february 24, 2013 in sustainable development embargoed until 1800 gmt on sunday 24 february by alex kirby a united nations scheme intended to guarantee everyone access to clean energy could help to keep global temperature rise below 2°c, researchers say, although it would not achieve this without sharp cuts in emissions of all the main greenhouse gases. london, 24 february – eradicating poverty by making modern energy supplies available to everyone is not only compatible with measures to slow climate change, a new study says. it is a necessary condition for it. but the authors say the scheme to provide sustainable energy worldwide will not by itself be enough to keep the global average temperature rise below the widely accepted international target level of 2°c. while the scheme can help measures to tackle climate change, it cannot achieve that by itself. the scheme, the un ’ s sustainable energy for all initiative ( se4all ), if it proves successful, could make a significant contribution to cutting greenhouse gas emissions, according to the analysis from the international institute for applied systems analysis ( iiasa ) and eth zurich. the study, published in nature climate change, shows that reaching the three energy - related goals of se4all would cut ghg emissions and is achievable. “ achievement of the three objectives would provide an important entry point into stringent climate protection ”, says joeri rogelj, eth zurich researcher and iiasa - affiliated scientist, who led the study. it found that the short - term goals, due to be reached by 2030, would help achieve long - term climate targets. but to ensure stringent climate objectives were reached, se4all would need to be matched by other measures, the researchers say. se4all ‘ necessary – but not sufficient ’ se4all ’ s objectives include providing universal access to modern energy, doubling the share of renewable energy globally, and doubling the rate of improvement in energy efficiency – all by 2030. while the objectives do not explicitly address climate change, sustainable energy is accepted as vital for cutting ghg emissions : 80 % of co2 from human activities comes from the global energy system, including transport, buildings, industry, and electricity, heat, and fuel production. “ doing energy right will promote the millennium development goals and at the same time kick - start the transition to a lower - carbon economy ”, says iiasa researcher david mccollum, who also worked on the study. “ but the un ’ s objectives must be complemented by a global agreement on controlling ghg emissions. ” se


according to a team of scientists at australia ’ s commonwealth scientific and industrial research organisation, despite previous research finding that nanoparticles do not penetrate the skin, it remains debatable as to whether this remains true under normal conditions of using sunscreen. at a global nanomaterials safety workshop in london earlier this month, dr maxine mccall showcased her team ’ s progress on ‘ dermal absorption from sunscreens containing zinc oxide particles ’ revealing that two special sunscreens were made especially for a human study whereby one contained nanoparticles of zinc oxide and the other larger ( non - nano ) particles to determine if there was a dependence on particle size for dermal absorption. according to dr. mccall, most in vitro studies to assess dermal penetration of nanoparticles are conducted for a period of up to 24 hours, and that the oecd wpmn is currently assessing whether a number of test guidelines, developed for chemicals, are applicable to nanomaterials. “ our results imply that longer study periods may need to be considered when assessing dermal penetration and absorption of nanoparticles and we are communicating this information to the oecd wpmn, ” the expert told cosmeticsdesign - asia. com. the human study involved the team of scientists applying sunscreen twice daily for five days as well as obtaining numerous blood and urine samples before, during, and after the period at the beach. " the method we used to detect the traceable zinc is highly sensitive, " explains mccall. " the first detection of traceable zinc from zno particles in the sunscreens were found in the blood at the end of the second day at the beach and after a total of 4 sunscreen applications, levels continued to increase after sunscreen application ceased, " she adds. the expert went on to further reveal that the blood and urine samples from the females with the sunscreen with nanoparticles had slightly higher levels of traceable zinc than those of the sunscreen with larger particles. however, dr. mccall concludes by informing this publication that the total amounts of traceable zinc detected from the sunscreens were very small when compared with amounts of natural zinc normally present in the human body. sccs view on the matter.. the ec ' s scientific committee on consumer safety recently announced it had reviewed its toxicological evidence and found no evidence that zno nanoparticles are absorbed through skin and or via the oral route. and concluded that the use of zinc oxide nanoparticles, at a


literature, in theory, is to enlighten a future. indeed the oldest form of interpretation was divination. one hoped to interpret the design of things. cicero said in his essay on divination, " thus, in the beginning the world was so made that certain signs come before certain events. " shelley said cryptically in his " defence of poetry " : " poets are the heirophants of an unapprehended inspiration ; the mirrors of the gigantic shadows which futurity casts upon the present. " the european social philosophy called phenomenology lays out a " horizon of expectation " as the basis for hermeneutics, the study of interpretation as intentionality. interpretation is a projection forward, said martin heidegger. as he asserted in being and time, " the basic tense of existentialism is the future. " ernst bloch taught that art and literature latently exhibit what he called an " anticipatory illumination " ( vor - schein, " to shine before " ). karl popper, the philosopher who featured the social science of unexpected consequences, spoke of a " searchlight " metaphor for the very act of knowing. to know is to conjecture forward, to project a light in a dark direction some works of literature are specifically designed to warn against what might happen in the near future. for instance, margaret atwood ’ s recent sci - fi novel oryx and crake warns against bioengineering and global plagues wrought by mad scientists. in aristotle ’ s " poetics " there is a remarkable definition of literature as being a kind of hypothetical action that bears on future acts : " the poet ’ s function is to describe, not the thing that has happened, but the kind of thing that might happen, for example, what is possible as being probable or necessary. " perhaps most importantly, aristotle describes a kind of recognition that forestalls, at the last moment, a violent act about to happen that would lead to tragic consequences. his word for that kind of forestalling action that avoids a violent pitfall is anagnorisis. pre - emptive strikes assume a certain kind of interpretation of facts and events that depends upon a point of view of story telling that lays out future events as a kind of projection forward into a future that is not hypothetical but that is fixed like fate. but good writers script whole sequences of expectations that turn out to be surprises. then as possibilities are modified by actualities, the projections forward are corrected by retractions


of projection forward into a future that is not hypothetical but that is fixed like fate. but good writers script whole sequences of expectations that turn out to be surprises. then as possibilities are modified by actualities, the projections forward are corrected by retractions backward. take the example of frankenstein. like atwood, mary shelley was worried about contemporary experiments in the artificial creation of life, such as those of galvani and erasmus darwin. the mad scientist, victor frankenstein, has succeeded in creating life, but in fleeing from his monster and by avoiding his own responsibility as creator, he has created a serial killer. nevertheless, having heard the monster ’ s moving narrative, victor agrees to construct a female companion. as he assembles the female being, he frets that the female has not been party to their social contract : that the pair of beings will leave europe and hide out in the wilds of america. he fantasizes that the female and her future progeny might not consider themselves bound to the original agreement. this question of binding future generations by a dated social contract is tom paine ’ s main argument in the rights of man, that future generations are not bound for eternity by their progenitors ’ written laws. so victor passionately dismembers the female monster. is his interpretation an anagnorisis that avoids a future threat of violence? or is it a pre - emptive violence that forestalls a peaceful future? was it an action that had come to maturity, or was it premature? mary shelley leaves the issue up in the air. was the bush team ’ s interpretation an act of prudence that forestalled the imminent action of saddam hussein ’ s use of weapons of mass destruction? or was it instead a premature violence that forestalled the gradualism of the united nations ’ deferential restraint? now the country is in a period of interpreting backward, of second guessing, and taking stock. it is not yet clear whether we are concluding a tragedy, where there will only be dead bodies all over the stage of events ; or whether we can imagine a reconciling comedy, where all the participants can gather in the end at some kind of reconciling feast. what we do know now and always is that any decision to act is based upon imperfect evidence. to choose is to select among alternative possibilities. were the evidence overwhelming, no choice as such would be necessary or indeed possible. the decision would be self evident. before the invasion the bush administration overwhelmed us with evidence of nuclear weapons of mass


imperfect evidence. to choose is to select among alternative possibilities. were the evidence overwhelming, no choice as such would be necessary or indeed possible. the decision would be self evident. before the invasion the bush administration overwhelmed us with evidence of nuclear weapons of mass destruction and the insidious technology of bio - warfare in the semblance of our own anthrax fears. it seemed as if we had no choice but to strike then. the weapons issues were coupled with the overwhelming prognostications of imminent attacks on american people, like those that happened on 9 / 11. all members of the administration spoke as with one voice of warning. now the retractions and extenuations are taking place, and the moral of the narrative shifts with the latest disclosures. now the script is changing. now the argument is that saddam had killed overwhelming numbers of his own people over the years. was he not an imminent killer preparing to massacre americans? if not, what right does an american president have to pre - empt the role of the united nations in handling these kinds of massive but vague perils? did the bush administration conflate technological readiness to pull the trigger with moral readiness? david stands ready to hurl his stone. the minuteman leans into action, ready to fire in a minute. but the projection of a moral choice about the future should not be confused with the technical projection of a minuteman missile. the aircraft carriers that converged in battle groups from around the global oceans, the long - range bombers re - positioned on perimeter bases, the missiles programmed, all those silent men and women, were mobilized into an enormous potential energy, all leaning into action. the confluence of energies and forces all seemed so overwhelming as inevitable movements that moral choices between alternatives were lost in the univocal argument of a world power, its finger already tightening on the trigger. did the overwhelming technological readiness make the moral reason seem self evident in the mind of the bush team? the readiness is all mobilization? in greek tragedies the voice of the chorus provides running commentary on the plot. the chorus asks questions and makes assumptions during the action that are sometimes stupid, sometimes insightful, and sometimes wrong. the chorus admits to being puzzled by the actions of their leaders. did the univocal voice of the administration script a fiction for our consumption? was the plot a piece of noble propaganda? if the script was a fiction, it was not good literature, nor was it good ethics. for though literature may warn about the possibility of a coming event,


