{"text": "asthma : using an asthma action plan what is an actionset? if you or your child has asthma that requires daily treatment, it is important to have an asthma action plan. an asthma action plan is a written plan that tells you what asthma medicine to take every day and how to treat an asthma attack. it can help you make quick decisions in case you are not able to think clearly during an attack. an asthma action plan usually includes : - treatment goals, which include your personal goals about your asthma. - an outline of which medicines you take daily for asthma control and when to take them. - an asthma diary where you record peak expiratory flow ( pef ) and the triggers that cause asthma symptoms. - steps to take and medicines to use to treat an asthma attack early, before it becomes severe. - what to do if an attack becomes an emergency, and where to get medical treatment. using an asthma action plan can help you stay active with fewer asthma problems. following your plan is a big step toward controlling the disease so you can live the life you want. return to topic : an asthma action plan has three zones. you can find out what zone you are in by checking your peak flow or symptoms. peak flow is a measure of how fast you breathe out when you try your hardest. you check your peak flow with a peak flow meter, an inexpensive device that you can use at home. your doctor can show you how to use it. the zones of an asthma action plan are based on the colors of a stoplight. see an example of an asthma action plan ( what is a pdf document? ). green zone. green means go. - you are in the green zone if your peak flow is 80 % to 100 % of your personal best measurement. you should have no asthma symptoms when you are in the green zone. you want to be in the green zone every day. - if you continue to stay in the green zone, your doctor may lower your daily asthma medicines. yellow zone. yellow means caution. - you are in the yellow zone if your peak flow is 50 % to 79 % of your personal best measurement. you may not have any symptoms, but your lung function is reduced. when symptoms are present, they may be mild to moderate, or may keep you from your normal activities or disturb your sleep. - being in the yellow zone means that you should take action. your action plan should state what medicines you need to take, how much to take, and when to take them. - if you keep", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5057056843108183, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:46.686759"} {"text": "you from your normal activities or disturb your sleep. - being in the yellow zone means that you should take action. your action plan should state what medicines you need to take, how much to take, and when to take them. - if you keep going into the yellow zone from the green zone, talk with your doctor. you may need a different medicine. or the doses of your medicines may need to be increased. red zone. red means stop. - you are in the red zone if your peak flow is less than 50 % of your personal best measurement. your symptoms will be severe, and you may cough and be very short of breath. - if your symptoms and peak flow are in the red zone, follow your action plan. - callright away if you are in the red zone and you have followed your action plan, but : - you are having severe difficulty breathing. - 20 to 30 minutes after taking the extra medicine, you do not feel better and / or your peak flow is still less than 50 % of your personal best measurement. using an asthma action plan takes the guesswork out of treating asthma attacks. it can help you to : - take control of your treatment. - have fewer or less severe attacks. - avoid trips to the doctor or the hospital. develop your plan - work with your doctor to make an action plan for you or your child. the action plan is based on peak flow and asthma symptoms. these help your doctor know how bad your asthma is. an action plan may include : see an example of an asthma action plan ( what is a pdf document? ). - the peak flow readings and symptoms for each zone. - what medicines to take in each zone. - when to call a doctor. - a list of emergency contact numbers. - a list of your asthma triggers. - let your doctor know what you want regarding asthma care. for example, if you are not comfortable using a peak flow meter, tell your doctor. - if you make an asthma action plan for your child, give a copy to the child ' s school or caregivers and make sure they know how to use it. follow your daily treatment, and use the asthma action plan - take your daily medicines to help minimize long - term damage and avoid asthma attacks. - check your peak flow every morning and evening. this is the best way to know how well your lungs are working. - check your action plan to see what zone you are in. - if you are in the green zone, keep taking your daily asthma medicines as prescribed", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5153642242403288, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:46.689290"} {"text": "american scientists make great leap in battery technology one of the primary concerns with owning an electric vehicle is cost of the battery, the range it offers, and the time it takes to recharge. those concerns will be significantly lessoned with the development of a new lithium - ion battery. designed by scientists at envia systems, a us - based company, the new battery has roughly twice the energy density of existing rechargeable batteries. such an innovation could greatly increase the range of electric cars as well as cut the price of the battery packs in half. the research conducted by envia systems was funded by a $ 4 million federal grant through arpa - energy ( advanced research projects agency ). the work was done at the argonne national laboratory. the new battery can achieve an energy density of 400 watt - hours per kilogram, double that of existing rechargeable batteries. the key was introducing manganese into the mix of materials used in the cathode, the electrode where the lithium ions congregate. then, they added silicon to the anode, the electrode toward which the ions flow, producing the electric current. the costs of the batteries are cheaper per kilowatt - hour than standard lithium ion batteries. at $ 125 per kwh, they are less than half the cost. the is not trivial because the batteries constitute roughly 65 percent of the total cost of an electric vehicle. the major automakers have taken notice of this battery breakthrough and are knocking on envia ' s door. general motors is already an investor in the technology. however, according to envia chairman and ceo, atul kapadia, envia is \" working with all the brand name [ carmakers ] in the world. \" the new batteries could greatly boost the nascent electric car industry. for example, a nissan leaf combined with the new envia battery could potentially travel 300 miles on a single $ 10 charge, as opposed to its 80 mile range today. this is roughly the same range as many conventional internal combustion engines. it is the equivalent of driving from philadelphia to pittsburgh on a single charge. the new battery breakthrough may well revolutionize the auto industry. it is foreseeable that electric vehicles may actually surpass sales of conventional vehicles, potentially phasing them out forever. for more information : http : / / enviasystems. com / image shows envia laboratories. image credit : john f. martin for general motors", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5144094316647468, "token_count": 492, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:46.723658"} {"text": "trilobite olenoides erratus. source : mark a. wilson a fossil is the preserved remain of a lifeform that lived in prehistoric times. most commonly fossils are mineralized parts or a whole organism which is no longer alive. in other cases the fossil may contain actual remains of the dead organism ; in particular, dna may be preserved over long periods of time under the right conditions, since dna is fundamentally an inanimate molecule. while the most familiar fossils are those derived from animals and plants including such exotic species as dinosaurs and woolly mammoths, there are also fossils from ancient bacteria. there are several methods of fossil formation including re - crystallization, permineralization, compression, molding and entombment. examination of fossils was the earliest technique of palaeoentology, the study of ancient lifeforms, and it continues as the companion of molecular biology, to be key in the elucidation of phylogenies ( ancestral relationships of species ). the earliest animal fossils date from the cambrian period, approximately 540 million years before present, although some bacterial fossils exist from at least two billion years before present. process of formation most fossils are the result of sedimentary rock formation where coverage of the original organism occurred quickly ; preservation and mineralization is encouraged by anoxic ( oxygen deprived ) conditions, where decompostion was not able to occur rapidly upon death of the subject. body parts most readily preserved are teeth and bony animal parts and the chitonous elements of plants, which elements are most resistive to decay, and thus have more time to enter their preserved state. recrystallized scleractinian fossil coral. source : mark a. wilson one of the simplest processes for fossil formation is the phenomenon of re - crystalization. this is an easily understood process, whereby substances such as teeth and bone, which begin with a high mineral content, have their chemicals replaced by a new crystalline lattice. in a number of instances, mineral replacement of the original body part transpires so gradually that microstructural features are conserved even though a complete transformation of the original organism ' s material occurs. a shell is termed recrystallized when the original skeletal compounds are still present but in a different crystal form, as in a transition form aragonite to calcite. the process of re - crystallization is often termed replacement. living organisms ordinarily contain large amounts of volume that is filled with water or gases. when an organism is covered with sediment, those aqueous", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5563387195231498, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:46.736568"} {"text": "transition form aragonite to calcite. the process of re - crystallization is often termed replacement. living organisms ordinarily contain large amounts of volume that is filled with water or gases. when an organism is covered with sediment, those aqueous and gaseous portions of the individual may be replaced with mineral rich water from an aquifer or surface water body. this process is termed permineralization, and often is best viewed as a replacement phenomenon at the cellular level. fine grained or small scale permineralization produces very detailed fossil specimens. for permineralization to occur, it is essential for the organism to become covered by sediment rapidly upon death, before significant decay has set in. in ideal cases of preservation, individual cell walls can be effectively fossilized, producing an incredible level of microscopic preservation. compression fossils, most often exemplified by planar plant forms such as leaves or ferns, result from chemical reduction of complex organic molecules that comprise biotic tissues. the fossil actually preserves original organism material, but in a geochemically altered state. in many cases the preserved fossil is nothing but a thin carbonaceous film. lepidodendron external mold. source : mark a. wilson such a chemical change is a manifestation of diagenesis, the transformation of sediment after its original deposition. in some cases dna may effectively be extracted from compression fossils. internal or external mold in some cases the entire organism may vanish, but an exterior mold will be made by sedimentary rock encasing the original remains of the organism which has been completely dissolved or destroyed. this casting results in a sculptured cavity within the rock, with the exterior three dimensional outline of the original organism ' s exterior ; the product of this process is termed an external mold. if this hole is subsequently filled with different minerals, it is a cast and called an internal mold. a common example of this latter type of mold is a bivalve mollusc. ant entombed in baltic amber. souce : anders l. damgaard in some cases exceptional preservation may occur by a relatively rapid fatal trapping and encasing of a live organism with ( usually ) an organic substance such as amber or tar. some of these circumstances create fossils of unusual life - pose forms, and many of these instances provide substantial detail of the subjects. for example, recent research using crystallography has yielded amazing structural detail of the morphology of long extinct insects that were trapped in amber. bioimmuration is a form of fossilization whereby a skeletal organism envelopes or subsumes", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5461712889082208, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:46.738354"} {"text": "moon system formed and evolved, as well as the role of geophysical processes such as volcanism, tectonics, cratering, or erosion in shaping the moon. and, of course, in preparation for future lunar and planetary exploration, we need to find resources and landing sites. \u201d so, there are many unsolved questions about the moon, even though six nasa apollo missions and three unmanned soviet spacecraft have landed on it and brought back rock samples. the far side of the moon - - the one that never faces earth - - and the polar regions remain fairly unexplored. the existence of water on the moon has also never been confirmed, although two orbiters in the 1990s found indirect evidence. we are not even sure how the moon was formed. according to the most accepted theory, 4500 million years ago an asteroid the size of mars collided with our planet, and the vapourised debris that went into space condensed to form the moon. smart - 1 will map the moon ' s topography, as well as the surface distribution of minerals such as pyroxenes, olivines, and feldspars. also, an x - ray detector will identify key chemical elements in the lunar surface. these data will allow scientists to reconstruct the geological evolution of the moon, and to search for traces of the impact with the giant asteroid. if the collision theory is right, the moon should contain less iron than the earth, in proportion to lighter elements such as magnesium and aluminium. by gauging the relative amounts of chemical elements comprehensively for the very first time, smart - 1 can make a significant contribution in resolving this issue. as for water, if it exists, it must be in the form of ice in places always hidden from the sun. in such places, the temperature will never rise above - 170\u00bac. dark places like that could exist in the bottoms of small craters in the polar regions. peering into these craters is maybe the trickiest task that the smart - 1 scientists have set themselves. they will look for the infrared signature of water - ice. it will be difficult because no direct light falls in those areas, but rays from nearby crater rims, catching the sunshine, may light the ice sufficiently for smart - 1 instruments to see it. new technologies to prepare for future interplanetary missions future scientific missions will greatly profit from the technologies being tested on smart - 1. solar - electric primary propulsion is a new propulsion technique based on so - called ' ion engines ' that feed on electricity derived", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5024851382889302, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:46.758130"} {"text": "new technologies to prepare for future interplanetary missions future scientific missions will greatly profit from the technologies being tested on smart - 1. solar - electric primary propulsion is a new propulsion technique based on so - called ' ion engines ' that feed on electricity derived from solar panels. it is a technique that has only ever been used once before. these engines provide a very gentle thrust, but they work for years while conventional, more powerful chemical rockets burn for only a few minutes. ion engines offer key advantages. they need considerably less propellant than chemical propulsion, which means less weight at launch and more mass available for scientific instruments and payload. ion engines open the door to truly deep space exploration. they slash the time for interplanetary flight : although they provide less thrust they can last for years. the ion tortoise will therefore eventually overtake the chemical hare. moreover, another application of the gentle thrust provided by electric propulsion allows very accurate spacecraft attitude control, a skill that will be useful for scientific missions that require highly precise and undisturbed pointing. future esa science missions will rely on ion engines. smart - 1 will also test new miniaturisation techniques that save space and economise on mass : in space, less mass per instrument enables scientists to have more instruments on board, so more science. the smart - 1 payload consists of a dozen technological and scientific investigations performed by seven instruments weighing only 19 kilograms in total. for example, the x - ray telescope d - cixs, consists of a cube just 15 centimetres wide and weighing less than 5 kilograms. the ultra - compact electronic camera, amie, weighs no more than an amateur \u2019 s camera. new navigation and space - communication techniques will also be tested. an experiment called oban, based on images from the miniature camera amie and the star trackers, is the first step towards future ' autonomous ' spacecraft. in a not - too - distant future, scientific satellites will be able to ' find their way ' with a minimum of ground control, just by using stars and other celestial objects to guide themselves along predefined paths. as for communications, engineers need to develop new and efficient ways to communicate with earth from deep space, for interplanetary missions that are long or go far. smart - 1 will test both very short radio waves ( called ka band, with the instrument kate ) and a laser experiment to try to communicate with the earth using a laser beam, instead of traditional radio frequencies. esa already has laser links with telecommunications satellites from an optical ground station on", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5249343463641609, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:46.759439"} {"text": "what your blood pressure says about you here ' s how to get the most from your blood pressure readings. medically reviewed by lindsey marcellin, md, mph doctors have been measuring patients \u2019 blood pressure, the force that blood exerts on the inside walls of your vessels \u2014 since the first sphygmomanometers ( yes, that ' s what blood pressure cuffs are called ) were invented at the beginning of the 20th century. doctors are still finding new ways to glean information about your health from these numbers. british researchers recently found differences in blood pressure between the right and left arms might be a sign of vascular disease. likewise, a difference in blood pressure when you \u2019 re lying down vs. standing up may indicate heart problems or blood vessel disease. doctors can tell that from a painless test that takes only a few minutes. the basics : what does blood pressure mean the most important thing to know about your blood pressure is whether or not it ' s high. a blood pressure reading consists of two numbers, with acceptable ranges for each one. the first, or top, number is called the systolic number. that ' s the pressure inside your arteries when your heart beats. the bottom, or diastolic, number is the pressure between beats. you want those numbers to be below 120 and 80, respectively. \" what high blood pressure means is too much resistance inside your arteries, \" says ivan v. pacold, md, a cardiology professor at loyola university ' s stritch school of medicine and director of cardiology at gottlieb memorial hospital in chicago. \" simply speaking, that causes arterial damage and increases your risk for stroke, heart attack, heart failure, and kidney failure. \" the lowdown on low blood pressure \" in a healthy person, low blood pressure is a sign of good health as long as the systolic pressure is above 80, \" explains dr. pacold. \" very low blood pressure in a person with heart disease could be a sign of heart failure. \" one type of low blood pressure that could predict future heart problems is called orthostatic hypotension. in this type of low blood pressure, \" there is a drop of 10 to 20 points of blood pressure when a person moves from a sitting or supine ( flat ) position to a standing position, \" pacold says. \" it causes a sudden sense of lightheadedness and can be due to a heart that is starting to have trouble compensating. \" a recent study on", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5134739704581119, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:46.771141"} {"text": "earlier chapters have presented all the key elements of an observer programme. this final chapter gives a brief overview on how to put all the elements together. three aspects are considered : design, implementation and maintenance. there are two main sets of influences that condition the framework of a programme. policy decisions ( and complementary decisions at management, science, mcs / compliance and observer operations levels ) - possibly reflected through the fishery management plan that lays down programme objectives. the situation ( or environment ) within which the programme must function, i. e. the factors that will shape the programme strategy and ultimately define its success or failure. decisions that underlie an observer programme were outlined in the introduction, and programme objectives were discussed in chapter 1. it is important to define objectives in a way that is easy to understand, but which is sufficiently comprehensive to meet the needs of observer data users. over - ambitious objectives may lead to disappointment within and outside of the observer programme. once the objectives have been defined, they must continually be assessed in terms of the functional environment of the programme. this involves attention to the following components. a ) physical environment conditions of the area covered - e. g. temperate or tropical location of ports. b ) biological environment for example, the key species, by - catch and predictions of catch rates. c ) fishing activity the resource users e. g. vessel nationality, size of vessel, fishing methods. d ) owner organization background information on the government fma that will be home to the programme. e ) other data collection programmes any other programmes that collect data for fisheries management. f ) the potential observers consider skills, abilities, professionalism and qualifications. g ) national level policies and objectives consider wider political, social and economic policies that may influence the programme, e. g. the need to address national employment problems, including gender or empowerment questions. h ) international level is the fishery sector party to any international or regional agreements that may influence the scope of the programme? i ) legal instruments what legal instruments exist, both informal and formal, such as acts, regulations, tribal rights, etc.? l ) financing options where will the programme finance come from? if from donor support, how will donor objectives influence the strategy of the programme? if from industry, should joint management be considered? who will care about the programme? draw up a list of all the possible stakeholders and consider current links and historic problems between them, and gauge their interest in the programme. assessment of the functional environment helps to clarify programme prospects and problems. these can be further clarified through sw", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5079245280695922, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:46.868583"} {"text": "the programme? draw up a list of all the possible stakeholders and consider current links and historic problems between them, and gauge their interest in the programme. assessment of the functional environment helps to clarify programme prospects and problems. these can be further clarified through swot analysis ( strength, weakness, opportunity and threat analysis ). swot analysis looks at all the aspects of the programme in relation to the required outputs and simply asks logical questions about the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats ( table 16 ). swot analysis serves as a kind of reality check. are threats too big to overcome or can they be overcome by opportunities? if the threats are considered too big, then should programme objectives be reconsidered? the analysis might contribute to a background paper that defines the intentions and plans for the programme for circulation among potential stakeholders for feedback. a possible structure of a background paper would include : name of programme, background and objectives situation analysis and overall strategy proposed organization and delivery how to address sustainability this paper can also serve as a basis for securing donor assistance to the programme. following feedback from stakeholders, decisions can be made on its feasibility or on any programme re - design. table 16 how to make a swot analysis what are your advantages and consider this from your own point of view and from the point of view of the people you deal with. be realistic. what could be improved? again this should be considered from both an internal and external perspective. do other people perceive weaknesses that you don ' t see? do your colleagues do any better? it is best to be realistic now, and face any unpleasant truths as soon as possible. what good changes do you face? useful opportunities can come from such things as : changes in technology on both a broad and narrow scale what obstacles do you face? carrying out this analysis will often be illuminating - both in terms of pointing out what needs to be done, and in putting problems into perspective. make a risk analysis by defining what could go wrong. if the chances for a successful programme are deemed good, a project will be necessary in order to implement it. project duration might be anywhere from one to five years, depending on the scale and scope of the programme to be established. planning is vital, and a project logical framework ( logframe ) approach should be used. a pilot phase, incorporating also pilot work on a sampling strategy ( section 4. 5 ), should first be implemented. trials during this phase will be used to establish work plans, working practices, codes of conduct, training manuals and guides, and consideration", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5282073903869238, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:46.869858"} {"text": "register new player welcome to our world of fun trivia quizzes and quiz games : studies have shown... \" what do the results of the latest study really prove? this quiz explores the techniques used to avoid inferring too much from scientific studies and tests. \" 15 points per correct answer - no time limit i ' ll bet you ' ve noticed the resemblance between the surface of a shelled walnut and the surface of a human brain. perhaps, then, you won ' t be surprised to learn that in three separate surveys, 100 % of highly successful funtrivia quiz takers reported using walnuts before taking quizzes!!! which of the following could be inferred with certainty from these survey results? none of these. eating walnuts before taking quizzes improved the performance of the participants in my survey. eating walnuts before taking quizzes will improve your quiz performance. the respondents to my survey believed that eating walnuts improved their performance. during world war i, tin helmets replaced cloth helmets. contrary to expectation, the number of injuries increased. which of the following could be inferred with certainty from the facts presented? the number of injuries increased after tin helmets were introduced. soldiers wearing tin helmets were more likely to suffer fatal injury than those wearing cloth helmets. tin helmets provided protection that was inferior to cloth helmets. all of these. helmet laws for motorcyclists are controversial. some years following the repeal of louisiana ' s motorcycle helmet law, the journal \" academic emergency medicine \" ( volume 9, number 5 418 - 419, 2002 ) reported on changes in accident statistics. which of the following unequivocally indicates an increased risk as a result of not wearing a helmet? unhelmeted fatalities increased from 8. 4 to 29. 0 per year after the law was repealed. unhelmeted motorcyclists were found to have a significantly higher incidence per collision of head injury and fatality. after repeal of the helmet law, helmet use decreased from 79 % to 46 %, and fatalities in all patients increased from 3. 4 % to 5. 2 %. all of these i demonstrated that 100 % of highly successful funtrivia quiz - takers consumed walnuts prior to quizzes. having been criticized for not having a control group, i undertook to make a comparison using historical controls. i analyzed an equal number of quiz - takers afflicted with chronically low quiz performance and could find no evidence that any of them reported eating walnuts prior to taking quizzes.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_entanglement", "similarity_score": 0.505232243862346, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:47.066827"} {"text": "group, i undertook to make a comparison using historical controls. i analyzed an equal number of quiz - takers afflicted with chronically low quiz performance and could find no evidence that any of them reported eating walnuts prior to taking quizzes. which of the following would not be a valid criticism of my study methods? i failed to disclose the specifics of my methods for determining walnut use in the study and control groups and could be hiding an ascertainment error / bias. i failed to specify the number of study participants. retrospective studies never prove cause and effect. my study was retrospective, and retrospective studies never provide statistically valid, useful results. randomized, controlled, double - blinded studies are the gold standard for medical investigation. in 2001, a group of neurologists was asked to help investigate the importance of a component of this method during a study of a treatment for multiple sclerosis. these neurologists were asked to evaluate subjects but were told before doing the evaluation whether or not the subjects had received placebo or the proposed intervention. which aspect of randomized, controlled, double blinded studies was being omitted for these neurologist to allow that particular aspect to be studied? none of these according to the coronary risk calculator provided at the nih website, the risk of a coronary event for a 35 year old non - smoking woman with normal blood pressure, normal hdl cholesterol and a total cholesterol of 300 is 1 % for ten years. assuming that 200 such women were treated for ten years with cholesterol lowering drugs that reduced the risk of coronary events by 50 %, how many coronary events would we expect to prevent in a ten year period? a 35 - year - old woman dentist is offered a free cardiac treadmill at a dental convention. before accepting the offer she calculates her expected coronary risk and finds it to be 1 %. assuming a 20 % false positive rate and a 10 % false negative rate, what would her risk of coronary artery disease be should she be found to have an abnormal cardiac stress test? david g. myers ' \" exploring psychology \" states, \" there is a highly significant tendency for first - born individuals within a family to have higher average scores ( on tests of intelligence ) than their later - born siblings. \" assuming dr. myers is speaking of statistical significance, what can we infer about intelligence test scores of first - born as opposed to later born siblings? the difference in test scores is highly unlikely to be explained on the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_entanglement", "similarity_score": 0.5004229104524884, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:47.069768"} {"text": "their later - born siblings. \" assuming dr. myers is speaking of statistical significance, what can we infer about intelligence test scores of first - born as opposed to later born siblings? the difference in test scores is highly unlikely to be explained on the basis of chance variation of statistical samples. the difference in test scores is large in magnitude and highly unlikely to be related to chance. the difference is large in magnitude. the difference in test scores results in highly significant differences in school performance. \" web md \", an internet medical information provider, ran a report on february 4, 2003 that was headlined \" selenium may fight prostate damage \" and \" supplementation may reduce prostate cancer risk \". the study, however, was not performed on humans but on elderly, male beagles. the results of this study can be applied with complete confidence to which of the following groups? all of these elderly male humans elderly male beagles any age and species of dog i have decided to make a spring water extract of walnuts that i call \" quizzlenut \" available in the united states for improving quiz taking health. ( remember, i have performed three surveys showing that walnuts improve quiz - taking performance! ) will the us food and drug administration analyze either my product to verify its contents or my claims for the product before it is marketed? copyright, funtrivia. com. all rights reserved. legal / conditions of use compiled jun 28 12", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5274164404432244, "token_count": 288, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:47.070418"} {"text": "a new type of white blood cell has been identified that activates a killing immune response to an external source \u2014 providing a new potential target for vaccines for conditions such as cancer or hepatitis b. publishing in the journal immunity, a team of researchers from newcastle university in collaboration with a * star \u2019 s singapore immunology network describe a new human tissue dendritic cell ( dc ) with cross - presenting function. most cells are only able to present antigens from within themselves, and so will only elicit an immune response if they are infected themselves. only a specialized subset of dendritic cells is able to generate a response to an external source of antigen, for example bacteria, vaccines, and tumors. the identity of human tissue dcs that are capable of presenting external antigen to activate the cell - killing response by t cells \u2014 a process termed cross - presentation \u2014 has remained a mystery. their discovery, as revealed by this research, will help scientists to design better targeted vaccine strategies to treat cancer and infections. \u201c these are the cells we need to be targeting for anticancer vaccines, \u201d says muzlifah haniffa, m. d., ph. d., a wellcome trust intermediate fellow and senior clinical lecturer at newcastle university. \u201c our discovery offers an accessible, easily targetable system that makes the most of the natural ability of the cell. \u201d the researchers also showed for the first time that dendritic cell subsets are conserved between species and have in effect created a map, facilitating the translation of mouse studies to the human immune system. the researchers isolated the dendritic cells from human blood and skin and from mouse blood, lung, and liver. using gene expression analysis, they identified gene signatures for each human dendritic cell subset. mouse orthologues of these genes were identified, and a computational analysis was performed to match subsets across species. this provides scientists for the first time with an accurate model to compare dcs between species. \u201c these gene signatures are available in a public repository accessible for all researchers to benefit from the data, \u201d says dr. haniffa. \u201c it will allow detailed knowledge of individual human dendritic cell subsets to enable specific targeting of these cells for therapeutic strategy. \u201d", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_entanglement", "similarity_score": 0.5139786001199065, "token_count": 455, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:47.105387"} {"text": "alice and bob in i / o land [ click here to start ] this lecture is also available in one big html file table of contents alice, bob and their race to disk - haven alice ' s adventures in wonderland - a partial recap alice ' s adventures in wonderland - a partial recap - cont. meet alice - the 16kb \" write \" that could alice goes down the rabbit hole alice wants to pass through the small door little alice joins the ( page - cached ) caucus race little alice going down the ( disk ) elevator little alice grows again - the i / o scheduler dance example of \" iostat \" output big alice plays the disk crockett - the basic elevator algorithm original alice stands to trial - err _ success or err _ io? mad hatter testifies - the small bio - s joining in original alice wakes up from her write - full dream ecila - the \" read \" that came back from the cold through the looking glass - a partial recap through the looking glass - a partial recap - cont. ecila passes through the looking glass ecila meets the red queen and ( page - cachely ) runs nowhere what ' s in my cache? ecila meets the white knight and goes to gather herself ecila and humpty dumpty have a great elevated fall ecila meets twiddledee and twiddledum - and sends them ahead tuning device - level read - ahead ecila comes back through the mirror file - systems and meta - data i / o directory hierarchy traversal and the dentry cache checking dentry - cache statistics file control blocks and the inode cache checking inode - cache statistics file blocks and file extents file blocks and file extents - cont. bob - the raw - \" write \" - er bob goes into i / o land to cache or not to cache - that is the d ( irect ) question what if bob was sync ( ing ) harder? bob - the reader from the \" raw \" bob goes catching some rie bob the cached vs. bob the direct alice and bob go picking an elevator the \" noop \" elevator - quick and noisy the \" cfq \" elevator - \" no room! no room! ( at the tea party ) \" i / o priority using \" ionice \" the \" deadline \" elevator - \" i ' m late! i ' m late! i ' m late! \" the \" anticipatory \" elevator - \" if you build it - they will come \" i", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_computing", "similarity_score": 0.5117519026537893, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:47.146152"} {"text": "cloud computing as commonly defined is when a business gives its data, applications, storage and computational power to a cloud computing provider and accesses those resources via the public internet. it ' s been a godsend for many organizations, most notably small enterprises that can save enormously on infrastructure costs and have access to highly skilled i. t. expertise that they couldn ' t afford otherwise. salesforce. com and amazon. com have quickly become giants in the \" public \" cloud service sector thanks to the convenience and low start - up costs for their services. international data corp., a technology research firm, estimates in a recently released report that the cloud software market reached $ 22. 9 billion in 2011, a 31 percent year - over - year growth increase. the market is expected to reach $ 67. 3 billion by 2016 at a compound annual growth rate of 24 percent. idc also estimates that small businesses - defined as those with 100 or fewer employees - spent $ 3. 5 billion on cloud technologies in 2011, or about 7 percent of the $ 53 billion the small business segment spent overall on i. t. expenditures. that enthusiasm for remotely hosted services and low - cost infrastructure is shared by the health care industry, but not necessarily in the same way, or to the same degree, as industries such as construction or retail. klas enterprises, a utah - based health care i. t. research firm, polled nearly 100 provider organizations for a 2011 \" perception \" study of cloud computing. right off the bat, erik westerlind, the report author, had to sift through how respondents - of which nearly 70 percent were c - level executives - defined cloud computing. \" we ran into a lot of cases where executives would tell us that yes, they use the cloud because they ' re having their electronic health record remotely hosted by cerner, for example, \" he says. \" but those types of services are not really how \" the cloud \" is typically defined outside this market - yes, they ' re remotely hosted, but the applications are running via direct connections to cerner ' s data center, and all their information is housed in one place, kansas city. \" some of the confusion about how to define cloud services is due to the \" cloud washing \" going on - rebranding application service provider or application hosting services as \" cloud \" solutions. \" true \" cloud service is virtualized, elastic, scalable, metered out and resides on pooled or shared resources on the web. respondents mentioned every one of these attributes, but", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5180298114227369, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:47.161696"} {"text": "service provider or application hosting services as \" cloud \" solutions. \" true \" cloud service is virtualized, elastic, scalable, metered out and resides on pooled or shared resources on the web. respondents mentioned every one of these attributes, but only a few mentioned them all, according to the klas report. the health care execs most commonly used two attributes - an application was remotely hosted, and it was available via the web - to define the cloud. the bottom line is that interest in the cloud is strong in health care, but neither klas nor other industry experts expect a stampede of providers to a public cloud environment where their data is stored and accessible via the public web. not surprisingly, data security and privacy, and lack of control, are the top concerns of health care execs. and while health care is - has to be - downright obsessive about security and privacy, those concerns are not exclusive to the industry. the idc report and other cloud research finds the top drawback for adopting cloud services is data security. \" one hospital cio summed it up pretty neatly - he noted that he has to go before his board of directors every year and attest to them that the hospital is compliant with hipaa regulations, one requirement being that he certifies that he knows where its data resides, \" westerlind says. \" in a public cloud that data could be anywhere in the world. that pretty much sums up why many are taking a cautious approach to public cloud services. \" but then again, interest is high in cloud computing, and 55 percent of respondents to the klas survey are currently deploying some part of their i. t. environment in the cloud, where the definition was the delivery of storage solutions, software solutions, or both over the web. at this point, much of the industry ' s interest is focused on creating private clouds that enable providers to keep control of their data by either storing it on virtual servers they own, or putting it on dedicated virtual servers owned by trusted third parties. a lot of the future of health care cloud computing hinges on trust. while much has been made of the reluctance of health care organizations to use the cloud, another roadblock has been the lack of cloud service providers willing to take on the burden of handling health care data, says jeffrey white, a principal at pittsburgh - based aspen advisors, a health care consultancy. \" there ' s been a reluctance on the part of cloud platform providers to sign hipaa business associate agreements, which has really", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5527634677305548, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:47.162621"} {"text": "was augmented. this is what one would expect, moon noted, since the loss of a functional inhibitor is a double negative - - meaning that regeneration should be accelerated. \u201c these experiments showed that there is a completely novel and unexpected mechanism that antagonizes the regenerative process, \u201d said moon. \u201c there had been other studies indicating that wnt5b - like genes could block the wnt / \u00df - catenin pathway, but no one had examined whether this antagonism occurs in the context of the normal regenerative process. \u201d \u201c cristi and gilbert ' s experiments rigorously establish through genetic approaches that the wnt pathways are functionally important in regeneration, \u201d he said. \u201c more generally, they show that in studying injury or inflammation in any context, investigators should explore whether wnt signaling is involved. these experiments suggest that wnt signaling is a universal component of regenerative pathways in animals, \u201d he said. according to moon, the findings by stoick - cooper and weidinger will have clinical implications for tissue regeneration, as well as for encouraging growth of stem cells. stem cells are immature, undifferentiated cells that are capable of maturing into a variety of mature cell types. \u201c wnt / \u00df - catenin signaling plays an important positive role in the differentiation of stem cells and progenitor cells that are required for regeneration, \u201d he said. \u201c it agrees with previous studies in which our laboratory showed in animals that activating this pathway increases the success of transplants of blood - forming hematopoietic stem cells. such transplants in cancer patients whose immune systems have been destroyed by radiation or chemotherapy are invaluable as therapy ; and sometimes they fail because they transplanted cells do not engraft into the bone marrow. we believe that enhancing the wnt / \u00df - catenin pathway will increase the success rate of such hematopoietic stem cell transplants, \u201d he said. in other clinically - related studies, moon and his colleagues are exploring whether activating the wnt / \u00df - catenin pathway can enhance differentiation of human embryonic stem cells into cardiac cells that could be used to treat heart disease moon and his colleagues are also exploring how the myriad different kinds of cells involved in regeneration respond to wnt - activating signals and, in collaboration with hhmi investigator leonard i. zon at children ' s hospital, boston, how injury switches on wnt / \u00df - catenin signaling. the researchers are optimistic", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5082807577884189, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:47.187771"} {"text": "one of the most common uses of flash memory is for the basic input / output system of your computer, commonly known as the bios ( pronounced \" bye - ose \" ). on virtually every computer available, the bios makes sure all the other chips, hard drives, ports and cpu function together. every desktop and laptop computer in common use today contains a microprocessor as its central processing unit. the microprocessor is the hardware component. to get its work done, the microprocessor executes a set of instructions known as software ( see how microprocessors work for details ). you are probably very familiar with two different types of software : - the operating system - the operating system provides a set of services for the applications running on your computer, and it also provides the fundamental user interface for your computer. windows 98 and linux are examples of operating systems. ( see how operating systems work for lots of details. ) - the applications - applications are pieces of software that are programmed to perform specific tasks. on your computer right now you probably have a browser application, a word processing application, an e - mail application and so on. you can also buy new applications and install them. it turns out that the bios is the third type of software your computer needs to operate successfully. in this article, you ' ll learn all about bios - - what it does, how to configure it and what to do if your bios needs updating.