolest idea i ever heard, \u2019 and then we pursued and received a grant from the national science foundation to start it up. \u201d cochran \u2019 s research is fundamental to the mission of the usgs to continue to innovate the recording of weak and strong ground motions necessary to accurately locate earthquakes, to study their rupture process, and to map the variations in the strong ground motions caused by the local soil conditions and the details of the earthquake rupture process. \u201c i am really excited that the quake - catcher network is moving forward and has continued to be successful, \u201d said cochran. since its inception in 2008, the qcn has gained academic partners from the university of california - berkeley, california institute of technology, university of california - san diego and the university of delaware. after receiving her phd in geophysics and space physics from ucla in 2005, cochran served as a postdoctoral fellow at the scripps institution of oceanography until the end of 2006, when she joined uc riverside in 2007 as an assistant professor in earth sciences, supervising both graduate students and postdoctoral scholars. she joined the usgs in june 2011. her accomplishments have been recognized by her receiving the nsf faculty early career development ( career ) award in 2010 and the geological society of america subaru outstanding woman in science in 2006 for the scientific impact of her work on the geosciences. she is the author or co - author of 21 peer - reviewed journal publications, 9 as a first author, and has a scopus h - index of 7. her first - author papers have been published in prestigious journals science, journal of geophysical research, geophysical research letters, bulletin of the seismological society of america, seismological research letters, and geology. she has also played prominent roles in professional organizations, including as the co - chair of the seismology discipline for the southern california earthquake center since 2009 and as a member of the iris data management system standing committee from 2008 to 2010. the presidential early career awards for scientists and engineers was established by president clinton in 1996 and are coordinated by the office of science and technology policy within the executive office of the president. awardees are selected for their pursuit of innovative research at the frontiers of science and technology and their commitment to community service as demonstrated through scientific leadership, public education,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5012121442231223, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:57.897016"} {"text": "dangling modifiers are words or phrases which \u201c dangle \u201d because they have no word in the sentence to describe : while taking a shower, the doorbell rang. - - the doorbell was taking a shower? revise dangling modifiers by adding a headword \u2014 a noun or pronoun that is described : while i was taking a shower, the doorbell rang. or while taking a shower, i heard the doorbell ring. a misplaced modifier is placed too close to some other word that it does not intend to modify : i only speak one language. - - all you ever do is speak one language? revise misplaced modifiers by placing the modifier next to its headword : i speak only one language. split infinitives are misplaced modifiers which are placed between the preposition to and the verb in an infinitive - - a grammatical unit consisting of the word to plus a verb ( to eat, to sleep, etc. ) : dentists encourage children to regularly brush their teeth. - - the modifier regularly is splitting the infinitive to brush. revise split infinitives by moving the modifier to another part of the sentence : dentists encourage children to brush their teeth regularly. squinting modifiers are misplaced modifiers that seem to modify two words : patty who was walking quickly reached the disco. - - is patty walking quickly, or is she quickly reaching the disco? revise squinting modifiers by changing the word order so there is no ambiguity : patty, who was quickly walking, reached the disco. or patty who was walking...", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5422933638586028, "token_count": 324, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:57.935518"} {"text": "same methodology, designed to answer the some of the niggling questions and help the government provide clearer guidance than it ' s been able to so far. - - eliza barclay the researchers bought more than 450 plastic items from stores including walmart and whole foods. they chose products designed to come in contact with food \u2014 things like baby bottles, deli packaging and flexible bags, says george bittner, one of the study ' s authors and a professor of biology at the university of texas, austin. then certichem, a testing company founded by bittner, chopped up pieces of each product and soaked them in either saltwater or alcohol to see what came out. the testing showed that more than 70 percent of the products released chemicals that acted like estrogen. and that was before they exposed the stuff to real - world conditions : simulated sunlight, dishwashing and microwaving, bittner says. \" then, you greatly increase the probability that you ' re going to get chemicals having