definitions for wageweɪdʒ random house webster ' s college dictionary wageweɪdʒ ( n. ; v. ) waged, wag • ing. ( n. ) often, wages. money that is paid or received for work or services. ref : compare living wage, minimum wage. 1 wages, recompense or return : the wages of sin is death. obs. a pledge or security. ( v. t. ) to carry on ( a battle, argument, etc. ) : to wage war. obs. to stake or wager. to pledge. ( v. i. ) obs. to contend ; struggle. origin of wage : 1275 – 1325 ; me : pledge, security < af ; of guagegage1 < vl * wadium < gmc ( see wed ) wage, pay, earnings, remuneration, salary ( verb ) something that remunerates " wages were paid by check " ; " he wasted his pay on drink " ; " they saved a quarter of all their earnings " carry on ( wars, battles, or campaigns ) " napoleon and hitler waged war against all of europe " an amount of money paid to a worker for a specified quantity of work, usually expressed on an hourly basis. to wager, bet. to employ for wages ; to hire. to conduct or carry out ( a war or other contest ). to wage war origin : from wage, a northern variant of gauge, gage, from * waddi, wadja ( cognate with wedd ), from wadjo, from wadh -. akin to veþja " to pledge ", wadi. more at wed. to pledge ; to hazard on the event of a contest ; to stake ; to bet, to lay ; to wager ; as, to wage a dollar to expose one ' s self to, as a risk ; to incur, as a danger ; to venture ; to hazard to engage in, as a contest, as if by previous gage or pledge ; to carry on, as a war to adventure, or lay out, for hire or reward ; to hire out to put upon wages ; to hire ; to employ ; to pay wages to to give security for the performance of to bind one ' s self ; to engage that which is staked or ventured ; that for which one incurs risk or danger ; prize ; gage that for which one labors ; meed ; reward ; stipulated payment for service


for the performance of to bind one ' s self ; to engage that which is staked or ventured ; that for which one incurs risk or danger ; prize ; gage that for which one labors ; meed ; reward ; stipulated payment for service performed ; hire ; pay ; compensation ; - - at present generally used in the plural. see wages translations for wage kernerman english multilingual dictionary ( alsoˈwages noun plural ) a regular, usually weekly rather than monthly, payment for the work that one does he spends all his wages on books ; what is his weekly wage? - salarioportuguese ( br ) - der lohngerman - μισθος, ( οικονομικες ) απολαβεςgreek - salario, sueldospanish - mjesecna placacroatian - laun, kaupicelandic - 임금, 급료, - darba algalatvian - gaji, upahmalay - lønn, gasjenorwegian - lon, avloningswedish - ; - ， chinese ( trad. ) - заробітна платаukrainian - luong tuanvietnamese - ， chinese ( simp. ) get even more translations for wage »


harris, paul l. trusting what you ' re told how children learn from others aims and scope if children were little scientists who learn best through firsthand observations and mini - experiments, as conventional wisdom holds, how would a child discover that the earth is round — never mind conceive of heaven as a place someone might go after death? overturning both cognitive and commonplace theories about how children learn, trusting what you ’ re told begins by reminding us of a basic truth : most of what we know we learned from others. children recognize early on that other people are an excellent source of information. and so they ask questions. but youngsters are also remarkably discriminating as they weigh the responses they elicit. and how much they trust what they are told has a lot to do with their assessment of its source. trusting what you ’ re told opens a window into the moral reasoning of elementary school vegetarians, the preschooler ’ s ability to distinguish historical narrative from fiction, and the six - year - old ’ s nuanced stance toward magic : skeptical, while still open to miracles. paul harris shares striking cross - cultural findings, too, such as that children in religious communities in rural central america resemble bostonian children in being more confident about the existence of germs and oxygen than they are about souls and god. we are biologically designed to learn from one another, harris demonstrates, and this greediness for explanation marks a key difference between human beings and our primate cousins. even kanzi, a genius among bonobos, never uses his keyboard to ask for information : he only asks for treats. - 272 pages - 3 halftones, 3 line illustrations, 19 graphs - harvard university press


cytometry assays ( boyle et al., 2011 ; murtagh, 2011 ). efforts are also underway to develop more affordable ( and disposable ) poc tests for cd4 counts and several such technologies are expected to reach the market within the next few years ( figure 2 ) ( murtagh, 2011 ). lastly, hiv diagnostics have benefited from the growing momentum towards simple, multiplexed tests that can diagnose multiple infectious diseases at the point - of - care. there are now poc options available for multiplexed detection of hiv, hepatitis b and c, and syphilis ( figure 2 ). although evidence on their test performance in real world settings is limited, they offer promise of simultaneous detection of several infections, with greater convenience for patients and providers. the convergence of fields such as nanotechnology, microfluidics, proteomics, and genomics has inspired the development of novel platforms, including poc and nucleic acid amplification tests ( naats ), which enable the detection of multiple biomarkers at the point of care. also, integration of smartphone technology with such novel platforms might lead to the development of novel testing platforms that can also use mobile telephones for delivering results quickly and efficiently. hiv diagnostics : gaps and needs a key gap has been lack of simple, affordable poc options for early infant diagnosis and for viral load determination ( murtagh, 2011 ; usdin et al., 2010 ). while conventional naats are accurate and commercially available for early infant diagnosis and viral load, they are expensive and require sophisticated laboratory infrastructure that is not available in many resource - limited settings. thus, most art programs in resource - limited settings have no access to these technologies. this leads to treatment failure, impacting quality of clinical management. viral load testing that could be conducted at the poc will reduce the need for laboratory infrastructure and lower the cost for art programs ( murtagh, 2011 ). resistance assays that are currently prohibitively expensive and run only as part of clinical studies will have tremendous potential in expediting linkages to care if offered at poc. although there are currently no poc viral load assays that are commercially available, there are several technologies in development ( figure 3 shows the pipeline ) ( murtagh, 2011 ). for epidemiological and surveillance purposes, there is a felt need for an accurate, inexpensive, and easy - to - use kit that can be used to estimate hiv incidence at the population level (


al., 2011 ). although the tb diagnostics pipeline is substantially better in 2011 than it was even 5 - 10 years ago, absence of a dipstick type of poc test continues to be a gaping hole in the pipeline ( figure 4 shows the current pipeline ) ( world health organization, 2011b ). table 2 summarizes the diagnostic options for tb that can potentially be used at the point - of - care. sputum smear microscopy, in principle, can be done at the point - of - care in a primary care setting, provided a basic microscopy facility and a trained technician are available ( steingart et al., 2007 ). unfortunately, smear microscopy is an insensitive technique and misses nearly half of all tb cases. to compensate for this, at least two sputum smears need to be stained and read, and this makes the test difficult to implement as a genuine poc test. on the positive side, smear microscopy is inexpensive, and a trained microscopist can identify several disease conditions ( e. g., malaria, filariasis, urinary tract infections ). conventional, direct ziehl - neelsen microscopy can be optimized using led fluorescence microscopy, and by using two spot sputum smears to ensure same - day diagnosis. indeed, these approaches are now endorsed by the world health organization ( who ) ( world health organization, 2011a ; world health organization, 2011e ). the recent who endorsement of xpert mtb / rif ( cepheid inc., sunnyvale, ca, usa ), an automated, cartridge - based nucleic acid amplification test ( naat ), has greatly stimulated resurgent interest in using molecular tests for rapid diagnosis of active tb and drug - resistance ( world health organization, 2011c ). while the xpert mtb / rif assay is accurate and can potentially be used outside of a laboratory setting by a minimally trained health worker, it falls short of meeting the ideal poc requirements on two important grounds : at current prices, it is expensive and unaffordable in many settings, and it requires sophisticated equipment that cannot be deployed at the community level ( pai, 2011b ). also, the pricing of xpert mtb / rif assay in the private sector in developing countries is substantially higher than the pricing for the public sector, imposing additional barriers for scale - up. for decades, researchers and the industry had pinned their hopes on ser


al., 2009 ; dowdy et al., 2008 ; keeler et al., 2006 ). the target product profile for such an ideal tb poc test has been recently published ( table 3 ) ( batz et al., 2011 ). however, because of insufficient progress in biomarker research and because of lack of strong industry interest in tb, progress has been much slower than anticipated. in fact, efforts are being made to develop incentive prize models for successful poc tests for tb ( wilson and palriwala, 2011 ). incentive prizes are large cash rewards for achievement of specified objectives, and can be an approach to spur development of novel health technologies ( e. g., diagnostics ) for diseases of poverty and neglected diseases ( wilson and palriwala, 2011 ). while two prizes have been proposed for poc tb tests, neither has been successfully launched ( wilson and palriwala, 2011 ). while a simple, dipstick type of poc test for tb might not be ready in the near future, the landscape is looking more promising for a more decentralized, field - friendly, affordable molecular test, which can be used at the point - of - care to reduce diagnostic delays ( figure 6 ) ( niemz et al., 2011 ). these include hand - held or portable platforms, based on dna chips and / or disposable cartridges ( figure 7 ). many of the technologies under development are capable of detecting many different infectious diseases, and that makes them very attractive for scale - up. for example, a platform that can detect tb, drug - resistant tb, as well as hiv viral loads could be very helpful in a clinic setting. bridging the chasm between hiv and tb control while tb is an ancient disease, the hiv epidemic has been a problem for only 30 years. yet, a comparison of the hiv and tb diagnostics landscapes clearly suggests that research & development ( r & d ) in tb has greatly lagged behind hiv, and there may be several explanations for this big gap ( harrington, 2010 ). patients, providers, and activists have played a major role in pushing for innovations in hiv diagnosis and treatment and in lobbying for price reductions and generic products. funders, researchers, industry, and governments have responded to this pressure by supporting r & d efforts on all fronts ( drugs, diagnostics, and vaccines ). because the hiv epidemic historically began as a disease of the developed world, much of activism generated in the west helped translate the r & d into