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5189582650566275, "token_count": 303, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:47.201591"} {"text": "the eduss solution consists of five individual tools that provide you with a complete homeschool curriculum solution covering math, english grammar, comprehension, vocabulary and phonics reading. gap scan technology : the eduss gap scan technology is the intelligent multi - dimensional assessment engine that has the ability to not only identify your child \u2019 s level of knowledge but also their foundational level of understanding. the engine will also expose your child to various learning styles to facilitate the best learning style for your child. automated differentiated diagnostic assessment : most often, learning gaps only become evident sometime after they occur. the eduss diagnostic assessment is designed to search for and identify these learning gaps by using the gap scan technology, even if they occurred earlier in your child \u2019 s learning career. this forms the basis for the individualized learning plan for your child. gap recovery plan : on the basis of information gleaned in the comprehensive diagnostic assessment, the solution generates a learning plan that is specifically designed to meet the individual child \u2019 s needs. it is not a one size fits all. each child begins his / her learning program at the level of proficiency identified in the assessment in each and every strand assessed. personal instructor : the personal instruction module of the solution provides fully narrated step - by - step instruction in any topic of need to the student. because different students learn differently, eduss has been careful to design this instructional module to meet the needs of different learning styles. student management system : the eduss student manager system provides real - time monitoring and mapping through one integrated reporting interface making it easy for you to track and monitor the activity of each of your children individually. real - time information helps you make instructional decisions and / or adjustments. complete reports are available at any time for every component of your child \u2019 s learning cycle : assessment, tutorial, progress made, practice results, homework results, and quiz / test results.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5077848329345723, "token_count": 380, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:47.206532"} {"text": "research study types there are many different types of research studies, and each has distinct strengths and weaknesses. in general, randomized trials and cohort studies provide the best information when looking at the link between a certain factor ( like diet ) and a health outcome ( like heart disease ). these are studies done in laboratories on cells, tissue, or animals. laboratories provide strictly controlled conditions and are often the genesis of scientific ideas that go on to have a broad impact on human health. however, laboratory studies are only a starting point. animals or cells are no substitute for humans. these studies look at the characteristics of one group of people who already have a certain health outcome ( the cases ) and compare them to a similar group of people who do not have the outcome ( the controls ). while case - control studies can be done quickly and relatively cheaply, they aren \u2019 t ideal for studying diet because they gather information from the past. people with illnesses often recall past behaviors differently from those without illness. this opens such studies to potential inaccuracy and bias in the information they gather. these studies follow large groups of people over a long period of time. researchers regularly gather information from the people in the study on a wide variety of variables ( like meat intake, physical activity level, and weight ). once a specified amount of time has elapsed, the characteristics of people in the group are compared to test specific hypotheses ( like the link between carotenoids and glaucoma, or meat intake and prostate cancer ). though time - consuming and expensive, cohort studies generally provide more reliable information than case - control studies because they don \u2019 t rely on information from the past. cohort studies gather the information all along and before anyone develops the disease being studied. as a group, these types of studies have provided valuable information about the link between lifestyle factors and disease. two of the largest and longest - running cohort studies of diet are the harvard - based nurses \u2019 health study and the health professionals follow - up study. like cohort studies, these studies follow a group of people over time. however, with randomized trials, the researchers actually intervene to see how a specific behavior change or treatment, for example, affects a health outcome. they are called \u201c randomized trials \u201d because people in the study are randomly assigned either to receive or not receive the intervention. this randomization helps researchers hone in on the true effect the intervention has on the health outcome. however, randomized trials also have drawbacks, especially", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5069772103144754, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:47.209902"} {"text": "hyped arsenic bacteria research ' should not have been published ' by brian thomas, m. s. * nasa recently issued a series of press releases and arranged a press conference to promote research claiming that life was possible in outer space. 1, 2 however, the research drew heavy criticism from scientists around the world, and the interest - generating tactics that the space agency employed have been called into question. the study, which appeared in the journal science, focused on microbes found in a california lake, not in materials from space. 3 the study ' s authors concluded that certain bacteria could actually incorporate the element arsenic \u2014 a well - known poison \u2014 into the structure of their dna molecules. however, critics quickly noted that the testing procedure was flawed. the research results could have come from arsenic that was on or near the dna, but not in it. it would have been quite simple for the researchers to have \" washed \" the dna and then searched for the arsenic in a clean sample of pure dna \u2014 but they didn ' t. in addition, \" it turns out the nasa scientists were feeding the bacteria salts which they freely admit were contaminated with a tiny amount of phosphate, \" science writer carl zimmer wrote for the online news magazine slate. this could have supplied the phosphorous the bacteria needed, rather than having it completely replaced by arsenic. the university of colorado ' s shelley copley added, \" this paper should not have been published. \" 4 the report in science did not address the additional conundrum that dna has physical size constraints on its elemental building blocks. arsenic atoms are much larger than those of phosphorus and would undoubtedly yield warped and misshapen dna that would be inaccessible to the many dna - binding proteins upon which cellular life depends. the nasa authors have so far refused to engage these issues, pointing to the more proper scientific procedure of publishing in a peer - reviewed journal. critical letters to science are currently in the mail. 4 in the meantime, other scientists are not staying silent. jonathan eisen, university of california, davis genomicist and academic editor of the online science journal plos biology, called the nasa authors ' lack of response \" absurd. \" he told slate, \" they carried out science by press release and press conference. whether they were right or not in their claims, they are now hypocritical if they say that the only response should be in the scientific literature. \" 4 these events have a familiar tone. when media hyped the fossil primate \" ida \" as a \" missing link", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5142756371694799, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:47.219180"} {"text": "first - hand : the foundation of digital television : the origins of the 4 : 2 : 2 component digital standard contributed by stanley baron, ieee life fellow by the late 1970 ' s, the application of digital technology in television production was widespread. a number of digital television products had become available for use in professional television production. these included graphics generators, recursive filters ( noise reducers ), time base correctors and synchronizers, standards converters, amongst others. however, each manufacturer had adopted a unique digital interface, and this meant that these digital devices when formed into a workable production system had to be interfaced at the analog level, thereby forfeiting many of the advantages of digital processing. most broadcasters in europe and asia employed television systems based on 625 / 50 scanning ( 625 lines per picture, repeated 50 fields per second ), with the pal color encoding system used in much of western europe, australia, and asia, while france, the soviet union, eastern europe, and china used variations of the secam color encoding system. there were differences in luminance bandwidth : 5. 0 mhz for b / g pal, 5. 5 mhz for pal in the uk and nominally 6 mhz for secam. there were also legacy monochrome systems, such as 405 / 50 scanning in the uk and the 819 / 50 system in france. the color television system that was dominate in the americas, japan, and south korea was based on 525 / 60 scanning, 4. 2 mhz luminance bandwidth, and the ntsc color standard. ntsc and pal color coding are both linear processes. therefore, analog signals in the nstc format could be mixed and edited during studio processing, provided that color sub carrier phase relationships were maintained. the same was true for production facilities based on the pal system. in analog ntsc and pal studios it was normal to code video to composite form as early as possible in the signal chain so that each signal required only one wire for distribution rather than the three needed for rgb or yuv component signals. the poor stability of analog circuitry meant that matching separate channel rgb or yuv component signals was impractical except in very limited areas. secam employed frequency modulated coding of the color information, which did not allow any processing of composite signals, so the very robust secam composite signal was used only on videotape recorders and point to point links, with decoding to component signals for mixing and editing. some secam broadcasters avoided the problem by operating their studios in", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5078889295944051, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:47.251756"} {"text": "of composite signals, so the very robust secam composite signal was used only on videotape recorders and point to point links, with decoding to component signals for mixing and editing. some secam broadcasters avoided the problem by operating their studios in pal and recoding to secam for transmission. the international community recognized that the world community would be best served if there could be an agreement on a single production or studio digital interface standard regardless of which color standard ( 525 line ntsc, 625 line pal, or 625 line secam ) was employed for transmission. the cost of implementation of digital technology was seen as directly connected to the production volume ; the higher the volume, the lower the cost to the end user, in this case, the broadcasting community. work on determining a suitable standard was organized by the society of motion picture engineers ( smpte ) on behalf of the 525 / 60 broadcasting community and the european broadcasting union ( ebu ) on behalf of the 625 / 50 broadcasting community. in 1982, the international community reached agreement on a common 4 : 2 : 2 component digital television standard. this standard as documented in smpte 125, several ebu recommendations, and itu - r recommendation 601 was the first international standard adopted for interfacing equipment directly in the digital domain avoiding the need to first restore the signal to an analog format. the interface standard was designed so that the basic parameter values provided would work equally well in both 525 line / 60 hz and 625 line / 50 hz television production environments. the standard was developed in a remarkably short time, considering its pioneering scope, as the world wide television community recognized the urgent need for a solid basis for the development of an all digital television production system. a component - based ( y, r - y, b - y ) system based on a luminance ( y ) sampling frequency of 13. 5 mhz was first proposed in february 1980 ; the world television community essentially agreed to proceed on a component based system in september 1980 at the ibc ; a group of manufacturers supplied devices incorporating the proposed interface at a smpte sponsored test demonstration in san francisco in february 1981 ; most parameter values were essentially agreed to by march 1981 ; and the itu - r ( then ccir ) plenary assembly adopted the standard in february 1982. what follows is an overview of this historic achievement, providing a history of the standard ' s origins, explaining how the standard came into being, why various parameter values were chosen, the process that led the world community to an agreement, and how", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5269797727385855, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:47.253300"} {"text": "1982. what follows is an overview of this historic achievement, providing a history of the standard ' s origins, explaining how the standard came into being, why various parameter values were chosen, the process that led the world community to an agreement, and how the 4 : 2 : 2 standard led to today ' s digital high definition production standards and digital broadcasting standards. it is understood that digital processing of any signal requires that the sample locations be clearly defined in time and space and, for television, processing is simplified if the samples are aligned so that they are line, field, and frame position repetitive yielding an orthogonal ( rectangular grid ) sampling pattern. while the ntsc system color sub carrier frequency ( fsc ) was an integer sub multiple of the horizontal line frequency ( fh ) [ fsc = ( m / n ) x fh ] lending itself to orthogonal sampling, the pal system color sub carrier employed a field frequency off set and the secam color system employed frequency modulation of the color subcarrier, which made sampling the color information, contained within those systems a more difficult challenge. further, since some european nations had adopted various forms of the pal 625 line / 50hz composite color television standard as their broadcast standard and other european nations had adopted various forms of the secam 625 line / 50hz composite color television standard, the european community ' s search for a common digital interface standard implied that a system that was independent of the color coding technique used for transmission would be required. developments within the european community in september 1972, the european broadcasting union ( ebu ) formed working party c, chaired by peter rainger to investigate the subject of coding television systems. in 1977, based on the work of working party c, the ebu issued a document recommending that the european community consider a component television production standard, since a component signal could be encoded as either a pal or secam composite signal just prior to transmission. at a meeting in montreux, switzerland in the spring of 1979, the ebu reached agreement with production equipment manufacturers that the future of digital program production in europe would be best served by component coding rather than composite coding, and the ebu established a research and development program among its members to determine appropriate parameter values. this launched an extensive program of work within the ebu on digital video coding for program production. the work was conducted within a handful of research laboratories across europe and within a reorganized ebu committee structure including : working party v on new systems and services chaired by peter rainger ; subgroup v1 chaired by yves", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.552547199638574, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:47.254597"} {"text": "on digital video coding for program production. the work was conducted within a handful of research laboratories across europe and within a reorganized ebu committee structure including : working party v on new systems and services chaired by peter rainger ; subgroup v1 chaired by yves guinet, which assumed the tasks originally assigned to working party c ; and a specialist supporting committee v1 vid ( vision ) chaired by howard jones. david wood, representing the ebu technical center, served as the secretariat of all of the ebu committees concerned with digital video coding. in 1979, ebu vi vid proposed a single three channel ( y, r - y, b - y ) component standard. the system stipulated a 12. 0 mhz luminance ( y ) channel sampling frequency and provided for each of the color difference signals ( r - y and b - y ) to be sampled at 4. 0 mhz. the relationship between the luminance and color difference signals was noted sometimes as ( 12 : 4 : 4 ) and sometimes as ( 3 : 1 : 1 ). the proposal, based on the results of subjective quality evaluations, suggested these values were adequate to transparently deliver 625 / 50i picture quality. the ebu technical committee endorsed this conclusion at a meeting in april 1980, and instructed its technical groups : v, v1, and v1 vid to support this effort. smpte organized for the task at hand three smpte committees were charged with addressing various aspects of world wide digital standards. the first group, organized in late 1974, was the digital study group chaired by charles ginsburg. the study group was charged with investigating all issues concerning the application of digital technology to television. the second group was a task force on component digital coding with frank davidoff as chairman. this task force, which began work in february 1980, was charged with developing a recommendation for a single worldwide digital interface standard. while membership in smpte committees is generally open to any interested and affected party, the membership of the task force had been limited to recognized experts in the field. the third group was the working group on digital video standards. this working group was charged with documenting recommendations developed by the study group or the task force and generating appropriate standards, recommended practices, and engineering guidelines. in march 1977, the society of motion picture and television engineers ( smpte ) began development of a digital television interface standard. the work was assigned by smpte ' s committee on new technology chaired by fred remley to the working group on digital video standards", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5040384879697187, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:47.255644"} {"text": "the society of motion picture and television engineers ( smpte ) began development of a digital television interface standard. the work was assigned by smpte ' s committee on new technology chaired by fred remley to the working group on digital video standards chaired by dr. robert hopkins. by 1979, the working group on digital video standards was completing development of a digital interface standard for ntsc television production. given the state of the art at the time and the desire to develop a standard based on the most efficient mechanism, the working group created a standard that allowed the ntsc television video signal to be sampled as a single composite color television signal. it was agreed after a long debate on the merits of three times sub carrier ( 3fsc ) versus four times sub carrier ( 4fsc ) sampling that the composite digital television standard would require the composite television signal with its luminance channel and color sub carrier to be sampled at four times the color sub carrier frequency ( 4fsc ) or 14. 31818... mhz. during the last quarter of 1979, agreement was reached on a set of parameter values, and the drafting of the composite digital television standard was considered completed. it defined a signal sampled at 4fsc with 8 bit samples. this standard seemed to resolve the problem of providing a direct digital interface for production facilities utilizing the ntsc standard. by 1980, the committee on new technology was being chaired by hopkins and the working group on digital video standards was being chaired by ken davies. responding to communications with the ebu and so as not to prejudice the efforts being made to reach agreement on a world wide component standard, in january 1980, hopkins put the finished work on the ntsc composite digital television standard temporarily aside so that any minor modifications to the document that would serve to meet possible world wide applications could be incorporated before final approval. since copies of the document were bound in red binders, the standard was referred to as the \" red book \". seeking a common reference the agenda of the january 1980 meeting of smpte ' s digital study group included a discussion on a world wide digital television interface standard. at that meeting, the study group considered the report of the european community, and members of the ebu working parties had been invited to attend. although i was not a member of the study group, i was also invited to attend the meeting. it was recognized that while a three color representation of the television signal using red, blue, and green ( r, g, b ) was the simplest three component representation, a", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.555057713854632, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:47.257036"} {"text": "member of the study group, i was also invited to attend the meeting. it was recognized that while a three color representation of the television signal using red, blue, and green ( r, g, b ) was the simplest three component representation, a more efficient component representation, but one that is more complex, is to provide a luminance or gray scale channel ( y ) and two color difference signals ( r - y and b - y ). the r - y and b - y components take advantage of the characteristics of the human visual system which is less sensitive to high resolution information for color than for luminance. this allows for the use of a lower number of samples to represent the color difference signals without observable losses in the restored images. color difference components ( noted as i, q or u, v or dr, db ) were already in use in the ntsc, pal, and secam systems to reduce the bandwidth required to support color information. members of the ntsc community present at the january 1980 study group meeting believed that the ebu v1 vid proposed 12. 0 mhz, ( 3 : 1 : 1 ) set of parameters would not meet the needs for ntsc television post production particularly with respect to chroma keying, then becoming an important tool. in addition, it was argued that : ( 1 ) the sampling frequency was too low ( too close to the nyquist point ) for use in a production environment where multiple generations of edits were required to accommodate special effects, chroma keying, etc., and ( 2 ) a 12. 0 mhz sampling system would not produce an orthogonal array of samples in ntsc ( at 12. 0 mhz, there would be 762. 666... pixels per line ). the ntsc community offered for consideration a single three channel component standard based on ( y, r - y, b - y ). this system stipulated a 4fsc ( 14. 318 mhz ) luminance sampling frequency equal to 910 x fh525, where fh525 is the ntsc horizontal line frequency. the proposal further provided for each of the color difference components to be sampled at 2fsc or 7. 159 mhz. this relationship between the luminance and color difference signals was noted as ( 4 : 2 : 2 ). adopting 4fsc as the luminance sampling frequency would facilitate trans coding of video recorded using the \u201c single wire \u201d ntsc composite standard with studio mixers and editing equipment based on a", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5574309428303131, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:47.258047"} {"text": "signals was noted as ( 4 : 2 : 2 ). adopting 4fsc as the luminance sampling frequency would facilitate trans coding of video recorded using the \u201c single wire \u201d ntsc composite standard with studio mixers and editing equipment based on a component video standard. representatives of the european television community present at the january 1980 study group meeting pointed to some potential difficulties with this proposal. the objections included : ( 1 ) that the sampling frequency was too high for use in practical digital recording at the time, and ( 2 ) a 14. 318 mhz sampling system would not produce an orthogonal array of samples in a 625 line system ( at 14. 318 mhz, there would be 916. 36... pixels per line ). during the january 1980 study group meeting discussion, i asked why the parties involved had not considered a sampling frequency that was a multiple of the 4. 5 mhz sound carrier, since the horizontal line frequencies of both the 525 line and 625 line systems had an integer relationship to 4. 5 mhz. the original definition of the ntsc color system established a relationship between the sound carrier frequency ( fs ) and the horizontal line frequency ( fh525 ) as fh525 = fs / 286 = 15734. 265... hz, had further defined the vertical field rate fv525 = ( fh525 x 2 ) / 525 = 59. 94006 hz, and defined the color sub carrier ( fsc ) = ( fh525 x 455 ) / 2 = 3. 579545.... mhz. therefore, all the frequency components of the ntsc system could be derived as integer sub multiples of the sound carrier. the 625 line system defined the horizontal line frequency ( fh625 ) = 15625 hz and the vertical field rate fv625 = ( fh625 x 2 ) / 625 = 50 hz. it was noted from the beginning that the relationship between fs and the horizontal line frequency ( fh625 ) could be expressed as fh625 = fs / 288. therefore, any sampling frequency that was an integer multiple of 4. 5 mhz ( fs ) would produce samples in either the 525 line or 625 line systems that were orthogonal. i was asked to submit a paper to the study group and the task force describing the relationship. the assignment was to cover two topics. the first topic was how the 625 line / 50hz community might arrive at a sampling frequency close to 14. 318", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5582819241949201, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:47.258967"} {"text": "was asked to submit a paper to the study group and the task force describing the relationship. the assignment was to cover two topics. the first topic was how the 625 line / 50hz community might arrive at a sampling frequency close to 14. 318 mhz. the second topic was to explain the relationship between the horizontal frequencies of the 525 line and 625 line systems and 4. 5 mhz. this resulted in my authoring a series of papers written between february and april 1980 addressed to the smpte task force explaining why 13. 5 mhz should be considered the choice for a common luminance sampling frequency. the series of papers was intended to serve as a tutorial with each of the papers expanding on the points previously raised. a few weeks after i submitted the first paper, i was invited to be a member of the smpte task force. during the next few months, i responded to questions about the proposal, and i was asked to draft a standards document. crunching the numbers the first paper i addressed to the task force was dated 11 february 1980. this paper pointed to the fact that since the horizontal line frequency of the 525 line system ( fh525 had been defined as 4. 5 mhz / 286 ( or 2. 25 mhz / 143 ), and the horizontal line frequency of the 625 line system ( fh625 ) was equal to 4. 5 mhz / 288 ( or 2. 25 mhz / 144 ), any sampling frequency that was a multiple of 4. 5 mhz / 2 could be synchronized to both systems. since it would be desirable to sample color difference signals at less than the sampling rate of the luminance signal, then a sampling frequency that was a multiple of 2. 25 mhz would be appropriate for use with the color difference components ( r - y, b - y ) while a sampling frequency that was a multiple of 4. 5 mhz would be appropriate for use with the luminance component ( y ). since the european community had argued that the ( y ) sampling frequency must be lower than 14. 318 mhz and the ntsc countries had argued that the ( y ) sampling frequency must be higher than 12. 00 mhz, my paper and cover letter dated 11 february 1980 suggested consideration of 3 x 4. 5 mhz or 13. 5 mhz as the common luminance ( y ) channel sampling frequency ( 858 times the 525 line horizontal line frequency rate and 864 times the 625 line rate both equal 13. 5 mhz ). my series of papers suggested adoption of a component color system", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.540165917702262, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 7, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:47.260195"} {"text": "as the common luminance ( y ) channel sampling frequency ( 858 times the 525 line horizontal line frequency rate and 864 times the 625 line rate both equal 13. 5 mhz ). my series of papers suggested adoption of a component color system based on ( y, r - y, b - y ) and a luminance / color sampling relationship of ( 4 : 2 : 2 ), with the color signals sampled at 6. 75 mhz. in order for the system to facilitate standards conversion and picture manipulation ( such as that used in electronic special effects and graphics generators ), both the luminance and color difference samples should be orthogonal. the desire to be able to trans code between component and composite digital systems implied a number of samples per active line that was divisible by four. the february 1980 note further suggested that the number of samples per active line period should be greater than 715. 5 to accommodate all of the world wide community standards active line periods. while the number of pixels per active line equal to 720 samples per line was not suggested until my next note, ( 720 is the number found in rec. 601 and smpte 125 ), 720 is the first value that \u201c works. \u201d 716 is the first number greater than 715. 5 that is divisible by 4 ( 716 = 4 x 179 ), but does not lend itself to standards conversion between 525 line component and composite color systems or provide sufficiently small pixel groupings to facilitate special effects or data compression algorithms. < / p > additional arguments in support of 720 were provided in notes i generated prior to ibc ' 80 in september. note that 720 equals 6! [ 6! ( 6 factorial ) = 6x5x4x3x2x1 ] = 24 x 32 x 5. this allows for many small factors, important for finding an economical solution to conversion between the 525 line component and composite color standards and for image manipulation in special effects and analysis of blocks of pixels for data compression. the composite 525 line digital standard had provided for 768 samples per active line. 768 = 28 x 3. the relationship between 768 and 720 can be described as 768 / 720 = ( 28 x 3 ) / ( 24 x 32 x 5 ) = ( 24 ) / ( 3 x 5 ) = 16 / 15. a set of 16 samples in the ntsc composite standard could be used to calculate a set of 15 samples in the ntsc component standard. proof of performance at the september 1980 ibc conference", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.566966969961618, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 8, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:47.261136"} {"text": ") / ( 3 x 5 ) = 16 / 15. a set of 16 samples in the ntsc composite standard could be used to calculate a set of 15 samples in the ntsc component standard. proof of performance at the september 1980 ibc conference, international consensus became focused on the 13. 5 mhz, ( 4 : 2 : 2 ) system. however, both the 12. 0 mhz and 14. 318 mhz systems retained some support for a variety of practical considerations. discussions within the working group on digital video standards indicated that consensus could not be achieved without the introduction of convincing evidence. smpte proposed to hold a \u201c component coded digital video demonstration \u201d in san francisco in february 1981 organized by and under the direction of the working group on digital video standards to evaluate component coded systems. a series of practical tests / demonstrations were organized to examine the merits of various proposals with respect to picture quality, production effects, recording capability and practical interfacing, and to establish an informed basis for decision making. the ebu had scheduled a series of demonstrations in january 1981 for the same purpose. smpte invited the ebu to hold its february meeting of the bureau of the ebu technical committee in san francisco to be followed by a joint meeting to discuss the results of the tests. it was agreed that demonstrations would be conducted at three different sampling frequencies ( near 12. 0 mhz, 13. 5 mhz, and 14. 318 mhz ) and at various levels of performance. from 2nd through the 6th of february 1981 ( approximately, one year from the date of the original 13. 5 mhz proposal ), smpte conducted demonstrations at kpix television, studio n facilities in san francisco in which a number of companies participated. each participating sponsor developed equipment with the digital interface built to the specifications provided. the demonstration was intended to provide proof of performance and to allow the international community to come to an agreement. ' the demonstration organizing committee had to improvise many special interfaces and interconnections, as well as create a range of test objects, test signals, critical observation criteria, and a scoring and analysis system and methodology. the demonstrations were supported with equipment and personnel by many of the companies that were pioneers in the development of digital television and included : abc television, ampex corporation, barco, canadian broadcasting corporation, cbs technology center, digital video systems, dynair, inc., kpix westinghouse broadcasting, leitch video ltd., marconi electronics, rca corporation and rca laboratories, sony corporation, tektronix", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5419934417298131, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 9, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:47.262330"} {"text": "canadian broadcasting corporation, cbs technology center, digital video systems, dynair, inc., kpix westinghouse broadcasting, leitch video ltd., marconi electronics, rca corporation and rca laboratories, sony corporation, tektronix inc., thomson csf, vg electronics ltd., and vgr corporation. i participated in the demonstrations as a member of smpte ' s working group on digital video standards, providing a vidifont electronic graphics generator whose interface conformed to the new standard. developing an agreement the san francisco demonstrations proved the viability of the 13. 5 mhz, ( 4 : 2 : 2 ) proposal. at a meeting in january 1981, the ebu had considered a set of parameters based on a 13. 0 mhz ( 4 : 2 : 2 ) system. additional research conducted by ebu members had shown that a ( 4 : 2 : 2 ) arrangement was needed in order to cope with picture processing requirements, such as chroma key, and the ebu members believed a 13. 0 mhz system appeared to be the most economic system that provided adequate picture processing. members of the ebu and smpte committees met at a joint meeting chaired by peter rainger in march 1981 and agreed to propose the 13. 5 mhz, ( 4 : 2 : 2 ) standard as the world wide standard. by autumn 1981, nhk in japan led by mr. tadokoro, had performed its own independent evaluations and concurred that the 13. 5 mhz, ( 4 : 2 : 2 ) standard offered the optimum solution. a number of points were generally agreed upon and formed the basis of a new world wide standard. they included : - the existing colorimetry of ebu ( for pal and secam ) and of ntsc would be retained for 625 line and 525 line signals respectively, as matrixing to a common colorimetry was considered overly burdensome ; - an 8 bit per sample representation would be defined initially, being within the state of the art, but a 10 bit per sample representation would also be specified since it was required for many production applications ; - the range of the signal to be included should include head room ( above white level ) and foot room ( below black level ) to allow for production overshoots ; - the line length to be sampled should be somewhat wider than those of the analog systems ( ntsc, pal, and secam ) under consideration to faithfully preserve picture edges and to avoid picture cropping ; - a bit parallel", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5147260634025733, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 10, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:47.263215"} {"text": "overshoots ; - the line length to be sampled should be somewhat wider than those of the analog systems ( ntsc, pal, and secam ) under consideration to faithfully preserve picture edges and to avoid picture cropping ; - a bit parallel, sample multiplexed interface ( e. g. transmitting r - y, y, b - y, y, r - y,... ) was practical, but in the long term, a fully bit and word serial system would be desirable ; - the gross data rate should be recordable within the capacity of digital tape recorders then in the development stages by ampex, bosch, rca, and sony. the standard, as documented, provided for each digital sample to consist of at least 8 bits, with 10 allowed. the values for the black and white levels were defined, as was the range of the color signal. ( r - y ) and ( b - y ) became cr [ = 0. 713 ( r - y ) ] and cb [ = 0. 564 ( b - y ) ]. while the original note dated february 1980 addressed to the task force proposed a code of 252 ( base10 ) = ( 1111 1100 ) for \u2018 white \u2019 at 100 ire and a code of 72 ( base10 ) = ( 0100 1000 ) for \u2018 black \u2019 at 0 ire to allow capture of the sync levels, agreement was reached to better utilize the range of codes to capture the grey scale values with more precision and provide more overhead. \u2018 white \u2019 was to be represented by an eight bit code of 240 ( base10 ) = ( 1111 0000 ) and \u2018 black \u2019 was to be represented by an eight bit code 16 ( base10 ) = ( 0001 0000 ). the original codes for defining the beginning and the end of picture lines and picture area were discussed, modified, and agreed upon, as well as synchronizing coding for line, field, and frame, each coding sequence being unique and not occurring in the video signal. smpte and ebu organized an effort over the next few months to familiarize the remainder of the world wide television community with the advantages offered by the 13. 5 mhz, ( 4 : 2 : 2 ) system and the reasoning behind its set of parameters. members of the smpte task force traveled to europe and to the far east. members of the ebu committees traveled to the, then, eastern european block nations and to the members of the oti, the organization of the south", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.544673623140548, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 11, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:47.264138"} {"text": "of parameters. members of the smpte task force traveled to europe and to the far east. members of the ebu committees traveled to the, then, eastern european block nations and to the members of the oti, the organization of the south american broadcasters. the objective of these tours was to build a consensus prior to the upcoming discussion at the itu in the autumn of 1981. the success of this effort could serve as a model to be followed in developing future agreements. i was asked to draft a smpte standard document that listed the parameter values for a 13. 5 mhz system for consideration by the smpte working group. since copies of the document were bound in a green binder prior to final acceptance by smpte, the standard was referred to as the \u201c green book \u201d. in april 1981, the draft of the standard titled \u201c coding parameters for a digital video interface between studio equipment for 525 line, 60 field operation \u201d was distributed to a wider audience for comment. this updated draft reflected the status of the standard after the tests in san francisco and agreements reached at the joint ebu / smpte meeting in march 1981. the ebu community later requested a subtle change to the value of \u2018 white \u2019 in the luminance channel, and it assumed the value of 235 ( base10 ). this change was approved in august 1981. after review and some modification as noted above to accommodate european concerns, the \u201c green book \u201d was adopted as smpte standard 125. itu / r recommendation 601 the european broadcasting union ( ebu ) generated an ebu standard containing a companion set of parameter values. the smpte 125 and ebu documents were then submitted to the international telecommunications union ( itu ). the itu, a treaty organization within the united nations, is responsible for international agreements on communications. the itu radio communications bureau ( itu - r / ccir ) is concerned with wireless communications, including allocation and use of the radio frequency spectrum. the itu also provides technical standards, which are called \u201c recommendations. \u201d within the itu, the development of the recommendation defining the parameter values of the 13. 5 mhz ( 4 : 2 : 2 ) system fell under the responsibility of itu - r study group 11 on television. the chair of study group 11, prof. mark i. krivocheev, assigned the drafting of the document to a special committee established for that purpose and chaired by david wood of the ebu. the document describing the digital parameters contained in the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5112332969134231, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 12, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:47.265073"} {"text": "channel and 360 samples for each of the color difference signals. starting with 720, doubling the resolution to 1440, and adjusting the count for a 16 : 9 aspect ratio leads to the 1920 samples per active line defined as the basis for hdtv. accommodating the hollywood and computer communities ' request for \u201c square pixels \u201d meant that the number of lines should be 1920 x ( 9 / 16 ) = 1080. progressive scan systems at 1280 pixels per line and 720 lines per frame are also a member of the \u201c 720 pixel \u201d family. 720 pixels x 4 / 3 ( resolution improvement ) x 4 / 3 ( 16 : 9 aspect ratio adjustment ) = 1280. accommodating the hollywood and computer communities ' request for square pixels meant that the number of lines should be 1280 x ( 9 / 16 ) = 720. the original 720 pixel per active line structure became the basis of a family of structures ( the 720 pixel family ) that was adopted for mpeg based systems including both conventional television and hdtv systems. therefore, most digital television systems, including digital video tape systems and dvd recordings are derived from the format described in the original 4 : 2 : 2 standard. the existence of a common digital component standard for both 50 hz and 60 hz environments as documented in smpte 125 and itu recommendation 601 provided a path for television production facilities to migrate to the digital domain. the appearance of high quality, fully digital production facilities providing digital video, audio, and metadata streams and the successful development of digital compression and modulation schemes allowed for the introduction of digital television broadcast services. in its 1982 - 1983 award cycle, the national academy of television arts and sciences recognized the 4 : 2 : 2 component digital standard based on 13. 5 mhz ( y ) sampling with 720 samples per line with three emmy awards : the european broadcasting union ( ebu ) was recognized : \u201c for achieving a european agreement on a component digital video studio specification based on demonstrated quality studies and their willingness to subsequently compromise on a world wide standard. \u201d the international telecommunications union ( itu ) was recognized : \u201c for providing the international forum to achieve a compromise of national committee positions on a digital video standard and to achieve agreement within the 1978 - 1982 period. \u201d the society of motion picture and television engineers ( smpte ) was recognized : \u201c for their early recognition of the need for a digital video standard, their acceptance of the ebu proposed component requirement, and for the development of the hierarchy and line lock 13. 5 mhz demonstrated specification, which provided the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.516352590508133, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 14, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:47.267884"} {"text": "cavendish, henry, 1731 \u2013 1810, english physicist and chemist, b. nice. he was the son of lord charles cavendish and grandson of the 2d duke of devonshire. he was a recluse, and most of his writings were published posthumously. his great contributions to science resulted from his many accurate experiments in various fields. his conclusions were remarkably original. his chief researches were on heat, in which he determined the specific heats for a number of substances ( although these heat constants were not recognized or so called until later ) ; on the composition of air ; on the nature and properties of a gas that he isolated and described as \" inflammable air \" and that lavoisier later named hydrogen ; and on the composition of water, which he demonstrated to consist of oxygen and his \" inflammable air. \" in his electrical researches ( 1879 ) he anticipated some of the discoveries of coulomb and faraday. his experiments to determine the density of the earth led him to state it as 5. 