estrogenic activity released, \" he says, adding that more than 95 percent of the products tested positive after undergoing this sort of stress. but what about all those products marketed as bpa - free? that ' s a claim being made for everything from dog bowls to bento boxes these days. the team concentrated on bpa - free baby bottles and water bottles, bittner says, \" and all of them released chemicals having estrogenic activity. \" sometimes the bpa - free products had even more activity than products known to contain bpa. the testing didn ' t show which chemicals are to blame, which is likely to be frustrating to manufacturers. but bittner says consumers should be encouraged that at least some plastic products had no estrogen - like activity. he says that shows it is possible to make these products. early reaction to the study was mixed. some scientists wondered about the test ' s reliability. others noted that wine and many vegetables also can act like estrogen. and a few observed that bittner has a financial interest in the testing lab and in a company involved in making plastic products that don ' t release estrogenic chemicals. on the other hand, groups that have warned about the potential dangers of bpa in the past seemed to welcome the new research. \" this is really helpful because they took a look at very common products, \" says sonya lunder, a senior analyst at the environmental working group. but the results suggest that concerns about plastics can ' t be solved by worried consumers at the checkout counter, lunder", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5091222110063051, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:58.101147"} {"text": "fr. ayodele ayeni cssp april 2, 2012 at the dawn of creation, \" the spirit of god was moving over the surface of the waters ( genesis 1. 2 ). \" the waters at creation not only manifest the symbolism of water in christian theology, but also its creational importance. water sustains life and its absence spells doom or death. the story of noah and the ark gives a christian account of the havoc excessive water may cause, even if there will be a rebuilding or newness that follows. however, wherever water cohabits with the spirit of god, as we see in genesis 1. 2, creational order unfolds from chaos. the spirit of god hovering over water gives life and saving effects to water - \" wherever the river goes, every living creature that swarms will live \" ( ezekiel 47. 9 ). water and spirit have come a long way. in recognition of the association of water with the spirit, we now say, in the second eucharistic prayer : \" make holy, therefore, these gifts, we pray, by sending down your spirit upon them like the dewfall. \" here again, the spirit is associated with water, in the form of a dewfall, with the mission of creating something new - the transubstantiation ( changing ) of bread and wine into the body and blood of christ. st. paul already anticipated this link between water and spirit when he said : \" for in the one spirit we were all baptized into one body - jews or greeks, slaves or free - and we were all made to drink of one spirit ( 1 corinthians 12. 13 ). \" what a theological evolution! st. paul anticipated the theological link between water and spirit. the instructions of god at creation ( genesis 1. 1 - 2. 4 ) brought creation into being, and every creature was given its limits, including water : \" i ( god ) placed the sand as a boundary for the sea, a perpetual barrier that it cannot pass ; though the waves toss, they cannot prevail, though they roar, they cannot pass over it \" ( jeremiah 5. 22 ). the human person pushed his boundary by \" sin of origin, \" only to discover his frailty. when humans needed regeneration or salvation from their sins, water was readily available : \" you ( god ) set the beams of your chambers on the waters, you make the clouds your chariot, you ride on the wings of the wind.... when you send forth", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5104422185933247, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:58.116320"} {"text": "search : nuclear chemistry, darmstadtium, germany in honour of scientist and astronomer nicolaus copernicus ( 1473 - 1543 ), the discovering team around professor sigurd hofmann suggested the name copernicium with the element symbol cp for the new element 112, discovered at the gsi helmholtzzentrum fur schwerionenforschung ( center for heavy ion research ) in darmstadt. it was copernicus who discovered that the earth orbits the sun, thus paving the way for our modern view of the world. thirteen years ago, element 112 was discovered by an international team of scientists at the gsi accelerator facility. a few weeks ago, the international union of pure and applied chemistry, iupac, officially confirmed their discovery. in around six months, iupac will officially endorse the new element ' s name. this period is set to allow the scientific community to discuss the suggested name copernicium before the iupac naming. \" after iupac officially recognized our discovery, we \u2013 that is all scientists involved in the discovery \u2013 agreed on proposing the name copernicium for the new element 112. we would like to honor an outstanding scientist, who changed our view of the world \", says sigurd