eight new grants administered by nida aim to channel students ' natural fascination with their behavior and their brains into appreciation and enthusiasm for neuroscience. grantees are developing k - 12 education programs that will engage young people in learning about the brain, inspire some to pursue careers in biomedical science, and increase teacher knowledge of neuroscience. the 5 - year grants are funded by the nih blueprint for neuroscience research science education, a cooperative effort among the 16 nih institutes, centers, and offices that support neuroscience research and the science education partnership award program of the division of program coordination, planning, and strategic initiatives, office of the director, national institutes of health. dr. susanna cunningham of the university of washington, seattle, will develop two programs in the neuroscience of learning and cognition for middle school science teachers, students, parents, and community groups. teachers will have the opportunity to increase their knowledge by participating in a summer institute and online professional learning community. an online project for students will be designed to broaden their knowledge of the brain and learning processes, scientific research processes, and neuroscience careers. dr. eric chudler heads a university of washington project that will teach middle school students how chemicals in plants and herbs influence health and behavior. a supplementary educational resource kit will supply teachers with inquiry - based, hands - on science activities. students may attend a summer camp to learn more about neuroscience, mental health, neurological fitness, and careers in the biomedical sciences. dr. michael kavanaugh of the university of montana, missoula, will collaborate with the exploratorium in san francisco to create the brainzone, a neuroscience learning center. designed for k - 12 students and adults, the brainzone will feature four exhibits, a computer learning laboratory to teach neuroscience lessons, and a working laboratory with research - grade electroencephalogram ( eeg ) instrumentation and materials for the study of fruit fly neurobiology. the brainzone will open in a high - profile retail mall that tallies 7 million annual visits and will also travel to isolated, underserved, rural, and tribal schools throughout the state. dr. dina markowitz of the university of rochester in new york will develop, field test, disseminate, and evaluate hands - on activities that focus on key concepts of neuroscience for high school biology students. the activities, designed so that teachers can easily integrate them into existing curricula, will also educate students about the ways in which neuroscience research directly applies to their lives as well as about careers that require neuroscience knowledge. this project will also recruit, train


in the september issue of electrical contractor, there was an industry watch story titled “ efficiency from the wall to the pc, ” about an organization that is campaigning for more efficient power “ cords. ” there was a reference to a quote indicating only 50 percent of the power that leaves the outlet reaches the pc because energy “ leaks ” out of inefficient power cords. however, a typical pc line cord has 0. 3 ohms of resistance. if the computer consumes 720w, that is 6a on 120v circuit. the power loss in the cord is 6a ^ 2 * 0. 3 ohm = 7. 8w. relative to the computer itself, that is approximately a 1 percent loss of power delivered from the outlet, a 99 percent efficiency rating. a few readers wrote to us about the inaccurate terminology. it should have read power “ supplies, ” and, of course, energy does not literally “ leak ” out of the power cord. it is lost within the inefficient components, such as the computer ’ s power supply. as with most power quality issues, ohm ’ s and kirchoff ’ s laws still apply here. these rules are how we calculate the voltage and current through an electrical distribution system or an electronic circuit. next, we need another similar equation, where power = voltage × current ( though not necessarily a simple math multiplication in most cases with today ’ s systems ). finally, the formula for efficiency is useful power output divided by the total electrical power consumed. in electrical engineering terms used by the utility companies, this definition equates to the parameter called “ power factor ” ( pf ). many people today use the term “ true power factor, ” which is the watts ( w ) divided by the volt - amperes ( va ). this agrees with the definition above. the w is the power used by the load. it is divided by the va, which is the power delivered by the utility company, to obtain the pf. of course, having a term called “ true power factor ” implies there is another term called “ false power factor, ” which isn ’ t correct ; the opposite term is “ displacement power factor ” ( dpf ), which is the cosine of the angle between the voltage and current. in the old days prior to harmonic distorted and unbalanced systems, pf and dpf would be equal — but not anymore. however, that is a discussion for another day. the web site from which the misworded


voltage and current. in the old days prior to harmonic distorted and unbalanced systems, pf and dpf would be equal — but not anymore. however, that is a discussion for another day. the web site from which the misworded quotes originated explains the inefficiency of the individual voltage regulators on other boards within the computer, as well as the load of the heating, ventilating and air conditioning ( hvac ) systems to remove the heat from the building, and so on, further reducing the efficiency. since most hvacs today use adjustable speed drives to be more efficient, the efficiency of the heat removal depends on the load that is directly impacted by the ambient temperature and emitted temperature from the loads, among other factors. the article on the web site references an electric power research institute study on the efficiency of power supplies themselves. efficiency of just a computer ’ s power supply depends on a number of factors, including the percentage of full - rated power that is being drawn from power supply, operating temperature, input ac voltage level and so on. what this graph doesn ’ t tell is, at lower loading, the current harmonic distortion goes up. so the real efficiency would have to account for the increased losses in the power transformers due to harmonic currents. of course, the lower load means less power itself is being consumed, hence less carbon, energy and, therefore, money. you can see that determining the true efficiency of a computer needs accounting for many variables that can make the answer vary quite significantly. so, i advise anyone to take any claims of money savings through efficiency with a grain of salt. what i really think is important is not the efficiency, but the effectiveness of the power supplied. efficiency should not be confused with effectiveness : a system that wastes most of its input power but produces exactly what it is meant to is effective but not efficient. the term efficiency only makes sense in reference to the desired effect. examples include the incandescent light bulb — 2 percent efficiency at emitting light ; electronic amplifier — 50 percent efficiency to speakers ; and electric kettle — 90 percent efficiency in boiling water. in a computer, the efficiency is significantly affected by the microprocessor. this has been brought to the forefront with amd ’ s introduction of its newly minted quad - core processor, which is code - named barcelona. according to infoworld, “ the chip delivers more than twice the combined integer and floating - point performance of its two - core predecessor at the same thermal envelope …. that, to me, is


magnetic resonance imaging ( mri ) magnetic resonance imaging ( mri ) is a test that uses a magnetic field and pulses of radio wave energy to make pictures of organs and structures inside the body. in many cases mri gives different information about structures in the body than can be seen with an x - ray, ultrasound, or computed tomography ( ct ) scan. mri also may show problems that cannot be seen with other imaging methods. for an mri test, the area of the body being studied is placed inside a special machine that contains a strong magnet. pictures from an mri scan are digital images that can be saved and stored on a computer for more study. the images also can be reviewed remotely, such as in a clinic or an operating room. in some cases, contrast material may be used during the mri scan to show certain structures more clearly. why it is done magnetic resonance imaging ( mri ) is done for many reasons. it is used to find problems such as tumors, bleeding, injury, blood vessel diseases, or infection. mri also may be done to provide more information about a problem seen on an x - ray, ultrasound scan, or ct scan. contrast material may be used during mri to show abnormal tissue more clearly. an mri scan can be done for the : how to prepare before your mri test, tell your doctor and the mri technologist if you : you may need to arrange for someone to drive you home after the test, if you are given a medicine ( sedative ) to help you relax. for an mri of the abdomen or pelvis, you may be asked to not eat or drink for several hours before the test. you may need to sign a consent form that says you understand the risks of an mri and agree to have the test done. talk to your doctor about any concerns you have regarding the need for the test, its risks, how it will be done, or what the results will mean. to help you understand the importance of this test, fill out the medical test information form ( what is a pdf document? ). how it is done a magnetic resonance imaging ( mri ) test is usually done by an mri technologist. the pictures are usually interpreted by a radiologist. but some other types of doctors can also interpret an mri scan. you will need to remove all metal objects ( such as hearing aids, dentures, jewelry, watches, and hairpins ) from your body because these objects may be attracted to the powerful magnet used for the test. you will need to take off all or most of your clothes,


metal objects ( such as hearing aids, dentures, jewelry, watches, and hairpins ) from your body because these objects may be attracted to the powerful magnet used for the test. you will need to take off all or most of your clothes, depending on which area is examined ( you may be allowed to keep on your underwear if it is not in the way ). you will be given a gown to use during the test. if you are allowed to keep some of your clothes on, you should empty your pockets of any coins and cards ( such as credit cards or atm cards ) with scanner strips on them because the mri magnet may erase the information on the cards. during the test you usually lie on your back on a table that is part of the mri scanner. your head, chest, and arms may be held with straps to help you remain still. the table will slide into the space that contains the magnet. a device called a coil may be placed over or wrapped around the area to be scanned. a special belt strap may be used to sense your breathing or heartbeat. this triggers the machine to take the scan at the right time. some people feel nervous ( claustrophobic ) inside the mri magnet. if this keeps you from lying still, you can be given a medicine ( sedative ) to help you relax. some mri machines ( called open mri ) are now made so that the magnet does not enclose your entire body. open mri machines may be helpful if you are claustrophobic, but they are not available everywhere. the pictures from an open mri may not be as good as those from a standard mri machine. see pictures of a standard mri machine and an open mri machine. inside the scanner you will hear a fan and feel air moving. you may also hear tapping or snapping noises as the mri scans are taken. you may be given earplugs or headphones with music to reduce the noise. it is very important to hold completely still while the scan is being done. you may be asked to hold your breath for short periods of time. during the test, you may be alone in the scanner room. but the technologist will watch you through a window. you will be able to talk with the technologist through a two - way intercom. if contrast material is needed, the technologist will put it in an intravenous ( iv ) line in your arm. the material may be given over 1 to 2 minutes. then more mri scans are done. an mri test usually takes 30 to 60