48 times that of water. his scientific papers were collected in two volumes ( electrical researches and chemical and dynamical ) in 1921. see biography by a. j. berry ( 1960 ) ; j. g. crowther, scientists of the industrial revolution ( 1963 ). the columbia electronic encyclopedia, 6th ed. copyright \u00a9 2012, columbia university press. all rights reserved. more on henry cavendish from infoplease : see more encyclopedia articles on : physics : biographies", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5660056277418857, "token_count": 298, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:47.294330"} {"text": "ideally, everyone should be able to study kabbalah. kabbalah is the inner wisdom of creation revealed to us by god in order to bring us closer to him. clearly, god desires that all human beings come as close to him as possible. thus, kabbalah is important for all people. that said, it is important to clarify that each of us has to study kabbalah at his own individual level, which, contrary to common misconceptions, may have nothing to do with age, gender, or any other imagined limitation. since kabbalah is part of jewish tradition, it is often mistakenly assumed that it has no pertinence to non - jews. however, much of kabbalah is pertinent to all human beings, since the study of kabbalah arouses in all students the desire to worship one god, as commanded in the torah to all mankind. the torah anticipates that every human being become a righteous servant of the one god of israel, exclusively. for a non - jew, this means to become a righteous gentile, unless he desires to proceed even further and to convert to judaism. much of the kabbalah is pertinent to the consciousness of righteous gentiles. kabbalah and chassidut arouse one to the true worship of god, a commandment relevant to all mankind. in order to worship, one has to be conscious of and to experience the emotions of love and fear of god, two of the six constant commandments of the heart. in order to experience these emotions, one has to have meditative content and input. chassidut teaches that non - jews should also meditate on those truths and depths of reality of divine providence in the world that will arouse their hearts to serve the one god of israel. these sections of the kabbalah are prerequisites for non jews to come close to god. the levels of divine light that are pertinent for non - jews to study are the explicitly immanent levels of divinity. this is the influx of divine energy that is present in the creative process. god ' s infinite light is absolutely transcendent. the ultimate purpose of chassidut is to bring transcendence into the perspective of immanence. until mashiach comes, though, this is still relatively a state of jewish consciousness. thus, a non - jew should learn in kabbalah those secrets of creation that help him to appreciate and become aware of god ' s", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.503516138298937, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:47.310875"} {"text": "immanence. until mashiach comes, though, this is still relatively a state of jewish consciousness. thus, a non - jew should learn in kabbalah those secrets of creation that help him to appreciate and become aware of god ' s immanent light in creation. this draws him closer to god and augments his desire to serve him. clearly, in order for non - jews to study kabbalah - - which, after all, is an intrinsic expression of jewish faith - - they have to identify with receiving this wisdom through the channel of the torah and the jewish people, and commit themselves to worship the one god of israel and live in accordance with the seven commandments given by him to noah for all peoples. please refer to our section on the seven noahide commandments and kabbalah for non - jews. even though there is an opinion that one should not begin to study kabbalah until the age of 40, the great masters of kabbalah and chassidut did not agree with this opinion. some of the greatest teachers of kabbalah - - including the ari, rabbi moshe chaim luzzatto ( also known as the ramchal ), and rebbe nachman of breslov - - did not live to the age of 40! from an early age they began to study kabbalah. in the zohar we find that a sign of the coming of the mashiach is when children will study and discuss kabbalah. chassidut reveals to us the drama of god \u2019 s creation of the universe. it is like a game of hide - and - seek. in this divinely inspired game, god conceals himself, but he desires that we seek him. he promises us that if we seek him with all our heart and soul, we will ultimately find him. the seeking is the study of kabbalah. it can begin from the first moment that a person realizes that there is more to this world than what meets the eye, and this can be at a very early stage of life. the reason that some authorities have warned against studying kabbalah at too early an age was that there were instances in jewish history, even relatively recently, when most negative phenomena resulted from the misrepresentation and misuse of kabbalah. for example, approximately 350 years ago, a misguided jew, shabbetai tzvi, proclaimed himself the messiah, basing himself on misinterpretations of kabbalah. before he was", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5105525478646137, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:47.311999"} {"text": "a slender boy of 14 moves slowly across the room. his full head of long red hair bounces as he walks. his mind is racing. he sits at the oak table near the window of the vast room. on the table is a box ; a box that glows with flashing lights and a screen. printed on the screen is less than 100 words. at the top of the box is a single word printed in a playful font. under the word is another box ready for the boy \u2019 s command. the boy smiles as he realizes that before him is all the knowledge of the world. sitting before him is almost every idea and thought that mankind has ever put onto paper, stone, papyrus, film, video, or in bytes. he is about to use google. we all have amazing access to amazing knowledge. the trick is to find what you want in the billions of pages indexed and cataloged by google. forget the haystack. the search for information is like looking for a particular needle in four states, given the available data. finding stuff on the web is a skill that we can all gain from. i pick on google here as it is, by far, the most popular search engine. other search tools have similar functionality. the google search box is much more than a place to enter the subject of your search. here are some of the non - traditional search features of the google box : calculator \u2013 type 8 * 12 in the box and hit the enter key. up comes the answer. the box is a powerful financial and scientific calculator. currency conversion \u2013 type 3, 500 euros to dollars to learn the premium your client \u2019 s french office is being charged. conversion of measures \u2013 enter 4 cups to oz. the answer will be at the top of the results page. dictionary \u2013 unsure of the definition of a word? type define : pontification. spell checker \u2013 just type the word as close as you can get it, and let google provide you with options. package tracking \u2013 you can track packages by typing the tracking number for your ups, fedex, or usps package into the search box. weather reporter \u2013 type the word weather, then a city name, and up comes the latest weather report. zip code look up \u2013 enter zip and the city name to learn the various zip codes in a city. airline flight tracker \u2013 enter the airline and the flight number to learn the current arrival and departure times of the flight. world clock \u2013 type what time is it in detroit to learn the current time at", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5221483668285889, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:47.326996"} {"text": "- 1. a royal seat, or chair of state. the king sits \" upon the throne of his kingdom \" ( deut. xvii. 18 ). pharaoh delegated full power tojoseph to rule over egypt ; \" only in the throne will i be greater than thou \" ( gen. xli. 40 ). the royal throne is sometimes designated as \" the throne of the kings \" ( jer. lii. 32 ). the most magnificent throne was that of solomon ( see jew. encyc. xi. 441 et seq. ; j. s. kolbo made a model of solomon ' s throne and exhibited it in new york city in 1888 ). the throne, like the crown, was a symbol of sovereign power and dignity. it was also the tribunal, the \" throne of judgment \" ( prov. xx. 8 ), where the king decided matters of law and disputes among his subjects. thus \" throne \" is synonymous with \" justice. \" - 2. the throne, the abode of god, known as \" kisse ha - kabod \" ( the throne of glory ), from which god manifests his majesty and glory. micaiah \" saw the lord sitting on his throne, and all the hosts of heaven standing by him on his right hand and on his left \" ( i kings xxii. 19 ; compare the vision of isaiah [ vi. 1 ] with that of ezekiel [ x. 1 ] ). the throne of god is heaven ( isa. lxvi. 1 ) ; in future it will be jerusalem ( jer. iii. 17 ), and even the sanctuary ( jer. xvii. 12 ). thus the idea of the majestic manifestation of god gradually crystallized in the cabalistic expression \" koah ha - zimzum \" ( the power of concentration ). god ' s throne is the symbol of righteousness ; \" justice and judgment are the habitation of thy throne \" ( ps. lxxxix. 15 [ a. v. 14 ] ). the throne of glory is an important feature in the cabala. it is placed at the highest point of the universe ( hag. 12b ) ; and is of the same color as the sky \u2014 purple - blue, like the \" sapphire stone \" which ezekiel saw and which had previously been perceived by the israelites ( ex. xxiv. 10 ; sotah 17a ). like the torah, it was created before the world", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_computing", "similarity_score": 0.5059001477404653, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:47.377705"} {"text": "can you protect in the 3rd century, when rome dominated europe, it was able to deploy 50 legions throughout the empire, securing even the furthermost areas. by the following century the empire had lost much of its muscle, however, and rome ' s forces had diminished to just 25 legions. emperor constantine ' s problem : how to station legions in sufficient strength to protect the most forward positions of the empire without abandoning the core - - namely rome. he devised a new defensive strategy to cope with rome ' s reduced power. the problem is not \" solved \" in a mathematical sense, but a set of rules exists that defines when a solution is acceptable. once you understand the rules, you can attempt to see if you can improve on constantine ' s choice of deployment. a region, then, may be thought of as either secured or securable. it is considered to be secured if it has one or more pebbles placed in it already. it is considered securable if a pebble can be deployed to that region in a single step. at any shift or movement from a region, two pebbles must initially be present together before one of them can be launched. that is, a pebble can only be deployed if it moves from an adjacent region where there is already another pebble to help launch it. this is analogous to the island hopping strategy pursued by general macarthur in world war ii in the pacific theater - - where movement only followed the chain of islands ( secured areas ). now that you know the rules, the challenge is to place just four pebbles in the eight regions of the empire. here is another alternative, not necessarily better than constantine ' s strategy, but it gives you an idea of possibilities. we will place one pebble in gaul, two in rome, and one in constantinople. britain can now be reached in two steps ( a pebble from rome to gaul and a pebble from gaul to britain ), better for britain than before. however, asia minor is now not reachable in one step, but two ( from rome to constantinople and constantinople to asia minor ). all the rest of the empire is reachable in just one step. it is not clear that this is better than constantine ' s strategy. although the number of steps to the worst - off nodes has been reduced to two, the number of regions more than one step away has gone from one to two. can you improve on constantine ' s solution? if you can keep the number of nodes that can ' t be reached in one step to just one, and can reduce", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5011260126562851, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:47.380870"} {"text": "anyone remember the 19th century adage, \u201c sticks and stones can break your bones, but words can never hurt you? \u201d i think we \u2019 ve all had an experience that has proven this wrong. words can and do hurt and are unacceptable. but what if what we think the words we \u2019 re using are helpful? what if they aren \u2019 t? research conducted by carole dweck from stanford university makes the case that people develop growth mindsets or fixed mindsets based in part on the words they hear growing up. a fixed mindset believes intelligence is something you have, and can \u2019 t be changed much. a growth mindset believes that no matter what kind of person you are, you can always change. success then is not about proving you \u2019 re smart or talented, it \u2019 s about stretching yourself to learn something new. developing yourself. failure then, becomes a learning experience and not something that confirms your intelligence. dweck believes mindsets are a choice ; they are beliefs that are shaped by the words we hear from others and internalize to ourselves. consider this phrase, \u201c i \u2019 m proud of you \u201d. as a parent and educator, i \u2019 ve said it many times. what could possibly be the problem? consider a study by melissa kamins and carol dweck conducted with kindergarten students. they found that phrases like \u201c i \u2019 m proud of you \u201d, had the same effect on students as the phrase, \u201c i \u2019 m disappointed in you. \u201d it \u2019 s just the other end of the same conversation. the research goes on to state that if we say, \u201c i \u2019 m proud of you \u201d when children are successful, they often fill in the other end of the conversation and begin to believe we are disappointed in them when they are unsuccessful. the moral of the story ( says peter johnston in his book opening minds ) is : don \u2019 t use person - oriented praise. instead, use process - oriented feedback. so \u201c i \u2019 m proud of you \u201d becomes : \u201c you tried really hard \u201d or \u201c you found a good way to do it ; could you think of other ways that would also work? \u201d small changes in language can be significant in whether we see our lives ( and performances ) as \u201c fixed \u201d and therefore out of our control or \u201c changeable \u201d and in our control. we \u2019 re not suggesting that praise is always bad or that we stop completely. rather, the suggestion is that we begin to look at feedback and critiques as opportunities to learn and grow. that we consider intelligence", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5278060115343791, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:47.406881"} {"text": "how safe is your password? the first step in protecting your online privacy is creating a safe password - i. e. one that a computer program or persistent individual won ' t easily be able to guess in a short period of time. to help you choose a secure password, we ' ve created a feature that lets you know visually how safe your password is as soon as you create it. tips for creating a secure password : things to avoid : - include punctuation marks and / or numbers. - mix capital and lowercase letters. - include similar looking substitutions, such as the number zero for the letter ' o ' or ' for the letter ' s '. - create a unique acronym. - include phonetic replacements, such as ' luv 2 laf ' for ' love to laugh '. tips for keeping your password secure : - don ' t use a password that is listed as an example of how to pick a good password. - don ' t use a password that contains personal information ( name, username, birth date, etc. ) - don ' t use words or acronyms that can be found in a dictionary. - don ' t use keyboard patterns ( asdf ) or sequential numbers ( 1234 ). - don ' t make your password all numbers, uppercase letters or lowercase letters. - don ' t use repeating characters ( aa11 ). - never tell your password to anyone ( this includes significant others, roommates, parrots, etc. ). - never write your password down. - never send your password by email. - periodically test your current password and change it to a new one.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5037501702458658, "token_count": 331, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:47.439075"} {"text": "the amount of data in our world has been exploding, and analyzing large data sets \u2014 so - called big data \u2014 will become a key basis of competition, underpinning new waves of productivity growth, innovation, and consumer surplus, according to research by mgi and mckinsey ' s business technology office. leaders in every sector will have to grapple with the implications of big data, not just a few data - oriented managers. the increasing volume and detail of information captured by enterprises, the rise of multimedia, social media, and the internet of things will fuel exponential growth in data for the foreseeable future. research by mgi and mckinsey ' s business technology office examines the state of digital data and documents the significant value that can potentially be unlocked. mgi studied big data in five domains \u2014 healthcare in the united states, the public sector in europe, retail in the united states, and manufacturing and personal - location data globally. big data can generate value in each. for example, a retailer using big data to the full could increase its operating margin by more than 60 percent. harnessing big data in the public sector has enormous potential, too. if us healthcare were to use big data creatively and effectively to drive efficiency and quality, the sector could create more than $ 300 billion in value every year. two - thirds of that would be in the form of reducing us healthcare expenditure by about 8 percent. in the developed economies of europe, government administrators could save more than \u20ac100 billion ( $ 149 billion ) in operational efficiency improvements alone by using big data, not including using big data to reduce fraud and errors and boost the collection of tax revenues. and users of services enabled by personal - location data could capture $ 600 billion in consumer surplus. the research offers seven key insights. 1. data have swept into every industry and business function and are now an important factor of production, alongside labor and capital. we estimate that, by 2009, nearly all sectors in the us economy had at least an average of 200 terabytes of stored data ( twice the size of us retailer wal - mart ' s data warehouse in 1999 ) per company with more than 1, 000 employees. 2. there are five broad ways in which using big data can create value. first, big data can unlock significant value by making information transparent and usable at much higher frequency. second, as organizations create and store more transactional data in digital form, they can collect more accurate and detailed performance information on everything from product inventories to sick days, and therefore expose", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5129144156714535, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:47.544097"} {"text": "significant value by making information transparent and usable at much higher frequency. second, as organizations create and store more transactional data in digital form, they can collect more accurate and detailed performance information on everything from product inventories to sick days, and therefore expose variability and boost performance. leading companies are using data collection and analysis to conduct controlled experiments to make better management decisions ; others are using data for basic low - frequency forecasting to high - frequency nowcasting to adjust their business levers just in time. third, big data allows ever - narrower segmentation of customers and therefore much more precisely tailored products or services. fourth, sophisticated analytics can substantially improve decision - making. finally, big data can be used to improve the development of the next generation of products and services. for instance, manufacturers are using data obtained from sensors embedded in products to create innovative after - sales service offerings such as proactive maintenance ( preventive measures that take place before a failure occurs or is even noticed ). distilling value and driving productivity from mountains of data michael chui discusses how the scale and scope of companies ' access to data is changing the way they do business. 3. the use of big data will become a key basis of competition and growth for individual firms. from the standpoint of competitiveness and the potential capture of value, all companies need to take big data seriously. in most industries, established competitors and new entrants alike will leverage data - driven strategies to innovate, compete, and capture value from deep and up - to - real - time information. indeed, we found early examples of such use of data in every sector we examined. 4. the use of big data will underpin new waves of productivity growth and consumer surplus. for example, we estimate that a retailer using big data to the full has the potential to increase its operating margin by more than 60 percent. big data offers considerable benefits to consumers as well as to companies and organizations. for instance, services enabled by personal - location data can allow consumers to capture $ 600 billion in economic surplus. 5. while the use of big data will matter across sectors, some sectors are set for greater gains. we compared the historical productivity of sectors in the united states with the potential of these sectors to capture value from big data ( using an index that combines several quantitative metrics ), and found that the opportunities and challenges vary from sector to sector. the computer and electronic products and information sectors, as well as finance and insurance, and government are poised to gain substantially from the use of big", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5285103754477257, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:47.546919"} {"text": "metaphysics - the study of the true nature of reality. metaphysics has evolved over the centuries as human consciousness has developed to include science and spiritual awareness as tools to explore and observe the true nature of reality. reality, or physical reality, includes everything we experience. thoughts, ideas, emotions, perceptions, even what we call dreams and hallucinations, life and death ; all are included in this experience that we call \" reality \". science attempts to separate, categorize, quantify, and objectify physical experience, labeling certain aspects as \" real \" and others as \" not real \". metaphysics includes science, and goes beyond it to encompass all aspects and dimensions of life experience as \" real \". religion attempts to separate the physical from the non - physical, or spiritual, aspects of life experience, rejecting the physical and calling it \" bad \" or \" evil \" while embracing the spiritual and calling that \" good \" or even \" god \". metaphysics goes beyond religions, recognizing that the physical and non - physical are one and not separate, neither good nor bad, and that everything is in fact what we might call \" god \". at this point in our conscious evolution, metaphysics has taken its place as the most comprehensive and most effective means of gaining knowledge and understanding or who we really are, why we are here, and the true nature of the physical universe that we can perceive from our present point of view. while science helps us perceive and understand the qualities of various aspects of physical existence, and religion and spirituality can help us integrate what we call non - physical experience into our lives, it is only through metaphysical studies that the \" big picture \" can be seen and applied. the impact of gaining knowledge of the big picture and learning how to manipulate and affect our world at that level will lead to unimaginable developments in our technologies, social systems, health and well being, and our relationships to our planet and the universe. to ignore metaphysics is to ignore the potential of our future ; to embrace it is to embrace everything that life has to offer. so how can you study metaphysics? i have found the only reliable method is to access truth from the heart. by the heart i mean that zero point in the heart that connects us to source, all that is, god, or whatever you want to call it. once you access this point, you will find your level of awareness expands in a way that permits your conscious mind to perceive physical reality more accurately and effectively. you will then find that the words you", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.6367505301770323, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:47.570011"} {"text": ", god, or whatever you want to call it. once you access this point, you will find your level of awareness expands in a way that permits your conscious mind to perceive physical reality more accurately and effectively. you will then find that the words you read, hear and experience coming from \" others \" are in fact mirrors reflecting back to you the truth you perceived from the heart. this is true knowledge and it will replace belief as your main mode of conscious functioning. learn how to access the heart and continue your studies by exploring the links below. ~ ~ spirituality : how everything is connected. many aspects of the physical world were once beyond the range of human perception. spirituality is the exploration of those aspects of human experience that are still considered \" non - physical \" only because our technology cannot as yet measure or detect them. ultimately, as science continues to explore spirituality, it discovers that everything is in fact connected. ~ ~ famous scientists and philosophers. these famous scientists and thinkers have devoted a great deal of their lives and energy to the advancement of metaphysical knowledge and ideas. most have made valuable contributions and advancements in areas that contribute directly to the quality of everyday human life. ~ ~ cosmology and the mayan calendar - 2012. today, scientists know that there are powerful electromagnetic fields emanating from the earth, the sun, the center of the galaxy, and even our own hearts. these electromagnetic fields affect and interact with each other. but what is most relevant to the mayan calendar and 2012 is the impact that these cycles, both large and small, have upon life on earth. featured video : metaphysics for life lesson 102 - how it really works.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.6343859527375821, "token_count": 334, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:47.570751"} {"text": "a status value in the integer pointed to by errret. a return value of ok combined with status of 1 in errret is normal. if err is returned, examine errret : 1 means that the terminal is hardcopy, cannot be used for curses applications. 0 means that the terminal could not be found, or that it is a generic type, having too little in - formation for curses applications to run. - 1 means that the terminfo database could not be found. if errret is null, setupterm prints an error message upon finding an error and exits. thus, the simplest call is : setupterm ( ( char * ) 0, 1, ( int * ) 0 ) ;, which uses all the defaults and sends the output to stdout. the setterm routine is being replaced by setupterm. the call : setupterm ( term, 1, ( int * ) 0 ) provides the same functionality as setterm ( term ). the set - term routine is included here for bsd compatibility, and is not recommended for new programs. the set _ curterm routine sets the variable cur _ term to nterm, and makes all of the terminfo boolean, numeric, and string variables use the values from nterm. it returns the old value of cur _ term. miros bsd # 10 - current printed 26. 4. 2013 2 curs _ terminfo ( 3 ) unix programmer ' s manual curs _ terminfo ( 3 ) the del _ curterm routine frees the space pointed to by oterm and makes it available for further use. if oterm is the same as cur _ term, references to any of the terminfo boolean, numeric, and string variables thereafter may refer to in - valid memory locations until another setupterm has been called. the restartterm routine is similar to setupterm and initscr, except that it is called after restoring memory to a previ - ous state ( for example, when reloading a game saved as a core image dump ). it assumes that the windows and the input and output options are the same as when memory was saved, but the terminal type and baud rate may be different. ac - cordingly, it saves various tty state bits, does a setup - term, and then restores the bits. the tparm routine instantiates the string str with parame", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5151836107634964, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:47.585664"} {"text": "we recently received this intruiging article from dave horvath and invite you to read it and then join in the discussion. a substantial number of unexplained crashes of radio control model airplanes on 2. 4ghz frequency prompted me to write this article on the so - called \u201c interference free \u201d radio control systems on the 2. 4ghz band. the electromagnetic wave spectrum is subject to the immutable laws of physics. the propagation characteristics of the 2. 4ghz wavelength and the environmental effects of this frequency are more complex than on the 72mhz band. to better understand this, we have to look at the electromagnetic wave spectrum where 72mhz band is in the broadcasting region and the 2. 4ghz band is in the microwave region. it is easier to see the huge difference between 72mhz and 2. 4ghz frequencies when we convert 2. 4 gigahertz to megahertz. now it is 2400mhz versus 72mhz. when frequency increases, wavelength decreases. therefore, the 2. 4ghz wavelength is shorter and closer to visible light on the electromagnetic wave spectrum. since visible light is also an electromagnetic wave, 2. 4ghz wavelength behaves more like visible light and travels in straight lines until it is reflected, deflected, diffracted or absorbed. reflection and diffraction will create interference. when parallel rays of light are reflected by a concave mirror, it greatly increases the intensity of light at the focal point. a parabolic dish antenna works the same way for a 2. 4ghz electromagnetic wave. since we cannot focus a high gain directional parabolic dish antenna between our constantly moving model airplane and our transmitter, we have to use an omnidirectional vertical antenna system which has much lower signal intensity. the fhss ( frequency - hopping - spread - spectrum ) and the dsss ( direct - sequence - spread - spectrum ) techniques can share the same band. however, they interfere with each other causing a degradation of performance. range decreases as the number of clear channels decreases. bandwidth drops each time fhss encounters a blocked frequency on a crowded spectrum. the crowded spectrum on the 2. 4ghz band reduces the bandwidth, increases the ever present background noise, increases the adjacent channel leakage ratio, reduces the range, and causes overlapping. overlapping is a direct interference. unlike the 72mhz wavelength which penetrates most objects, the 2. 4ghz wavelength", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5740985511105035, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:47.600581"} {"text": ", increases the ever present background noise, increases the adjacent channel leakage ratio, reduces the range, and causes overlapping. overlapping is a direct interference. unlike the 72mhz wavelength which penetrates most objects, the 2. 4ghz wavelength behaves more like visible light. signal absorption from objects on a model airplane like the engines, electric motors, batteries, servos, pushrods, landing gears, switches, wires, etc., may cause path interference. signal reflection from objects in the terrain, like fences, walls, buildings, trees, hills, power lines cause line of sight interference. high speed data transfer reduces the receiver \u2019 s sensitivity on 2. 4ghz band. there is a trade - off between speed versus range. the signal strength decreases quadratically as distance increases at constant radiation levels. this is called path loss. when frequency increases, path loss also increases. this is one of the reasons why 72mhz radios have a better range than the 2. 4ghz radios. we can see this clearly when we look at the wireless range calculator : frequency distance loss 100mhz 0. 2 mile 62 decibel 2400mhz 0. 2 mile 90 decibel these calculations are under non - existing ideal conditions, less fresnel ( pronounced frehnel ) effect. when we fly our model airplane on 2. 4ghz, the area around us is known as the fresnel zone. since we have to use an omnidirectional antenna system, the electromagnetic waves will scatter and diffract from objects and from the terrain around us. when the diffracted wave reaches the receiver antenna, it is slightly lags behind the signal which traveled to the receiver antenna in a straight line that creates interference due to the phase canceling effect. the fresnel effect also deals with the behavior of electromagnetic waves over a water surface. as mentioned before, the 2. 4ghz radiation behaves more like visible light, so we have to think of reflections and shadows. flying a 2. 4ghz radio control model over a reflective surface like water, snow, ice or wet terrain negatively affects the radio link. occasionally a 3d aerobatic model plunges into water while hovering. when the rudder is near the water surface, the prop wash creates a chaotic wave pattern which generates a myriad of false - signals. the fresnel effect and the described interference on the 2. 4ghz band work pretty well. we", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5737414629539205, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:47.604980"} {"text": "hovering. when the rudder is near the water surface, the prop wash creates a chaotic wave pattern which generates a myriad of false - signals. the fresnel effect and the described interference on the 2. 4ghz band work pretty well. we successfully tested this at different locations. unfortunately, the \u201c unbreakable tx - rx link \u201d broke when our model was over 0. 2 miles away at 45 degree angle. despite the fact that a 90 decibel signal loss over a thousand feet ( 0. 2 miles ) is rather significant, we should have had control at this distance. there are too many factors that can determine the overall range on 2. 4ghz. 2. 4ghz receivers are not immune to ignition and electrical noise as advertised. occasional arc from high tension insulators could break the bind. latency is the time between stimulation and the beginning of response caused by propagation delays. there is a huge time difference in latency claims by different radio manufacturers. some latency claims are in milliseconds, others are in microseconds! this is confusing since one millisecond is one thousandth of a second and one microsecond is one millionth of a second. velocity of electromagnetic waves is 186, 283 miles per second. the velocity of the electric signal through conductors is nearly at the speed of light. with an adequate power output, our radio signal will travel one microsecond which is one millionth of a second to reach our model airplane one thousand feet away. this applies to all brands of radios on 72mhz or on 2. 4ghz. as we know, nothing travels faster than the electromagnetic waves. therefore, i don \u2019 t see how latency could be improved \u201c 50 % \u201d over the leading competitors regardless of different processing. a seven millisecond latency or a fourteen millisecond latency claim is irrelevant since the human being, the rc pilot, has a painfully slow 200 millisecond latency and can not differentiate between seven or fourteen milliseconds. at huge events, like nationals, the 2. 4ghz pin - free radio system makes life easier for competitors and organizers. however, there is a huge difference between flying on 2. 4ghz band in the beautiful country side near muncie where chances are good that there won \u2019 t be any noticeable interference and flying on 2. 4ghz band in the middle of one of the largest concentration of population and industries in los angeles or", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5240948640125349, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:47.606152"} {"text": "tsunamis, and continued flooding remains largely unknown and / or undisclosed : a raging fire at the cosmo energy refinery in chiba that began march 11 touched off an overnight fire at the neighboring chisso polyethylene and polypropylene plant. chisso says that none of its workers were injured and that damage to the facility is relatively light. polysilicon producer tokuyama has a subsidiary... located in [ an area ] devastated by the tsunami. tokuyama says it is assessing damage to the subsidiary and to its facilities elsewhere in japan. chemical manufacturer tosoh says its staff in the tohoku area is safe, including the staff of a plant in the town of ishinomaki, which was largely destroyed by the tsunami. this facility was flooded and tosoh says the extent of the damage is unclear. in the images above you can see fires at several oil refineries and industrial complexes, including facilities in the port of sendai and a petrochemical facility in shiogama, where a large explosion was reported. on the left is a natural - color image showing a large brown smoke plume extending about 85 kilometers / 53 miles southeast from the coastline. the image on the right was used to confirm that the brown plume was actually something in the air and not something on the ground / water. here ' s an explanation of the technology used to ascertain that information from far away : [ t ] he right - hand image is a stereoscopic \" anaglyph \" created from data in misr \u2019 s [ multi - angle imaging spectroradiometer aboard nasa \u2019 s terra spacecraft ] red spectral band, and generated by displaying the 46 - degree backward view in red and 60 - degree backward view in cyan. the separation between the red and cyan images is known as stereo parallax, and is related to the height of the observed features above the surface. viewing the anaglyph with red - cyan glasses ( red filter over the left eye ) gives a perception of height. no separation is visible for the coastline, which is at sea level, but the clouds and plume are distinctly elevated. the height of the plume is estimated to be about 2 kilometers ( 1. 2 miles ), at a similar altitude as the nearby clouds. as for efforts to avert disaster at japan ' s imperiled nuclear power plants, the new york times reports near chaos among those running the show : \" they ' re basically in a full - scale panic \" among japanese power industry managers,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5106768314869325, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:47.629282"} {"text": "joined : 16 mar 2004 | posted : thu aug 06, 2009 11 : 24 am post subject : nanotubes could aid understanding of retrovirus transmission | recent findings by medical researchers indicate that naturally occurring nanotubes may serve as tunnels that protect retroviruses and bacteria in transit from diseased to healthy cells \u2014 a fact that may explain why vaccines fare poorly against some invaders. to better study the missions of these intercellular nanotubes, scientists have sought the means to form them quickly and easily in test tubes. sandia national laboratories researchers have now learned serendipitously to form nanotubes with surprising ease. \u201c our work is the first to show that the formation of nanotubes is not complicated, but can be a general effect of protein - membrane interactions alone, \u201d says darryl sasaki of sandia ' s bioscience and energy center. the tunnel - like structures have been recognized only recently as tiny but important bodily channels for the good, the bad, and the informational. in addition to providing protected transport to certain diseases, the nanotubes also seem to help trundle bacteria to their doom in the tentacles of microphages. lastly, the nanotubes may provide avenues to send and receive information ( in the form of chemical molecules ) from cell to cell far faster than their random dispersal into the bloodstream would permit. given the discovery of this radically different transportation system operating within human tissues, it was natural for researchers to attempt to duplicate the formation of the nanotubes. in their labs, they experimented with giant lipid vesicles that appeared to mimic key aspects of the cellular membrane. giant lipid vesicles resemble micron - sized spherical soap bubbles that exist in water. they are composed of a lipid bilayer membrane only five nanometers thick. the object for experimenters was to create conditions in which the spheres would morph into cylinders of nanometer radii. but researchers had difficulties, says sasaki, perhaps because they used a composite lipid called egg pc that requires unnecessarily high energies to bend into a tubular shape. egg pc is inexpensive, readily available, and offers good, stable membrane properties. it is the usual lipid of choice in forming nanocylinders via mechanical stretching techniques. but sandia postdoctoral researcher haiqing lui instead used popc \u2014 a single pure lipid requiring half the bending energy of egg pc. she was trying to generate nanotubes by a completely different approach that involved the use of motor proteins to", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5925094514915475, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:47.656438"} {"text": ". but sandia postdoctoral researcher haiqing lui instead used popc \u2014 a single pure lipid requiring half the bending energy of egg pc. she was trying to generate nanotubes by a completely different approach that involved the use of motor proteins to stretch naturally occurring membranes into tubes. working with sandia researcher george bachand, she serendipitously found that interaction of the popc membrane with a high affinity protein called streptavidin alone was enough to form the nanotubes. \u201c perhaps this information \u2014 linking membrane bending energy with nanotube formation \u2014 may provide some clue about the membrane structure and the cell ' s ability to form such intercellular connections, \u201d sasaki says. the formation was confirmed by sandia researcher carl hayden, who characterized the nanotube formation through a confocal imaging microscope. the custom instrument allows pixel - by - pixel examination of the protein interaction with the membranes comprising the nanotubes by detecting the spectrum and lifetimes of fluorescent labels on the proteins. nanotube formation had been noticed previously by cell biologists, but they had dismissed the tiny outgrowths as \u201c junk \u2014 an aberration of cells growing in culture, \u201d says sasaki. \u201c the reason they were only noticed recently as trafficking routes is because of labeling studies that marked organelles and proteins. this allowed a focused look at what these nanostructures might be used for. \u201d it became clear, says sasaki, that the organelles were being transported with \u201c specific directionality \u201d on the backs of motor proteins within the tubes, rather than randomly. three - dimensional networks of nanotubes also are found to be created by macrophages \u2014 part of the police force of the body \u2014 grown in culture, says george. the tubes in appearance and function resemble a kind of spider web, capturing bacterium and transporting them to the macrophages, which eat them. other paper authors include postdoc hahkjoon kim and summer intern elsa abate. the lipid work is supported by sandia ' s laboratory directed research and development office. motor protein work is supported by doe ' s office of basic energy sciences. results were published in the american chemical society ' s langmuir journal in mid - march. source : sandia. gov /...", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5545309118886326, "token_count": 467, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:47.657355"} {"text": "below are the first 10 and last 10 pages of uncorrected machine - read text ( when available ) of this chapter, followed by the top 30 algorithmically extracted key phrases from the chapter as a whole. intended to provide our own search engines and external engines with highly rich, chapter - representative searchable text on the opening pages of each chapter. because it is uncorrected material, please consider the following text as a useful but insufficient proxy for the authoritative book pages. do not use for reproduction, copying, pasting, or reading ; exclusively for search engines. ocr for page 107 manufacturing systems : foundations of world - class practice improving quality through the concept of learning curves w. dale compton, michelle d. dunlap, and joseph a. heim quality is the hallmark of competitive products. consumers reject products that are of inferior quality, and they shun companies who are perceived to provide products or services with less than competitive quality. a company cannot survive in the current world marketplace without providing a product or service that is of high quality. it would be hard to find a u. s. - based manufacturing enterprise that does not place quality near the top of a list of strategic or operating objectives that would also include cost, innovation, and customer focus. this sensitivity to the customer demand for quality has not always been a dominant force in the operating strategies of u. s. companies. having realized its importance, companies find that they must now direct their energies in ways that focus on this objective. a broad range of operating procedures must be modified or, in some cases, created : quality must be designed into products ; a productive interaction must be stimulated among the design, manufacturing, and marketing activities ; input from the customers must be obtained and used ; and active participation by their employees in creating \u201c quality \u201d products and services must be encouraged. with this new awareness of the importance of quality have come two specific needs. first, there is a need to measure the performance of the organization against that of its competitors and, second, there is the need to assess the trends in one ' s performance in order to take appropriate actions to ensure continuous improvement. in the first case, an absolute measure of ocr for page 108 manufacturing systems : foundations of world - class practice performance is needed. this is sometimes referred to as \u201c benchmarking, \u201d or measuring oneself against the world leader \u2014 the \u201c best - of - the - best \u201d \u2014 in a product or process arena ( compton, in this volume ). in the second, progress over time", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5554625651190506, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:47.670489"} {"text": "sometimes referred to as \u201c benchmarking, \u201d or measuring oneself against the world leader \u2014 the \u201c best - of - the - best \u201d \u2014 in a product or process arena ( compton, in this volume ). in the second, progress over time is the prime concern, that is, how well the organization is achieving continuous improvement in performance. a proper combination of these two measures is critical. without them an organization cannot properly evaluate its absolute competitive status, nor can it be assured of its ability to remain competitive over a long period of time. with \u201c high quality \u201d as a prerequisite for being competitive in the marketplace, achieving and maintaining high quality in all aspects of an operation is a critical component of the foundations of all manufacturing systems. orientation this article focuses on the second of the two needs identified above, assessing how an organization improves over time. we will be concerned, therefore, with assessing trends in quality. we will conclude with some observations about the need for continuous and careful collection of the type of data that are critical to a proper assessment of progress. \u201c quality \u201d is not a universal descriptor that has a unique definition under all circumstances. garvin ( 1984 ) has described five approaches to defining quality. the appropriate metric for measuring the quality of a product or process will depend on the definition or circumstance that is of immediate interest. it can, for example, refer to defects arising from a production process, defective parts shipped to customers, or reliability of the product in service. although we will not discuss the various measures of quality in this paper, we have obtained examples of each of the above measures. we offer examples of the first two in this paper. measures of the quality of the outputs of a system can be obtained in many ways. in the day - to - day operation of a manufacturing enterprise, the collection and use of process data to support statistical process control ( spc ) is important to achieving high - quality manufacturing. spc requires that measures of one or more attributes of the quality of a production system be regularly employed, and it provides a paradigm for the efficient use of those measures to control the process. there is ample evidence of the importance of this real - time control in improving the quality of the processes and the products that result from these processes. in every sense, the effective use of spc and total quality control ( tqc ) have become important elements of the foundations of effective manufacturing systems. the measures of quality that are implicit in the application of spc necessarily concern shorter time periods ; that is, they reflect", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5479210861234955, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:47.671490"} {"text": "the effective use of spc and total quality control ( tqc ) have become important elements of the foundations of effective manufacturing systems. the measures of quality that are implicit in the application of spc necessarily concern shorter time periods ; that is, they reflect the current status of the process or system that is producing the product. although the importance of this near - term collection of data \u2014 and appropriate analysis to ocr for page 109 manufacturing systems : foundations of world - class practice accomplish spc \u2014 is not questioned, it is also clear that an understanding and quantification of the longer - term trends in quality are also critical to achieving continuous improvement in quality. the learning curve related to costs a traditional approach to measuring the long - term cost performance in a manufacturing operation is to use the \u201c experience \u201d or \u201c learning \u201d curve concept ( henderson and levy, 1965 ). this asserts that the fractional reduction in the average cumulative cost ( in constant units of measure ) of producing a product is proportional to the fractional increase in the quantity of the product that is produced and yields a power law representation that is similar to that first described by wright ( 1936 ). a common formulation of this law relates the cost of production of the nth unit, xn to the total production volume n xn = kn\u2212b ( 1 ) for large n. equation 1 has been used many times and has been shown to be valid for a wide variety of products in many different industries ( see argote and epple, 1990, for a discussion of this form of the learning curve in manufacturing ). the literature contains numerous discussions of circumstances in which an exponential law is the appropriate formulation for the learning curve ( buck et al., 1976 ; pegals, 1969 ). a simpler formulation for a learning curve, seldom used in the literature and applicable only under limited circumstances, is the linear representation. determination of the form that is most appropriate depends on many factors, including the nature of the data sampling protocol. in general, however, if it is not possible to determine which form is most appropriate, either because of an absence of a priori knowledge or because of a lack of sufficient high - quality data, the simplest formulation is probably best. selecting the simplest formulation entails testing to determine whether the data are best fitted by a linear, an exponential, or a power law representation. irrespective of the formulation chosen, learning curves are not to be viewed as merely