hofmann, head of the discovering team. copernicus was born 1473 in torun ; he died 1543 in frombork, poland. working in the field of astronomy, he realized that the planets circle the sun. his discovery refuted the then accepted belief that the earth was the center of the universe. his finding was pivotal for the discovery of the gravitational force, which is responsible for the motion of the planets. it also led to the conclusion that the stars are incredibly far away and the universe inconceivably large, as the size and position of the stars does not change even though the earth is moving. furthermore, the new world view inspired by copernicus had an impact on the human self - concept in theology and philosophy : humankind could no longer be seen as the center of the world. with its planets revolving around the sun on different orbits, the solar system is also a model for other physical systems. the structure of an atom is like a microcosm : its electrons orbit the atomic nucleus like the planets orbit the sun. exactly 112 electrons circle the atomic nucleus in an atom of the new element \" copernicium \". element 112 is the heaviest element in the periodic table, 277 times heavier than hydrogen", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5591857338705926, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:58.124492"} {"text": "its electrons orbit the atomic nucleus like the planets orbit the sun. exactly 112 electrons circle the atomic nucleus in an atom of the new element \" copernicium \". element 112 is the heaviest element in the periodic table, 277 times heavier than hydrogen. it is produced by a nuclear fusion, when bombarding zinc ions onto a lead target. as the element already decays after a split second, its existence can only be proved with the help of extremely fast and sensitive analysis methods. twenty - one scientists from germany, finland, russia and slovakia have been involved in the experiments that led to the discovery of element 112. since 1981, gsi accelerator experiments have yielded the discovery of six chemical elements, which carry the atomic numbers 107 to 112. the discovering teams at gsi already named five of them : element 107 is called bohrium, element 108 hassium, element 109 meitnerium, element 110 darmstadtium, and element 111 is named roentgenium. the new element 112 discovered by gsi has been officially recognized and will be named by the darmstadt group in due course. their suggestion should be made public over this summer. the element 112, discovered at the gsi helmholtzzentrum fur schwerionenforschung ( centre for heavy ion research ) in darmstadt, has been officially recognized as a new element by the international union of pure and applied chemistry ( iupac ). iupac confirmed the recognition of element 112 in an official letter to the head of the discovering team, professor sigurd hofmann. the letter furthermore asks the discoverers to propose a name for the new element. their suggestion will be submitted within the next weeks. in about 6 months, after the proposed name has been thoroughly assessed by iupac, the element will receive its official name. the new element is approximately 277 times heavier than hydrogen, making it the heaviest element in the periodic table. \u201c we are delighted that now the sixth element \u2013 and thus all of the elements discovered at gsi during the past 30 years \u2013 has been officially recognized. during the next few weeks, the scientists of the discovering team will deliberate on a name for the new element \u201d, says sigurd hofmann. 21 scientists from germany, finland, russia and slovakia were involved in the experiments around the discovery of the new element 112. since 1981, gsi accelerator experiments have yielded the discovery of six chemical elements, which carry the atomic numbers 107 to 112. gsi has already named their officially recognized elements 107 to 111 :", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5797230839746151, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:58.125480"} {"text": "atommate is a chemistry card game that consists of a deck of 49 playing cards with the names, symbols and facts about the elements of the periodic table. it is used to play games that involve making chemical compounds. designed for students aged 10 and up, it is a grow - with - me game. beginning students learn the names and symbols of the elements. intermediate students learn to combine the elements to form molecules and compounds. more advanced students can use the cards to enhance their understanding of simple reactions. instructions for eight easy games, which range in difficulty from easy to complex, are included. there are several games that may be played with these cards. all games are designed for 2 to 4 players. the deck contains a sub - set of the elements in the periodic table, with repetitions of some elements. some of the elements have the word toxic on them - this gives the card special powers in some of the games. there are 8 non - element cards : 4 reduce and 4 oxidize. these allow the player to make additional moves in some of the games. the following information on the cards may be used to play the games : atommate is a game developed by dr. carol brevett who has taught chemistry at iowa state university and has been