contrast material is needed, the technologist will put it in an intravenous ( iv ) line in your arm. the material may be given over 1 to 2 minutes. then more mri scans are done. an mri test usually takes 30 to 60 minutes but can take as long as 2 hours. how it feels you will not have pain from the magnetic field or radio waves used for the mri test. the table you lie on may feel hard and the room may be cool. you may be tired or sore from lying in one position for a long time. if a contrast material is used, you may feel some coolness and flushing as it is put into your iv. in rare cases, you may feel : there are no known harmful effects from the strong magnetic field used for mri. but the magnet is very powerful. the magnet may affect pacemakers, artificial limbs, and other medical devices that contain iron. the magnet will stop a watch that is close to the magnet. any loose metal object has the risk of causing damage or injury if it gets pulled toward the strong magnet. metal parts in the eyes can damage the retina. if you may have metal fragments in the eye, an x - ray of the eyes may be done before the mri. if metal is found, the mri will not be done. iron pigments in tattoos or tattooed eyeliner can cause skin or eye irritation. an mri can cause a burn with some medication patches. be sure to tell your health professional if you are wearing a patch. there is a slight risk of an allergic reaction if contrast material is used during the mri. but most reactions are mild and can be treated using medicine. there also is a slight risk of an infection at the iv site. a magnetic resonance imaging ( mri ) is a test that uses a magnetic field and pulses of radio wave energy to make pictures of organs and structures inside the body. the radiologist may discuss initial results of the mri with you right after the test. complete results are usually ready for your doctor in 1 to 2 days. an mri can sometimes find a problem in a tissue or organ even when the size and shape of the tissue or organ looks normal. what affects the test reasons you may not be able to have the test or why the results may not be helpful include : many modern medical devices that do not use electronics — such as heart valves, stents, or clips — can be safely placed in most mri machines. but some newer mri machines have stronger magnets. the safety of mri scans with these stronger mri magnet


click on a thumbnail to see the full - size image the story of why engine oil becomes engine sludge in engines that have failed prematurely, the oil has very often been transformed into a high viscosity deposit of brown or black goo, commonly referred to as " sludge. " by don fedak fresh engine oil is a clear, free - flowing liquid blend of base stock and additives that contains no fuel, water, coolant, dirt, or other when regular engine oil changes are neglected, normally free - flowing lubricating oil breaks down, becomes contaminated, ceases to flow, and is transformed into a thick soup of waste products. that ’ s when serious engine damage is imminent. why does engine oil break down, combine with contaminants, and form sludge deposits? chemistry teaches that engine oil is unstable and decomposes in the presence of oxygen at high temperature. the process, called oxidation, occurs naturally after exposure to normal operating conditions for extended periods of time and is accelerated by exposure to severe operating conditions or to excessively high temperatures. alternatively, accelerated oxidation may be triggered by a combination of any or all of these factors. during oxidation, the chemical bonds that define the oil molecules are broken, and some of the reaction products accumulate and interact to form a highly viscous complex mixture of solids, liquids, and gases that contain a variety of solid carbon - based dirt and metallic particles, as well as liquid coolant, fuel, oil and water droplets. but what can we possibly learn from a sludged engine? consider our reliable 40 - year - old 10 - hp shop compressor that has delivered zillions of cubic feet of pressurized air daily from its ambient temperature shelter. while the electric motor and the v - belts have been replaced twice, the only other routine service this air - cooled v4 compressor has received, other than having the condensed water drained from the tank, is an occasional oil change. when the used, unfiltered hd - 30 oil is drained from its crankcase it shows no evidence of contamination or oxidation and looks like fresh oil. a typical internal combustion engine is just an air compressor in which fuel is mixed with compressed air and then burned. the combustion process generates heat and a variety of reaction products, some of which enter the crankcase as blow - by and contaminate the oil, e. g., fuel, soot, water and other normal reactants, products and byproducts. even though the oil temperature is high enough to boil off and


the crankcase as blow - by and contaminate the oil, e. g., fuel, soot, water and other normal reactants, products and byproducts. even though the oil temperature is high enough to boil off and extract all the water and other volatile contaminants via the pcv system, this crankcase broth will inevitably change into a deposit that does not drain when the oil is changed. air - cooled gas or diesel engines are just air compressors in which the engine oil is subject to oxidation because they are exposed to higher temperatures and contamination by combustion products. if the engine is liquid - cooled, the engine oil may also become contaminated with coolant. lesson # 1 : sludge deposits in internal combustion engines can indicate either stop - and - go driving, lack of proper maintenance, too low or too high an oil temperature or oil contamination. sludge formation is not a new problem. in fact, sludge deposits limited the durability of early internal combustion engines. over the years, oil base stocks were improved, detergent oil additives were developed to keep microscopic sludge - forming solid particles in suspension, anti - oxidation additives were developed to slow the formation of these sludge deposit precursors, and engine oil filters were fitted to remove suspended solid particles from the oil stream and slow the formation of flow restricting sludge deposits on internal surfaces. changes in engine oil formulation and treatment accelerated with the introduction of " permanent " glycol - based coolant, another oil contaminant that may accelerate sludge formation. with the recent increased popularity of wet - sleeved engines, as well as the introduction of alternative but incompatible coolants, we are seeing more engine bearing failures. lesson # 2 : sludge deposits may be due to inferior oil, deterioration of the oil additives or contamination by coolant. when " detergent oils " first appeared, everyone ’ s engine repair business increased. tired, worn out engines, full of sludge deposits because they had always been serviced with non - detergent oils, were ill advisedly transfused with detergent oil, which promptly attacked the sludge deposits. engine bearing surfaces were flooded with oil containing a high concentration of newly suspended sludge particles. and during the phase - in of detergent engine oils, a number of chemical elixirs for " engine oil desludging " appeared. with current engines, we often encounter similar failures when engines are accidentally overfilled and loosen normally benign engine deposits. unless you ’ re


here, now, are two great whales, laying their heads together ; let us join them, and lay together our own. of the grand order of folio leviathans, the sperm whale and the right whale are by far the most noteworthy. they are the only whales regularly hunted by man. to the nantucketer, they present the two extremes of all the known varieties of the whale. as the external difference between them is mainly observable in their heads ; and as a head of each is this moment hanging from the pequod ' s side ; and as we may freely go from one to the other, by merely stepping across the deck : - - where, i should like to know, will you obtain a better chance to study practical cetology than here? in the first place, you are struck by the general contrast between these heads. both are massive enough in all conscience ; but there is a certain mathematical symmetry in the sperm whale ' s which the right whale ' s sadly lacks. there is more character in the sperm whale ' s head. as you behold it, you involuntarily yield the immense superiority to him, in point of pervading dignity. in the present instance, too, this dignity is heightened by the pepper and salt colour of his head at the summit, giving token of advanced age and large experience. in short, he is what the fishermen technically call a " grey - headed whale. " let us now note what is least dissimilar in these heads - - namely, the two most important organs, the eye and the ear. far back on the side of the head, and low down, near the angle of either whale ' s jaw, if you narrowly search, you will at last see a lashless eye, which you would fancy to be a young colt ' s eye ; so out of all proportion is it to the magnitude of the head. now, from this peculiar sideway position of the whale ' s eyes, it is plain that he can never see an object which is exactly ahead, no more than he can one exactly astern. in a word, the position of the whale ' s eyes corresponds to that of a man ' s ears ; and you may fancy, for yourself, how it would fare with you, did you sideways survey objects through your ears. you would find that you could only command some thirty degrees of vision in advance of the straight side - line of sight ; and about thirty more behind it. if your bitterest foe were walking straight


you, did you sideways survey objects through your ears. you would find that you could only command some thirty degrees of vision in advance of the straight side - line of sight ; and about thirty more behind it. if your bitterest foe were walking straight towards you, with dagger uplifted in broad day, you would not be able to see him, any more than if he were stealing upon you from behind. in a word, you would have two backs, so to speak ; but, at the same time, also, two fronts ( side fronts ) : for what is it that makes the front of a man - - what, indeed, but his eyes? moreover, while in most other animals that i can now think of, the eyes are so planted as imperceptibly to blend their visual power, so as to produce one picture and not two to the brain ; the peculiar position of the whale ' s eyes, effectually divided as they are by many cubic feet of solid head, which towers between them like a great mountain separating two lakes in valleys ; this, of course, must wholly separate the impressions which each independent organ imparts. the whale, therefore, must see one distinct picture on this side, and another distinct picture on that side ; while all between must be profound darkness and nothingness to him. man may, in effect, be said to look out on the world from a sentry - box with two joined sashes for his window. but with the whale, these two sashes are separately inserted, making two distinct windows, but sadly impairing the view. this peculiarity of the whale ' s eyes is a thing always to be borne in mind in the fishery ; and to be remembered by the reader in some subsequent scenes. a curious and most puzzling question might be started concerning this visual matter as touching the leviathan. but i must be content with a hint. so long as a man ' s eyes are open in the light, the act of seeing is involuntary ; that is, he cannot then help mechanically seeing whatever objects are before him. nevertheless, any one ' s experience will teach him, that though he can take in an undiscriminating sweep of things at one glance, it is quite impossible for him, attentively, and completely, to examine any two things - - however large or however small - - at one and the same instant of time ; never mind if they lie side by side and touch each other. but if you now come to separate these two