descriptive. they can be, and frequently have been, used as an aid in making predictions, in", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5559683576734525, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:47.672543"} {"text": "a linear, an exponential, or a power law representation. irrespective of the formulation chosen, learning curves are not to be viewed as merely descriptive. they can be, and frequently have been, used as an aid in making predictions, in that early experience in the production of a product can be used to predict future manufacturing costs. assuming that one has confidence in the form of the equation that is chosen \u2014 whether power, exponential, or linear \u2014 and that one can make a reasonable estimate of the constants that appear in them, one can readily predict the costs to produce a unit after some future cumulative production volume has been achieved. even in the absence of detailed data on a given product, the experience of many manufacturers with many products is that manufacturing costs can be expected to decrease by 10 to 20 percent for each doubling ocr for page 110 manufacturing systems : foundations of world - class practice of production volume. abernathy and wayne ( 1974 ) have explored the limits of validity of the learning curve concept. the improvement depicted by the experience curve is a result of conscious effort and attention on the part of the management and employees of the enterprise. it cannot be expected to continue without the attention and focus that accompanies a clearly accepted operating objective, in this case an objective of continuously reducing the costs to manufacture the product or to offer the service. a variety of actions combine to produce the desired cost reductions ( allan, 1975 ) : improved efficiency in the use of labor through training and incentives. introduction of new and improved processes that reduce manufacturing costs. redesign of the product to reduce manufacturing costs. standardization of the product to reduce the variety of tasks demanded of the workers. scale effects resulting from large volume production. substitution of lower - cost materials while retaining product features. the learning curve related to quality just as competitive pressures have forced the management of u. s. companies to pay special attention to costs, so also is management being forced to pay special attention to improvement in quality. although many approaches are taken to improve quality, these efforts have a few key actions in common : simplification of product design to enhance manufacturability. involvement of the employees in designing the manufacturing system. enhanced training of the employees. substitution of automated machinery in areas that are not conducive to human operation. collection of extensive data on each operation, and analysis to identify problems and trends in those operations. introduction of new or improved processes that are less sensitive to variation. although the specific actions taken to improve quality differ from those taken to reduce unit costs, a", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5769496529865247, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:47.673604"} {"text": "collection of extensive data on each operation, and analysis to identify problems and trends in those operations. introduction of new or improved processes that are less sensitive to variation. although the specific actions taken to improve quality differ from those taken to reduce unit costs, a striking similarity exists between the two lists. in particular, both result from conscious actions taken by management and employees to accomplish a common strategic objective for the enterprise. ocr for page 111 manufacturing systems : foundations of world - class practice both combine human commitment and training with technical improvements. both require extensive knowledge of the processes being employed and the products being produced. therefore, quality and costs might be expected to share a common representation. one might then speculate that quality should follow an experience curve similar to that of cost. by analogy, therefore, a quality learning curve might take one of three forms such that the quality index ( qi ) for the nth item is defined as follows : ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 4 ) in the above equations, ( qi ) n * is the asymptotic value of the quality index, ( qi ) o is related to ( qi ) l, the quality of the first unit produced and to ( qi ) n *, ( qi ) a and ( qi ) b are constants, and n is the cumulative volume of the products produced. in equations 2, 3, and 4, the sign can be positive or negative \u2014 positive if the quality index is improving as cumulative production volume increases, for example, yield from a process ; negative if the quality index reflects defects or defective parts, which will decrease as the cumulative production volume increases. while the particular attribute of the product or process being considered will most likely be different for each product and process, the above formulations are independent of the specific attribute that can be related to the quality index. one should not expect, however, the numerical values of the constants to lie within a specific range or to have any particular relationship from one product to another, because the quality indices can differ depending on the attribute chosen for examination. observations schneiderman ( 1988 ) appears to be one of the first to treat production yields or the quality of products shipped according to a learning curve. schneiderman offers a number of examples of quality learning curves that are presented as exponential formulations in which a measure of quality is plotted as a function of time from the start of production. it should be noted that this formulation is consistent with equation 3 only in the case that production rates are constant over time \u2014 a circumstance that seldom occurs. a test of", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5694360944864245, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:47.674575"} {"text": "a measure of quality is plotted as a function of time from the start of production. it should be noted that this formulation is consistent with equation 3 only in the case that production rates are constant over time \u2014 a circumstance that seldom occurs. a test of the hypothesis that a quality index is describable by equations 2, 3, or 4 can, in principle, be made by examining the quality of products or processes at various levels of production. for some dozen products \u2014 for which measures of quality and production volumes could be obtained \u2014 we have generally found that two of the three formulations are virtually indis - ocr for page 112 manufacturing systems : foundations of world - class practice tinguishable in their ability to represent the data. in some cases, the linear and exponential laws were indistinguishable \u2014 meaning that the coefficient of correlation for the two laws was nearly the same \u2014 while in others, the power and exponential laws were indistinguishable. we found no case in which all three representations were equally good. data are presented in figure 1 figure 2 through figure 3 relating an index of quality to the cumulative volumes of production for three different products \u2014 light bulbs, a small electric motor, and grey iron castings. general electric company and the dalton foundries, inc., graciously supplied the data contained in these figures. a description of the quality index for each of the products is given in the figure captions. having no a priori basis on which to choose the preferred formulation for representing the quality index, we examined each of the products using equations 2, 3, and 4. following an observation by buck et al. ( 1976 ) that the exponential form of the learning curve is some - figure 1 a normalized measure of defects in light bulbs for the period between 1970 and 1989 as a function of normalized volumes. quality is measured in defects per million light bulbs. these data represent the cumulative production from a single plant. correlation coefficient r =. 82 ( for the linear representation, r =. 86 ). courtesy of general electric co. ocr for page 113 manufacturing systems : foundations of world - class practice figure 2 normalized defects as a function of cumulative volumes, in arbitrary units, for small electric motors for the period 1981 through 1989. defects due to production errors are in the range of a few tens per millions of motors. correlation coefficient r =. 89 ( for the exponential representation, r =. 70 ). courtesy of general electric co. what to be preferred for batch, or", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5586017314411229, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:47.675575"} {"text": "defects due to production errors are in the range of a few tens per millions of motors. correlation coefficient r =. 89 ( for the exponential representation, r =. 70 ). courtesy of general electric co. what to be preferred for batch, or average, sampling of the metric in question, we have chosen to present three of these sets of data in terms of the exponential relationship of the quality index to the cumulative volumes of the product produced. in none of these cases was saturation apparent, implying either that ( qi ) n * was effectively zero or that the observed values are so far from the saturation value that the present representation is not adequate to display a saturation. it is of particular interest that the correlation coefficients for a linear plot of the data shown in figure 1 and figure 3 are essentially the same as shown for the curves as plotted. the correlation coefficients for the curves shown in the graphs are given in the captions, along with the correlation for the best alternative formulation. each of the data points in these three figures represents an average of the quality metric for a period of one year. thus, for figure 1, the quality data are for 20 years of production, figure 2 for 9 years, and figure 3 for 12 years. in some cases the index is defined as defects in production ; in others, the shipping of a faulty product to a customer. ocr for page 114 manufacturing systems : foundations of world - class practice figure 3 normalized scrap rate as a function of cumulative volumes for the period 1979 through 1989 for a grey iron casting. correlation coefficient r =. 96 ( for the linear representation r =. 94 ). courtesy of the dalton foundries, inc. conclusion in each of the cases examined, there is clear evidence that the quality index, although defined differently for each group of products, is related to cumulative volume of production. with the diversity in product type and processes represented here, the hypothesis that one or more forms of the learning curve exists for quality is supported by these data. although the present data do not appear capable of distinguishing among the various forms for a learning curve for quality, it appears that one or more forms can easily be found to permit a reasonable extension for setting new goals or examining the impact of past actions on performance. because the time frame in which these products were in production is long, it is reasonably certain that the actions suggested earlier as being important for management and employees in achieving a continuous improvement in quality were taken throughout the life of these products. each of the companies that provided these data has indicated that", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5517976521362248, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:47.676662"} {"text": "products were in production is long, it is reasonably certain that the actions suggested earlier as being important for management and employees in achieving a continuous improvement in quality were taken throughout the life of these products. each of the companies that provided these data has indicated that the quality trends demonstrated in these figures are the result of constant and consistent ocr for page 115 manufacturing systems : foundations of world - class practice attention to the importance of continuous improvement. although this dependence of a quality index on cumulative production has been demonstrated for only this select group of products, we believe that this phenomenon is generally true. a collection of additional examples from other industries would help support this conclusion. we have been surprised to find that few companies keep data in the form or with a consistency that allows the following of trends as described in the types of curves shown here. in our view, this is a shortcoming that should be addressed by all concerned with continuous improvement. the systematic collection of data on quality and the representation of these data in the form described by equations 2, 3, or 4, offer a means of tracking progress on the \u201c continuous improvement \u201d of quality and a means by which realistic expectations can be established for future goals. above all, the existence of a learning curve for quality should be viewed as one more example of the need for careful collection of systematic data. without good data, this important foundation cannot be used. creating high - quality products through high - quality manufacturing processes and systems is a critical element in the foundations of manufacturing. the learning curve for quality should therefore be viewed as an important element in the foundations of manufacturing. we believe that the learning curves can be an important contributor to achieving improved quality. acknowledgment this work was supported in part by a grant from the ford motor company fund. representative terms from entire chapter :", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5335886641988103, "token_count": 363, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 7, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:47.677554"} {"text": "grading and reporting for all students instructor : stephanie wertkins, instructor ; thomas guskey and lee ann jung, presenter spring, summer & fall ( ongoing ) instruction mode : internet - asynchronous ( online class ) academic level : k - 12 professional development partner course fee : $ 145 partner class offered through knowledge delivery systems this expansive course on the topic of reporting and grading, focuses on the meaning of grades for parents and students. it explores whether teachers are consistent in giving grades and reviews common methods in grading students. presenters guskey and jung challenge traditional practices and propose options that show how grading methods can be modified and combined to benefit students and their parents. also included is a section on the challenges of grading struggling learners and special needs students. jung and guskey lay out a five - step inclusive grading modelresulting in a system that showcases best practices for standards - based grading. after completing this course, educators will know : - aspects of the history of grading in the us to date. - the purpose ( s ) of grading. - recommended grading methods. - the drawbacks of averaging, assigning zeros, and grading on the curve. - the distinctions between the learning criteria of product, process, and progress. - the inclusive grading model as a method for grading struggling and other exceptional learners. - methods for effective communication with parents and other audiences. student learning outcomes : after completing this course, educators will apply the following skills : - articulate a clear purpose for grades. - utilize a standards - based grading system. - distinguish product from process from progress on report cards. - make modifications and accommodations for students as necessary. - adopt the inclusive grading model to ensure they are grading all students, including those who struggle, accurately and fairly. - improve communications with parents and other audiences. register for this class through kdsi. note : upon registration, you have 2 months for course completion. although many of our courses are approved for both 1 and 3 graduate professional development credits, participants can only receive credit for one version of each course.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5005106864813036, "token_count": 414, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:47.687173"} {"text": "newegg. com - a great place to buy computers, computer parts, electronics, software, accessories, and dvds online. with great prices, fast shipping, and top - rated customer service - once you know, you newegg. if you are reading this message, please click this link to reload this page. ( do not use your browser ' s \" refresh \" button ). please email us if you ' re running the latest version of your browser and you still see this message. table of contents bluetooth is an industrial specification for wireless data transfer. bluetooth connectivity is often found in high - end keyboards and mice. bluetooth generally provide an operating range of up to 30 feet and is less prone to interference in comparison to rf technology. dpi and fps dpi ( dots per inch ) and fps ( frames per second ) are the number of counts in an inch of movement and the number of times the sensor reads the surface in a second respectively. these figures are measures of the amount of information recorded by the mouse ' s sensor. the greater the amount of information that is gathered, the more accurately and precisely the surface can be tracked. to detect movement, optical and laser mice use sensors to read beams of light as they are reflected from the tracking surface. currently 400 and 800 dpi optical mice as well as 800 dpi laser mice are very popular, but some high - end models are capable of 1000, 1600 or even 2000 dpi tracking speeds. the personal system / 2 or ps / 2 was the designation for ibm ' s second generation of personal computers. the ps / 2 keyboard and mouse ports were introduced with it. ps / 2 ports connect the keyboard and mouse to a computer and are usually color - coded on today ' s systems - purple for keyboards and green for mice. most desktop motherboards still provide ps / 2 ports, but an increasing number of keyboards and mice are using usb ports. radio frequency ( rf ) is a wireless communication technology. using rf technology allows keyboards and mice to computers without annoying cables. the usb ( universal serial bus ) port is a popular i / o interface used for connecting computers and peripherals or other devices. it is capable of supporting up to 127 daisy - chained peripheral devices simultaneously. the latest usb 2. 0 specification can deliver 480mbps data transfer bandwidth. in addition, usb provides plug - and - play capabilities to allow device changes while the computer is powered on. today, many keyboard and mice use the usb interface.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5710346015028798, "token_count": 506, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:47.702584"} {"text": "new oakland child - adolescent and family center \" psychoses \" are defined as abnormal conditions of the mind, a psychiatric term for a mental state involving a loss of contact with reality. psychotic disorders cause distorted thinking and awareness and can vary greatly in their severity. the term \" psychosis \" is very broad and can mean anything from an aberrant experience to a more chronic illness such as schizophrenia. the most common symptoms of psychotic disorders are : - delusions : false beliefs that the ill person accepts as true, despite evidence to the contrary - hallucinations : experiencing images or sounds that are not real, such as hearing voices people experiencing psychosis may exhibit personality changes and thought disorders. depending on its severity, this may be accompanied by unusual or bizarre behavior, as well as difficulty with social interaction and impairment in carrying out daily life activities. there are several different types of psychosis but an initial episode won ' t necessarily determine which type it is. duration and severity of symptoms along with a comprehensive assessment is more likely to lead to a proper diagnosis. information from the individual, family history and physical examinations will create a clearer picture. some of the types of psychosis : - brief reactive psychosis : psychotic symptoms arise in response to a major stress. a quick recovery is likely - delusional disorder : evidences itself when a person acts on strong beliefs that don ' t fit conventional reality. - psychotic depression : a severe depression with psychotic symptoms happening at the same time - bipolar disorder : extreme highs ( mania ) and lows ( depression ) psychosis can appear during either phase - schizophrenia : delusions, hallucinations last six months or more. contrary to popular belief, a schizophrenic does not have multiple personalities new oakland child - adolescent and family center assesses and treats the mental health issues and crises faced by children and adolescents. immediate action can return well - being to your family. see the \" contact \" tab for the nearest new oakland facility or call the 24 hour crisis stabilization hot line : ( 800 ) 395 - 3223", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5677044196330426, "token_count": 412, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:47.705182"} {"text": "falling objects and bouncing location : outside u. s. date : april 2008 i am looking to compare different masses, objects, shapes and compare these to dents made in a specific plate ( e. g. polystyrene ). for this experiment i would need not only to be able to work out the velocity of the object but also how much air resistance is effecting the object plus the amount of air is jammed between the object and the plate. if possible, i would also be looking for a way to measure how much, for instance, an object would bounce back, or how much weight and height will get me the best results, but i also need to find a formula to see wether any of my results make any sense. i was thinking of letting an object dimensions around 5 x 5 ( base ) by 5 - 10 ( height ) depending on object otherwise for sphere a 3 cm radius object drop from around 3 meters object mass around 250g to 1kg. i do not know if pressure, humidity or temperature matters. it sounds like you ' re asking for someone to 1. validate your methodology, and 2. suggest any other factors you need to consider. is that right? ( if not, reply and let me know what else ). first, the methodology. it sounds like you have an ambitious approach, but i think some organization up front will really help you get good value from your efforts. there is a method known as ' design of experiments ' that might help. i am going to walk you through some basic steps, and hopefully it will step one is to have a hypothesis. what are you trying to prove? it sounds like you are testing something about elastic collisions ( such as the relationship between objects and the mark they leave on a plate ), but i am not clear what. step two is to organize and categorize your variables. you have two kinds of variables : independent and dependent. an independent variable is something you can set yourself ( such as how high to drop the object, which object with which properties, etc. ). a dependent variable, often called a response variable, is one that is determined by independent variables. the mark left on the plate or the height the object bounces might be response variables. a third type of \" variable \" is a factor that you do not intentionally change ( i put \" variable \" in quotes because sometimes they change and sometimes they do not ). there are lots of these factors, some of which you can control and some you cannot. you might always", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5484075357296119, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:47.721057"} {"text": "\" is a factor that you do not intentionally change ( i put \" variable \" in quotes because sometimes they change and sometimes they do not ). there are lots of these factors, some of which you can control and some you cannot. you might always choose to use the same target plate - - that is a factor that you hold constant. you might work outside, and have to deal with wind or temperature changes - - these affect your results, but you cannot control them. it is a good idea to record variables and factors that affect your results - - they may be helpful later in interpreting your step three is to revisit your hypothesis - - restate your idea in terms of the variables that you can measure. saying \" i want to see what happens.... \". is not as powerful as saying something like \" a change of independent variable a will lead to a change in dependent variable b in this way c. \" step four is to set up your equipment to actually test your hypothesis. keep it simple - - pick materials and equipment that fit what you are trying to test. remove things that will introduce uncontrollable variables. the more variables you try to change, the harder the experiment will be to run and the harder the results will be to analyze. sometimes you have to have a lot of variables, but it is often a good idea to start simple first, and then work your way up to more complicated experiments. i strongly recommend you read about ' design of experiments ' to help you understand the approach i am suggesting here. the internet has a ton of information, as would a library too. now for your specific situation. it sounds like you are trying to do experiments involving colliding objects. have you studied ' kinetic energy ' in physics yet? i would start there. you can get all the equations you need. i would specifically study elastic and inelastic collisions. usually collisions are not purely one or the other. with a rubber ball, the ball deforms as it strikes a hard object. some energy is dissipated in the deformation, and some is returned elastically. if you are hitting an expanded polystyrene ( ' styrofoam ' ) target, the energy of the falling object will be partially / mostly absorbed by the styrofoam. for your objects and distances ( ~ 1kg, ~ 10m ), i think you can safely neglect air / wind effects. if you consider objects of different shapes, now you have a very difficult - to - control", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5763823907069487, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:47.722022"} {"text": "##yrofoam. for your objects and distances ( ~ 1kg, ~ 10m ), i think you can safely neglect air / wind effects. if you consider objects of different shapes, now you have a very difficult - to - control factor as now the orientation of the object affects how it bounces ( i would avoid this variable, to be honest - - stick with spheres ). as for weights and masses, it probably does not matter that much unless you use very light, low - density objects ( they will be affected by air ). ball bearings, rocks, and other similar ' heavy ' objects should all hope this helps, that is a massively difficult and computationally intensive endeavor you want to undertake! i am afraid that the best answer i can give, is to say that with without a supercomputer running extremely complex finite element analysis software, and a lot of very expensive computer time, there is no way to do what you are suggesting. it is amazing how complex it is to accurately describe something as seemingly simple as dropping a block though air! further, before you can even think of attempting to see how far an object would bounce off your polystyrene plate, you would need to mathematically characterize the detailed physical characteristics of both the plate and the falling object. so, i am sorry, but to do what you want to do is simply impossible with the resources available to someone like you or even me. you have a pretty complicated project. for a \" dropping \" distance of ~ 3 meters, air pressure, humidity and temperature will probably be negligible. for a sphere, stokes ' law says that the shear viscosity is f = 6 x pi x a x nu x v ( for reynolds numbers 1 ( true for air ) ). for heavy objects of radius ' a ' the velocity ' v ' falling through air with a viscosity ' nu ' will not be significant i don ' t think. how bodies of different shape fall is a complicated problem because they tend to tumble, so you should probably stick to spheres. relating the indentation of the base to the mechanical parameters may be very tricky too. not all polystyrene, for example, has the same elasticity, which determines how much of the energy of the falling object is absorbed compared to how much is retained by the falling object. click here to return to the engineering archives update : june 2012", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5144223803210914, "token_count": 490, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:47.722939"} {"text": "national air quality has improved since the early 1990 ' s, but many challenges remain in protecting public health and the environment from air quality problems. since the 1950s, air quality has been a major public health and environmental concern. local, state, and national programs have helped us learn more about the problems and how to solve them. nh epht program works closely with nh department of environmental services, the centers for disease control and prevention ( cdc ), and the u. s. environmental protection agency ( epa ) to track air quality data and to better understand how air pollution affects our health. air pollution and your health air pollution in the united states poses a public health threat affecting potentially millions of people throughout the country. it is associated with health problems that include increased emergency department visits and hospitals stays for breathing and heart problems, asthma, and increases in illnesses such as pneumonia and bronchitis, and adverse reproductive outcomes such as low birth weight. air pollution comes from two main origins : point - sources ( factories, construction, houses, businesses, agriculture ) and non - point sources ( automobiles, trains, buses, vegetation ). the epa lists the most common air pollutants as ground - level ozone, particle pollution ( often referred to as particulate matter ), nitrogen oxides, sulfur oxides, carbon monoxide, and lead. ozone ( o3 ) and fine particulate matter ( pm2. 5 ) are the primary pollutants of concern in new hampshire as they regularly occur at concentrations which can cause harmful health effects. other contaminants, such as nitrogen - oxides and sulfur - dioxide, occasionally occur at significant concentrations. ground level ozone ozone is created indirectly when nitrogen oxides and volatile organic compounds mix in the presence of heat and sunlight. your exposure to ozone depends mainly on where you live and work and how much time you spend outside. everyone can have health problems from ozone. symptoms might be very mild or more serious. people with lung disease, children, older adults, and people who are active outdoors are at the highest risk of having problems when ozone levels are unhealthy. many scientific studies have linked ground - level ozone contact to varied problems, such as - lung and throat irritation, - wheezing and breathing difficulties during exercise or outdoor activities, - coughing and pain when taking a deep breath, - aggravation of asthma, bronchitis, and emphysema, and - higher chance of getting respiratory illness such as pneumonia or bronchitis. particle pollution, or particulate matter, consists of", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5048967915877779, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:47.728960"} {"text": "pain when taking a deep breath, - aggravation of asthma, bronchitis, and emphysema, and - higher chance of getting respiratory illness such as pneumonia or bronchitis. particle pollution, or particulate matter, consists of particles that are in the air, including dust, dirt, soot and smoke, and little drops of liquid. fine particulates occur from being directly emitted ( e. g., from a smokestack or tailpipe ) or from secondary reactions in the air ( e. g., when water vapor condenses on sulfate ions, which is also a secondary product of combustion ). some particles, such as soot or smoke, are large or dark enough to be seen. other particles are so small that you cannot see them. small particles are the most concerning because they are most likely to cause health problems. their small size allows these particles to get into the deep part of your lungs. being exposed to any kind of particulate matter may cause : - increased emergency department visits and hospital stays for breathing and heart problems, - breathing problems, - asthma symptoms to get worse, - adverse birth outcomes, such as low birth weight, - decreased lung growth in children, - lung cancer, and - early deaths. sensitive people, including older adults, people with diseases such as asthma or congestive heart disease, and children, are more likely to be affected by contact with pm2. 5. reduce your risk epa ' s air quality index, or aqi, is a tool to help you quickly learn when air pollution is likely to reach unhealthy levels. local tv stations, radio programs, and newspapers carry these air quality forecasts to tell you when particle levels are likely to be unhealthy. you can use the aqi to plan your daily activities to reduce exposure to particle pollution. when particle pollution levels are high, you can : - reduce the amount of time you spend outside ; - do easier outdoor activities, such as walking instead of running or using a riding lawn mower instead of a push mower ; and - exercise away from roads and highways. particle pollution is usually worse near these areas. if you have one of the following diseases, you may experience some effects from particle pollution : - lung disease - you may not be able to breathe as deeply or strongly as you usually do. - you may cough more, have chest pain, wheeze, feel like you can \u2019 t catch your breath, or be tired more than usual. - heart disease", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.513008722164821, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:47.731065"} {"text": "you may not be able to breathe as deeply or strongly as you usually do. - you may cough more, have chest pain, wheeze, feel like you can \u2019 t catch your breath, or be tired more than usual. - heart disease - coming in contact with particle pollution can cause serious problems in a short period of time, such as a heart attack without any warning signs. - symptoms, including chest pain or tightness, fast heartbeat, feeling out of breath, and feeling tired more than usual, may be signs of a serious problem. if you have any of these signs, follow your doctor ' s advice and contact your doctor if the symptoms last longer than usual or worsen. - follow your asthma management plan when particle levels are high. tracking air pollution tracking air pollution can help people understand how often they are exposed to unhealthy levels of air pollution. having these data can also help public health professionals or policymakers understand which areas may be most in need of prevention and control activities. nh epht is tracking the following indicators about ozone and pm2. 5 : - ozone - - days above regulatory standard the number of days in which the daily maximum 8 - hour average ozone concentration exceeds a standard provides an indication of short - term spikes in ozone concentrations. this may give you an idea of how many days per year you may be exposed to unhealthy levels of ozone. - pm2. 5 - - days above regulatory standard these data help summarize short - term trends in particle pollution concentrations. this may give you an idea of how many days per year you may be exposed to unhealthy levels of particulate matter. - annual pm2. 5 level these data help summarize long - term trends in particle pollution concentrations. this will give you an idea of what the yearly level of pm2. 5 is in an area. for information about specific health risks associated with ozone and particulate matter : to read more about air contaminants : to read more about air pollution and health :", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5076206196656059, "token_count": 411, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:47.731945"} {"text": "time and frequency from a to z : d to do a number or series of numbers used to identify a given day with the least possible ambiguity. the date is usually expressed as the month, day of month, and year. however, integer numbers such as the julian date are also used to express the date. daylight saving time the part of the year when clocks are advanced by one hour, effectively moving an hour of daylight from the morning to the evening. in 2007, the rules for daylight saving time ( dst ) have changed for the first time since 1986. the new changes were enacted by the the energy policy act of 2005, which extended the length of dst by about one month in the interest of reducing energy consumption. dst will now be in effect for 238 days, or about 65 % of the year, although congress retained the right to revert to the prior law should the change prove unpopular or if energy savings are not significant. under the current rules, dst in the u. s. begins at 2 : 00 a. m. on the second sunday of march and ends at 2 : 00 a. m. on the first sunday of november. daylight saving time is not observed in hawaii, american samoa, guam, puerto rico, the virgin islands, and the state of arizona ( not including the navajo indian reservation, which does observe ). the time that elapses between the end of one measurement and the start of the next measurement. this time interval is generally called dead time only if information is lost. for example, when making measurements with a time interval counter, the minimum amount of dead time is the elapsed time from when a stop pulse is received to the arrival of the next start pulse. if a counter is fast enough to measure every pulse ( if it can sample at a rate of 1 khz, for instance, and the input signals are at 100 hz ), we can say there is no dead time between measurements. disciplined oscillator ( do ) an oscillator whose output frequency is continuously steered ( often through the use of a phase locked loop ) to agree with an external reference. for example, a gps disciplined oscillator ( gpsdo ) usually consists of a quartz or rubidium oscillator whose output frequency is continuously steered to agree with signals broadcast by the gps satellites. the apparent change of frequency caused by the motion of the frequency source ( transmitter ) relative to the destination ( receiver ). if the distance between the transmitter and receiver is increasing the frequency apparently decreases.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5656631605178339, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:47.736101"} {"text": "description not set skeletal system 6 from the course general human anatomy general human anatomy - fall 2006. the functional anatomy of the human body as revealed by gross and microscopic examination. independence or dependency 1 from the course world regions, peoples, and states this course will provide a framework for recognizing and analyzing the major distinctive regions of the world in comparative context. the most important interrelations between environment, economy, ethnicity, and the national identity and viability of states will be explored. see a reversal view a computer model simulation from nova online that illustrates what happens during a magnetic field reversal, an infrequent occurrence that may be currently underway. quarks : inside the atom this video segment adapted from nova shows how the particle accelerator helped physicists find parts of the atom even smaller than protons and neutrons. when did the first americans arrive? in this video segment adapted from nova, recent archaeological evidence leads scientists to revise existing theories about human migrations into the americas around the time of the last ice age. good neighbors and bad : religious differences on the plains in the early 20th century the harmony of rural life is often romanticized, but differences among neighbors, whether ethnic, religious or political, could often lead to tension, especially as new groups emigrated west. ezra and dan miller were born in a sod house in north dakota but migrated with a group of amish mennonites to montana. in this 1981 interview, conducted by laurie mercier for the montana historical society, they described how local cowboys reacted to the influx of amish farmers. \" speak, garvey, speak! \" a follower recalls a garvey rally the jamaican - born marcus garvey, a brilliant orator and black nationalist leader, turned his universal negro improvement association ( unia ) into the most important black organization in the united states in the early 1920s. garvey ' s speeches often drew huge audiences, and stories of garvey ' s stubborn resistance in the face of white hostility proliferated among his supporters. in an oral history interview, devotee audley moore remembered the jamaican ' s defiant behavior at a rally in new orleans c no way out : two new york city firemen testify about the 1911 triangle shirtwaist fire one of the greatest industrial tragedies in u. s. history occurred on march 26, 1911, when 146 workers, mostly young immigrant women, died in a fire at the triangle shirtwaist company in new york city. in this brief excerpt from their testimony before the factory investigation commission, new york", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5706847971976587, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:47.744311"} {"text": "s. history occurred on march 26, 1911, when 146 workers, mostly young immigrant women, died in a fire at the triangle shirtwaist company in new york city. in this brief excerpt from their testimony before the factory investigation commission, new york city fire chief edward f. croker and fire marshall william beers commented on the safety lapses - - the locking of an exit door, the inadequate fire escapes, and the overcrowded factory floor - - that led to engineering design challenges this site presents challenges faced by nasa engineers who are developing the next generation of aerospace vehicles. the challenges : thermal protection systems, spacecraft structures, electrodynamic propulsion systems, propellers, and personal satellite assistants. students design, build, test, re - design, and re - build models that meet specified design criteria, using the same analytical skills as engineers. determination of dna bases chemistry : a discovery - based experiment the paper contains details of an electrochemistry lab where students are given the time to explore and design an experiment to identify the different dna bases. the paper has a very useful compendium of literature relating to electrochemical techniques. school - home links reading kit offers 400 activities for strengthening children ' s reading and writing skills ( one kit for each grade level, kindergarten through 3rd grade ). these kits, part of the compact for reading, not only help improve children ' s reading skills, but also provide guidance on creating and maintaining school - family partnerships. helping your preschool child this guide offers fun activities for parents to use during everyday routines to help babies, toddlers, and preschoolers develop skills needed for success in school and life. the booklet also describes behaviors and changes parents can expect to see during these three developmental stages. kennet avon canal devizes to bradford on avon images on the kennet & avon canal between devizes and bradford on avpm tonto national monument : saving a national treasure tells the story of the salado people, who thrived in the arizona valley where tonto creek joins the salt river ( 1050 - 1450 ad ). the salado culture combined customs of several american indian groups. they channeled the river to create farmland in the desert. they built pueblo - style buildings. they left no written records. this monument, established in december 1907, was among the first sites protected under the antiquities act of 1906. the aim of this lesson is to enable students to be aware of how to manage their approach to studying to reduce stress. it is the fifth lesson in the study skills series and is intended to support", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5034206296429905, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:47.745359"} {"text": "the first sites protected under the antiquities act of 1906. the aim of this lesson is to enable students to be aware of how to manage their approach to studying to reduce stress. it is the fifth lesson in the study skills series and is intended to support adult learners who are embarking on a course of study and need to acquire skills which will help them to be successful. the lessons are designed as a package with key skills reinforced in each subsequent lesson so that a study culture is developed over time. they can be delivered sequentially or used in the aim of this lesson is to enable students to recognize the importance of organizational skills in achieving study goals. it is the second lesson in the study skills series and is intended to support adult learners who are embarking on a course of study and need to acquire skills which will help them to be successful. the lessons are designed as a package with key skills reinforced in each subsequent lesson so that a study culture is developed over time. they can be delivered sequentially or u show me a picture and i ' ll tell you a story : web photo journals students analyze and evaluate \" photo journal \" web sites, then create their own web - based photo journal. origins of american animation this site offers 21 animated films and 2 fragments, which span the years 1900 to 1921. the films include clay, puppet, and cut - out animation, as well as pen drawings. they point to a connection between newspaper comic strips and early animated films, as represented by keeping up with the joneses, krazy kat, and the katzenjammer kids. ks2 numeracy sats revision 1 the presentation ( introduction ) revises some of the different aspects of place value : column headings ; multiplying and dividing by powers of 10 ; adding decimals. the levels test these aspects of place value and also writing words as numbers and ordering decimals. the final level tests all of the skills. each question is either multiple choice or true / false. the order of questions is randomised. progress is tracked and numerous awards given for achievement at each level.