working in industry, including at the dupont company of delaware, as a research scientist for over 13 years. she has developed and tested the atommate games over many years. a must for the chemistry enthusiast, the science scholar, the science - oriented pupil or anyone who wants to play an unusual and novel card game. with each order we ' ll send you a free silky periodic table bookmark and a free glossy laminated postcard sized periodic table for your noticeboard! delivery and shipping | terms and conditions | about us |", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5737519024951045, "token_count": 358, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:58.127280"} {"text": "probable reservoir. secondary human - to - human spread by aerosol or direct contact accounts for about 28 % of cases... \" ( my emphasis ) so, let us make a simple addition. this virus is an orthopox virus, which means, literally translated, a real pox virus. this virus spreads among humans causing an exanthem resembling smallpox, and causing disease and death among the infected ( between february and august 1996, 71 cases were notified in the katako - kombe area in zaire, 6 of which 4 died from the disease ( 5 ). so what is the difference between smallpox and human monkeypox? the difference is a difference in protein structure. nucleotide sequence analysis revealed different structures. but what does this really matter it both viruses affect us in the same way, spread in the same way, and cause the same eruptions and the same clinical disease? scientists do, the victims dont! it is quite odd that the authors do not mention the smallpox vaccination status of the infected. all they mention is that in a preliminary study none of the examined had a scar of smallpox vaccination. which does not mean that they had not been vaccinated as the vaccine may not have taken. no figures are available about antibodies against smallpox, so that we have no real clue whether, in this study, the vaccine showed any protection against monkeypox or not. many of the patients described elsewhere were vaccinated. arita and henderson ( 6 ) found 94 children with facial scarring caused by monkeypox ; all except two who also showed scars typical for smallpox vaccination. so the least one can do is to question the protection offered by smallpox vaccination against the new monkey - pox virus. apparently the new virus is quite infectious, since 42 cases, including 3 deaths, were reported in a small village with only 346 inhabitants. the article further states that \" present cluster of cases constitutes a reemergence of human monkeypox on a scale greater in magnitude than the approximate 65 annual cases previously indicated for kasai oriental, bandundu, and equateur regions from 1981 to 1986 \" and also that \" it contains a more extensive occurrence of person - to - person transmission than previously recognised. \" the conclusion of the authors is that \" because sequence analyses have indicated that zairian monkeypox strains have not diverged greatly from the first isolate from the area in 1970 and monkeypox and smallpox variola viruses are independently evolved species (", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5160675759404195, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:58.144171"} {"text": "the conclusion of the authors is that \" because sequence analyses have indicated that zairian monkeypox strains have not diverged greatly from the first isolate from the area in 1970 and monkeypox and smallpox variola viruses are independently evolved species ( 7 ), notions of monkeypox virus mutating into variola virus are unfounded. \" this does not sound very reassuring. former suggestions that \" prolonged episodes or sustained cascades of transmission of human monkeypox would be unlikely \" ( 8 ) do not hold up. although the smallpox virus appears to have died down a few decades ago, obviously the disease is still present on this earth and able to make a come - back. whether this is due to the mutation of the original virus or to a new virus that generates the same disease is a question that remains unanswered. another pillar of the vaccine dogma, its victory over smallpox, has fallen into pieces. 1. personal communication with a staff member. 2. mukinda, v. b. k. ; et al reemergence of human monkeypox in zaire in 1996. lancet, 1997 ; 349 : 1449 - 50 3. von magnus, p. ; et al a pox - like disease in cynomolgus monkeys. acta pathologica et microbiologica scandinavica, 1959 ; 46 / 2 : 156 - 76 4. gipsen, r. ; et al monkeypoxspecific antibodies in human and simian sera from the ivory coast and nigeria. bull, who, 1976 ; 53 ; 355 - 60 5. who. monkeypox, zaire. widy epidemiol aec, 1996 ; 71 : 326 6. arita, i. ; henderson, d. a. ; monkey - pox and whitepox viruses in west and central africa. bull who, 1976 ; 53 : 347 - 53 7. douglass, n. ; dumbell, k. r. ; independent evolution of monkeypox and variola viruses. j virol, 1992 ; 66 : 7565 - 7 8. jezek, z. ; fenner, f. ; human monkeypox. monographs in virology vol 17, j. l. melnick, ed. basel, switzerland : karger, 1988 [ vaccination ] [ gaublomme ] [ smallpox ]", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5197724781316292, "token_count": 495, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:02:58.145494"}