studies suggest that only 31 % of europe is thought to have a water supply that is either plentiful or sufficient to meet demands until 2015, and water stress indexes show a number of countries with traditionally wet climates such as belgium and bulgaria, under significant water stress. therefore, there is both a desire and a need to reduce the consumption of water over much of europe. for industry, often economics determine the viability of water recycling, which does not necessarily fall under the standards currently being set for the major water reuse schemes. while the additional annual recycling capacity in western europe is set to increase by 10 %, much of the global market is focussed on major reuse facilities based on the municipal sector. within the industrial sector there are opportunities to achieve major changes in the water cycle which can have a significant impact on total water consumption. the impact on regional water consumption by industries efforts can be massive, as industry accounts for 50 % of the water consumption in western europe. when benchmarked data across industry sectors is analysed, we find that industries ranging from paper mills, dairy, beverage, ceramic and electronics have opportunities to reduce their water consumption by around 50 %. but what are the mechanisms that drive actions in the industry water cycle, and how great can the impact be? this paper explores industrial water costs across europe, and the drivers leading to reduced water consumption. as operators of water and wastewater facilities for many industrial customers across europe, ondeo industrial solutions examine the raw water costs and the viability of recycle schemes. economics is not the only driver towards the reduction in water consumption on industrial sites. there are political and legislative drivers that can often override the economics such as the european ppc ( pollution prevention and control ) directive that can often lead to a programme of water consumption reductions. water science and technology : water supply is published as an adjunct to water science and technology, in 6 issues per year, covering new developments in water supply. papers are selected by a rigorous peer review procedure and the journal publi » read more


an earthquake is a sudden vibration or trembling in the earth. more than 150, 000 tremors strong enough to be felt by humans occur each year worldwide ( see chance of an earthquake ). earthquake motion is caused by the quick release of stored potential energy into the kinetic energy of motion. most earthquakes are produced along faults, tectonic plate boundary zones, or along the mid - oceanic ridges ( figures 1 and 2 ). figure 1 : distribution of earthquake epicenters from 1975 to 1995. depth of the earthquake focus is indicated by color. deep earthquakes occur in areas where oceanic crust is being actively subducted. about 90 % of all earthquakes occur at a depth between 0 and 100 kilometers. ( source : u. s. geologic survey, national earthquake information center ) figure 2 : distribution of earthquakes with a magnitude less than 5. 0 relative to the various tectonic plates found on the earth ' s surface. each tectonic plate has been given a unique color. this illustration indicates that the majority of small earthquakes occur along plate boundaries. ( source : physicalgeography. net ) at these areas, large masses of rock that are moving past each other can become locked due to friction. friction is overcome when the accumulating stress has enough force to cause a sudden slippage of the rock masses. the magnitude of the shock wave released into the surrounding rocks is controlled by the quantity of stress built up because of friction, the distance the rock moved when the slippage occurred, and ability of the rock to transmit the energy contained in the seismic waves. the san francisco earthquake of 1906 involved a six meter horizontal displacement of bedrock. sometime after the main shock wave, aftershocks can occur because of the continued release of frictional stress. most aftershocks are smaller than the main earthquake, but they can still cause considerable damage to already weakened natural and human - constructed features. earthquakes that occur under or near bodies of water can give rise to tsunamis, which in cases like the december 26, 2004 sumatra - andaman island earthquake reult in far greater distruction and loss of life that the initial earthquake. earthquakes are a form of wave energy that is transferred through bedrock. motion is transmitted from the point of sudden energy release, the earthquake focus ( hypocenter ), as spherical seismic waves that travel in all directions outward ( figure 3 ). the point on the earth ' s surface directly above the focus is termed the epicenter. two different types of seismic waves have been described by geologists : body waves and surface waves


spherical seismic waves that travel in all directions outward ( figure 3 ). the point on the earth ' s surface directly above the focus is termed the epicenter. two different types of seismic waves have been described by geologists : body waves and surface waves. body waves are seismic waves that travel through the lithosphere. two kinds of body waves exist : p - waves and s - waves. both of these waves produce a sharp jolt or shaking. p - waves or primary waves are formed by the alternate expansion and contraction of bedrock and cause the volume of the material they travel through to change. they travel at a speed of about 5 to 7 kilometers per second through the lithosphere and about 8 kilometers per second in the asthenosphere. the speed of sound is about 0. 30 kilometers per second. p - waves also have the ability to travel through solid, liquid, and gaseous materials. when some p - waves move from the ground to the lower atmosphere, the sound wave that is produced can sometimes be heard by humans and animals. figure 3 : movement of body waves away from the focus of the earthquake. the epicenter is the location on the surface directly above the earthquake ' s focus. ( source : physicalgeography. net ) s - waves or secondary waves are a second type of body wave. these waves are slower than p - waves and can only move through solid materials. s - waves are produced by shear stresses and move the materials they pass through in a perpendicular ( up and down or side to side ) direction. surface waves travel at or near the earth ' s surface. these waves produce a rolling or swaying motion causing the earth ' s surface to behave like waves on the ocean. the velocity of these waves is slower than body waves. despite their slow speed, these waves are particularly destructive to human construction because they cause considerable ground movement. earthquake magnitude and energy | table 1 : relationship between richter scale magnitude and energy released. | | 2. 0 | | 1. 3 x 108 | | smallest earthquake detectable by people. | | 5. 0 | | 2. 8 x 1012 | | energy released by the hiroshima atomic bomb. | | 6. 0 - 6. 9 | | 7. 6 x 1013 to 1. 5 x 1015 | | about 120 shallow earthquakes of this magnitude occur each year on the earth. | 6. 7 | | 7. 7 x 1014 | | northridge, california earthquake january 17, 1994. | | 7. 0 | | 2


continental crust. recent seismic studies in the central united states have discovered one such fault located thousands of meters below the lower mississippi valley. some large earthquakes occur at particular locations along the plate boundaries. scientists believe that these areas represent zones along adjacent plates that have greater frictional resistance and stress. figure 4 : distribution of earthquakes with a magnitude less than 5 on the richter scale. ( image source : physicalgeography. net ) figure 5 : distribution of earthquakes with a magnitude greater than 7 on the richter scale. ( image source : physicalgeography. net ) the richter scale magnitude, while the most known, is one of several measures of the magnitude of an earthquake. the most commonly used are : - local magnitude ( ml ), commonly referred to as " richter magnitude ; " - surface - wave magnitude ( ms ) ; - body - wave magnitude ( mb ) ; and - moment magnitude ( mw ). scales 1 to 3 have limited range and applicability and do not satisfactorily measure the size of the largest earthquakes. the moment magnitude ( mw ) scale, based on the concept of seismic moment, is uniformly applicable to all sizes of earthquakes but is more difficult to compute than the other types. all magnitude scales should yield approximately the same value for any given earthquake. the severity of an earthquake can be expressed in terms of both intensity and magnitude. however, the two terms are quite different, and they are often confused. intensity is based on the observed effects of ground shaking on people, buildings, and natural features. it varies from place to place within the disturbed region depending on the location of the observer with respect to the earthquake epicenter while magnitude is related to the amount of seismic energy released at the hypocenter of the earthquake. although numerous intensity scales have been developed over the last several hundred years to evaluate the effects of earthquakes, the one currently used in the united states is the modified mercalli ( mm ) intensity scale. the lower numbers of the intensity scale generally deal with the manner in which the earthquake is felt by people. the higher numbers of the scale are based on observed structural damage. structural engineers usually contribute information for assigning intensity values of vlll or above. the following is an abbreviated description of the 12 levels of modified mercalli intensity. i. not felt except by a very few under especially favorable conditions. ii. felt only by a few persons at rest, especially on upper floors of buildings. delicately suspended objects may swing. iii. felt quite noticeably by persons indoors, especially on upper floors of


not felt except by a very few under especially favorable conditions. ii. felt only by a few persons at rest, especially on upper floors of buildings. delicately suspended objects may swing. iii. felt quite noticeably by persons indoors, especially on upper floors of buildings. many people do not recognize it as an earthquake. standing motor cars may rock slightly. vibration similar to the passing of a truck. duration estimated. iv. felt indoors by many, outdoors by few during the day. at night, some awakened. dishes, windows, doors disturbed ; walls make cracking sound. sensation like heavy truck striking building. standing motor cars rocked noticeably. v. felt by nearly everyone ; many awakened. some dishes, windows broken. unstable objects overturned. pendulum clocks may stop. vl. felt by all, many frightened. some heavy furniture moved ; a few instances of fallen plaster. damage slight. vll. damage negligible in buildings of good design and construction ; slight to moderate in well - built ordinary structures ; considerable damage in poorly built or badly designed structures ; some chimneys broken. vlll. damage slight in specially designed structures ; considerable damage in ordinary substantial buildings with partial collapse. damage great in poorly built structures. fall of chimneys, factory stacks, columns, monuments, walls. heavy furniture overturned. ix. damage considerable in specially designed structures ; well - designed frame structures thrown out of plumb. damage great in substantial buildings, with partial collapse. buildings shifted off foundations. x. some well - built wooden structures destroyed ; most masonry and frame structures destroyed with foundations. rails bent. xl. few, if any ( masonry ) structures remain standing. bridges destroyed. rails bent greatly. xll. damage total. lines of sight and level are distorted. objects thrown into the air. earthquake damage and destruction earthquakes are a considerable hazard to humans. earthquakes can cause destruction by structurally damaging buildings and dwellings, fires, tsunamis, and mass wasting ( see figures 6 to 10 ). earthquakes can also take human lives. the amount of damage and loss of life depends on a number of factors. some of the more important factors are : - time of day. higher losses of life tend to occur on weekdays between the hours of 9 : 00 am to 4 : 00 pm. during this time interval many people are in large buildings because of work or school. large structures are often less safe than smaller homes in an earthquake. - magnitude of the earthquake and duration of the event. - distance form the earthquake ' s focus. the strength of the shock waves diminish