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.516784551561924, "token_count": 419, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:47.746179"} {"text": "first, let ' s get one thing straight. the correct term is \" absolute \" pitch, not \" perfect \" pitch. if you are a music lover, what follows here could conceivably save you from being bilked - ironically, by another kind of perfect pitch. first of all, what we will be talking about here is \" absolute pitch, \" which is the correct term for a certain kind of musical talent. let ' s begin by talking about what absolute pitch means, and if it is a blessing \" or a curse. how can it be a curse? ask any professional musician, particularly a player of what is called a transposing instrument. simply stated, a transposing instrument does not sound the note that is written. ( we should quit this part while we ' re ahead! ) absolute pitch refers to the innate ability of someone to recognize the letter name of a pitch, without any frame of reference. is that impressive? ask any professional musician. the answer may surprise you! an individual hears a pitch - \" daaaaaah \" and says \" that ' s an f sharp! and he or she is right! it is f #! \" voila! \" if someone uses that french exclamation as a retort to that particular show of talent, it ' s very likely sarcasm. it ' s another way of saying \" so what!! \" all musicians will tell you that a far more important and necessary talent is having a strong sense of \" relative \" pitch, which means that someone can hear a pitch - \" daaaaaah \" and immediately say \" that ' s an f sharp! \" and be right, if he or she has a frame of reference ; specifically another pitch. this is a necessary ability a competent musician must possess, but you are not apt to hear one sing \" daaaaaah \" and proclaim \" that ' s an a flat! \" indeed, a real musician will cast an openly snide smile at such a performer. ( this, of course, does not include students at a music school. here is an interesting fact : in an orchestra, the players \" tune up \" to the note \" a \" which is played by the principal oboist as a reference. after hearing that tuning note countless times, most players have it memorized, in the sense that its pitch is burned into their psyches. thus, they have a referential pitch in their noggins and could possibly fake having \" perfect pitch at parties, if they", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5285214951924406, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:47.778311"} {"text": ". the reviews, he says, were \u201c very good \u201d. the technology can also be used for cooking vegetables \u2014 a powdered mix of spices becomes a curry once water is added to it. radhakrishna has also been working on space rasgullas. they look like white naphthalene balls and are freeze - dried from cottage cheese. freeze drying involves chilling foods to temperatures from \u2013 20\u00ba to \u2013 40\u00ba c. it lets the moisture evaporate, but not the flavours. the rasgullas are then vacuum packed. the syrup comes separately as a powder that can be dissolved in water. \u201c rasgullas are ideal for space. they have a beautiful texture that doesn \u2019 t disintegrate easily like other sweets. it is compact. in space, it won \u2019 t do to have bits of food flying around. remember, it is zero gravity, \u201d says radhakrishna. it took him a year - and - a - half to get the rasgullas right, and they have been ready for a while. nonetheless, he whittles away at the formula from time to time. there is still a battery of tests to be done before they are ready for space. \u201c chemical analysis to see they smell right and don \u2019 t disintegrate, physical analysis to ensure they look right, microbiological trials to confirm there are no micro - organisms, vibration studies to find out whether they can withstand g - forces at the time of launch, \u201d he says, \u201c this is routine for all foods, indeed materials, that are to travel to space. \u201d the programme \u2019 s biggest accomplishment, he reckons, is its space yoghurt. this was developed using pulsed electric field technology in which short bursts of electricity are passed through a fluid food. it renders microbes inactive but the tricky part is to keep the good bacteria alive. dfrl \u2019 s result, in radhakrishna \u2019 s words, is \u201c beautiful, beautiful \u201d. radhakrishna is 58 now and due to retire on 31 march 2014. this space food project is his dream, and grants him a pretty good chance of an extension. six months ago, he gave a 40 - slide powerpoint presentation to isro on the programme. he asked for a budget of rs 5 crore, three co - workers and a visit to nasa \u2019 s food facility in the us. \u201c it has been accepted on principle, \u201d says dr w selvamurthy, chief controller of the life sciences department at the defence research and development organisation (", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5190749160323426, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:47.850446"} {"text": "evolution in the light of intelligent design - new entries appendix ( human appendix ) - despite it ' s name, no longer considered superfluous or rudimentary ( tyler ) acritarchs - oldest known protists ( tyler ) the picture emerging of the late archaean is one that includes prokaryotes and eukaryotes, photosynthesis, an oxygenated atmosphere and lots of biological activity. this is a big contrast from the picture even 10 years ago. the significance for our thinking about origins is that the eons of time demanded by darwinian processes are not available. archaea - horizontal gene transfer - review of the archaea ' s tale ( tyler ) he presents evidence that darwinian evolution does not go back to the beginning of life. when we compare genomes of ancient lineages of living creatures, we find evidence of numerous transfers of genetic information from one lineage to another. in early times, horizontal gene transfer, the sharing of genes between unrelated species, was prevalent. it becomes more prevalent the further back you go in time. - freeman dyson butterfly sex ratios in samoa - and natural selection ( tyler ) sex ratios are distorted by the presence of a maternally inherited bacterium which has the effect of selectively killing male embryos. the authors report ratios of > 99 % female to nearly 1 : 1. these were different on different islands and at different times. the genetics of this shift of sex ratios is summarised in one paragraph with some supporting online data. there is not enough information here for anyone to either confirm or challenge their conclusions. cell - molecular recognition - advantages of cellular key - lock not being an exact fit. ( tyler ) so, something that could have been interpreted as evidence for tinkering evolution is discovered to have advantages after all. furthermore, it has potential for the design of human systems operating in noisy environments. by invoking \" evolutionary selection \", the authors suggest an evolutionary context for their work. however, there is no evidence that evolutionary selection was involved, and the link with evolutionary theory is gratuitous. central dogma ( tyler ) casual observers might say they find chaos in the emerging picture of the genome, but systems biology is tracking down extraordinary sophistication at the molecular biology level, indicating that theories ( like darwinism ) that are undirected and stochastic have little to offer 21st century biology. exoplanets - atmospheres ( tyler ) gecko - feet a standard for adhesion ( tyler )... the gecko does", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5365175683452513, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:47.923974"} {"text": "like darwinism ) that are undirected and stochastic have little to offer 21st century biology. exoplanets - atmospheres ( tyler ) gecko - feet a standard for adhesion ( tyler )... the gecko does not demonstrate just a single trait with enhanced performance. there are issues of adhesion and delamination, self - cleaning, and achieving a sustained adhesive performance. what we have in the gecko is exquisite design and, for that, biomimetics needs a methodology that can relate well to intelligent engineering design concepts. molecular recognition in the cell ( tyler ) protists - oldest known protists ( tyler ) sensory perception - advanced perception in permian amniotes ( tyler ) the discovery of a highly - evolved auditory apparatus in middle permian parareptiles even further emphasizes that the entire groundplan for the impressive evolutionary history of amniotes was already largely in place by the end of the paleozoic ; what followed was in fact only a subsequent tinkering of earlier inventions. \" darwinism needs time, but the fossil record no longer provides it. stasis - tribolites ( tyler ) trilobites - variation and stasis as a pattern the research documented both rapid morphological variation and subsequent stasis.... one hypothesis is that radiations occur because organisms are designed to vary, but the process results in genetic impoverishment that leads to stasis. variation - tribolites ( tyler )", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5350018587138341, "token_count": 306, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:47.924605"} {"text": "nucleic acid binding proteins are required for many processes in living organisms. transcription factors play an important role in regulating transcription of dna by binding to specific recognition sites on the chromosome. this regulation is required for cell viability, differentiation and growth ( 1 ). the ability to detect and confirm the interaction of such proteins with various nucleic acid targets provides valuable information about the cell signaling cascades that govern the ability of a cell to divide, migrate, interact with its neighbors, develop and maintain specialized functions, and terminate viability at the appropriate time. two common techniques used to detect the interaction of nucleic acid binding proteins with nucleic acids are the electrophoretic mobility shift assay ( emsa ) and fluorescence anisotropy assay ( 3 ). emsa involves binding protein to a radiolabeled dna probe followed by resolution on a polyacrylamide gel. due to the increase in mass, protein : probe complexes migrate slower than free probe, allowing comparison of free versus bound probe. the specificity of such complexes is determined using competition experiments with unlabeled specific and nonspecific oligos. this method works best with purified protein and can be quite labor intensive, particularly when numerous samples are being processed. in fluorescence anisotropy, a dna binding protein is bound to a dna substrate containing a fluorophore. polarized light is shined onto the sample and then the emitted light is detected. because a dna : protein complex tumbles in solution more slowly than the free dna, there is less deflected light. this method works best with purified protein and requires special equipment. protein chips have emerged as an approach for identification of dna : protein interactions ( 5 ). functional protein microarrays are composed of arrays containing full - length functional proteins or protein domains. fluorescently labeled dna is used to probe the array and identify proteins that bind to that specific probe. protein microarrays provide a method for high - throughput identification of dna : protein interactions. however, microarrays are not easily adaptable. the halolink\u2122 protein array system offers solutions to these challenges, as described in following paragraph, and certain issues have been specifically addressed. these include preventing false positives. the halolink\u2122 array system is an alternative approach for analysis of dna : protein interactions. this system captures nucleic acid binding proteins on a slide surface ( figure 1 ) and previously has been shown to be a successful method for studying protein : protein interactions and enzymatic reactions", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5327030910664612, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:47.945168"} {"text": "system is an alternative approach for analysis of dna : protein interactions. this system captures nucleic acid binding proteins on a slide surface ( figure 1 ) and previously has been shown to be a successful method for studying protein : protein interactions and enzymatic reactions ( 8 ). the system requires the generation of a fusion protein between the dna - binding protein and the halotag\u00ae protein ( 8 ). the halotag\u00ae protein is a 34kda modified hydrolase enzyme that can form a rapid, specific and covalent bond with its chloroalkane ligand ( 10 ). synthesizing the halotag\u00ae fusion - dna - binding protein in cell - free systems adds to the speed and flexibility of the assay. the halolink\u2122 protein array slides are hydrogel - coated glass slides containing immobilized halotag\u00ae ligand. fifty individual wells are created by adding a silicon gasket to the slide. the expressed fusion protein can be bound to the surface covalently, allowing stringent washing and subsequent analysis of dna binding by adding a dna probe. this technique is rapid, requires no purified protein, provides a moderate data set ( n = 50 ) and is adaptable to different throughputs. we used the rel / nf - \u03bab transcription factor, p50 ( 11 ), as a model dna binding protein to show that the halolink\u2122 protein array slide provides a tool for analyzing dna - binding protein : dna interactions. dimers of nf - \u03bab proteins regulate transcription by directly binding enhancer sequences, referred to as \u03bab dna sequences, which are located in the regulatory regions of numerous genes. halolink\u2122 protein array experimental design figure 1 outlines the experimental design of the halolink\u2122 protein array system. a halotag\u00ae fusion protein is expressed with a cell - free expression system and then covalently attached to the slide surface through the halotag\u00ae protein \u2019 s interaction with the halotag\u00ae ligand ( see supplementary information for details ). after washing and drying, the slide is processed to determine protein concentration, and is then used to analyze the dna : protein interaction. to detect the halotag\u00ae fusion protein, certain wells of the slide are probed with anti - halotag\u00ae antibody ( cat. # g9281 ). after a second wash followed with a drying step, the slide is probed with alexa fluor\u00ae 647 anti - rabbit antibody and analyzed on a typhoon\u00ae 9410 slide scanner to detect the halotag\u00ae fusion protein. in addition, other wells", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5297228188282961, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:47.946196"} {"text": "after a second wash followed with a drying step, the slide is probed with alexa fluor\u00ae 647 anti - rabbit antibody and analyzed on a typhoon\u00ae 9410 slide scanner to detect the halotag\u00ae fusion protein. in addition, other wells have a fluorophore - labeled dna probe added to them. after incubation, the slide is washed, dried, and scanned to detect the dna : protein interaction. halotag\u00ae - p50 binds to the halolink\u2122 protein array slide and has dna binding activity. two human p50 proteins were expressed as n - terminal halotag\u00ae fusion proteins in a high - yield wheat germ cell - free protein expression system. one p50 protein contains the dna binding domain, dimerization domain, and the nuclear localization sequence of the human p50 protein, while the second p50 protein ( \u2013 dna bd ) has the dna binding domain removed. expression of the correctly sized fusion proteins was verified using the halotag\u00ae tmr ligand ( cat. # g8251 ) ( 12 ) followed by sds - page ( figure 2, panel a ). figure 2. halotag\u00ae - p50 fusion protein attaches to the halolink\u2122 protein array slide and shows dna binding activity. panel a. tmr - labeled sds - page of halotag\u00ae fusions. one microliter of both halotag\u00ae - p50 and halotag\u00ae - p50 ( \u2013 dna bd ) fusion proteins expressed in a cell - free system was labeled with the halotag\u00ae tmr ligand and separated using sds - page. a marker was used to assay for size. panel b. halolink\u2122 protein array slide. the numbers correspond to wells, and the letters correspond to columns. column a : wells 1 \u2013 10, 5\u03bcl of halotag\u00ae - gst standard protein at 0, 1. 3, 2. 6, 5. 2, 10. 5, 21, 42, 83, 166, and 332nm, respectively, was added to each well. each well was then probed with anti - halotag\u00ae pab followed by alexa fluor\u00ae 647 anti - rabbit igg antibody. column b : wells 1 \u2013 3, 5\u03bcl of lysate expressing halotag\u00ae - p50 fusion protein was added to each well ; wells 5 - 7, 5\u03bcl of lysate expressing halotag\u00ae - p50 ( \u2013 dna bd ) fusion protein was added to each well.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5214940068814944, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:47.947005"} {"text": "bound halotag\u00ae protein ( figure 2, panel b ; column a ). a titration series of wild - type - dna ( wt - dna ) and mutated - dna ( mut - dna ) both containing alexa fluor\u00ae 647 was added to the slide. following scanning, the fluorescence intensity of each well was determined and plotted ( figure 2, panel c ). the halotag\u00ae - p50 protein bound the wt - dna to near saturation levels, and did not significantly bind the mut - dna. the halotag\u00ae - p50 ( \u2013 dna bd ) protein had no detectable dna binding activity. probing with a 32p - labeled nucleotide gave similar results ( data not shown ). this experiment shows that the halolink\u2122 protein array slide is able to bind halotag\u00ae - fusion proteins and is capable of analyzing dna : protein interactions. to test further the specificity of the halotag\u00ae - p50 / wt - dna interaction, we performed a competition assay using unlabeled wt - dna. replicates of the halotag\u00ae - p50 protein expressed in a wheat germ cell - free protein expression system and the halotag\u00ae - gst standard protein ( 20\u03bcg / ml ) were bound to a halolink\u2122 protein array slide ( figure 3, panel a ). the slide was then probed with alexa fluor\u00ae 647 - labeled wt - dna and mixed with increasing amounts of unlabeled wt - dna. the binding signal decreased as the amount of unlabeled competitor increased. a plot of the fluorescent intensity of each halotag\u00ae - p50 well versus the percent of competitor dna shows a linear decrease in signal ( figure 3, panel b ). the halotag\u00ae - gst standard protein did not bind the wt - dna. this competition assay shows that the halotag\u00ae - p50 interaction is specific for the wt - dna and that competition assays can be performed on the halolink\u2122 protein array slides. i\u03bab\u03b1 interferes with the dna binding activity of halotag\u00ae - p50 i\u03bab\u03b1 is an ankyrin repeat protein that inhibits nf - \u03bab transcriptional activity by sequestering nf - \u03bab outside of the nucleus in resting cells. i\u03bab\u03b1 forms a very stable complex with nf - \u03bab by binding tightly to the nuclear localization sequence ( nls ) and weakly to the dna - binding domain", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5483055769247557, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:47.949157"} {"text": "13 ) figure 4. ikappabalpha inhibits the binding of p50 to dna. panel a. western blot analysis of lysate expressing both halotag\u00ae - p50 fusion protein and i\u03bab\u03b1. i\u03bab\u03b1 contains a t7 epitope tag, which was used for analysis. panel b. halolink\u2122 protein array slides. three slides were imprinted identically with halotag\u00ae - gst standard protein and lysate expressing either halotag\u00ae - p50 or halotag\u00ae - p50 + i\u03bab\u03b1 proteins. column a : wells 1 \u2013 9, 5\u03bcl of halotag\u00ae - gst standard protein at 0, 2. 6, 5. 2, 10. 5, 21, 42, 83, 166 or 332nm, respectively, was added to the wells. column b : wells 1 \u2013 9, 0, 0. 039, 0. 078, 0. 156, 0. 3125, 0. 625, 1. 25, 2. 5 or 5\u03bcl of lysate expressing halotag\u00ae - p50, respectively, was added to the wells. column c : rows 1 \u2013 9 had 0, 0. 039, 0. 078, 0. 156, 0. 3125, 0. 625, 1. 25, 2. 5, or 5\u03bcl lysate expressing halotag\u00ae - p50 + i\u03bab\u03b1, respectively, was added to the wells. slide 1 was then probed anti - halotag\u00ae pab followed by alexa fluor\u00ae 647 anti - rabbit igg antibody. slide 2 was probed with anti - t7 antibody followed by alexa fluor\u00ae 647 anti - mouse igg antibody. slide 3 was probed with wt - dna ( 100nm ). panel c. dna binding of halotag\u00ae - p50 fusion protein with and without i\u03bab\u03b1 was plotted. densities for each well were determined using genepix\u00ae software. the concentration of the halotag\u00ae - p50 fusion protein in each well was determined using a calibration curve of halotag\u00ae - gst standard protein. the concentrations were plotted versus the density of each well. the dna binding signal of halotag\u00ae - p50 + i\u03bab\u03b1 proteins was normalized to that of halotag\u00ae - p50 fusion protein alone to compensate for the small decrease in halotag\u00ae\u00ae - p50 in column c. halotag\u00ae -", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5298497334534598, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:47.955972"} {"text": "of halotag\u00ae - p50 + i\u03bab\u03b1 proteins was normalized to that of halotag\u00ae - p50 fusion protein alone to compensate for the small decrease in halotag\u00ae\u00ae - p50 in column c. halotag\u00ae - p50 binds wt - dna with a greater affinity than halotag\u00ae - p65 to compare the binding of a similar dna binding protein, p65, to p50, we expressed p65 ( amino acids 19 \u2013 325 ) and p50 as halotag\u00ae fusion proteins in a cell - free protein expression system. expression of the correctly sized fusion proteins was verified using the halotag\u00ae tmr ligand followed by sds - page ( figure 5, panel a ). to test the ability of these proteins to bind dna while bound to the halolink\u2122 protein array slide, we first added lysates expressing halotag\u00ae - p50 or halotag\u00ae - 65 to the slide ( figure 5, panel b ). three wells for each protein were probed with anti - halotag\u00ae pab followed by alexa fluor\u00ae 647 anti - rabbit igg antibody to verify that each protein was properly bound to the slide ( figure 5, column b, wells 1 \u2013 3 for halotag\u00ae - 50 and wells 5 and 6 for halotag\u00ae - p65 ). the concentrations of the halotag\u00ae - p50 and halotag\u00ae - p65 proteins were calculated to be nearly identical on the slide. varying concentrations of wt - dna were added to the slide as shown in figure 5. after scanning the slide, the densities of each well were determined and fit to a graph. both proteins bound the wt - dna, with halotag\u00ae - p50 binding about twofold better than halotag\u00ae - p65. these results agree with those reported previously ( using fluorescence anisotropy and emsa ) ( 13 ) figure 5. binding affinity of p50 and p65 proteins for wildtype dna. panel a. tmr - labeled sds - page of halotag\u00ae fusion proteins. one microliter of both halotag\u00ae - p50 and halotag\u00ae - p65 fusion proteins expressed in a cell - free expression system was labeled with the halotag\u00ae tmr ligand and separated using sds - page. a marker was used to assay for size. panel b. halolink\u2122 protein array slide. column a : wells 1 \u2013 10, 5\u03bcl of halotag\u00ae - gst standard protein at 0", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5224788709306223, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 7, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:47.958430"} {"text": "and separated using sds - page. a marker was used to assay for size. panel b. halolink\u2122 protein array slide. column a : wells 1 \u2013 10, 5\u03bcl of halotag\u00ae - gst standard protein at 0, 1. 3, 2. 6, 5. 2, 10. 5, 21, 42, 83, 166 or 332nm, respectively, was added to each well. each well was then probed with anti - halotag\u00ae pab followed by alexa fluor\u00ae 647 anti - rabbit igg antibody. column b : wells 1 \u2013 3, 5\u03bcl of lysate expressing halotag\u00ae - p50 was added to each. wells 5 \u2013 7, 5\u03bcl of lysate expressing halotag\u00ae - 65 was added to each well. wells 1 \u2013 3 and 5 \u2013 7 were then probed with anti - halotag\u00ae pab followed by alexa fluor\u00ae 647 anti - rabbit igg antibody. column c : wells 1 \u2013 10, 5\u03bcl of lysate expressing halotag\u00ae - p50 was added to each well. wt - dna was added at to the rows as 0, 1, 1. 9, 3. 9, 7. 8, 15. 6, 31. 25, 62. 5, 125 or 250nm, respectively. column d : wells 1 \u2013 10, 5\u03bcl of lysate expressing halotag\u00ae - p65 added to each. wt - dna was added at the same concentrations as column c. the slide was scanned with a genepix\u00ae slide scanner at a wavelength of 635nm. panel c. the densities for each well were determined using genepix\u00ae software. the concentration of the dna was plotted versus the density of each well. the three main components of the halolink\u2122 protein array system are cell - free expression, the halotag\u00ae protein and the halolink\u2122 slides. all three contribute to the efficiency, robustness and overall speed of the assay. this system can also be used for functional characterization of purified recombinant protein. in a previous study, the halolink protein array system was used to study protein : protein interactions found in the nf - kb complex ( 17 ). we have shown that the halolink\u2122 protein array system can be used to analyze protein : dna interactions using p50 and p65 transcription factors as model dna - binding proteins. first, cell - free translation systems, such as the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5164265634312248, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 8, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:47.959537"} {"text": "( 17 ). we have shown that the halolink\u2122 protein array system can be used to analyze protein : dna interactions using p50 and p65 transcription factors as model dna - binding proteins. first, cell - free translation systems, such as the tnt\u00ae sp6 high - yield wheat germ protein expression system or the tnt\u00ae rabbit reticulocyte system, allow for rapid protein production directly from dna. in addition, protein can be produced in less than two hours using cell - free systems, versus days for production from e. coli - based systems. cell - free systems also eliminate the expression difficulties some transcription factors have in e. coli - based systems. this adds the flexibility of quickly expressing protein truncations, mutations, or fusions and testing them for activity. second, the halotag\u00ae protein enables covalent and oriented capture of proteins on solid surfaces directly from the cell - free expression system without any prior purification step. the halotag\u00ae protein forms a covalent bond with its halotag\u00ae ligand. a halotag\u00ae ligand with reactive end group is used to activate hydrogel - coated glass slides and, subsequently, to capture proteins of interest expressed as halotag\u00ae - fusion proteins in cell - free protein expression systems. this approach eliminates the need for protein purification, and allows the fused protein of interest to be oriented for maximum biological activity. third, polyethylene glycol ( peg ) - coated glass slides are known to resist nonspecific adsorption of unwanted protein and to prevent surface - induced denaturation of specific proteins. the low - background binding of the halolink\u2122 slides allows the detection of low abundant binding proteins. a silicone gasket creates 50 wells on the glass slide, so that multiple assays can be performed manually on the same slide without any specialized equipment. this offers an improvement over emsa, which generally allows approximately 15 reactions per gel. using the halolink\u2122 protein array system, we found that p50 bound wt - dna specifically, and p50 that is lacking its dna binding domain had no dna binding activity. this highlights one advantage of using cell - free lysates, truncation and expression is quick, and many different mutations can be tested. the dna probes used in the experiments were generated synthetically, adding to the speed of the assay. multiple dna probes can be tested quickly for binding to one protein, or multiple proteins can be tested for binding to one probe. the dna can be detected using a fluoro", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5138685070441336, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 9, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:47.960655"} {"text": "experiments were generated synthetically, adding to the speed of the assay. multiple dna probes can be tested quickly for binding to one protein, or multiple proteins can be tested for binding to one probe. the dna can be detected using a fluorophore ( as shown in these experiments ) or a radiolabeled dna probe. both detection methods have similar sensitivity. using a mutated dna in a competition assay with wild - type, unlabeled dna, we showed that the interaction is specific and the halolink protein array slides have little background binding to the dna probes. furthermore, we compared the binding of two different dna binding proteins, p50 and p65 and showed that the halolink\u2122 protein array slide has the sensitivity to show binding differences between different nucleic acid binding proteins and target binding sites, which agrees with previous studies ( 11 ) the halolink\u2122 protein array slides also provide a platform to study protein : protein : nucleic acid binding. using the p50 protein and its inhibitor i\u03bab\u03b1, we were able to show a decrease in p50 binding to wt - dna when the inhibitor was present and showed that the halolink\u2122 protein array slide has the sensitivity to show binding differences between different nucleic acid binding proteins and target binding sites. this decrease in binding was previously observed ( 13 ). the halolink\u2122 protein array slide system can be used to analyze the effect that one protein has on the dna binding activity of another protein. halolink\u2122 protein array slides provide a medium - throughput assay for analyzing protein : protein, protein : nucleic acid, and protein : small molecule interactions. unlike conventional protein arrays, halolink\u2122 protein array slides allow flexibility of content printing. the user can easily create protein mutations and truncations to assay important binding regions on a protein. using these slides, a user can screen quickly a number of different potential targets, determine important binding regions and determine the even amino acids required for the interaction.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5476236920349108, "token_count": 402, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 10, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:47.962137"} {"text": "when making a drive conversion or designing a new power transmission system, maintenance managers and design engineers have three broad options : roller chain drives, v - belt drives and synchronous belt drives. each has its own advantages and disadvantages, along with cost considerations that may not be immediately apparent. roller chain drives the popularity of chain drives stems from their ability to transmit high torque levels in a small package, at relatively low cost, while utilizing readily available stock components. while initial costs of standard roller chain drives can be quite low, the cost of maintaining them can be substantial. proper maintenance is essential for optimal roller chain drive performance and includes the following cost factors : according to chain industry estimates, roller chain drives operating without lubrication wear approximately 300 times faster than comparable drives that are properly lubricated. and yet, roller chain manufacturers estimate that 90 to 95 percent of all installed drives are either improperly lubricated or not lubricated at all. determining the type of lubrication method needed is a major design consideration with cost implications of its own. an oil - retaining chain housing, for example, can represent up to 75 percent of total chain drive system cost. in addition to lubrication, proper sprocket alignment and chain tensioning are critical to increasing roller chain life. another maintenance factor with cost implications is drive component replacement. a major weakness of a roller chain drive is chain wear, which results in stretching or elongation. manufacturers recommend roller chain replacement when elongation of approximately 3 percent occurs. most roller chain manufacturers also recommend replacing sprockets with each new roller chain because the metal - to - metal contact generates severe sprocket wear. power rating tables published within the roller chain industry are based on a theoretical design life of 15, 000 hours, assuming proper drive design, alignment, lubrication, maintenance, etc. but in a typical operating environment, actual drive life rarely approaches the ideal. unlubricated roller chain drives operating under harsh conditions can be as short - lived as 100 hours. the cost of the maintenance requirements noted above, added to the initial cost, approximates the true cost of a standard roller chain drive. however, beyond the cost of lubricant and drive component replacement is the labor expense of frequent retensioning, which requires shutting down the drive, resulting in production downtime. also, standard roller chain drives operate at 91 to 94 percent efficiency, depending on the application, so energy costs must be taken into account. maintenance and energy costs notwithstanding, roller chain drives offer", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5051585902125191, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:48.024512"} {"text": "requires shutting down the drive, resulting in production downtime. also, standard roller chain drives operate at 91 to 94 percent efficiency, depending on the application, so energy costs must be taken into account. maintenance and energy costs notwithstanding, roller chain drives offer designers and users some advantages over v - belt or synchronous belt drive systems : versatility ( functional attachments can be added to convey products, trip switches, actuate levers, etc. ) the ability to create any length of chain with connecting links v - belt drives transmit power through friction between the belt and pulley. with efficiencies ranging from 95 to 98 percent at installation, these drives use energy more efficiently than roller chain drives, and somewhat less efficiently than synchronous belt drives. v - belt drives are an industry standard, offering a wide range of sizes at relatively low cost, along with ease of installation and quiet operation. v - belt drive replacement parts may be less costly than roller chain or synchronous drive components, but regular retensioning of v - belts can add to maintenance expenses. v - belts are manufactured in a variety of materials, cross - sections and reinforcement materials, and are often used singly, in matched sets or in joined configurations. they are well - suited for severe duty applications, such as those involving shock loads and high starting loads. standard v - belt drives operate best in applications of 500 rpm or greater, speed ratios of up to 6 : 1, and within an operating temperature range of minus - 40 to 130 degrees fahrenheit. because v - belts slip when overloaded, they help protect more expensive equipment from load surges. they also allow flexibility in the positioning of the motor and the load. in a suitable application, the service life of a properly installed and maintained v - belt drive ranges from 20, 000 to 25, 000 hours. the components of a simple v - belt drive are relatively inexpensive to purchase, install, replace and maintain. after they are installed properly and tensioned to the belt manufacturer \u2019 s recommended values, these drives require very little service, except for retensioning during the normal maintenance schedule. due to belt slippage, they lose up to 5 percent of their efficiency after installation. v - belts stretch as they wear, making slippage worse, which can decrease efficiency by as much as 10 percent unless corrected by periodic retensioning. cogged or notched v - belts can increase efficiency by 2 percent over standard designs. synchronous belt drives synchronous", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5689912572184328, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:48.047812"} {"text": "slippage worse, which can decrease efficiency by as much as 10 percent unless corrected by periodic retensioning. cogged or notched v - belts can increase efficiency by 2 percent over standard designs. synchronous belt drives synchronous belts work on the tooth - grip principle. round, square or modified curvilinear belt teeth mesh with grooves on sprockets to provide positive power transmission on high - torque applications with high and low speeds. if drive size is a problem, many synchronous belt drive systems now have have an equivalent capacity to roller chain drives in the same width. the components of a synchronous belt drive system typically cost more initially than those of a comparable standard roller chain or v - belt drive. by contrast, synchronous belt drives don \u2019 t have the maintenance costs associated with roller chain drives. they require no lubrication and no lubrication system, only basic safety guarding. while roller chain requires frequent retensioning and v - belts require periodic retensioning, a synchronous belt typically requires no retensioning for the life of the belt. to illustrate the amount of elongation that can occur in a roller chain, recommended center distance take - up allowances for belt drives can be compared to center distance take - up needed for a roller chain in the same length. assuming a length of 100 inches, a roller chain, v - belt and synchronous belt can be compared as follows : roller chain : a roller chain will elongate approximately 3 inches ( or 3 percent ) over its life, requiring about 1. 5 inches of center distance take - up. v - belt : a v - belt requires 1. 5 to 2. 5 inches of center distance take - up over its life, depending on the cross section and belt manufacturer. synchronous belt : a synchronous belt typically requires only. 04 inches of center distance take - up over its life, depending on the belt type and manufacturer. chain and sprocket wear are significant cost factors in a roller chain drive. synchronous belts and sprockets experience dramatically less wear. in a synchronous drive system, for example, the belt outlasts a comparable roller chain on the order of 3 to 1, and the sprockets outlast roller chain sprockets 10 to 1. figure 1. required center distance take - up due to lifetime elongation ( in inches ). like roller chain drives, synchr", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.51994121838982, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:48.057728"} {"text": "definition of pharmacologic stress test pharmacologic stress test : there are a diversity of pharmacologic stress tests. here this refers specifically to a pharmacologic cardiac stress test in which certain medications are administered that stimulate the heart to mimic the physiologic effects of exercise. one of the medications used in a pharmacologic stress test is dobutamine, which is similar to adrenaline. dobutamine is carefully administered to gradually increase the heart rate and strength of the contractions of the heart muscle. simultaneously, echocardiography or radionucleide imaging is performed. alternatively, a medicine called adenosine is administered, which simulates the physiology of the coronary artery circulation during exercise. adenosine is combined with radionucleide isotope imaging to provide a very accurate test for the detection of significant coronary artery disease ( cad ). pharmacological stress testing is commonly performed in patients who are thought to be at high risk for significant cad and who are scheduled for major non - cardiac surgical procedures. these patients are often unable to perform exercise stress testing due to the underlying condition for which they require surgery. in this setting, pharmacological stress testing is invaluable in assessing the cardiac risk of patients prior to surgery. source : medterms\u2122 medical dictionary last editorial review : 6 / 14 / 2012 get the latest treatment options.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5011121999169355, "token_count": 285, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:48.168915"} {"text": ", however, the aqueous humor cannot drain, which causes a buildup of pressure. this pressure can cause damage to the optic nerve ( carrier of messages from the retina to the brain ). over time, a person will lose vision because the retina and optic nerve are damaged. there are both medical and surgical treatments for glaucoma designed to relieve pressure in the eye. cataracts are common among people with and without diabetes alike. however, the eye condition is 60 percent more common in people with diabetes. in most people, the lens of the eye is clear. much like a camera lens, it focuses light as it passes to the back of the eye. in people with cataracts, this clear lens becomes clouded, blocking light and reduces vision. cataracts usually develop in older people. with diabetes, they tend to form at a younger age and to progress more rapidly. patients with mild cataracts often wear protective eyewear like sunglasses or glare - control lenses in their corrective glasses. if cataracts are severe, a doctor may decide to remove the lens of the eye. the retina is the part of the eye that records images, and then turns those images into electrical signals to be sent to the brain. diabetic retinopathy is a term used to describe all retina disorders caused by diabetes. these disorders can range from mild to severe. there are two main types of retinopathy : nonproliferative and proliferative. in nonproliferative retinopathy, capillaries in the back of the eye swell up and form pouches. in many cases, nonproliferative retinopathy does not require treatment. however, when fluid leaks into the macula ( the part of the eye where focusing happens ), macula edema can occur. macula edema causes blurry vision and, in some cases, total vision loss. patients with macula edema must seek treatment. fortunately, treatment usually stops or reverses vision loss. over time, retinopathy can get worse, eventually leading to proliferative retinopathy. in patients with this form of retinopathy, the blood vessels become completely closed off, causing new vessels to grow. these new vessels are not as strong as the old and tend to leak blood, which can block vision. this condition is called vitreous hemorrhage. in some cases, the new blood vessels cause scar tissue to develop, which can warp or knock the retina out of place.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5344527924254585, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:48.323056"} {"text": "one reads of god as being \u201c the searcher and witness of the heart ; \u201d 1585 when his prophet is reproved by his discovering to him the secrets of the heart ; 1586 when god himself anticipates in his people the thoughts of their heart, 1587 \u201c why think ye evil in your hearts? \u201d 1588 when david prays \u201c create in me a clean heart, o god, \u201d 1589 and paul declares, \u201c with the heart man believeth unto righteousness, \u201d 1590 and john says, \u201c by his own heart is each man condemned ; \u201d 1591 when, lastly, \u201c he who looketh on a woman so as to lust after her, hath already committed adultery with her in his heart, \u201d 1592 \u2014 then both points are cleared fully up, that there is a directing faculty of the soul, with which the purpose of god may agree ; in other words, a supreme principle of intelligence and vitality ( for where there is intelligence, there must be vitality ), and that it resides in that most precious part 1593 of our body to which god especially looks : so that you must not suppose, with heraclitus, that this sovereign faculty of which we are treating is moved by some external force ; nor with moschion, 1594 that it floats about through the whole body ; nor with plato, that it is enclosed in the head ; nor with zenophanes, that it culminates in the crown of the head ; nor that it reposes in the brain, according to the opinion of hippocrates ; nor around the basis of the brain, as herophilus thought ; nor in the membranes thereof, as strato and erasistratus said ; nor in the space between the eyebrows, as strato the physician held ; nor within the enclosure 1595 of the breast, according to epicurus : but rather, as the egyptians have always taught, especially such of them as were accounted the expounders of sacred truths ; 1596 in accordance, too, with that verse of orpheus or empedocles : \u201c namque homini sanguis circumcordialis est sensus. \u201d 1597 \u201c man has his ( supreme ) sensation in the blood around his heart. \u201d even protagoras 1598 likewise, and apollodorus, and chrysippus, entertain this same view, so that ( our friend ) asclepiades may go in quest of his goats bleating without", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5176021724367947, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:48.354444"} {"text": "did not have a lasting impact. mohammrd said al saggar from baghdad and my own work in aleppo, syria, in the 1970s also aimed at producing simplified typefaces with a limited number of letter forms. saggars work retained many qualities of the traditional scripts both in kufi and naskhi, and continued to develop his typeface designs until the 1990s with diwan of london. my own work started in a minimalist way where all the letters have uniform shapes, the same height, large x - height, separate rather than connected letters. this work developed into my typeface shilia which is more traditional. murad boutros published an article about his arabic simplified typeface in apple magazine in nov. 1993. again using one form for each letter, and allowing for either connecting or separating the letters when typeset. his font has a traditional naskhi character. in recent years, a number of proposals connected one way or another with computers have also been advanced. abdelmalek bouhadjera, an algerian engineer, used square kufi to design a printing alphabet with separate letters he named el - abdjadia el - mouwahada which means standardised or unified alphabet. although his early work deviated substantially from traditional forms, his later proposal comes very close to the typical shapes of letters in square kufi calligraphy used mostly to decorate buildings. other proposals include dawud chalabis invitation to use separated letters in iraq in 1885, a book published using separated letters in london in 1890 by the ambassador of iran to england, and ibrahim al yaziji and kamel marwas work on simplifying letter shapes. albashir bin salamah presented a proposal in his book arabic language and writing problems in 1971, afif bahnasi presented another proposal in his book arabic calligraphy : its origins, rise, and spread in 1984, still another proposal was made in a book titled arabic calligraphy. other work related to simplification of arabic script include : a proposal to use the latin script by the lebanese sa ' eed aql in his book yara published in beirut in 1961. he published his book \" al - khumasiyyat \" using his proposal, qadmus publishing, beirut, 1978. a proposal to write vowels as letters included always in written text by abdul almajeed al - taji al - farouki published in his book \" tatawuru dabti al - kitabati al - arabiyati \" (", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5024528576544903, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:48.381620"} {"text": "in particular was best at entering the greatest number of muscle cells. dystrophin plays a critical role in maintaining the integrity of muscles located throughout the body. within each muscle cell are bundles of actin and myosin filaments. stacked on one another, the actin and myosin proteins move back and forth in a plane, thereby effecting muscle contraction. dystrophin forms a bridge between the muscle cell membrane and each of these contractile bundles of actin and myosin. like a spring, each dystrophin protein allows the actin and myosin to move smoothly and effectively, while they remain anchored to the cell \u2019 s interior. by maintaining the muscle cells \u2019 integrity, dystrophin also prevents muscle cells from becoming \u201c leaky \u201d to surrounding molecules. muscle cells from dmd mice \u2013 and patients \u2013 show this increased \u201c leakiness, \u201d which eventually contributes to their demise and replacement with fat and scar tissue. dr. xiao \u2019 s group truncated the dystrophin genetic sequence that codes for a long series of repeat units in the middle of the dystrophin protein. dr. xiao \u2019 s mini - gene construct effectively shortened the \u201c spring \u201d by removing some of the repeats within it. even with much fewer repeat units, the protein \u2019 s function was nonetheless remarkably preserved. the \u201c spring \u201d apparently remained flexible enough to perform its function. the mini - dystrophin gene also contained structures for this series of repeats to remain anchored effectively on one end to the muscle cell membrane and on the other end to an actin filament. for many years, adeno - associated viruses were virtually ignored by researchers because they mistakenly thought these tiny microbes failed to infect non - dividing cells and because they could only carry a small genetic payload. yet, scientists are now quite excited by the biological properties of aav, according to dr. xiao. the aav vector is considered ideal for clinical gene therapy for many reasons, according to dr. xiao. the virus from which the aav vector is produced does not cause any diseases and is disabled so that it cannot reproduce. the aav vector is easily manufactured and stable. it can be targeted to specific tissues and produces long - lasting gene expression. moreover, it does not provoke an immune response against cells that it enters. this type of immune response has been seen in gene therapies using other virus types. in a next step, dr. xiao \u2019 s laboratory will collaborate with other investigators in testing the aav mini", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5152320328261657, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:48.432999"} {"text": "mar. 1, 2005 scientists have turned to the brightest brains in britain in a bid to understand the link between intelligence and dementia. a team of researchers from the university of manchester will be asking members of the high - iq society mensa for dna samples in what will be the world ' s most sophisticated study of brainpower. the research will allow the team to find genes associated with intelligence and examine how they interact with each other. \" when you look at the genes in combination you reduce the statistical power of the research considerably, \" explained dr tony payton, who works in the university ' s centre for integrated genomic medical research ( cigmr ) and is leading the research. \" selecting individuals who represent the extreme end of the iq distribution increases this power dramatically. for example, 200 volunteers with an iq of 145 is equivalent to using 100, 000 unselected volunteers. \" the results of the mensa research will complement data collected from an earlier university of manchester study of some 2, 500 elderly people that has taken place over the last 20 years. that research has already uncovered two genes associated with general cognitive ability, while work elsewhere over the past eight years has identified a further 10 other ` intelligence genes '. \" the study of intelligence is shrouded by historical, biological, ethical and descriptive complexities that have made a mockery of its intended definition ` to reason and understand ', \" said dr payton. \" although our understanding of the biological basis of intelligence is still at an early stage, a general consensus about the role genes play in determining the level of intelligence has now been reached. \" all of us possess the same genes but there are variations within the genes themselves, known as ` polymorphisms ', which are largely responsible for what makes us all unique. \" they have an important influence on factors such as our behaviour and susceptibility to disease and, of the genes implicated in intelligence, the associated polymorphism has been shown to alter the function of the gene. \" theoretically, the research with mensa will be the most powerful approach to studies in this field ever adopted. the study of 2, 500 elderly people over 20 years has created the second largest dna archive in the world - the dyne steele dna bank - and is unique in that it assessed volunteers for changes in cognitive function. \" combining this study with the mensa research will take cognitive genetic research to an altogether new level and maintain the university of manchester ' s position as a world leader in the field, \" said dr payton. \" scientists are interested in intelligence", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5249169769562274, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:48.440628"} {"text": "cognitive function. \" combining this study with the mensa research will take cognitive genetic research to an altogether new level and maintain the university of manchester ' s position as a world leader in the field, \" said dr payton. \" scientists are interested in intelligence genes because high intelligence protects against the onset of dementias such as alzheimer ' s disease. \" a greater understanding of the role that genes play in regulating intelligence may help in the development of new diagnostic tests and more effective treatments designed to combat cognitive impairment in the elderly. \" mensa has more than 25, 500 members in the united kingdom and ireland, all of whom have an iq that is measured in the top 2 % of the population. the aim of the project is to initially recruit at least 1, 000 members and investigate if there is a difference between their genetic polymorphisms and those found in average iq individuals using the dyne steele dna bank. most studies to date have only investigated single polymorphisms in single genes but given there are more than 33, 000 human genes these approaches are incredibly expensive and time consuming. using cutting - edge technology, known as ` affymetrix microarray ', dr payton ' s team will be able to investigate more than 100, 000 polymorphisms at a time and hope to identify many intelligence genes in a short time. other social bookmarking and sharing tools : note : if no author is given, the source is cited instead.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5155148456845582, "token_count": 289, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:48.441193"} {"text": "antimatter came about as a solution to the fact that the equation describing a free particle in motion ( the relativistic relation between energy, momentum and mass ) has not only positive energy solutions, but negative ones as well! if this were true, nothing would stop a particle from falling down to infinite negative energy states, emitting an infinite amount of energy in the process - - something which does not happen. in 1928, paul dirac postulated the existence of positively charged electrons. the result was an equation describing both matter and antimatter in terms of quantum fields. this work was a truly historic triumph, because it was experimentally confirmed and it inaugurated a new way of thinking about particles and fields. in 1932, carl anderson discovered the positron while measuring cosmic rays in a wilson chamber experiment. in 1955 at the berkeley bevatron, emilio segre, owen chamberlain, clyde wiegand and thomas ypsilantis discovered the antiproton. and in 1995 at cern, scientists synthesized anti - hydrogen atoms for the first time. when a particle and its anti - particle collide, they annihilate into energy, which is carried by \" force messenger \" particles that can subsequently decay into other particles. for example, when a proton and anti - proton annihilate at high energies, a top - anti - top quark pair can be created! an intriguing puzzle arises when we consider that the laws of physics treat matter and antimatter almost symmetrically. why then don ' t we have encounters with anti - people made of anti - atoms? why is it that the stars, dust and everything else we observe is made of matter? if the cosmos began with equal amounts of matter and antimatter, where is the antimatter? experimentally, the absence of annihilation radiation from the virgo cluster shows that little antimatter can be found within ~ 20 megaparsecs ( mpc ), the typical size of galactic clusters. even so, a rich program of searches for antimatter in cosmic radiation exists. among others, results form the high - energy antimatter telescope, a balloon cosmic ray experiment, as well as those from 100 hours worth of data from the alpha magnetic spectrometer aboard nasa ' s space shuttle, support the matter dominance in our universe. results from nasa ' s orbiting compton gamma ray observatory, however, are uncovering what might be clouds and fountains of antimatter in the galactic center. we stated that there is an approximate symmetry", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6508476641339993, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:48.459602"} {"text": "space shuttle, support the matter dominance in our universe. results from nasa ' s orbiting compton gamma ray observatory, however, are uncovering what might be clouds and fountains of antimatter in the galactic center. we stated that there is an approximate symmetry between matter and antimatter. the small asymmetry is thought to be at least partly responsible for the fact that matter outlives antimatter in our universe. recently both the na48 experiment at cern and the ktev experiment at fermilab have directly measured this asymmetry with enough precision to establish it. and a number of experiments, including the babar experiment at the stanford linear accelerator center and belle at kek in japan, will confront the same question in different particle systems. antimatter at lower energies is used in positron emission tomography ( see this pet image of the brain ). but antimatter has captured public interest mainly as fuel for the fictional starship enterprise on star trek. in fact, nasa is paying attention to antimatter as a possible fuel for interstellar propulsion. at penn state university, the antimatter space propulsion group is addressing the challenge of using antimatter annihilation as source of energy for propulsion. see you on mars? answer originally posted october 18, 1999", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5824655013351334, "token_count": 262, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:48.460118"} {"text": "- nostalgia, a sentimental yearning for the past, consists of particularly intense, complex and vivid memories. - although nostalgia was once considered an unhealthy preoccupation, new research reveals that it improves people \u2019 s moods and is a sign of emotional well - being. - nostalgia can promote a sense of social integration in people who are sad or feel alone. do you have wistful memories of the cookies that came from your grandmother \u2019 s oven? do you enjoy recalling the jokes and pranks that you and your school friends used to find hilarious? on a restless night, does the whoosh of a train on a long - ago journey linger in your mind? if your recollections sometimes evoke a sentimental yearning for the past, then you know what it means to experience nostalgia. you are in good company, too. in a 2006 study conducted at the university of southampton in england, 79 percent of the 172 students surveyed said that they have nostalgic thoughts at least once a week ; 16 percent reported having such moments every day. nostalgia is not limited to any culture, stage of life or state of mental health. our southampton team has found the emotion in healthy adults and children, as well as patients suffering from dementia. this article was originally published with the title yearning for yesterday.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5199440533344327, "token_count": 263, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:48.461536"} {"text": "exceptional beginner chemistry set can you make dazzling colors in flame tests? create your own mini fire extinguisher? with these hands - on lab sets, you will perform highly rewarding experiments while building a strong foundation in chemistry. the 80 - page, full - color experiment manual guides aspiring young chemists through each of the 125 experiments. kit includes safety glasses, professional - quality equipment and enough chemicals for repeated experiments. uses a 9 - volt battery ( not included ). learn about indicators with litmus solution and write a secret message in invisible ink. test the inks from your colored markers on the chromatography racetrack to reveal their different color components. experiment with air pressure, surface tension, and the physical properties of fluids. experiment with two well - known metals, iron and copper. investigate carbon dioxide. dissolve metals with electrochemical reactions. explore water and its elements, saturated and unsaturated solutions, and crystals. split water into hydrogen and oxygen with electrolysis, and form oxygen from hydrogen peroxide. experiment with soaps, detergents, and emulsions of water and oil. investigate chemistry in the kitchen by experimenting with sugar, honey, starch, eggs and proteins, fatty acids, and calcium. begin to build a strong foundation in chemistry with exposure to a broad range of chemical phenomena and hands - on laboratory experiences. this kit provides clear instructions for preparing and performing the experiments, offers safety advice, offers explanations for the observed occurrences, and asks and answers questions about the results. ages 10 and up. - protective goggles - two dropper pipettes - clip for 9 - volt battery - safety cap with dropper insert for litmus bottle - copper wire - two large graduated beakers - two lids for large graduated beakers - four test tubes - test tube brush - rubber stopper with hole - rubber stopper without hole - sodium carbonate - potassium hexacyanoferrate ( ii ) - calcium hydroxide - ammonium iron ( iii ) sulfate - copper ( ii ) sulfate - citric acid - litmus powder - small bottle for litmus solution - lid opener - double - headed measuring spoon - angled tube - experiment station ( part of the polystyrene insert ) warning! \u2014 this set contains chemicals that may be harmful if misused. read cautions on individual containers carefully. not to be used by children except under adult supervision.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_entanglement", "similarity_score": 0.5151469308215806, "token_count": 484, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:48.464118"} {"text": "section 2 : what? what can be shared? although it is widely acknowledged that the industry definition of shared services refers to the sharing of business processes, business functions or expertise, it is recognised that many different aspects of an organisation can be shared, each in themselves providing incremental benefits to a participating organisation. sharing may start with collaboration and adoption of best practice. the more detailed level of sharing leads to greater levels of efficiencies, higher quality service and an increased ability to react to market or legislative change. however these benefits come coupled with higher risk and need for a strong change management culture. shared services is a journey without a fixed end point, but has an agreed vision of what good looks like, for an organisation and the strategy defined to deliver that vision. it needs measurable milestones to mark achievements and the journey involves collaboration, change management, change of culture regardless of the level of sharing. there are numerous areas and levels of sharing that can and do occur on a shared services journey. they start with collaboration and shared practices. many stop at the early stage as they entail the least risk and organisational and cultural change. others go on in accordance with their strategy or build on their initial experiences to achieve the full level of shared services. most shared services efforts begin by focusing on centres of scale : volume - based services - transactional, processing and administrative, those that are delivered to most employees or to external customers and can be maximised by aligning economies of scale. glasgow city council have implemented an internal shared service for financial, hr and procurement processes typically, success in these areas leads organisations to search for other services where similar operational efficiencies and cost reductions can be achieved. the logical choices for this second stage are centres of expertise : knowledge - based services - specialised expertise, consultative and integrated solutions, supported by common business processes to provide consistent delivery. the advanced procurement for universities and colleges programme ( apuc ) is creating a centre of expertise for procurement for further education and higher education institutions centres of expertise and scale are candidates for shared services because they provide the greatest opportunities for leveraging efficiency and effectiveness. listed below are examples of the types of sharing and collaboration that can occur, with different levels of benefits being achieved, depending on the nature and extent of the sharing. they all encompass many of the attributes and skills required to achieve shared services, e. g. collaboration of requirements, negotiation, change of culture and process review, all of which are invaluable on the journey to shared services and achieve incremental", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5253862127362583, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:48.473677"} {"text": "these service activities like a business and delivering services to customers at a cost, quality and timeliness that is competitive with alternatives. south lanarkshire council provide a shared service delivering payroll services to several organisations within their community is the process by which the activities of an organisation or organisations, become concentrated within a particular location and / or group. there are two types of centralisation, the first involves organising workers into groups that support business processes for the entire organisation or across multiple organisations. the second organises workers by specific skill set and experience to provide services for the entire organisation or across multiple organisations. provides economy of scale, reducing costs and overheads whilst providing resilience and can be used as a step in the direction of providing a full shared services model or an end state operational model in itself. seas ( scottish executive accounting service ) provide a centralised financial service for scottish executive, agencies and ndpbs there are many and varied types of services that are often associated with shared services and sometimes confused as being shared services. the section below defines some of the most common service provisions and their definitions. all of the services listed can be used to support a shared services operation, and equally all can be used to support centralised and distributed operations as well. became part of the business lexicon during the 1980s and often refers to the delegation of non - core operations from internal production to an external entity specialising in the management of that operation. the decision to outsource is often made in the interest of lowering firm costs, redirecting or conserving energy directed at the competencies of a particular business, or to make more efficient use of worldwide labour, capital, technology and resources. fundamentally and historically, outsourcing is a term relative to the organisation of labour within and between societies. over the years various forms of outsourcing services have evolved and provide services for all type of business operations, eg shared services, distributed and centralised. further definitions of outsourcing are as follows : capgemini provide ict outsource services to customer across the uk from the highland region business process outsourcing ( bpo ) is the contracting of a specific business process, such as payroll, to a third - party service provider. usually, bpo is implemented as a cost - saving measure for tasks that a company requires but does not depend upon to maintain its position in the marketplace. bpo is often divided into two categories : back office outsourcing, which includes internal business functions such as billing or purchasing, and front office outsourcing, which", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5346169776656924, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:48.476258"} {"text": "a company requires but does not depend upon to maintain its position in the marketplace. bpo is often divided into two categories : back office outsourcing, which includes internal business functions such as billing or purchasing, and front office outsourcing, which includes customer - related services such as marketing or technical support. use of a bpo as opposed to an application service provider ( asp ) usually also means that a certain amount of risk is transferred to the company that is running the process elements on behalf of the outsourcer. bpo includes the software, the process management, and the people to operate the service, while a typical asp model includes only the provision of access to functionalities and features provided or ' served up ' through the use of software, usually via web browser to the customer. the most common examples of bpo are call centres, human resources, accounting and payroll outsourcing. bt use accenture and xansa as bpo providers for financial processes application service provider ( asp ) is a business that provides computer - based services to customers over a network. software offered using an asp model is also sometimes called on - demand software or software as a service ( saas ). the most limited sense of this business is that of providing access to a particular application program ( such as medical billing ) using a standard protocol such as hypertext transfer protocol ( http ), a communications protocol used to transfer or convey information on the world wide web. the need for asps has evolved from the increasing costs of specialised software that have far exceeded the price range of small to medium sized businesses. as well, the growing complexities of software have led to huge costs in distributing the software to end - users. through asps, the complexities and costs of such software can be cut down. in addition, the issues of upgrading have been eliminated from the end - firm by placing the onus on the asp to maintain up - to - date services, 24 x 7 technical support, physical and electronic security and in - built support for business continuity and flexible working. customers of asp services include businesses, government organisations, non - profits, and membership organisations. the covalent performance management system is used by a large number of councils across scotland and uk hosted service provider ( xsp ) is a business that delivers a combination of traditional it functions such as infrastructure, applications ( software as a service ), security, monitoring, storage, web development, website hosting and email, over the internet or other wide area networks ( wan ).", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5418236838986772, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:48.477478"} {"text": ") is a business that delivers a combination of traditional it functions such as infrastructure, applications ( software as a service ), security, monitoring, storage, web development, website hosting and email, over the internet or other wide area networks ( wan ). an xsp combines the abilities of an application service provider ( asp ) and an internet service provider ( isp ). this approach enables customers to consolidate and outsource much of their it needs for a predictable recurring fee. xsps that integrate web publishing give customers a central repository to rapidly and efficiently distribute information and resources among employees, customers, partners and the general public. hosted service providers benefit from economies of scale and operate on a one - to - many business model, delivering the same software and services to many customers at once. customers are charged on a subscription basis. south lanarkshire council provide hosted it services for the customer first programme and a university is the practice of transferring day - to - day related management responsibility as a strategic method for improved effective and efficient operations. the person or organisation who owns or has direct oversight of the organisation or system being managed is referred to as the client, or customer. the person or organisation that accepts and provides the managed service is regarded as the service provider. typically, the client remains accountable for the functionality and performance of managed service and does not relinquish the overall management responsibility of the organisation or system. city of edinburgh city council use bt to provide a managed service for the majority of their ict functions", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.518545892261231, "token_count": 303, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:48.478150"} {"text": "new prenatal test may show inherited diseases blood sample from mother less invasive than current screening procedures doctors may soon be able to diagnose inherited diseases such as cystic fibrosis, thalassaemia and sickle cell anemia in fetuses by simply testing a blood sample taken from the mother. until now, prenatal diagnoses of such disorders have been possible only through invasive procedures like amniocentesis, which carry a risk of fetal miscarriage. amniocentesis is the extraction of a small amount of fluid from the sac surrounding a developing fetus. but scientists in hong kong and thailand may have found a way to diagnose in fetuses such \" monogenic \" diseases, which are caused by a single error in a single gene in the human dna. such diseases can be diagnosed by a simple blood test ( taken from the mother )... and by counting the relative ratio of the mutant genes against the normal genes. this is only possible because fetal dna circulates in maternal blood, a discovery lo and his colleagues made several years ago. many scientists have since been trying to find the best way to differentiate fetal dna from maternal dna, before they can even get down to looking for any anomalies in the fetal dna. but these efforts have not met with much success. in an article published in the proceedings of the national academy of sciences, lo and his colleagues said they had devised a counting system that could \" bring non - invasive prenatal diagnosis of monogenic diseases closer to reality. \" using highly precise digital blood testing technology, both mutant and normal dna sequences are counted in maternal plasma and that is then used to calculate the number of mutant genes inherited by the fetus and to determine the probability of the fetus developing any monogenic disease.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5059062094730924, "token_count": 364, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:48.492119"} {"text": "1. definition of reading many definitions of reading are explained by some specialist, some of them are complementary one another, but any others contradictory. reading is not simple mechanical skill : nor is it a narrow scholastic tool. properly cultivated, it is essentially a thoughtful process. it should be developed as a complex organization of patterns of higher metal process. reading also defines responding. the response may be at the surface level of \u201c calling \u201d the word. it may be the somewhat deeper level of understanding the explicit meaning of sentence, paragraph or passage. another definition says, reading is the process of giving the significance intended by the writer to the graphic symbols by relating them to one \u2019 s own found of experience. frank smith in his understanding reading book defines that reading is an act of communication in which information is transferred from a transmitter to a receiver. according to miles a. tinker and contance m. mccullough, reading involves identification and recognition of printed or written symbols which serve as stimuli for the recall of meanings built up through past experience, and further the concentration of new meanings through the reader \u2019 s manipulation of relevant concepts already in his possession. soedarsono explained, reading is a complex activity that not gives a great amount of action separately. daniel hittleman in his development reading book, defines reading is a verbal process interrelated with thinking and with all other communication abilities \u2013 listening, speaking, and writing. based on some definitions of reading by some specialists above, the writer concludes that reading is an activity to get information, increasing perception through written text and also interpreting and analyzing text. 2. aspect of reading some aspects of reading based on normal reading situation consist of three kinds. they are word recognition, comprehension and reflections. a. word recognition the degree of excellence in reading is determined, to a large extent, by the ability to recognize and pronounce words. the core of view that reading is chiefly skill in recognizing words can be accurated by the form of the word itself. decoding the printed page is one of examples of recognizing the oral equivalent of the written symbol. comprehension is one of competence that must be had by the readers. reading just is not transferring the symbol printed from page to the brain but the readers have to comprehend the content of the reader \u2019 s read. comprehension in reading becomes important because it makes the readers have meaningful in their reading. in other word, their reading is not useless. there are three levels of reading comprehension. first : literal reading, second : aesthetic reading, and third is critical reading. literal reading", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.585273661340564, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:48.516168"} {"text": "posted sunday, feb. 24, 2013, at 8 : 00 am years ago, in 1999, some odd pictures were returned from the mars global surveyor space probe orbiting the red planet. they showed what looked for all the world ( s ) like trees, banyan trees, dotting the martian landscape. they made quite a splash on the internet, and you can see why ; here \u2019 s a section of one of the pictures : image credit : nasa / jpl / malin space science systems no fooling, they really do look like trees. the usual pseudoscience website went nuts \u2014 well, more nuts \u2014 claiming they were life on mars. more rational heads knew they were formed from some sort of natural non - biological process, but what? over time, more and better pictures were taken, and eventually the story became clear. hints were found when these features were detected at extreme latitudes, and only in the spring. that meant they must be related to the change in seasons, specifically to the weather warming. that, plus some high - resolution images, made it possible to eventually figure out what they are. mars has a thin atmosphere that \u2019 s mostly carbon dioxide. in the winter at the poles it gets cold enough that this co2 freezes out, becoming frost or snow on the martian surface \u2014 what we on earth call dry ice. it gets this name because when you warm it up, it doesn \u2019 t melt : it turns directly from a solid into a gas, a process called sublimation. image credit : arizona state university / ron miller in the martian spring sunlight warms the ground, which warms the layers of dry ice. they sublimate slowly, and \u2014 here \u2019 s the cool part \u2014 from the bottom up. dry ice is very white and reflective, so sunlight doesn \u2019 t warm it efficiently. the ground is darker, and absorbs the solar warmth. this tends to heat the pile of dry ice from the sides and underneath at the edges. the newly released gaseous carbon dioxide needs somewhere to go. it might just leak away from the side, but some will find its way deeper into the dry ice pack, toward the center. if the gas finds a weak spot in the ice it \u2019 ll burst through, creating a hole. other trickles of co2 under the ice will flow that way as well, and eventually find that hole. what you get, then, is dry ice on the surface laden with cracks, converging on a single spot where the gas can then leak out", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5070981357252713, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:48.566413"} {"text": "learning causality in a complex world : understandings of consequence source : rowman & littlefield education, lanham, maryland ( 2012 ) call number : cubb bd591. g765 2012 contents : introduction - - simple linear causality : one thing makes another happen - - the cognitive science of simple causality : why do we get stuck? - - domino causality : effects that become causes - - cyclic causality : loops and feedback - - spiraling causality : escalation and de - escalation - - mutual causality : symbiosis and bi - directionality - - relational causality : balances and differentials - - across time and distance : detecting delayed and distant effects - - \" what happened? \" vs. \" what ' s going on? \" : thinking about steady states - - what you can ' t see does matter : attending to obvious and non - obvious causes - - it ' s not always a case of who did it : minding passive and unintentional causality - - step by step, or not : the mind - bending concept of simultaneous causality - - figuring out what to count on : dealing with stochastic causality - - isn ' t anybody in charge around here? : attending to distributed causality and emergence - - summing up : the implications for helping a new generation understand causal complexity - - putting it all together : teaching for causal complexity.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.6154365536408541, "token_count": 292, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:48.616187"} {"text": "this section of the site covers the theory and background behind the application of stigmergy and other biological strategies to information technology biological systems have evolved ingenious solutions to the same kind of problems encountered in information technology. understanding how nature solves these problems allows us to use these solutions ourselves, to create highly efficient web sites that cost little to develop and maintain. stigmergy as a strategy stigmergy is not like a product, a service or an application. it isn ' t even like a computer program. it is a very clever strategy used by nature to get colonies of insects to self - organize, tell each other where to find food, create sophisticated messaging systems and build complex architectural structures. we can use this same clever strategy on the web, to get people to collaborate in the exchange and sharing of information. the strategy works well for brainless insects, but it works infinitely better for intelligent humans equipped with computers. what are stigmergic systems? stigmergic systems combine information technology with stigmergy and other ingenious computing structures found in nature - to create self - organizing web sites and low cost knowledge management systems. reproduction as a strategy nature has learned how to create organisms that grow and self - organize without planning. we can copy these methods to create web based systems that grow and self - organize themselves, drastically reducing development and maintenance costs. nature creates organisms that can quickly adapt to changing conditions. we can build this same adaptability into information systems, enabling them to automatically adjust to user needs and responses. nature has found a way to overcome the problem of critical mass. we can use this same strategy to make changes to a web site so that it increasingly attracts visitors. what ' s the secret of nature ' s success? she uses a technique of continuous reproduction and selection. this is the technique we can copy. we don ' t start by building a web site, the first step is to create a program that can build a system. by arranging for this program to be responsive to the way users respond to a site, the program can continually rebuild the system until it is working successfully. short summaries of the main elements of stigmergic and biological strategies are provided in the menu ' summary of a stigmergic system ' ( top left ). more detailed explanations and theory can be found in the ' references ' and ' technical notes ' sections of this site. to provide a ' proof of concept ' demonstration of a stigmergic system, the seo project was started in october", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.562407033919567, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:48.655228"} {"text": "| diversity in islam : a sunni perspective | | diversity in islam : a shi ' i perspective | in islam, the unity of god is central. the islamic revelation given to muhammad affirmed the earlier abrahamic religions of one god ( including judaism and christianity ), yet also went beyond them to unify the divine truth of god and assert a more complete monotheism. according to islam, all revelation and prophets are one, stemming from the same source : \u201c you say : \u2018 we believe in allah, and the revelation given to us, and to abraham, isma \u2019 il, isaac, jacob, and the tribes, and that given to moses and jesus, and that given to ( all ) prophets from their lord : we make no difference between one or another of them : and we bow to allah ( in islam ) \u2019 \u201d ( 2 / 136 ; 3 / 84 ). in the eyes of muslims, islam \u2019 s radical emphasis on the unity of god, identical nature of revelation, and equality and common destiny of humankind make islam the final revelation. it is the climax and fulfillment of all previous approximations of unity on earth. according to the qur \u2019 anic narrative, god \u2019 s will has always been for a single, united humanity. god reveals this will through his chosen messengers and the revelations embedded in scriptures. every kind of discrimination, separation, exclusion, or division is negated by god. domination of some portion of humanity over others is forbidden. unjust exploitation of humanity or creation is rejected. before the islamic revelation, god entered into covenantal relationship with earlier faith communities to stop distraction, disorder, killing, and discrimination, evils that muslims believe stemmed from the perceived division in god and humanity. the qur \u2019 an has strictly forbidden such division and commended unity : \u201c and hold fast, all together, by the rope which allah ( stretches out for you ), and be not divided among yourselves... \u201d ( 3 / 103 ) ; \u201c as for those who divide their religion and break up into partisans, you have no part in them in the least \u201d ( 6 / 159 ). islam recognizes the difficulty of achieving such unity, and asserts that real unity can only be achieved through recognition of human diversity. islam clearly acknowledges the divine mystery of god that has willed that humanity be diverse in religion, conviction, and persuasion : \u201c to each among you we have prescribed a law and an open way. if allah so willed, he would have made you a single people, but ( his plan is ) to test you in what", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5016307568220393, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:48.662411"} {"text": "rests completely with god, and rejects a hierarchical monopoly over human souls. it is forbidden for muslims to call each other non - muslims : \u201c o ye who believe! when ye go forth to fight in the way of allah, be careful to discriminate, and say not unto one who offers you peace : \u2018 thou are not a believer, seeking the chance profits of this life \u2019 \u201d ( 4 / 94 ). the messenger ( prophet ) of god said, \u201c when any muslim says to his brother, \u2018 you infidel! \u2019 one of the two surely deserves the name \u201d ( al - buhari, sahih, 4 : 139 ). muslims also must not fight other muslims, and are instructed to make peace : \u201c the believers are naught else than brothers. therefore make peace between brethren and observe your duty to allah that haply ye may obtain mercy \u201d ( 49 : 10 ). similarly, islam leaves room for idolaters to coexist with muslims, as long as the idolaters keep their covenant with the muslim community : \u201c ( but the treaties are ) not dissolved with those pagans with whom you have entered into alliance and who have not subsequently failed you in anything, nor aided any one against you. so fulfill your engagements with them to the end of their term ; for allah loves the righteous \u201d ( 9 / 4 ). the qur \u2019 an also says about polytheists, \u201c if it had been allah \u2019 s will, they would not have been polytheists, nor did we make you a guardian over them, nor are you their advocate \u201d ( 6 / 107 ). ( for more information on the islamic position on polytheism, see 50 / 45 ; 88 / 22 ; 10 / 99 ; 3 / 20 ; 5 / 99 ; 16 / 82 ; 42 / 48 ; 2 / 193 ). despite its universal ideal, the new community of muslims was able to introduce the idea and practice of religious tolerance without falling into the pit of relativization. compared to other faiths, islam developed a moderate position between two extremes : electionism, favoritism, and fanaticism as manifestations of an exclusive mentality, at one extreme, and a sort of pluralism that contradicts the transcendental unity of god, truth and human destiny by relativizing the divine to concrete, limited and anthropomorphic manifestations, at the other extreme. thus the islamic plan for a transcendental unity of humanity within its diversity and under one god is", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5287536271271728, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:48.664931"} {"text": "passed my 5th scna ( sun certified network administrator for solaris 8 ) exam yesterday so my cv has been updated. in with the new and out with the old : i took off the old solaris 2. 4 / 2. 5 certificates and put xhtml on instead. the plan is to go xhtml 1. 1 strict for the whole site and then maybe try to create an even more (? sic! ) minimal design utilising a simpler stylesheet. i came across this a trying to find out what a \" jabber \" was ( preparing for a network exam ). the answer to this and the question in the title is found in the comp. dcom. lans. ethernet faq : in the following table, c refers to the speed of light in a vacuum, or 300, 000 kilometers per second. medium propagation speed - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - thick coax. 77c ( 231, 000 km / sec ) thin coax. 65c ( 195, 000 km / sec ) twisted pair. 59c ( 177, 000 km / sec ) fiber. 66c ( 198, 000 km / sec ) aui cable. 65c ( 195, 000 km / sec ) from these values, the size of a bit on 10baset can be calculated. 10baset is twisted pair, which has a propagation delay of 177, 000 km / sec. 177, 000 km / sec divided by 10 million bits per second is 17. 7 meters, or the size of a single bit on a 10baset network.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5329057686632723, "token_count": 336, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:48.673738"} {"text": "press release : the 2003 nobel prize in physics 7 october 2003 the royal swedish academy of sciences has decided to award the nobel prize in physics for 2003 \" for pioneering contributions to the theory of superconductors and superfluids \" alexei a. abrikosov argonne national laboratory, argonne, illinois, usa, vitaly l. ginzburg p. n. lebedev physical institute, moscow, russia, and anthony j. leggett university of illinois, urbana, illinois, usa flow without resistance this year ' s nobel prize in physics is awarded to three physicists who have made decisive contributions concerning two phenomena in quantum physics : superconductivity and superfluidity. superconducting material is used, for example, in magnetic resonance imaging for medical examinations and particle accelerators in physics. knowledge about superfluid liquids can give us deeper insight into the ways in which matter behaves in its lowest and most ordered state. at low temperatures ( a few degrees above absolute zero ) certain metals allow an electric current to pass without resistance. such superconducting materials also have the property of being able to displace magnetic flows completely or partly. those that displace magnetic flows completely are called type - i superconductors and a theory explaining them was awarded the nobel prize in physics in 1972. this theory, which is based on the fact that pairs of electrons are formed proved, however, to be inadequate for explaining superconductivity in the technically most important materials. these type - ii superconductors allow superconductivity and magnetism to exist at the same time and remain superconductive in high magnetic alexei abrikosov succeeded in explaining this phenomenon theoretically. his starting point was a theory that had been formulated for type - i superconductors by vitaly ginzburg and others, but which proved to be so comprehensive that it was also valid for the new type. although these theories were formulated in the 1950s, they have gained renewed importance in the rapid development of materials with completely new properties. materials can now be made superconductive at increasingly high temperatures and strong magnetic fields. liquid helium can become superfluid, that is, its viscosity vanishes at low temperatures. atoms of the rare isotope 3he have to form pairs analogous with pairs of electrons in metallic superconductors. the decisive theory explaining how the atoms interact and are ordered in the superfluid state was formulated in the 1970s by anthony leggett. recent", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.617789209465106, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:48.688535"} {"text": "the rare isotope 3he have to form pairs analogous with pairs of electrons in metallic superconductors. the decisive theory explaining how the atoms interact and are ordered in the superfluid state was formulated in the 1970s by anthony leggett. recent studies show how this order passes into chaos or turbulence, which is one of the unsolved problems of classical physics. alexei a. abrikosov, born 1928 ( 75 years ) in moscow, the former soviet union, american ( and russian ) citizen. doctor ' s degree in physics in 1951 at the institute for physical problems, moscow. distinguished argonne scientist, argonne national laboratory, argonne, illinois, usa. vitaly l. ginzburg, born 1916 ( 87 years ) in moscow, russia ( russian citizen ). doctor ' s degree in physics at the university of moscow. former head of the theory group at the p. n. lebedev physical institute, moscow, russia. anthony j. leggett, born 1938 ( 65 years ) in london, england ( british and american citizen ). doctor ' s degree in physics in 1964 at the university of oxford. macarthur professor at the university of illinois at urbana - champaign, prize amount : sek 10 million, will be shared equally among the laureates. science editor, phone + 46 8 673 95 44, + 46 703 27 72 00, email @ example. com and eva krutmeijer, head of information, phone + 46 8 673 95 95, + 46 709 84 66 38, firstname. lastname @ example. org", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.6783885004285711, "token_count": 326, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:48.689226"} {"text": "academic standards correlations on teachers ' domain use the achievement standards network ( asn ) database of state and national standards, provided to nsdl projects courtesy of jes & co. we assign reference terms to each statement within a standards document and to each media resource, and correlations are based upon matches of these terms for a given grade band. if a particular standards document of interest to you is not displayed yet, it most likely has not yet been processed by asn or by teachers ' domain. we will be adding social studies and arts correlations over the coming year, and also will be increasing the specificity of alignment. in this lesson, students watch a video segment from the pbs series the supreme court about the landmark case maryland v. mcculloch and consider the powers of the national government and state governments. students take on the role of news reporters to analyze and present the case decision. this lesson is the second of two lessons that comprise a unit on balancing state and federal authority. for the first lesson, see define and classify the powers associated with federalism lesson plan for extension activities to use with this unit, visit the supreme court website. ( 1 ) 50 minute period mcculloch v. maryland ( 1819 ) unknown 1. ask students if they have ever experienced a conflict or struggle with their friends or classmates over making a decision. take student responses and ask them to describe their experiences. explain that just as they might have had a clash over a decision with their classmates, the national government and the states have experienced a similar power struggle. 2. tell students they are going to watch a video segment that illustrates the supreme court ' s first major case that attempted to help resolve a conflict between the national government and the state of maryland. distribute the mcculloch v. maryland questions. prior to playing the video segment, review the questions students should focus on while watching the clip : 3. play mcculloch v. maryland ( 1819 ) unknown. you may choose to play the clip multiple times for student understanding. 4. ask students to discuss the following questions. the answers below are provided as a guide : 1. assign students to work in groups of three to five and give each group several sheets of flip - chart paper and markers. 3. when students have completed their work, a representative from each group presents its news story. ask students to compare and contrast the news stories they have heard, saw, or read. if necessary, clarify any points of fact that students were confused about. 4. for homework ( or in class if time", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.526487026503093, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:48.697487"} {"text": "what is artificial intelligence ( ai ) artificial intelligence ( ai ) is the intelligence of machines and the branch of computer science that aims to create it. ai textbooks define the field as \u201c the study and design of intelligent agents \u201d where an intelligent agent is a system that perceives its environment and takes actions that maximize its chances of success. john mccarthy, who coined the term in 1956, defines it as \u201c the science and engineering of making intelligent machines. \u201d the field was founded on the claim that a central property of humans, intelligence \u2014 the sapience of homo sapiens \u2014 can be so precisely described that it can be simulated by a machine. this raises philosophical issues about the nature of the mind and the ethics of creating artificial beings, issues which have been addressed by myth, fiction and philosophy since antiquity. artificial intelligence has been the subject of optimism, but has also suffered setbacks and, today, has become an essential part of the technology industry, providing the heavy lifting for many of the most difficult problems in computer science. ai research is highly technical and specialized, deeply divided into subfields that often fail to communicate with each other. subfields have grown up around particular institutions, the work of individual researchers, the solution of specific problems, longstanding differences of opinion about how ai should be done and the application of widely differing tools. the central problems of ai include such traits as reasoning, knowledge, planning, learning, communication, perception and the ability to move and manipulate objects. general intelligence ( or \u201c strong ai \u201d ) is still among the field \u2019 s long term goals.