jamaican sprinter usain bolt ' s record - setting performances have unleashed a wave of interest in the ultimate limits to human running speed. a new study published in the journal of applied physiology offers intriguing insights into the biology and perhaps even the future of human running speed. the newly published evidence identifies the critical variable imposing the biological limit to running speed, and offers an enticing view of how the biological limits might be pushed back beyond the nearly 28 miles per hour speeds achieved by bolt to speeds of perhaps 35 or even 40 miles per hour. the new paper, " the biological limits to running speed are imposed from the ground up, " was authored by peter weyand of southern methodist university ; rosalind sandell and danille prime, both formerly of rice university ; and matthew bundle of the university of wyoming. " the prevailing view that speed is limited by the force with which the limbs can strike the running surface is an eminently reasonable one, " said weyand, associate professor of applied physiology and biomechanics at smu in dallas. " if one considers that elite sprinters can apply peak forces of 800 to 1, 000 pounds with a single limb during each sprinting step, it ' s easy to believe that runners are probably operating at or near the force limits of their muscles and limbs, " he said. " however, our new data clearly show that this is not the case. despite how large the running forces can be, we found that the limbs are capable of applying much greater ground forces than those present during top - speed forward running. " in contrast to a force limit, what the researchers found was that the critical biological limit is imposed by time - – specifically, the very brief periods of time available to apply force to the ground while sprinting. in elite sprinters, foot - ground contact times are less than one - tenth of one second, and peak ground forces occur within less than one - twentieth of one second of the first instant of foot - ground contact. the researchers took advantage of several experimental tools to arrive at the new conclusions. they used a high - speed treadmill capable of attaining speeds greater than 40 miles per hour and of acquiring precise measurements of the forces applied to the surface with each footfall. they also had subjects ' perform at high speeds in different gaits. in addition to completing traditional top - speed forward running tests, subjects hopped on one leg and ran backward to their fastest possible speeds on the treadmill. the unconventional tests were strategically selected to test the prevailing beliefs about mechanical factors that limit human


samuel d. evans west central experiment station university of minnesota now emeritus professor at morris, minnesota john f. moncrief department of soil, water, and climate university of minnesota gyles w. randall southern experiment station university of minnesota william e. lueschen department of agronomy and plant genetics university of minnesota formerly head of the southwest experiment station at lamberton copyright © 2002 regents of the university of minnesota. all rights reserved. management of crop residues with reduced tillage is the most cost - effective method of controlling sediment losses and reducing farming impacts on water quality. crop residues can also help reduce wind erosion and can enhance snow entrapment. one of the primary water quality concerns for the minnesota river and its tributaries is sediment, which contributes increased phosphorus ( p ) to the system. this increased p stimulates algae growth, which is followed by an increased biological oxygen demand when the algae die and decompose. this can deplete dissolved oxygen levels, resulting in game fish stress or kill. in addition to affecting sediment loss, tillage influences many interacting physical, chemical, and biological properties of soils that can have major impacts on crop production. these properties include temperature, moisture, aeration, bulk density, structure, nutrient distribution, organic matter levels, and microbial populations. various crops respond to these changes differently. the range of these changes can be amplified by extremes in tillage reduction associated with some residue management alternatives. small grain is insensitive to temperature changes but may respond to changes in the seed furrow environment and to differing weed species present. small grain is a prominent part of the agriculture in the upper minnesota river basin. following is a discussion of residue management tillage system effects on small grain production. on soils classified highly erodible land ( hel ) the general requirement is 30 percent residue cover after planting. on non - hel soils the steepness and length of the slopes will indicate the potential for significant erosion. a second soil factor that must be considered is internal drainage. poorly drained soils warm up more slowly than well - drained soils, so may require more tillage. tile drainage may improve this situation, but in some cases this may not be enough to insure consistent success with little or no tillage. a third factor is soil fertility level. having a high level of fertility is necessary if reduced tillage systems are to perform well. low fertility conditions offer too many obstacles and generally limit yields in reduced tillage systems. it is important to effectively control sediment at high soil test p levels. research has shown


introductionfox, carnivorous mammal of the dog family, found throughout most of the northern hemisphere. it has a pointed face, short legs, long, thick fur, and a tail about one half to two thirds as long as the head and body, depending on the species. solitary most of the year, foxes do not live in dens except in the breeding season ; they sleep concealed in grasses or thickets, their tails curled around them for warmth. during the breeding season a fox pair establishes a den, often in a ground burrow made by another animal, in which the young are raised ; the male hunts for the family. the young are on their own after about five months ; the adults probably find new mates each season. foxes feed on insects, earthworms, small birds and mammals, eggs, carrion, and vegetable matter, especially fruits. unlike other members of the dog family, which run down their prey, foxes usually hunt by stalking and pouncing. they are known for their raids on poultry but are nonetheless very beneficial to farmers as destroyers of rodents. foxes are occasionally preyed upon by larger carnivores, such as wolves and bobcats, as well as by humans and their dogs ; birds of prey may capture the young. despite extensive killing of foxes, most species continue to flourish. in europe this is due in part to the regulatory laws passed for the benefit of hunters. mounted foxhunting, with dogs, became popular in the 14th cent. and was later introduced into the americas ; special hunting dogs, called foxhounds, have been bred for this sport. great britain banned foxhunting in which the hounds kill the fox in 2005. the columbia electronic encyclopedia, 6th ed. copyright © 2012, columbia university press. all rights reserved. see more encyclopedia articles on : vertebrate zoology


stream quality assessment program a stream is a combination of all of its physical, chemical and biological characteristics. human activities shape and alter many of these characteristics. the health of our rivers and streams is closely linked to their surrounding watersheds. ecologists measure the extent to which human activities affect watershed health by gathering and recording information on physical conditions, water quality and living communities in streams and in the surrounding environment. the long - term stream monitoring program meets the requirements of state and federal regulations and supports the board of supervisors ' environmental improvement program by providing an ongoing evaluation of the streams. the program maintains a substantial database, which over time will be used to determine the overall rate of change or trends in the conditions of our waterways. based on biological data collected at 39 randomly selected locations ( see map of monitoring site locations ) throughout fairfax county in 2012, approximately 75. 0 percent of fairfax county ' s streams are in fair to very poor condition. this indicates that many of our streams are significantly impaired and lack biological diversity. the stream quality index ( sqi ) is based on annual data collected on resident populations of benthic macroinvertebrates ( animals without a backbone that live on the bottom of a stream, river, lake and are visible to the naked eye ). as benthic macroinvertebrates are good indicators of water quality, the sqi is used to evaluate long - term trends in the overall health of streams. each of the 39 randomly selected locations is placed in one of five rating categories ( excellent, good, fair, poor or very poor ) based on the diversity of benthic macroinvertebrates found in that stream segment. an index value ranging from one to five, with a higher number indicating better stream quality, is calculated for the year based on the percent of sampling locations that fall into each rating category. results from 2004 through 2012 can be found in the table below. the 2012 sqi shows a decrease in overall stream quality from 2011. over the past nine years of sampling, a very small increase in the overall index has emerged. as more data are reported annually, trends can be identified with greater certainty. | sampling year | | percent very poor | | percent poor | | percent fair | | percent good | | percent excellent | | stream quality index | stream and watershed health are evaluated using a variety of indicators such as water quality parameters, bacteria levels, resident invertebrate and fish communities and habitat conditions. the results of the yearly monitoring events are compiled into annual reports and are used to support other environmental initiatives. additional


wool rugs have what is called a particular " hand " or texture that reflects the level of ' scratchiness ' found in the finished product. the manner of grooming and shearing and resulting processing of the fiber can vary widely amongst carpet producers. further complications regarding the wide range in texture is the fact that it varies considerably across the body of an individual sheep, as well as differences related to and based on the actual sex of the sheep. add in nutritional factors, age and the general health of the sheep, and you have yet another class of variables to mix into the fold. wool rugs, such as in many oriental designs, incorporate a process in which the individual weavers harvest a longer wool fiber bearing a greater overall density, sometimes twice the size of other wool fiber, thus giving rise to a very different finished wool area rug. the resulting product, whether oriental or not, retained a luster often missing from modern designs which typically utilize inappropriate or inferior wool fiber and then apply cheap but boldly hued synthetic colors to the weaving process. modern machine woven techniques lack the subtlety in coloring and texture as well as even the element of human error and irregularity uniquely found and favored in antique productions found in such places as persia or india. wool rug research into synthetic dyeing processes intensified in the 19th century as european producers sought to re - create and reproduce the complexity, design and detail of the nomadic oriental weaver. this led to a literal mass production so that european and american consumers could participate in the home furnishings phenomenon. coloring properties were expanded to accept color treatments based on fuchsin dyes, with colors ranging from fuchsin - magenta to basic red to basic violet to acid violet and red violet. oriental or contemporary design elements could now use these fuchsin dyes to achieve an initially startling effect. one drawback though, however, was that these same fuchsin dyes were highly light sensitive, and accordingly would rapidly fade or gray with exposure to normal levels of diffused sunlight. even during the first quarter of the 20th century this process was still being utilized. the result was that these chemically unstable fuchsin dyes guaranteed an underlying flow of repeat buyers who would eventually discard their now graying and dull flooring after only a short number of years of use, and purchase a new one. meanwhile, the antique market, which is based solely on organically produced vegetable dyes, continues to provid buyers with far greater wear and coloring vibrancy. © 2011 floorbiz, inc. all