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5852838735318326, "token_count": 315, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:48.700105"} {"text": "this year, the concrete producer, with our sister publication, concrete construction, introduced the greensite project of the year con contest honoring the concrete community ' s efforts to promote concrete ' s role in creating eco - friendly structures that will stand the test of time. the name \u201c greensite \u201d reflects the innovative processes and materials that create a green building project, many of which are invisible in the final product. for instance, visitors to the aldo leopold legacy center in wisconsin breathe air that is pretreated by an underground concrete pipe ventilation system. meanwhile, in philadelphia, lightweight carboncast walls protect residents of the symphony house condominiums from the elements, while using less energy and fewer materials than traditional concrete panels. tcp ' s 2008 greensite winners each represent a different category : institutional, commercial, multifamily, residential, and high - rise. for more details and photos of each project, click here. to learn how to participate in next year ' s greensite project of the year, click here. institutionalgrand rapids art museum grand rapids, mich. when planning for the new grand rapids art museum, project officials and donors decided to pursue leadership in energy and environmental design ( leed ) certification \u201c with a vengeance, \u201d to make it the world ' s first newly built, leed - certified art museum. they eventually exceeded this goal with a gold level certification by incorporating green design elements and sustainable building materials. concrete was an important contributor to the project ' s sustainability and design flexibility. of the many elements brought to life in this 135, 000 - square - foot building, the architectural concrete exterior stands out as one of its most beautiful components. at the same time, the museum ' s 12 - inch - thick, cast - in - place concrete walls optimize energy use by keeping the building warm or cold. inside, exposed concrete walls feature tie holes aligned in rows and columns, and defined corners and reveals. a sequence of 177 separate architectural concrete pours led to a one - of - a - kind forming system. the forms, which called for sharp corners, needed to be watertight around the tie holes and edges. each pour had zero tolerance for rework, since patches were not allowed. concrete also helped meet leed material requirements because much of it came from local sources, requiring less energy in transportation. the museum ' s 20, 000 yards of 4000 to 6000 psi concrete contained 3 % recycled content and 100 % regional materials. other items that contribute to the sustainable quality of the museum include extensive use of natural", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.510042242608082, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:48.745404"} {"text": "the buddha points to two mental qualities as the underlying safeguards of morality, thus as the protectors of both the individual and society as a whole. these two qualities are called in pali hiri and ottappa. hiri is an innate sense of shame over moral transgression ; ottappa is moral dread, fear of the results of wrongdoing. the buddha calls these two states the bright guardians of the world ( sukka lokapala ). he gives them this designation because as long as these two states prevail in people ' s hearts the moral standards of the world remain intact, while when their influence wanes the human world falls into unabashed promiscuity and violence, becoming almost indistinguishable from the animal realm ( itiv. 42 ). while moral shame and fear of wrongdoing are united in the common task of protecting the mind from moral defilement, they differ in their individual characteristics and modes of operation. hiri, the sense of shame, has an internal reference ; it is rooted in self - respect and induces us to shrink from wrongdoing out of a feeling of personal honor. ottappa, fear of wrongdoing, has an external orientation. it is the voice of conscience that warns us of the dire consequences of moral transgression : blame and punishment by others, the painful kammic results of evil deeds, the impediment to our desire for liberation from suffering. acariya buddhaghosa illustrates the difference between the two with the simile of an iron rod smeared with excrement at one end and heated to a glow at the other end : hiri is like one ' s disgust at grabbing the rod in the place where it is smeared with excrement, ottappa is like one ' s fear of grabbing it in the place where it is red hot. in the present - day world, with its secularization of all values, such notions as shame and fear of wrong are bound to appear antiquated, relics from a puritanical past when superstition and dogma manacled our rights to uninhibited self - expression. yet the buddha ' s stress on the importance of hiri and ottappa was based on a deep insight into the different potentialities of human nature. he saw that the path to deliverance is a struggle against the current, and that if we are to unfold the mind ' s capacities for wisdom, purity and peace, then we need to", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5152687770490254, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:48.967888"} {"text": "forecasters predict as many as four to eight hurricanes this year. university of houston resources have expertise in a variety of topics related to storms \u2013 before, during and after. new asthma research opposes current drug treatmentmulti - institutional study supports controversial theory, reveals genetic key richard a. bond, professor of pharmacology at the university of houston college of pharmacy ( uhcop ), has been investigating whether beta - 2 adrenoreceptor antagonist drugs ( or beta blockers ) ultimately might be a safer, more effective strategy for long - term asthma management than the currently used beta - 2 adrenoreceptor agonists ( or stimulants ). the beta - 2 adrenoreceptor is a receptor found in many cells, including the smooth muscle lining the airways, and has long been a target for asthma drugs. however, a recent study shows the absence of asthma - like symptoms in a mouse model that lacks the key gene that produces the receptor. this lends further evidence to bond ' s theory that questions whether the pharmaceutical industry should be working to block or inhibit the receptor instead of the current approach of chronically stimulating it to reduce asthma symptoms. the study, \" beta2 - adrenoreceptor signaling is required for the development of an asthma phenotype in a murine model, \" is in the current online issue of the journal proceedings of the national academy of sciences ( pnas ), one of the world ' s most - cited multidisciplinary scientific serials. a follow - up commentary by an independent scientist in the field also will be published in the print issue of pnas in february. the timely release of this study comes on the heels of the fda considering a renewed look at the use of long - acting beta agonist drugs ( labas ) - at least those used alone, without a steroidal component - for the management of asthma symptoms. in an fda report released in december, an analysis of more than 100 trials on four drugs ( two labas alone and two laba / corticosteroid combinations ) found an increased risk of hospitalization and asthma - related deaths with the laba - only therapy. during the same month, an fda advisory panel urged the fda to ban the laba - only drugs and strengthen warnings on the combination drugs. bond and his colleagues propose an alternative to stimulants, using antagonists ( or beta blockers ) instead. this approach, termed paradoxical pharmacology, suggests patients may", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5082683580346921, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:49.000010"} {"text": "fellow uhcop faculty researcher brian j. knoll. with support from the strategic program for asthma research of the american asthma foundation, a second human clinical trial based on bond ' s research is under way using the beta - blocker drug nadolol in patients with mild asthma. in the first clinical trial, sponsored by san francisco - based inverseon inc., eight of 10 patients had less airway hyperresponsiveness on beta - blocker therapy at the end of the trial, although some did experience an initial negative response. ( see related release at http : / / www. uh. edu / news - events / newsrelease. php? releaseid _ int = 187. ) commenting on the results of the first clinical trial, two u. k. researchers wrote in the jan. 10 issue of the british journal the lancet that the use of beta - blocker therapy for asthma warrants serious, but careful, consideration and further investigation, including the use of specific alternative types of beta blockers. to those ends, inverseon, of which bond is scientific founder, has filed u. s. patent applications for using beta blockers to treat airway disease. dr. william garner, chairman of inverseon, said the company recently received a notice of allowance - one of several procedural steps on the path to patent approval - from the u. s. patent office. \" the comment in the lancet on inverseon ' s human asthma study, combined with the notice of allowance from the u. s. patent office, represents important external validation of inverseon ' s approach to asthma, \" garner said. \" we believe that our oral therapy has the potential to be a significant product for the chronic treatment of asthma. \" the university of houston the university of houston, texas ' premier metropolitan research and teaching institution, is home to more than 40 research centers and institutes and sponsors more than 300 partnerships with corporate, civic and governmental entities. uh, the most diverse research university in the country, stands at the forefront of education, research and service with more than 36, 000 students. about the uh college of pharmacy for more than 60 years, the university of houston college of pharmacy has shaped aspiring pharmacists, scientists and researchers. the college offers an undergraduate degree in the pharmaceutical sciences, graduate degrees in pharmacy administration, pharmacology and pharmaceutics, a professional pharmacy degree and combined professional / graduate degrees. with facilities on the uh campus and in the texas medical center, the uh college of pharmacy", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_entanglement", "similarity_score": 0.5109234424568092, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:49.005897"} {"text": "for information only - not an official document 18 june 2012 united nations committee on the peaceful uses of outer space concludes 55th session in vienna vienna, 18 june ( un information service ) - the united nations committee on the peaceful uses of outer space ( copuos ) has concluded its deliberations over ways and means to maintain outer space for peaceful purposes and to ensure that space technology and its applications continue to benefit many areas critical to all humanity at its 55th session, held from 6 to 15 june. the committee agreed on a new agenda item, \" space and sustainable development \", to consider, among others, the outcomes of the upcoming united nations conference on sustainable development ( rio + 20 ) and the use of space technology and its applications for socioeconomic and sustainable development. the committee also agreed to commemorate in 2013 the fiftieth anniversary of the first space flight by a woman, cosmonaut valentina tereshkova on 16 june 1963, with a special panel consisting of prominent women in the space - related fields of space exploration, science, technology, education, business and policy to address the contribution of women to space activities on the topic \" space : building the future today \". other highlights of the 55th session of the committee included : - the panel discussion on the theme \" fortieth anniversary of the landsat programme and the evolution of worldwide remote sensing from space \" was held on 6 june, addressing the contributions of landsat as the longest - running civilian earth observation programme to the worldwide evolution of earth observation. a dedicated exhibition on this theme was held at the vienna international centre from 6 to 15 june, with several countries exhibiting their remote sensing imagery. - the government of china donated a beidou navigation satellite model to the permanent exhibition of the united nations office for outer space affairs ( unoosa ) at the vienna international centre. the model is exhibited in the section dedicated to global navigation satellite systems. - the four expert groups of the working group on the long term sustainability of outer space activities met on the margins of the current session to work on the following issues : sustainable space utilization, space debris and space operations, space weather, and regulatory regimes for actors in space arena. - the action team on near earth objects ( neos ) of the committee continued its work on draft recommendations for an international response to the neo impact threat. as part of the overall neo threat mitigation efforts, representatives of space agencies held a second meeting to build consensus on recommendations to establish a mission planning and operations group. * * * * * for further information, please contact", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5248917258059494, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:49.023126"} {"text": "dictionary results for works | 1. works - noun \u00b7 buildings for carrying on industrial labor ; \" they built a large plant to manufacture automobiles \" synonym ( s ) : plant, industrial _ plant hypernym ( s ) : building _ complex, complex 2. works - noun \u00b7 everything available ; usually preceded by ` the ' ; \" we saw the whole shebang \" ; \" a hotdog with the works \" ; \" we took on the whole caboodle \" ; \" for $ 10 you get the full treatment \" synonym ( s ) : whole _ shebang, whole _ kit _ and _ caboodle, kit _ and _ caboodle, whole _ kit _ and _ boodle, kit _ and _ boodle, whole _ kit, whole _ caboodle, whole _ works, full _ treatment hypernym ( s ) : entirety, entireness, integrality, totality 3. works - noun \u00b7 performance of moral or religious acts ; \" salvation by deeds \" ; \" the reward for good works \" 4. works - noun \u00b7 the internal mechanism of a device 5. work - noun \u00b7 activity directed toward making or doing something ; \" she checked several points needing further work \" 6. work - noun \u00b7 a product produced or accomplished through the effort or activity or agency of a person or thing ; \" it is not regarded as one of his more memorable works \" ; \" the symphony was hailed as an ingenious work \" ; \" he was indebted to the pioneering work of john dewey \" ; \" the work of an active imagination \" ; \" erosion is the work of wind or water over time \" hypernym ( s ) : product, production 7. work - noun \u00b7 the occupation for which you are paid ; \" he is looking for employment \" ; \" a lot of people are out of work \" hypernym ( s ) : occupation, business, job, line _ of _ work, line 8. work - noun \u00b7 applying the mind to learning and understanding a subject ( especially by reading ) ; \" mastering a second language requires a lot of work \" ; \" no schools offer graduate study in interior design \" hypernym ( s ) : learning, acquisition 9. work - noun \u00b7 ( physics ) a manifestation of energy ; the transfer of energy from one physical system to another expressed as the product of a force and the distance through which it moves a body in the direction of that force ; \" work equals force times distance \" hypernym ( s ) : energy, free _ energy", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5806856820659276, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:49.044018"} {"text": "of energy from one physical system to another expressed as the product of a force and the distance through which it moves a body in the direction of that force ; \" work equals force times distance \" hypernym ( s ) : energy, free _ energy 10. work - noun \u00b7 a place where work is done ; \" he arrived at work early today \" hypernym ( s ) : geographic _ point, geographical _ point 11. work - noun \u00b7 the total output of a writer or artist ( or a substantial part of it ) ; \" he studied the entire wagnerian oeuvre \" ; \" picasso ' s work can be divided into periods \" synonym ( s ) : oeuvre, body _ of _ work hypernym ( s ) : end _ product, output 12. work - verb \u00b7 exert oneself by doing mental or physical work for a purpose or out of necessity ; \" i will work hard to improve my grades \" ; \" she worked hard for better living conditions for the poor \" 13. work - verb \u00b7 be employed ; \" is your husband working again? \" ; \" my wife never worked \" ; \" do you want to work after the age of 60? \" ; \" she never did any work because she inherited a lot of money \" ; \" she works as a waitress to put herself through college \" 14. work - verb \u00b7 have an effect or outcome ; often the one desired or expected ; \" the voting process doesn ' t work as well as people thought \" ; \" how does your idea work in practice? \" ; \" this method doesn ' t work \" ; \" the breaks of my new car act quickly \" ; \" the medicine works only if you take it with a lot of water \" hypernym ( s ) : succeed, win, come _ through, bring _ home _ the _ bacon, deliver _ the _ goods 15. work - verb \u00b7 perform as expected when applied ; \" the washing machine won ' t go unless it ' s plugged in \" ; \" does this old car still run well? \" ; \" this old radio doesn ' t work anymore \" synonym ( s ) : function, operate, go, run 16. work - verb \u00b7 shape, form, or improve a material ; \" work stone into tools \" ; \" process iron \" ; \" work the metal \" synonym ( s ) : work _ on, process hypernym ( s ) : transform, transmute, transubstantiate 17. work - verb \u00b7 give a workout to ; \" some parents", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6530088284389023, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:49.046146"} {"text": "process iron \" ; \" work the metal \" synonym ( s ) : work _ on, process hypernym ( s ) : transform, transmute, transubstantiate 17. work - verb \u00b7 give a workout to ; \" some parents exercise their infants \" ; \" my personal trainer works me hard \" ; \" work one ' s muscles \" ; \" this puzzle will exercise your mind \" synonym ( s ) : exercise, work _ out hypernym ( s ) : work, put _ to _ work 18. work - verb \u00b7 proceed along a path ; \" work one ' s way through the crowd \" ; \" make one ' s way into the forest \" 19. work - verb \u00b7 operate in a certain place, area, or specialty ; \" she works the night clubs \" ; \" the salesman works the midwest \" ; \" this artist works mostly in acrylics \" 20. work - verb \u00b7 proceed towards a goal or along a path or through an activity ; \" work your way through every problem or task \" ; \" she was working on her second martini when the guests arrived \" ; \" start from the bottom and work towards the top \" hypernym ( s ) : go, proceed, move 21. work - verb \u00b7 move in an agitated manner ; \" his fingers worked with tension \" hypernym ( s ) : move, displace 22. work - verb \u00b7 cause to happen or to occur as a consequence ; \" i cannot work a miracle \" ; \" wreak havoc \" ; \" bring comments \" ; \" play a joke \" ; \" the rain brought relief to the drought - stricken area \" synonym ( s ) : bring, play, wreak, make _ for hypernym ( s ) : make, create 23. work - verb \u00b7 cause to work ; \" he is working his servants hard \" hypernym ( s ) : use, utilize, utilise, apply, employ 24. work - verb \u00b7 prepare for crops ; \" work the soil \" ; \" cultivate the land \" synonym ( s ) : cultivate, crop hypernym ( s ) : fix, prepare, set _ up, ready, gear _ up, set 25. work - verb \u00b7 behave in a certain way when handled ; \" this dough does not work easily \" ; \" the soft metal works well \" 26. work - verb \u00b7 have and exert influence or effect ; \" the artist ' s work influenced the young painter \" ; \" she worked on her friends to support the political candidate \"", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5642738278936038, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:49.049108"} {"text": "not work easily \" ; \" the soft metal works well \" 26. work - verb \u00b7 have and exert influence or effect ; \" the artist ' s work influenced the young painter \" ; \" she worked on her friends to support the political candidate \" synonym ( s ) : influence, act _ upon hypernym ( s ) : affect, impact, bear _ upon, bear _ on, touch _ on, touch 27. work - verb \u00b7 operate in or through ; \" work the phones \" hypernym ( s ) : operate, run 28. work - verb \u00b7 cause to operate or function ; \" this pilot works the controls \" ; \" can you work an electric drill? \" hypernym ( s ) : manage, deal, care, handle 29. work - verb \u00b7 provoke or excite ; \" the rock musician worked the crowd of young girls into a frenzy \" hypernym ( s ) : stimulate, excite, stir 30. work - verb \u00b7 gratify and charm, usually in order to influence ; \" the political candidate worked the crowds \" hypernym ( s ) : capture, enamour, trance, catch, becharm, enamor, captivate, beguile, charm, fascinate, bewitch, entrance, enchant 31. work - verb \u00b7 make something, usually for a specific function ; \" she molded the rice balls carefully \" ; \" form cylinders from the dough \" ; \" shape a figure \" ; \" work the metal into a sword \" synonym ( s ) : shape, form, mold, mould, forge hypernym ( s ) : create _ from _ raw _ material, create _ from _ raw _ stuff 32. work - verb \u00b7 move into or onto ; \" work the raisins into the dough \" ; \" the student worked a few jokes into his presentation \" ; \" work the body onto the flatbed truck \" hypernym ( s ) : move, displace 33. work - verb \u00b7 make uniform ; \" knead dough \" ; \" work the clay until it is soft \" 34. work - verb \u00b7 use or manipulate to one ' s advantage ; \" he exploit the new taxation system \" ; \" she knows how to work the system \" ; \" he works his parents for sympathy \" hypernym ( s ) : use, utilize, utilise, apply, employ 35. work - verb \u00b7 find the solution to ( a problem or question ) or understand the meaning of ; \" did you", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5409629673730441, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:49.051131"} {"text": "he works his parents for sympathy \" hypernym ( s ) : use, utilize, utilise, apply, employ 35. work - verb \u00b7 find the solution to ( a problem or question ) or understand the meaning of ; \" did you solve the problem? \" ; \" work out your problems with the boss \" ; \" this unpleasant situation isn ' t going to work itself out \" ; \" did you get it? \" ; \" did you get my meaning? \" ; \" he could not work the math problem \" synonym ( s ) : solve, work _ out, figure _ out, puzzle _ out, lick 36. work - verb \u00b7 cause to undergo fermentation ; \" we ferment the grapes for a very long time to achieve high alcohol content \" ; \" the vintner worked the wine in big oak vats \" 37. work - verb \u00b7 go sour or spoil ; \" the milk has soured \" ; \" the wine worked \" ; \" the cream has turned - - we have to throw it out \" synonym ( s ) : sour, turn, ferment hypernym ( s ) : change _ state, turn 38. work - verb \u00b7 arrive at a certain condition through repeated motion ; \" the stitches of the hem worked loose after she wore the skirt many times \" hypernym ( s ) : become, go, get or unscramble the word you need to complete that puzzle or to finish that project or homework! letters to unscramble the word synonyms, antonyms and related words word below with '? ' to indicate missing letters word to find the rhymes letters of the beginning, middle or end of the word.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5352896581645943, "token_count": 341, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:49.053498"} {"text": "being referred for radiation treatment is an unfamiliar experience to most cancer patients. on these pages, we will explain radiation oncology to you and answer questions that most often exist for our patients. and we will also explain why you should feel remarkably confident in coming to urmc, the region \u2019 s leader in radiation oncology. what is radiation oncology? radiation oncology is one of the three major cancer specialties in oncologic medicine. it uses energy from radiation beams, radio isotopes, or charged particles to target tumors and to eradicate cancer cells. radiation beams are usually generated in treatment machines, such as linear accelerators or high - energy ct scanners. another type of radiation treatment uses radioisotopes, or radioactive materials. these are utilized in radiation implants and radioisotope - labeled molecules in the treatment of various cancers. in addition to getting rid of cancer, radiation treatment is highly effective in reducing symptoms such as cancer - related pain. radiation has also been used in the treatment of many benign ( non - cancerous ) conditions in both adults and children. what makes urmc different? at the james p. wilmot cancer center, the department of radiation oncology is an essential part of multidisciplinary care. in other words, a team of experts from surgery, medical oncology, radiation oncology, and many other disciplines will come together to evaluate and manage your cancer treatment. this is a unique approach to care and is considered the ideal model of cancer care. the department of radiation oncology provides state - of - the - art treatment technology to increase the curability of cancer while reducing side effects. our comprehensive cancer care team includes physician radiation oncologists, radiation physicists, radiation therapists, dosimetrists, nurses, social workers, and nutritionists. what should i expect as a patient? your treatment will involve a team of healthcare providers from the department of radiation oncology. typically, a radiation oncologist will direct the radiation treatment process and plans. your team will also include a secretary, a nurse, a nurse practitioner, a resident physician in training, radiation therapists who operate the treatment machines, and a radiation dosimetrist or physicist specializing in radiation treatment physical plans. the department also offers assistance from social workers and nutritionists. support groups for cancer patients are also available. these include disease - specific groups, age - specific groups, and many others. a typical radiation treatment process begins with an initial consultation with your radiation oncologist. the treatment recommendation", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5218964864100432, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:49.060798"} {"text": "by w. blake gray one of the main characteristics of japanese is its vagueness. language is culture, and japanese helps people get along in crowded, resource - poor cities by preventing hard feelings in conversation. here ' s a good example of how this works : in a business meeting, everyone sits around the table vaguely feeling out each others ' position until eventually everyone realizes what they ' re expected to say. thus the first and only vote is almost always unanimous. here ' s a more frustrating example : i think this sake is named \" 140 \" ( hyakuyonju ) because it ' s the 140th attempt at crossing aomori ' s native hanafubuki rice with the more famous yamada nishiki, which doesn ' t usually grow so far north. however, i can ' t confirm that ; the japanese describing it is just too vague. all i know is that in the crossing experiments, somehow this rice got the number \" 140. \" maybe that ' s the number of wins aomori native daisuke matsuzaka expects to pile up in boston. maybe it ' s just a mellifluous number. as a journalist, i hate that vagueness - - it makes reporting anything from japan a challenge, as you get notebooks full of quotes that, translated, essentially mean, \" maybe so. \" i can ' t help but wonder, as i struggled to get information on this product, how much japanese exports would benefit from a trade export organization with english skills. oh wait - - there is one. i went to jetro, the japan external trade organization, where i learned the following about aomori rice : \" the value that is delicious by the security that only the person who ate understands. please enjoy it in your mouth. \" ok, at least we know where to put it. let me tell you what i do know. aomori prefecture is the snowiest in japan - - even more so than hokkaido. aomori is at the very tip of honshu, and even in summer it ' s foggy and windy. the prefecture is 66 % covered by forest, and the rest mostly by farmland, such that a visiting english teacher posted somewhere on the web, \" there ' s nothing but rice paddies here. \" aomori is fairly poor and has been losing population since it peaked in 1983, because young people don ' t want to pursue the number one industry - - agriculture. when they get to tokyo, they have to relearn how to speak, because aomori is famous in", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5203837030723593, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:49.157980"} {"text": "what is a bubble? today \u2019 s economies often experience large movements in asset prices that have significant macroeconomic effects. given that many of these movements in asset prices seem unrelated to economic conditions or fundamentals, they have come to be called bubbles, whether swelling or bursting. typically, these bubbles are unpredictable and generate substantial macroeconomic effects. consumption, the capital stock, and output all tend to surge when a bubble arises and then collapse or stagnate when the bubble bursts. despite the recurrent nature of bubbles and their macroeconomic implications, however, we still lack a stylised model to answer the basic questions : - what is the origin of bubbly episodes? - why are they unpredictable? - how do bubbles affect consumption, the capital stock, and output? of course, economists have long thought about asset bubbles. to do so, they have found it useful to think of an economy with two idealised asset classes : productive assets or \u201c capital \u201d and pyramid schemes or \u201c bubbles \u201d. both assets are used as a store of value or savings vehicle, but they have different characteristics. capital is costly to produce but it is then useful in production. bubbles play no role in production, but initiating them is costless. a successful theory of bubbles should then explain why rational and informed agents optimally choose to hold bubbles in their portfolios, and it should also characterise the macroeconomic consequences of their choice. samuelson ( 1958 ) and tirole ( 1985 ) laid the foundations for such a theory by portraying bubbles as a remedy to the problem of dynamic inefficiency. their argument is based on the dual role of capital as a productive asset and a store of value. to satisfy the need for a store of value, economies sometimes accumulate so much capital that the investment required to sustain it exceeds the income that it produces. this investment is inefficient and lowers the resources available for consumption. in this situation, bubbles can be both attractive to investors and feasible from a macroeconomic perspective. for instance, a pyramid scheme that absorbs all inefficient investments in each period is feasible and its return exceeds that of the investments it replaces. the samuelson - tirole model provides an elegant and powerful framework to think about bubbles. however, the picture that emerges from this theory is hard to reconcile with historical evidence. - first, the model features deterministic bubbles that exist from the very beginning of time and never burst. this is contrary to the observation that, in real economies, bubbles pop - up and burst", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5350752569639088, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:49.190841"} {"text": "this theory is hard to reconcile with historical evidence. - first, the model features deterministic bubbles that exist from the very beginning of time and never burst. this is contrary to the observation that, in real economies, bubbles pop - up and burst. we therefore need a model in which bubbles are transient, that is, a model of bubbly episodes. - second, and most importantly, in the samuelson - tirole model bubbles raise consumption by reducing inefficient investments. as a result, bubbles slow down capital accumulation and lower output. in the real world, bubbly episodes tend to be associated with consumption booms indeed. but they also tend to be associated with expansions in the capital stock and output. a successful model of bubbles must come to grips with these correlations. towards a realistic theory of bubbles in recent research ( martin and ventura 2011a and 2011b ), we build such a model by introducing investor sentiment shocks and imperfect financial markets into the theory of rational bubbles. since bubbles have no intrinsic value, their current size depends on market expectations regarding their future size, i. e. on \" investor sentiment \". introducing shocks to investor sentiment is therefore crucial to generate realistic bubble dynamics in the model. introducing financial frictions is also crucial because these create rate - of - return differentials and allow efficient and inefficient investments to coexist. our key observation is then quite simple. bubbles not only reduce inefficient investments, but also increase efficient ones. in our model, bubbly episodes are booms in consumption and efficient investments financed by a reduction in inefficient investments. if efficient investments increase enough, bubbly episodes expand the capital stock and output. this turns out to be the case under a wide range of parameter values. to understand these effects of bubbly episodes, it is useful to analyse the set of transfers that bubbles implement. in the theory, a bubble is nothing but a pyramid scheme by which the buyer surrenders resources today expecting that future buyers will surrender resources to him / her. the economy enters each period with an initial distribution of current and future bubble owners. some of these owners bought their bubbles in earlier periods, while others just created them or are expected to do so in the future. in this setup, there are two natural channels through which bubbles may transfer resources from inefficient to efficient investment. - first, they do so directly through the market for bubbles. on the demand side of this market we find investors who cannot obtain", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5326534357437507, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:49.191906"} {"text": "this setup, there are two natural channels through which bubbles may transfer resources from inefficient to efficient investment. - first, they do so directly through the market for bubbles. on the demand side of this market we find investors who cannot obtain a return to investment above that of bubbles ; while on the supply side we find consumers and investors who can obtain a return to investment above that of bubbles. when the market for bubbles closes, resources have thus been transferred from inefficient investors to consumers and efficient investors, leading to an increase in consumption and efficient investments at the expense of inefficient investments ( martin and ventura 2011a ). - second, bubbles may also transfer resources towards efficient investments through the credit market. this happens when the prospect of a future bubble raises the net worth of efficient investors, therefore allowing them to expand their borrowing and investment ( martin and ventura 2011b ). introducing financial frictions can thus explain how bubbles can lead to expansions in the capital stock and in output. it also solves a nagging problem of the theory of rational bubbles, which was first pointed out by abel et al. ( 1989 ). in the samuelson - tirole model, bubbles can only exist if the investment required to sustain the capital stock exceeds the income that it produces. abel et al. ( 1989 ) examined a group of developed economies and found that, in all of them, investment falls short of capital income. this finding has often been considered evidence that rational bubbles cannot exist in real economies. introducing financial frictions into the theory shows that this conclusion is unwarranted. the observation that capital income exceeds investment only implies that, on average, investments are dynamically efficient. but this does not exclude the possibility that the economy contains \u201c pockets \u201d of dynamically inefficient investments that could support a bubble. nor does it exclude the possibility that an expansionary bubble, by lowering the return to investment, creates itself the pockets of dynamically inefficient investments that support it. in such situations, the test of abel et al. would wrongly conclude that bubbles are not possible. our research is part of a growing body of work that studies the effects of bubbles in the presence of financial frictions : - caballero and krishnamurthy ( 2006 ) and farhi and tirole ( 2011 ) show that bubbles can be a useful source of liquidity ; - kocherlakota ( 2009 ) shows that bubbles can also raise collateral or net worth ; and - ventura ( 2011", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5134583345026624, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:49.193247"} {"text": "what is health law? there are many ways to conceptualize health law. the health law & justice program views health law as encompassing not only the law of health care delivery and financing but all areas of study that focus on the intersection between law and health : from the ethics of embryonic stem cell research, to the role of government in preventing child maltreatment, to occupational health and safety regulations, to the laws governing elder care and death. we have grouped our health law courses into four overlapping but distinct areas of study : health care law, public and population health law, bioethics, and global health law. although these are not the only categories into which health law may be divided, we think these groupings provide a helpful lens for understanding the field \u2019 s multifaceted nature. health care law health care law focuses on the legislative, executive, and judicial rules and regulations that govern the health care industry. the health care industry includes hospitals and hospital systems, public and private insurers, pharmaceutical and device manufacturers, and the individual practitioners who treat patients. each of these entities functions within a vast complex of laws and regulations, and our curriculum reflects this complexity by offering a variety of courses that focus on specific aspects of health care law, such as fraud and abuse, food and drug law, medical malpractice, and healthcare mergers and acquisitions. public and population health law public health law has deep historical roots, but it has only recently emerged as a distinct area of legal study. part of what distinguishes public health law is its focus on prevention and populations : whereas healthcare law generally focuses on the delivery of treatment to individual patients, public health law generally focuses on preventing injury and disease by lowering health risks among populations. thus, a public health intervention, such as requiring cars to have airbags, may not decrease any particular individual \u2019 s risk of death as much as an expensive surgical procedure could, but when spread across a population, such interventions can make a huge difference in morbidity and mortality rates. because of public health \u2019 s focus on populations, we group public health law together with those areas of study that focus on the health of particular populations, such as children and the elderly. our curriculum includes several courses devoted to public health law and the law governing the health of specific populations. health law raises unique ethical challenges. even the question of how to define \u201c health \u201d is contested : it was only in the 1970s, for example, that the american psychiatric association removed homosexuality from its list of mental disorders. beyond the difficulty of defining health", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5146804784318082, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:49.216023"} {"text": "health law raises unique ethical challenges. even the question of how to define \u201c health \u201d is contested : it was only in the 1970s, for example, that the american psychiatric association removed homosexuality from its list of mental disorders. beyond the difficulty of defining health is figuring out how to value it. because good health is a prerequisite for so much of what we do, it has a special value to many of us and cannot easily be balanced against other public or private goods. people also have conflicting intuitions about how to weigh the health of a single, identified person against the health of many, unidentified people. finally, advances in health technologies introduce new and difficult questions, including : do our genes belong to us? how can we protect patient privacy while maximizing patient health? and how should we define life and death? our bioethics courses encourage students to grapple with these and other difficult questions. global health law global health law is an emerging field that addresses the health challenges associated with globalization and population growth. global health law encompasses \u201c international health law \u201d but also extends beyond it in three important ways. first, whereas international health law focuses primarily on health - specific agreements, global health law examines a wider array of laws that affect but are not necessarily focused on health, such as laws governing trade, intellectual property, national security, human rights, and environmental protection. second, whereas international health law focuses on agreements among nation - states that attempt to influence governmental behavior, global health law also addresses the legal rights and obligations of nongovernmental actors such as corporations, nonprofit organizations, and private individuals. finally, whereas international health law focuses on international agreements, global health law also considers the impact that countries \u2019 national and local laws have on global health. thus, global health law breaks down many of the traditional distinctions that define international health law and, thereby, reflects the complexity of the health threats the world faces today. the washington college of law curriculum includes several courses designed to help students understand these threats and the unique legal and policy challenges they present.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5462397367620706, "token_count": 410, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:49.218616"} {"text": "elemental analysis is a process where a sample of some material ( e. g., soil, waste or drinking water, bodily fluids, minerals, chemical compounds ) is analyzed for its elemental and sometimes isotopic composition. elemental analysis can be qualitative ( determining what elements are present ), and it can be quantitative ( determining how much of each are present ). elemental analysis falls within the ambit of analytical chemistry, the set of instruments involved in decyphering the chemical nature of our world. for synthetic chemists, elemental analysis or \" ea \" almost always refers to chnx analysis \u2014 the determination of the percentage weights of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and heteroatoms ( x ) ( halogens, sulfur ) of a sample. this information is important to help determine the structure of an unknown compound, as well as to help prove the structure and purity of a synthesized compound. the most common form of elemental analysis, chn analysis, is accomplished by combustion analysis. in this technique, a sample is burned in an excess of oxygen, and various traps collect the combustion products \u2014 carbon dioxide, water, and nitric oxide. the weights of these combustion products can be used to calculate the composition of the unknown sample. other quantitative methods include : - gravimetry, where the sample is dissolved and then the element of interest is precipitated and its mass measured or the element of interest is volatilized and the mass loss is measured. - optical atomic spectroscopy, such as flame atomic absorption, graphite furnace atomic absorption, and inductively coupled plasma atomic emission, which probe the outer electronic structure of atoms. to qualitatively determine which elements exist in a sample, methods include : - mass spectrometric atomic spectroscopy, such as inductively coupled mass spectrometry, which probes the mass of atoms. - other spectroscopy which probes the inner electronic structure of atoms such as x - ray fluorescence, particle induced x - ray emission, x - ray photoelectron spectroscopy, and auger electron spectroscopy. - electrochemical methods there is no pharmaceutical or device industry support for this site and we need your viewer supported donations | editorial board | governance | licensing | disclaimers | avoid plagiarism | policies", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5849866700010625, "token_count": 457, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:49.240983"} {"text": "the government national mortgage association ( ginnie mae ) is a wholly owned federal corporation within the u. s. department of [ housing and urban development ( hud ). it was created in 1968 through an amendment to title iii of the national housing act. the president of ginnie mae is appointed by the president of the united states, and serves as a key member of the secretary of housing and urban development ' s principal staff. ginnie mae is credited with creating the mortgage - backed security ( mbs ) program in 1968. the purpose of the mortgage - backed security program is to attract new sources of capital for residential mortgage loans by increasing liquidity in the secondary mortgage market. through the program, ginnie mae guarantees the timely payment of principal and interest on securities backed by pools of mortgages issued by private mortgage institutions. a ginnie mae mortgage - backed security is the only mbs guaranteed by the full faith and credit of the united states government. ginnie mae can make this guarantee because mortgages in the underlying security are insured or guaranteed by the federal housing administration ( fha ), the rural housing service ( rhs ), ( formerly farmers home administration ), the department of veterans affairs ( va ), or hud \u2019 s office of public and indian housing ( pih ). the original mbs concept, as well as new variations developed in the past four decades, remains ginnie mae \u2019 s primary activity. ginnie mae does not assemble or issue securities : instead, it assesses a small fee on banks and other mortgage lenders to evaluate, and then guarantee the pool of mortgages to be sold by this private entity. the fee collected by ginnie mae is, if necessary, used as an advance against mbs pools which experience defaults. when homeowners do not make a mortgage payment, ginnie mae uses these fees to fulfill its guaranty of timely payment of principal and interest payment to the mbs security holders. should the mortgage - holder lose the home to foreclosure, ginnie mae \u2019 s full - faith and credit guarantee comes into play because all of the underlying mortgages are insured or guaranteed by fha, va, rhs and others.