9. 0 sleepwatch ® ( actigraphy ) measure of sleep on workdays and non - workdays it was hypothesized that deployment of a combination of four fatigue management technologies would result in increased sleep time ( actigraph determined ) under both canadian hours - of - service ( study phase 1 ) and u. s. hours - of - service ( study phase 2 ). however, analyses of actigraphy data for sleep episodes in the no feedback versus feedback conditions revealed no statistically significant differences in sleep duration in either the canada study phase or the u. s. study phase ( see " prior sleep " variable in tables 13 and 24 ). " prior sleep " was defined by all the sleep time found in each 24 - hour period ( from noon to noon, across consecutive days in the 2 - week period for each condition ) using an actigraphic software program called " action 4 " ( developed by ambulatory monitoring, inc., ardsley, ny ), as well as software that could recognize and eliminate from consideration periods of time when the actigraph was not on the wrist of a driver. although the overall comparisons of actigraphically - defined 24 - hour cumulative sleep time ( prior sleep ) were not different between the feedback and no feedback conditions, it was clear that the u. s. study phase drivers had an average of 50 minutes less sleep per day than their canadian counterparts during the no feedback condition, and 39 minutes less sleep per day than their canadian counterparts during the feedback condition ( compare " prior sleep " in tables 13 and 24 ). the reduced daily sleep times in the u. s. drivers were consistent with the differences between study phases in the predominant time - of - day for driving - canada drivers had approximately 75 % of their driving in daylight ( and therefore, slept mostly in the nighttime ), while u. s. drivers had approximately 90 % of their driving at night ( and therefore slept more in the daytime ). it has long been established that sleep duration is reduced when people work nights, owing to circadian biological forces and environmental factors, which alone or together can truncate daytime sleep durations. analyses were performed to determine whether the actigraphically - defined sleep duration differences of 50 minutes ( no feedback difference between canada and u. s. ) and 39 minutes ( feedback difference between canada and u. s. ) were statistically significantly different from each other. in addition, sleep durations would likely be affected by workdays and non - workdays


the ilc promises extraordinary power in the study of the terascale. the annihilation of an electron and its antiparticle, the positron, allows the understanding of collisions to an unparalleled level of detail and precision. as others have comprehensively documented, the ilc view of the terascale, complementary to the lhc ' s perspective, makes the ilc an essential tool for unraveling new phenomena discovered at these extreme energies. it makes the ilc the top priority at fermilab for a future global facility. a superconducting ilc cavity credit : fermilab visual media services the ilc ' s opportunities for discovery have motivated the global particle physics community to come together in an effort to design the accelerator and its experimental program. the completion of the reference design report in early 2007 and the structuring of a collaborative worldwide r & d program represent successful community efforts. fermilab has contributed strongly to this effort : the design of the accelerator ; the development of superconducting radio - frequency, or scrf, technology in the u. s. ; the design of the physics and experimental program ; the site studies necessary for hosting the ilc at or near fermilab ; and the establishment of a test - beam facility for the development of ilc detectors. the ilc and related scrf efforts at fermilab make up by far the laboratory ' s largest future program. in the next phase of the ilc effort, fermilab ' s aim is to be a leader in the global engineering design and in the development of the scrf technology, steps necessary to reach a decision early in the next decade to build the ilc. fermilab is building the required infrastructure and test facilities and is coordinating the national efforts in the development of scrf technology, in collaboration with national and international partners in europe, asia and the u. s. to these efforts fermilab brings strong engineering capability, accelerator physics expertise and technology development skills. innovative detectors will be key to exploiting the ilc physics opportunities. in general, an improvement in resolution of both tracking and calorimetric detectors over the present state - of - the - art detectors will allow experimenters to distinguish the signals of new physics from backgrounds much more efficiently. fermilab has a strong instrumentation development effort in collaboration with laboratories and universities across the world. just as important for the global ilc effort, fermilab has developed and will operate a flexible high - energy test beam to provide


much more efficiently. fermilab has a strong instrumentation development effort in collaboration with laboratories and universities across the world. just as important for the global ilc effort, fermilab has developed and will operate a flexible high - energy test beam to provide a variety of particles and energies for testing detector technologies. a simulation of the decay of a z + higgs to four jets in an ilc detector credit : norman graf fermilab ' s goal is to host the ilc. geographically and geologically, the site is nearly optimal and could house the central facilities of the ilc, such as damping rings and experimental halls. two important aspects of fermilab ' s activities over the next three years are the study of the site and the design of conventional facilities necessary for the engineering design and working with the neighboring communities on issues associated with hosting the ilc in the region. fermilab has vigorously collaborated with local residents over the last two years, first with the community task force and currently with the ilc citizens ' task force and the envoy program. these activities will strengthen over the next three years of engineering design. finally, fermilab is strengthening its engineering capabilities as the laboratory moves toward the design of global accelerators. unlike the case of the detector community, which is accustomed to building detectors collaboratively across continents, much less collaboration has taken place in the development of global accelerators. the ilc is breaking new ground in this regard, and it is important that fermilab have the strongest engineering capabilities and systems in place in order to lead in the integration of components produced around the world into a functioning accelerator. the ilc is key to the future of u. s. particle physics and to fermilab ' s future.


" ph. d. dissertation, gottingen, 1921. this dissertation forms the basis for the material in the present article. nicoladoni, a. johannes bunderlin von linz und die oberosterreichischen taufergemeinden in den jahren 1525 - 1531. berlin, 1893. oyer, john. " the writings of luther against the anabaptists. " mennonite quarterly review 27 ( april 1953 ). oyer, john. " the writings of melanchthon against the anabaptists. " mennonite quarterly review 26 ( october 1952 ). paulus, nikolaus. protestantismus und tolerant im sechzehnten jahrhundert. freiburg i. br., 1911. richter, a. l. die evangelischen kirchenordnungen des 16. jahrhunderts, 1, 2. weimar, 1846. schraepler, horst. " die rechtliche behandlung der taufer in wurttemberg, hessen, baden, kurpfalz und der deutschen schweiz in den jahren 1525 - 1618. " tubingen doctoral dissertation, 1956. sehling, emil, ed. die evangelischen kirchenordnungen des 16. jahrhunderts i, part i. leipzig, 1902. wappler, paul. inquisition und ketzerprozesse in zwickau zur reformationszeit. leipzig, 1908. wiswedel, wilhelm. bilder and fuhrergestalten aus dem taufertum. 3 v. kassel : j. g. oncken verlag, 1928 - 1952. adapted by permission of herald press, harrisonburg, virginia, and waterloo, ontario, from mennonite encyclopedia, vol. 3, pp. 129 - 132. all rights reserved. for information on ordering the encyclopedia visit the herald press website. ©1996 - 2013 by the global anabaptist mennonite encyclopedia online. all rights reserved. to cite this page : mla style : crous, ernst and wilhelm wiswedel. " juridical procedures relating to the anabaptists. " global anabaptist mennonite encyclopedia online. 1957. web. 23 may 2013. http : / / www. gameo. org / encyclopedia / contents / j864. html. apa style : crous, ernst and wilhelm wiswedel. ( 1957 ). jurid


and coatings, hob tool design characteristics, process speeds and feeds, hob shifting strategies, wear characteristics, etc. the paper will also discuss the use of a common denominator method for evaluating hob tool life in terms of meters ( or inches ) per hob tooth as an alternative to tool life expressed in parts per sharpening. there are great advantages in dry hobbing, not only for friendliness toward the environment, but also for increasing productivity and for decreasing manufacturing cost. dry hobbing, however, often causes failures in hob cutting edges or problems with the surface quality of gear tooth flanks. these difficulties are not present when hobbing with cutting oil. pinching and crushing of generated chips between the hob cutting edge and the work gear tooth flank is considered a major cause of those problems. gear hobbing is a generating process. the term generating refers to the fact that the gear tooth form cut is not the conjugate form of the cutting tool, the hob. during hobbing both the hob and the workpiece rotate in a continuous rotational relationship. during this rotation, the hob is typically fed axially with all the teeth being gradually formed as the tool traverses the work face ( see fig. 1a ). this is part ii of a two - part series on the basics of gear hobbing. part i discussed selection of the correct type of hobbing operation, the design features of hobs and hob accuracy. this part will cover sharpening errors and finish hob design considerations. the first part of this article, which ran in the september / october 1994 issue, explained the fundamentals of gear hobbing and some of the latest techniques, including methods of hob performance analysis and new tool configurations, being used to solve specific application problems. in this issue, the author continues his exploration of hobbing by describing the effects of progress on requirements in accuracy, as well as the latest in materials, coating and dry hobbing. we make a lot of single - start worm and worm gear sets, and it always seems as though we ' re buying another special hob. we also do a lot of spur gear cutting, and the spur gear hobs and the worm gear hobs look alike, so we wonder why we cannot use the standard hobs for cutting worm gears too. can we do this? two questions on hobbing cover the various types of hobs and their unusual names, as well as the importance of hob swivel angle. today ' s high technology hobs are


prolong tool life — is shown by means of gear finish hobbing. typical profile angle deviations that occur with increasing tool wear are discussed. finally, an approach is presented here to attain improved profile accuracy over the whole tool life of the finishing hob. chicago - results of recent studies on residual stress in gear hobbing, hobbing without lubricants and heat treating were reported by representatives of infac ( instrumented factory for gears ) at an industry briefing in march of this year. can a gear profile generated by the hobbing method be an ideal involute? in strictly theoretical terms - no, but in practicality - yes. a gear profile generated by the hobbing method is an approximation of the involute curve. let ' s review a classic example of an approximation. many people in the gear industry have heard of skiving, a process wherein solid carbide or inserted carbide blade hobs with 15 - 60 degrees of negative rake are used to recut gears to 62 rc. the topic of this article is the use of neutral ( zero ) rake solid carbide hobs to remove heat treat distortion, achieving accuracies of agma 8 to agma 14, din 10 - 5 and improving surface finish on gears from 8 dp - 96 dp (. 3 module -. 26 m. ). in addition to the face milling system, the face hobbing process has been developed and widely employed by the gear industry. however, the mechanism of the face hobbing process is not well known. with reference to the machining of an involute spur or helical gear by the hobbing process, this paper suggests a new criterion for selecting the position of the hob axis relative to the gear axis. the gear hobbing process is a generating type of production operation. for this reason, the form of the hob tooth is always different from the form of the tooth that it produces. several innovations have been introduced to the gear manufacturing industry in recent years. in the case of gear hobbing — the dry cutting technology and the ability to do it with powder - metallurgical hss — might be two of the most impressive ones. and the technology is still moving forward. the aim of this article is to present recent developments in the field of gear hobbing in conjunction with the latest improvements regarding tool materials, process technology and process integration. the art of gear hobbing has advanced dramatically since the development and introduction of unique machine and tool features such as


is to present recent developments in the field of gear hobbing in conjunction with the latest improvements regarding tool materials, process technology and process integration. the art of gear hobbing has advanced dramatically since the development and introduction of unique machine and tool features such as no backlash, super rigidity, automatic loading of cutting tools, cnc controls, additional machine power and improved cutter materials and coatings. it is essential to utilize all these features to run the machine economically. to meet the future goals of higher productivity and lower production costs, the cutting speeds and feeds in modern gear hobbing applications have to increase further. in several cases, coated carbide tools have replaced the commonly used high speed steel ( hss ) tools. today, as part of filling a typical gear hobbing or shaping machine order, engineers are required to perform an spc acceptance test. this spc test, while it is contractually necessary for machine acceptance, is not a machine acceptance test. it is a process capability test. it is an acceptance of the machine, cutting tool, workholding fixture, and workpiece as integrated on the cutting machine, using a gear measuring machine, with its work arbor and evaluation software, to measure the acceptance elements of the workpiece. in the past gear manufacturers have had to rely on hob manufacturers ' inspection of individual elements of a hob, such as lead, involute, spacing, and runout. these did not always guarantee correct gears, as contained elements may cause a hob to produce gears beyond tolerance limits. fig. 1 shows the effects of positive and negative rake on finished gear teeth. incorrect positive rake ( a ) increase the depth and decreases the pressure angle on the hob tooth. the resulting gear tooth is thick at the top and thin at the bottom. incorrect negative rake ( b ) decreases the depth and increases the pressure angle. this results in a cutting drag and makes the gear tooth thin at the top and thick at the bottom. question : when cutting worm gears with multiple lead stock hobs we find the surface is " ridged ". what can be done to eliminate this appearance or is to unavoidable? this article examines the dry hobbing capabilities of two cutting tool materials — powder metallurgical high - speed steel ( pm - hss ) and cemented carbide. cutting trials were carried out to analyze applicable cutting parameters and possible tool lives as well as the process reliability. to consider the influences of the machinability of different workpiece materials, a case hardening


hss ) and cemented carbide. cutting trials were carried out to analyze applicable cutting parameters and possible tool lives as well as the process reliability. to consider the influences of the machinability of different workpiece materials, a case hardening steel and a tempered steel were examined. for environmental and economic reasons, the use of coolant in machining processes is increasingly being questioned. rising coolant prices and disposal costs, as well as strains on workers and the environment, have fueled the debate. the use of coolant has given rise to a highly technical system for handling coolant in the machine ( cooling, filtering ) and protecting the environment ( filter, oil - mist collector ). in this area the latest cutting materials - used with or without coolant - have great potential for making the metal - removal process more economical. the natural progression to completely dry machining has decisive advantages for hobbing. hobbing is one of the most fundamental processes in gear manufacturing. its productivity and versatility make hobbing the gear manufacturing method of choice for a majority of spur and helical gears. in today ’ s manufacturing environment, shorter and more efficient product development has become the norm. it is therefore important to consider every detail of the development process, with a particular emphasis on design. for green machining of gears, the most productive and important process is hobbing. in order to analyze process design for this paper, a manufacturing simulation was developed capable of calculating chip geometries and process forces based on different models. as an important tool for manufacturing technology engineers, an economic feasibility analysis is implemented as well. the aim of this paper is to show how an efficient process design — as well as an efficient process — can be designed. it takes confidence to be the first to invest in new manufacturing technology. but the payback can be significant. that has been the experience at the ford motor company ' s transmission & chassis division plant at indianapolis, in, which boasts the world ' s first production application of dry hobbing. the objective, according to dr. - ing. hansjorg geiser, head of development and design for gear machines at liebherr, was to develop and design a combined turning and hobbing machine in which turning, drilling and hobbing work could be carried out in the same clamping arrangement as the hobbing of the gearings and the subsequent chamfering and deburring processes. prior to the introduction of titanium nitride to the cutting tool industry in the early 1980s, there was very little


the same clamping arrangement as the hobbing of the gearings and the subsequent chamfering and deburring processes. prior to the introduction of titanium nitride to the cutting tool industry in the early 1980s, there was very little progress in the general application of hobbing in the gear cutting industry. the productivity gains realized with this new type of coating initiated a very active time of advancement in the gear manufacturing process. gear gashing is a gear machining process, very much like gear milling, utilizing the principle of cutting one or more tooth ( or tooth space ) at a time. the term " gashing " today applies to the roughing, or roughing and finishing, of coarse diametral pitch gears and sprockets. manufacturing these large coarse gears by conventional methods of rough and finish hobbing can lead to very long machining cycles and uneconomical machine utilization. the following is a general overview of some of the different factors that lead to the specific design. and the selection of the correct tool for a given hobbing application. load - carrying capacity of gears, especially the surface durability, is influenced by their tooth surface roughness in addition to their tooth profiles and tooth traces. precision gears play a vital role in today ' s economy. through their application, automobile transmissions are more compact and efficient, ships sail faster, and diesel locomotives haul more freight. today great emphasis is being placed upon the reduction of noise in all gear applications and, to be quiet, gears must be accurate. as we approach the problem of hard gear processing, it is well to take a look at the reason for discussing it at this time. in our present economic atmosphere throughout the world, more and more emphasis is being placed upon efficiency which is dictated by higher energy costs. our company manufactures a range of hardened and ground gears. we are looking into using skiving as part of our finishing process on gears in the 4 - 12 module range made form 17 crnimo6 material and hardened to between 58 and 62 rc. can you tell us more about this process? hobbing is probably the most popular gear manufacturing process. its inherent accuracy and productivity makes it a logical choice for a wide range of sizes. some results of evaluation by this method in the automotive industry. the newer profile - shifted ( long and short addendum ) gears are often used as small size reduction gears for automobiles or motorcycles. the authors have investigated the damage to each cutting edge when small size mass - produced gears with shifted profiles are used at high speeds


profile - shifted ( long and short addendum ) gears are often used as small size reduction gears for automobiles or motorcycles. the authors have investigated the damage to each cutting edge when small size mass - produced gears with shifted profiles are used at high speeds. nc and cnc metal cutting machines are among the most popular machine tools in the business today, there is also a strong trend toward using flexible machining centers and flexible manufacturing systems. the same trend is apparent in gear cutting. currently the trend toward cnc tools has increased, and sophisticated controls and peripheral equipment for gear cutting machines are now available ; however, the investment in a cnc gear machine has to be justified on the basis of economic facts as well as technical advantages. the seemingly simple process of placing a uniform chamfer on the face ends of spur and helical gears, at least for the aerospace industry, has never been a satisfactory or cost effective process. i would like to comment on david arnesen ' s article, " dry hobbing saves automaker money, improves gear quality, " in the nov / dec, 1996 issue. q & a with liebherr ' s dr. alois mundt. new tool from lmt - fette provides combination of operations. flute index flute index or spacing is defined as the variation from the desired angle between adjacent or nonadjacent tooth faces measured in a plane of rotation. agma defines and provides tolerance for adjacent and nonadjacent flute spacing errors. in addition, din and iso standards provide tolerances for individual flute variation ( fig. 1 ). this article describes a method of obtaining gear tooth profiles from the geometry of the rack ( or hob ) that is used to generate the gear. this method works for arbitrary rack geometries, including the case when only a numerical description of the rack is available. examples of a simple rack, rack with protuberances and a hob with root chamfer are described. the application of this technique to the generation of boundary element meshes for gear tooth strength calculation and the generation of finite element models for the frictional contact analysis of gear pairs is also described. investment in advanced new manufacturing technologies is helping to reinvent production processes for bevel gear cutters and coarse - pitch hobs at gleason - delivering significant benefits downstream to customers seeking shorter deliveries, longer tool life and better results. the cutting tool is basic to gear manufacturing. whether it ' s a hob, broach, shaper cutter or edm wire