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.501895101638653, "token_count": 446, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:49.244577"} {"text": "american heritage\u00ae dictionary of the english language, fourth edition - v. to draw off ( a liquid ) by a gradual process : drained water from the sink. - v. to cause liquid to go out from ; empty : drained the bathtub ; drain the pond. - v. to draw off the surface water of : the mississippi river drains a vast area. - v. to drink all the contents of : drained the cup. - v. to deplete gradually, especially to the point of complete exhaustion. see synonyms at deplete. - v. to fatigue or spend emotionally or physically : the day ' s events completely drained me of all strength. - v. to flow off or out : gasoline drained slowly from the tilted can. - v. to become empty by the drawing off of liquid : watched the tub slowly drain. - v. to discharge surface or excess water : the niagara river drains into lake ontario. when flooded, the swamp drains northward. - v. to become gradually depleted ; dwindle : felt his enthusiasm draining. - n. a pipe or channel by which liquid is drawn off. - n. medicine a device, such as a tube, inserted into the opening of a wound or body cavity to facilitate discharge of fluid or purulent material. - n. the act or process of draining. - n. a gradual outflow or loss ; consumption or depletion : the drain of young talent by emigration. - n. something that causes a gradual loss : interruptions that are a drain on my patience. - idiom. down the drain to or into the condition of being wasted or lost : all of our best laid plans are down the drain. century dictionary and cyclopedia - to draw off gradually, as a liquid ; remove or convey away by degrees, as through conduits, by filtration, or by any comparable process : as, to drain water from land, wine from the lees, or blood from the body ; to drain away the specie of a country. - to free, clear, or deprive by degrees, as of a liquid ; empty or exhaust gradually : as, to drain land of water ( the most familiar use of the word ) ; to drain a vessel of its contents ; to drain a country of its resources. - to flow off gradually. - to be gradually emptied, as of a liquid : as, the cask slowly drains. - n. the act of draining or drawing off, or of emptying by", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5333664052894802, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:49.287974"} {"text": "; to drain a country of its resources. - to flow off gradually. - to be gradually emptied, as of a liquid : as, the cask slowly drains. - n. the act of draining or drawing off, or of emptying by drawing off ; gradual or continuous outflow, withdrawal, or expenditure. - n. that which drains, or by means of which draining is immediately effected. - n. specifically \u2014 a passage, pipe, or open channel for the removal of water or other liquid ; especially, a pipe or channel for removing the surplus water from soils. drains may be open ditches or sunken pipes or conduits. those for wet lands are so made as to permit the percolation into them of water from the adjacent soil, as by the use in a covered conduit of porous earthen pipes or tiles, or of a filling of small stones, of an open cut where there is a sufficient slope, etc. see sewer. - n. the trench in which the melted metal flows from a furnace to the molds - n. in surgery, a hollow sound or canula used to draw off purulent matter from a deep seated abscess. - n. pl. the grain from the mash - tub : distinctively called brewers ' drains. - n. in ship - building, a large pipe which runs through or above the double bottom of a war - ship and is connected with the principal pumps to remove water from the various compartments. the main drain is from 12 to 15 inches in diameter, has openings into the large compartments controlled by valves, and is intended to pump out the water in case of damage by grounding, collision, etc. the secondary or auxiliary drain is also connected with all the large compartments and is used for all ordinary pumping. - n. a conduit allowing liquid to flow out of an otherwise contained volume. - n. something consuming resources and providing nothing in return. - n. vulgar an act of urination. - n. electronics the name of one terminal of a field effect transistor ( fet ). - v. intransitive to lose liquid. - v. transitive, ergative to cause liquid to flow out of. - v. transitive, ergative to convert a perennially wet place into a dry one. - v. transitive to deplete of energy or resources. - v. intransitive, pinball to fall off the bottom of the playfield. gnu webster ' s 1913", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5674358039678471, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:49.290373"} {"text": "to convert a perennially wet place into a dry one. - v. transitive to deplete of energy or resources. - v. intransitive, pinball to fall off the bottom of the playfield. gnu webster ' s 1913 - v. to draw off by degrees ; to cause to flow gradually out or off ; hence, to cause the exhaustion of. - v. to exhaust of liquid contents by drawing them off ; to make gradually dry or empty ; to remove surface water, as from streets, by gutters, etc. ; to deprive of moisture ; hence, to exhaust ; to empty of wealth, resources, or the like. - v. to filter. - v. to flow gradually. - v. to become emptied of liquor by flowing or dropping. - n. the act of draining, or of drawing off ; gradual and continuous outflow or withdrawal. - n. that means of which anything is drained ; a channel ; a trench ; a water course ; a sewer ; a sink. - n. engraving the grain from the mashing tub. - v. empty of liquid ; drain the liquid from - v. flow off gradually - n. a pipe through which liquid is carried away - n. emptying something accomplished by allowing liquid to run out of it - v. deplete of resources - v. make weak - n. tube inserted into a body cavity ( as during surgery ) to remove unwanted material - n. a gradual depletion of energy or resources - middle english dreinen ( verb ) from old english dreahnian ( \" to drain, strain, filter \" ), from proto - germanic * draug - ( \u201c dry \u201d ), akin to old english drugian ( \" to dry up \" ), druga\u00fe ( \" dryness, drought \" ), old english dryge ( \" dry \" ). more at dry ( wiktionary ) - middle english dreinen, to strain, drain, from old english dreahnian. ( american heritage\u00ae dictionary of the english language, fourth edition ) \u201c brain drain is still claiming canadian doctors, but not our doctorals. \u201d \u201c she noted that the more typical \" brain drain \" is to the us, as canadian professionals leave for greater income potential. \u201d \u201c if there is brain drain from a particular country, it can scarcely develop. \u201d \u201c that a slip - slide into banality leads to forum brain drain is a sort of catch - 22 given. \u201d \u201c the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5812456707370491, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:49.291914"} {"text": "leave for greater income potential. \u201d \u201c if there is brain drain from a particular country, it can scarcely develop. \u201d \u201c that a slip - slide into banality leads to forum brain drain is a sort of catch - 22 given. \u201d \u201c the brain drain is not the consequence of some sort of collective despair. \u201d \u201c hong kong ' s brain drain is both a myth and a reality - - a myth in that its proportions tend to be wildly exaggerated, and in that its existence is attributed to a largely imaginary state of panic supposedly to be found in hong kong. \u201d \u201c highly educated women \u2019 s abandonment of the workplace is not an extension of the centuries of upper - class arm candy ; it \u2019 s a sex - specific brain drain from the future rulers of the society.... \u201d \u201c ainalem puts it this way : one potential solution to africa \u2019 s brain drain is virtual participation. \u201d \u201c america ' s loss may be india ' s gain, analysts say, pointing to a ' reverse brain drain ' that may see india reaping benefits for years to come. \u201d \u201c watch the water drain from the roof of the greenhouses. \u201d these user - created lists contain the word \u2018 drain \u2019. the path of least resistance, watercourses, plumbing.... words describing slow action or movement ( open list, randomness, descriptive ) includes words of the \" prodcom list \" words that make me think of vampire : the requiem grateful credit to http : / / reocities. com / soho / studios / 9783 / phond1. html. very basic words for esl students. words from 2009 ' watchmen ' film. words that mean drink. looking for tweets for drain.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.506034969132678, "token_count": 353, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:49.293643"} {"text": "in this episode ( in order of appearance ) : [ upbeat electronic music ] ( jennifer ) : hello, there. i ' m jennifer pulley, and welcome to another edition of nasa 360. today we ' ve got so many things lined up for you. we ' re going to talk about technology. we ' re going to talk about exploration. and we ' re going to talk about dinosaurs and how they ' re all related. but first, let ' s talk about where i ' m standing. get this : i ' m standing inside a fort. that ' s right, and it ' s not just any fort. this is jamestown fort. it ' s the site of the first permanent english colony in what was then called the new world. today, of course, we know it as america. now think about this : from this starting point, people spread out all across the country and eventually populated the entire united states. so i guess we have to say that this landing ' s spot ' s a pretty big deal in american history. over time, though, the original fort that the english settlers built fell into disrepair. and believe it or not, for many years, it was lost to history. that all changed in 1996 when archaeologist dr. bill kelso rediscovered the original fort. it began a whole new era of understanding what life was like for those first jamestown settlers. for the first time, they had proof. using old writings, drawings, and now a handy trowel for digging, dr. kelso and his team discovered where the old fort was. and they began excavating the artifacts. to date, he and his team have found over 1 million artifacts from the original fort. and they expect to find many more in the next few years. in a little while, we ' ll catch up with dr. kelso and dig a little deeper into the history of jamestown. but first, do you know the difference between an archaeologist and a paleontologist? well, let ' s see. they both dig in the ground looking for things in the past, right? well, it ' s the type of things they ' re looking for that make them different. you see, archaeology is the science of understanding human cultures, while paleontology is the study of prehistoric life - forms. so basically, then, archaeologists spends their time trying to understand human history, while paleontologists generally look for fossils from before human history, like dinosaur bones. got it? luckily for archaeologists and paleontologists,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5063914945882333, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:49.406712"} {"text": "study of prehistoric life - forms. so basically, then, archaeologists spends their time trying to understand human history, while paleontologists generally look for fossils from before human history, like dinosaur bones. got it? luckily for archaeologists and paleontologists, tons of help is now coming from nasa. how? well, one of the ways is through the use of remote sensing techniques. remote sensing? well, in the broadest sense, it ' s the use of a device to collect information without actually physically touching the object. now, a great example of a remote sensing device we use every single day? our eyes. think about it. you can detect objects around you without physically touching them. you simply use your detectors, or your eyes, to see the object, gather information about it. you ' re using remote sensing. there are many forms of nasa - sponsored remote sensing devices that are being used to help in archaeology and paleontology. like, for example, there ' s something called ground - penetrating radar. this unique type of radar system can actually see objects in the ground without anyone having to dig them up. by using this in combination with aerial photography and historical documents, nasa can help give researchers a much better indication of where to dig, what to preserve, and what areas to avoid. satellites are another type of remote sensing tool being used by nasa researchers to help archaeologists and paleontologists. in fact, nasa archaeologist dr. tom sever has been using satellite data to help us understand why the mayan civilization in guatemala collapsed and how current populations may be able to prevent future disaster. let me try to break it down for you. between the third and ninth century, the mayan civilization in central america flourished. but after about the ninth century, they collapsed, leaving archaeologists few clues as to why this once - mighty civilization disappeared. this is where nasa comes in. our remote sensing satellites can detect even small changes within the electromagnetic spectrum. so sand, cultivated soil, vegetation, and rocks, each have distinctive spectral signatures which are easily distinguished from each other. so archaeologists can use info from the remote sensing satellites to quickly target specific areas of interest then send teams to that area to validate the findings. dr. sever and his team have already found several previously undiscovered sites and feel confident that they know where others are, thanks to nasa ' s remote sensing satellites. that is how nasa is helping researchers find old ruins. but remote sensing satellites are also helping us understand why the mayan civilization may have disappeared. today", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5492698716777107, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:49.407926"} {"text": "not a mummy in the sense of what we generally think about, like an egyptian mummy that has been embalmed for preservation. the skin on this animal is actually preserved because it ' s been replaced by a mineral called siderite, which is an iron carbonate kind of mineral which is very hard and has preserved the skin. ( johnny ) : all right, so how did nasa get involved with this dinosaur discovery? well, researchers needed a way to scan through all the layers of rock to see all the dinosaur. and since this thing weighs about ten tons, they needed a really, really big scanner. ( dr. john hoganson ) : well, you know, when we usually find these fossils in the field, we generally just find the bones, the skeletons. and it was determined early on during the excavation process that this particular dinosaur was covered in skin. so it was decided to take these skeleton blocks out still entombed in the rock. so big blocks of rocks were removed. and at that point, it was decided that the best technology to use to determine the position of the bones in the rock and the completeness of the skeleton was to use c. a. t. scan technologies. and that ' s where nasa was asked if they could help with this. and it ' s been a very good approach, because with this tail block that we ' re working on right now, we, through the c. a. t. scan technology, are able to know where the bones are before we actually start digging through the rock matrix. ( johnny ) : luckily for these guys, nasa operates the largest ct scanner in the world. located at a boeing facility in canoga park, california, this scanner ' s first priority is to inspect large space shuttle parts. well, the task for dakota was not all that different. so they loaded dakota on a truck and shipped it off to california. when it arrived, the scanner was able to penetrate the dense iron carbonate that surrounded the dinosaur ' s tail section. and right away, researchers saw bones, tissue, and cartilage. ( dr. john hoganson ) : well, since i ' ve been a paleontologist, which has been a few years, there ' s been a lot of technological changes and advancements that have really helped the science. in addition to the c. a. t. scan technology that we ' ve been talking about here, there ' s a lot of remote sensing types of technologies that are available to us now. global position systems, mapping,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5031802338967288, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:49.413938"} {"text": "in this project. but there are certain things that really do stand out. ( jennifer ) : one of those things that stands out is a lead luggage tag with its destination stamped on it, \" yamestowne. \" this tag made the long journey from england to the new world on a wooden ship then was discarded into the bottom of a well. after its rediscovery 400 years later, it would again be making a long trip, this time into space. to help celebrate the 400th anniversary of jamestown, this lowly luggage tag was placed aboard the space shuttle atlantis, where it traveled nearly 6 million miles around the earth. after the space flight was over, the tag was returned to jamestown, where it went back on display in the jamestown archaearium with other artifacts from the old fort. ( dr. bill kelso ) : i think it really highlights the... sort of age - old exploration process, that, in 1607, you had to get the vehicles. you had to raise the money. you had to get the political things in order, the charter, to come to virginia, and dress appropriately with armor and closed helmets, because it was an alien environment, you had to put some kind of a \u2026 it ' s almost like a - - it is almost like a space station. you know, here in - - or an outpost - - to begin to explore an unknown environment in virginia, and that ' s \u2013 ( jennifer ) : and nasa ' s continuing to do that. ( dr. bill kelso ) : right, and here ' s the colonization of the moon. and what are the problems? well, you got to get there. you got to have the right vehicles. what do you take with you? you know, how do you survive in this alien environment? you put in artificial surface around you, you know, and you dress appropriately. so it is - - it ' s really an age - old thing. this whole psychological need to explore, spiritual need to explore, i think, is still today just as it was at the time of jamestown. ( jennifer ) : all right, so let ' s talk a little bit about this correlation between the early explorers, yourself, you ' re an explorer, and then the future explorers. ( dr. bill kelso ) : well, i ' m kind of an explorer of explorers, the recent explorers. i mean, they - - we ' re trying to figure out what it was like to explore and to", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5002463258613548, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 8, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:49.424608"} {"text": "the future explorers. ( dr. bill kelso ) : well, i ' m kind of an explorer of explorers, the recent explorers. i mean, they - - we ' re trying to figure out what it was like to explore and to discover. and our project ' s called \" jamestown rediscovery \" you know, we ' re not discovering jamestown. we ' re rediscovering it. and a good example is this space here that - - this was used as a laboratory to study the minerals and the iron ore of this new land to see if it could be profitable to come here. so, yeah, this is very similar to what i ' ve read about explorations, especially on mars. they send out vehicles, and they do drilling, and they look at the material. and that ' s what was going on here. and so this space was where - - i ' m sure people that you ' ve heard of before - - captain john smith walked around in here. you know, maybe pocahontas checking out the blacksmith shop. ( jennifer ) : that is so cool. that ' s \u2026 i mean, that ' s - - what an amazing job you have. ( dr. bill kelso ) : well, that ' s what \u2026 that ' s the payoff, is to feel \u2026 to walk the places, to be in the places where these historical events happened. so then the events take on much more meaning than if you just read them in a text book. ( jennifer ) : earlier, dr. kelso mentioned the similarities between the 1607 jamestown explorers and nasa ' s future space explorers. what about all the explorers in between? guys like daniel boone, neil armstrong come to mind, as well as many countless others who have helped broaden our knowledge through exploration. perhaps two of the most famous names in american exploration history are lewis and clark. you ever heard of them? they blazed a trail through the american west, mapping out their path as they went. so what do you think? did nasa have anything to do with the lewis and clark expedition? well, not the original trip, but nasa is helping out now. johnny alonso will tell you all about it. ( johnny ) : all right, so we ' ve seen a lot today how nasa ' s helping archaeologists and paleontologists through remote sensing. these remote sensing devices have helped us unearth some really cool findings in places like cambodia, central america, and the american southwest. and they ' ve", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5092535220089109, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 9, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:49.426226"} {"text": "the people. for this reason, he strategically located dickinson college a short two - block walk from the county courthouse, fully expecting students to make the trek on a regular basis to observe government in action. through the creation of debating societies \u2014 an early incarnation of extracurricular student groups \u2014 rush sought to give students the opportunity to discuss the most pressing issues of the day, an opportunity that connected them to rather than isolated them from emerging national developments. rush even went so far as to recommend that students live not on campus, but with families in the town, where they could be mentored daily in community values and citizenship. rush ' s conception of an american liberal arts education did not draw arbitrary boundaries among students ' classroom experiences, their extracurricular and recreational activities, and their living arrangements. it was an educational approach designed to encourage character development and one that valued public service as a form of patriotism. we have, i am afraid, lost this vision of an integrated and distinctively american approach to liberal education. we have compartmentalized its parts. there has been a rupture between the student life and academic sides of our enterprise and a focused emphasis on the \u201c useful \u201d and the comprehensive has dulled with time. while rush ' s idea of having all students live with families in the community is unrealistic in the twenty - first century, is the fundamental premise behind this idea outdated? shouldn ' t we still be striving to provide daily mentoring to our students in community values and citizenship? isn ' t it our responsibility to develop the twenty - first - century contexts that accomplish this most basic and most important of goals? and should not the current \u201c accountability movement \u201d in higher education extend beyond the measurement of disciplinary academic ability to that of citizenship? shouldn ' t we be seeking evidence of informed voting in public elections, community volunteerism, monetary contributions to nonprofit organizations, standing for public office? decoupling academic and student life i would argue that higher education has derailed on both the academic and student life sides. of course, the academic side would like to claim that it has held steadfast to its mission, and faculty all too frequently place blame on student life for failing to make these important connections. this line of thinking, however, ignores the fact that student life divisions are a relatively recent creation in american higher education and that faculty should also, as they have in the past, shoulder the responsibility of providing a comprehensive educational experience for our students. and what about student life? this division has burgeoned at most institutions over", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5172570058328474, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:49.443700"} {"text": "a relatively recent creation in american higher education and that faculty should also, as they have in the past, shoulder the responsibility of providing a comprehensive educational experience for our students. and what about student life? this division has burgeoned at most institutions over the past two decades \u2014 but in too many instances, we have allowed it to mushroom without clear purpose or direction. instead, we have reacted helter - skelter in our rush to meet rising student demands and challenges. we are \u201c over - offering \u201d and thus introducing a hyper - consumerism into the academic setting. we have built twenty - four - hour student unions and fitness centers that resemble cruise ships. in our haste to demonstrate that we understand that engaged students are healthy, energetic students, we have scrambled to provide them with opportunities to engage in \u2014 well, everything \u2014 to include every conceivable aspect of their own selves and their unfettered desires. we have not, however, organized this plethora of activities into a cohesive or progressive series of meaningful, educative experiences. instead, we have provided our students with a shopping mall of choices without overarching purpose. in the process, we have created a lot of busy, busy students, many of whom are intent on adding activity upon activity to their undergraduate resumes. we have, in short, succeeded in giving students the opportunity to be busy \u2014 but simply being busy is not the same as being meaningfully engaged with society and understanding the connection between the activities in which one is engaged and the larger educational mission of the institution. in general, we have not fulfilled our educative responsibility to open students ' minds, to encourage serious inquiry, and to develop an understanding of what it means to be a part of a wider, diverse community that is not always cast ultimately in a student ' s own image. by simply enabling our students ' selfish desires, we have denied them the genuine sociability and connectivity necessary for continuous learning. instead, we have fallen prey to the students ' own definition of success as we assist them in their quest for personal advancement at the expense of communal progress. the whole notion of a \u201c useful \u201d education, in other words, has become focused on a personal usefulness as each student asks him or herself, \u201c how can i get ahead? \u201d the type of \u201c usefulness \u201d that builds good citizens through service to society has all too frequently fallen by the wayside. while there is a notable rise in community service or volunteerism among college students today, this often occurs because", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5054291025793388, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:49.445283"} {"text": "get ahead? \u201d the type of \u201c usefulness \u201d that builds good citizens through service to society has all too frequently fallen by the wayside. while there is a notable rise in community service or volunteerism among college students today, this often occurs because such activity is now viewed as a necessary component for \u201c credentialing \u201d personal aspirations. of course, there are notable exceptions to these negative trends among both individual students and college or university programs. yet, in general, it is this decoupling of the academic from student life and our enabling behavior in higher education that has resulted in today ' s undergraduates experiencing what former harvard dean harry lewis ( 2006 ) describes provocatively in his recent book, excellence without a soul, as \u201c the hollowness of undergraduate education, \u201d the total abdication of colleges ' \u201c moral authority to shape the souls of students, \u201d and the absence of any definitive statements about what it is to be an educated person. american undergraduate education for the twenty - first century it is time to reclaim and revitalize for the twenty - first century the distinctiveness that characterized american higher education during the earliest days of our democracy. at the dawn of a century that promises to be breathtaking in both its challenges and opportunities, we must ensure that our students are prepared and willing to take on the responsibility of global citizenship and shake free of their obsessive focus on themselves. we must ensure that they know how the united states \u201c works \u201d and what it values ( in all that complexity ) and are prepared to engage and listen carefully to opinions expressed by the rest of the world. we must be willing to admit that we have lost the connection between theory and practice that will most readily make this global understanding possible, and we must seek to redefine this connection in a twenty - first - century context. to do so, we must return to a conception of undergraduate education that is comprehensive and does not compartmentalize students ' experiences into artificial components that separate the curricular from the extracurricular. we must return to the notion of a \u201c useful \u201d education that encompasses and intertwines personal and public usefulness, demonstrating to our students that personal success and understanding are most complete when they contribute to the public good \u2014 not when they simply fulfill individual notions of anticipated accomplishment. this will require us to rethink totally our approach to undergraduate education. dr. rush was on to this notion very early. in a 1773 letter to his countrymen on patriotism, he stated that \u201c the social spirit is the true selfish spirit,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.506712200192523, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:49.446460"} {"text": "will require us to rethink totally our approach to undergraduate education. dr. rush was on to this notion very early. in a 1773 letter to his countrymen on patriotism, he stated that \u201c the social spirit is the true selfish spirit, and men always promote their own interest most in proportion as they promote that of their neighbors and their country \u201d ( 1951, 84 ). as a starting point, we must conceive of and treat student life and the academic program as coequal partners in a shared endeavor that begins as a student prepares for the transition to college and continues as an organized and sustained priority until commencement. the residential experience continues to be the characteristic that distinguishes american undergraduate education from that found in other countries, and it should remain a centrally defining feature. the challenge is to incorporate it into the entire educational experience rather than treating it as an ancillary, less serious partner. failure to do so places the historic advantage of an american higher education at risk and lends increasing advantage to many for - profit institutions that offer a new \u2014 and far less costly \u2014 business model for higher education that eschews athletics, residential life, and student life for the bottom line. we must find ways to encourage faculty to think differently about how they reach and relate to students, ways that will require them to think beyond the classroom experience. the answer is not, as some have suggested, merely to coax faculty into living in residence halls, a concept that presumes that physical juxtaposition will establish a cohesive educational experience. rather, we need to think creatively about how to bridge the artificial chasm between academic and student life. we need to focus on ways to engage students in a seamless experience that moves easily and naturally in and out of the classroom \u2014 an experience that involves faculty in both arenas. we all have been touched and inspired by a professor whose passion for his or her discipline is absolutely contagious. we need to enhance and expand the ways in which our faculty can model behavior that shows students what it is like to be an engaged scholar who is connected to the wider world with a sense of wonder, bliss, and obligation. equally important, we need to give our students glimpses of faculty interactions in their own communities. they must see the \u201c whole \u201d professor \u2014 an individual who lives beyond his or her discipline with curiosity and a commitment to better the world. we need, in other words, to illustrate to our students through example \u2014 through proactive mentorship \u2014 that a liberal education is a lifelong habit of", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5548802188432554, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:49.447548"} {"text": "\u2014 an individual who lives beyond his or her discipline with curiosity and a commitment to better the world. we need, in other words, to illustrate to our students through example \u2014 through proactive mentorship \u2014 that a liberal education is a lifelong habit of the mind. similarly, we must demand for our institutions student life professionals who push beyond attention to the affective and endlessly affirming desires of our students. we must ask them to act as far stronger role models by advancing discourse about issues that matter beyond the highly circumscribed topic of the self and how it \u201c feels at a particular moment. \u201d we must ask them to encourage students ' engagement in an expansive interpretation of the life of the mind and to advance a more realistic commentary \u2014 a constructive honesty \u2014 about students ' performance and aspiration that tempers their unfettered, often ungrounded self - assessment. we must ask them to do so with a candor not found in education \u2014 collegiate or precollegiate \u2014 for decades. we need, in the final analysis, to push beyond the ivory - tower mentality that our founding fathers so ardently rejected for american higher education but that, nevertheless, has seeped steadily back into the mindset of most of our country ' s colleges and universities. in fact, i would go so far as to suggest that all sectors of american life, except liberal arts higher education, revolted against the practices of royalist, privileged england. \u201c learning for learning ' s sake, \u201d instead of the objective of an ultimately useful study, still dominates american liberal education all too often. it is now time to complete the revolution. introducing a more comprehensive and generous approach to undergraduate education will require nothing short of a major cultural shift for many institutions. developing the synergy between the academic program and student life will require that long - established habits be replaced with creative thinking and a willingness for change \u2014 a most formidable challenge in a profession notorious for maintaining stability and status quo in its basic organization and intent. perhaps most important will be the need to reassess purposes for which we reward our faculty \u2014 an exercise that will ask us to reexamine the most fundamental aspects of our mission. we must encourage our faculty to connect to the world beyond our campus boundaries through activities such as service learning and applied research. we must find or reallocate resources to help faculty establish networks with the broader community. we must challenge faculty to broaden the definition and scope of substantive scholarship in a liberal arts setting, and we must support them as they explore new", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5668173763356419, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:49.448659"} {"text": "applied research. we must find or reallocate resources to help faculty establish networks with the broader community. we must challenge faculty to broaden the definition and scope of substantive scholarship in a liberal arts setting, and we must support them as they explore new pedagogies and introduce new methods of research in and out of the classroom. we must recognize that these activities can and should be the foundation for legitimate, serious scholarship and service for faculty and that they are integral for advancing a distinctively engaging residential life for students. and we must give these activities appropriate weight and merit when evaluating faculty performance. in the final analysis, we will only be successful if we create a solid scholarly foundation of new knowledge, pedagogy, and residential life out of this renewed synthesis that will define american higher education for the twenty - first century. to the casual observer, all of this talk about citizenship and engagement with community may seem superfluous and unnecessary. look in virtually any college catalogue or on any web site and you will find platitudes and promises touting the institution ' s commitment to these ideals. while i suppose the fact that such pronouncements exist is a step in the right direction, many of us know that the real work has yet to be done. to quote thomas jefferson, \u201c it is in our lives and not from our words, that [ our value ] must be read.... by the same test, the world must judge me. \u201d there you have it. by the same test, so must the world judge us in higher education. this is true accountability \u2014 devotion to and deliverance upon the original post - revolutionary intention adapted to our own rapidly changing times. lewis, h. r. 2006. excellence without a soul : how a great university forgot education. new york : public affairs. rush, b. 1951. letters of benjamin rush, volume 1 : 1761 \u2013 1792. princeton, nj : princeton university press. back to president ' s page", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5077149853936502, "token_count": 399, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:49.449480"} {"text": "pipelining is a technique you can use to increase the throughput of the fpga vi. in a pipelined design, you take advantage of the parallel processing capabilities of the fpga to increase the efficiency of sequential code. to implement a pipeline, you must divide code into discrete steps and wire the inputs and outputs of each step to feedback nodes or shift registers in a loop. in the following block diagram, subvis a, b, and c execute in sequence within a single - cycle timed loop. as a result, the clock rate of the single - cycle timed loop must be set to accommodate the sum of the running times of all three running subvis. when you wire the inputs and outputs of the subvis to feedback nodes, as shown in the following block diagram, labview pipelines the subvis. now, the subvis execute in parallel, all within a single cycle, and the maximum clock rate is limited only by the subvi with the longest combinatorial path. by implementing a pipelined design, you might be able to increase the clock rate of the single - cycle timed loop and increase the throughput of the fpga vi. you also can use shift registers to implement a pipeline, as shown in the following block diagram. when you implement a pipeline, the output of the final step lags behind the input by the number of steps in the pipeline, and the output is invalid for each clock cycle until the pipeline fills. the number of steps in a pipeline is called the pipeline depth, and the latency of a pipeline, measured in clock cycles, corresponds to its depth. for a pipeline of depth n, the result is invalid until the nth clock cycle, and the output of each valid clock cycle lags behind the input by n - 1 clock cycles. because there are three steps in this example ( subvis a, b, and c ), the improved code results in a pipeline of depth 3. therefore, the output is not valid until the third clock cycle, and the output of each valid clock cycle c always corresponds to the input from clock cycle c \u2013 ( n \u2013 1 ), as shown in the following illustration. in this example, subvi a processes measurement 1 during clock cycle 1, while subvis b and c both process the default value of the shift register, yielding invalid output. during clock cycle 2, subvi a processes measurement 2, subvi b processes the output of subvi a from clock cycle 1, and subvi c processes an invalid value, yielding invalid", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_computing", "similarity_score": 0.5273193796252346, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:49.462434"} {"text": "the default value of the shift register, yielding invalid output. during clock cycle 2, subvi a processes measurement 2, subvi b processes the output of subvi a from clock cycle 1, and subvi c processes an invalid value, yielding invalid output. during clock cycle 3 the pipeline finally fills and the output from subvi c becomes valid for the first time. subvi a processes measurement 3, subvi b processes the output of subvi a from clock cycle 2, and subvi c processes the output of subvi b from clock cycle 2, yielding the output that corresponds to measurement 1. after the pipeline is full, all subsequent clock cycles yield valid output, with a constant lag of 2 clock cycles. | note you must use caution to prevent undesired behavior due to the invalid outputs that occur at the beginning of pipelined execution. for example, you can use a case structure to ensure that a control algorithm enables actuators only after n clock cycles elapse. | you can use pipelining to increase throughput by compiling a single - cycle timed loop in a faster clock domain. for example, the top section of the illustration below shows the execution timing of a non - pipelined loop consisting of three subvis, each of which requires a propagation delay of 12. 5 ns. the total propagation delay from subvi a to subvi c is 37. 5 ns, which is too long to compile at 40 mhz. the middle section of the illustration shows how pipelining the code reduces the propagation delay to 12. 5 ns, allowing the loop to compile at 40 mhz. because the propagation delay of the pipelined loop is only 12. 5 ns, the loop can compile at a clock rate as high as 80 mhz, as shown in the bottom section of the illustration. | note a pipelined design increases latency over a non - pipelined design when measured in clock cycles. however, because pipelining allows you to decrease the cycle period, the overall latency measured in units of time should not change substantially. |", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.514964278126097, "token_count": 416, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:49.463617"} {"text": "' because of the tender mercy of our god, the dawn from on high will visit us, to shine on those who sit in the darkenss and the shadow of death, to guide our feet into the way of peace ' ( luke 1, 78 - 79 ). in his famous spirit - inspired hymn zachary praises god, first, for sending a savior to his people. at first blush, this is a military figure who will defeat israel ' s enemies, with purpose and result that israel might worship god in holiness and justice all the days of her life. then zachary changes imagery ; the figure of might give place to a figure of light. light in no longer a person of power ; rather, he is a person of warmth and illumination - characteristics of the dawn. light, unlike military power, is silent, but o so powerful. whoever is this light is not described as saving from enemies ; rather, he is described as showing israel the way to peace. for israel, there can be only one meaning of peace : it is peace with god. the dawn will lead israel to union with god, and there will no more separation from the creature from his creator. it is perhaps jarring that the creature is described as ' in the dark ' and ' in the shadow of death '. these terms are meant to describe the essential, fundamental existential situation of every human being. no matter one ' s ' feeling good ', or being ' in top form ', or joyful and happy - the truth is that by himself the human being is in the dark ; in biblical terms, this means that one by himself unable to see the truth about life and hence the truth about how to conduct his life. traditionally for the old testment, the gentiles were quintessentially ' in the dark ', for they did not know the bedrock of all reality : the true god. other meanings are included in ' darkness ' : ignorance, sin, humiliation, self - destruction. further, one is, without the light, in the shadow of death. this means that death is so near that its shadow is upon every human being. this death is physical, which meant for israel the entry into at best a shadowy existence with the hope of someday the resurrection from the dead and eventual happiness ( or punishment ). in this shadowy existence there is not the happiness that each human being knows he or she should have. death is another form of darkness, a separation from what a person senses to be the truth, but cannot see or find it", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5270234431621026, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:49.481568"} {"text": "according to the global language monitor, the english language this week crossed a threshold as the \" one millionth word \" entered the lexicon. that word? \" web 2. 0. \" global language monitor has a methodology by which it measures \" new \" words entering into english. though \" web 2. 0 \" has been around for years, glm ' s method of counting requires \" a minimum of 25, 000 citations with the necessary breadth of geographic distribution and depth of citations. \" \" web 2. 0 \" met that test this week, as did \" n00b \" ( word 999, 998 ). both words passed into mainstream usage today, according to glm. also on the listed of official new words this week : slumdog, cloud computing, octomom ( seriously, octomom ), sexting, defriend, and recessionista. the very precision of the \" one million word \" claim is patent nonsense, of course, depending entirely on how you count words, what ' s excluded, and what the criteria is for something going \" mainstream. \" glm does not count, for instance, \" the 600, 000 species of mold \" as separate words, nor do \" the tens millions of lesser known chemical substances \" make the list. stung by criticism from linguists, glm ' s faq includes the question, \" a number of linguists disagree with the million word march. why? \" and, in case the answer to that one doesn ' t clear things up, there ' s a second question : \" every so often, we hear arguments about the insurmountable obstacles in the path of estimating the number of words in the english language. how do you answer these arguments? \" so, even if we english speakers are saddled with terms like \" web 2. 0, \" \" octomom, \" and \" brangelina, \" we still have the privilege of working with one of the most supple languages in the world. the answer to both questions is that estimates are used in everything from astronomy ( how many stars are there? ) to climatology ( how much carbon dioxide is in the atmosphere? ) ; language should be able to use the same techniques. which is all true, of course, but the cautious language of approximation and guesswork is totally absent from the announcement. \" as expected, english crossed the 1, 000, 000 word threshold on june 10, 2009 at 10 : 22 am gmt, \" said paul jj payack,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5256419212424943, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:49.505202"} {"text": "henry craik, ed. english prose. 1916. vol. ii. sixteenth century to the restoration on the exercise of the will by ralph cudworth ( 16171688 ) from treatise of free will it cannot be denied but that there are, and may be, many cases in which several objects propounded to our choice at the same time, are so equal, or exactly alike, as that there cannot possibly be any reason or motive in the understanding necessarily to determine the choice to one of them rather than to another of them. as for example, suppose one man should offer to another, out of twenty guinea pieces of gold, or golden balls, or silver globulites, so exactly alike in bigness, figure, colour, and weight, as that he could discern no manner of difference between them, to make his choice of one and no more ; add, also, that these guineas or golden balls may be so placed circularly as to be equidistant from the choosers hand. now it cannot be doubted but that, in this case, any man would certainly choose one, and not stand in suspense or demur because he could not tell which to prefer or choose before another. but if being necessitated by no motive or reason antecedent to choose this rather than that, he must determine himself contingently, or fortuitously, or causelessly, it being all one to him which he took, nor could there be any knowledge ex causis beforehand which of these twenty would certainly be taken. but if you will say, there was some hidden cause, necessarily determinating in this case, then if the trial should be made an hundred times over and over again, or by a hundred several persons, there is no reason why we must not allow that all of them must needs take the same guinea every time, that is either the first, second, or third, etc. of them, as they lie in order from the right or left hand.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5553786495544466, "token_count": 405, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:49.541440"} {"text": ", musical, vibrant tone, so clearly that they can be heard half a mile off. heard in the clear, frosty moonlight from the depths of the rugged and forest - clad mountains the effect is most beautiful ; for its charm is heightened by the wild and desolate surroundings. it has the sustained, varied melody of some bird songs, with, of course, a hundred - fold greater power. now and then, however, the performance is marred by the elk ' s apparently getting out of breath towards the close, and winding up with two or three gasping notes which have an unpleasantly mule - like sound. the great pine - clad mountains, their forests studded with open glades, were the best of places for the still - hunter ' s craft. going noiselessly through them in our dull - colored buckskin and noiseless moccasins, we kept getting glimpses, as it were, of the inner life of the mountains. each animal that we saw had its own individuality. aside from the thrill and tingle that a hunter experiences at the sight of his game, i by degrees grew to feel as if i had a personal interest in the different traits and habits of the wild creatures. the characters of the animals differed widely, and the differences were typified by their actions ; and it was pleasant to watch them in their own homes, myself unseen, when after stealthy, silent progress through the sombre and soundless depths of the woods i came upon them going about the ordinary business of their lives. the lumbering, self - confident gait of the bears, their burly strength, and their half - humorous, half - ferocious look, gave me a real insight into their character ; and i never was more impressed by the exhibition of vast, physical power, than when watching from an ambush a grizzly burying or covering up an elk carcass. his motions looked awkward, but it was marvellous to see the ease and absence of effort with which he would scoop out great holes in the earth, or twitch the heavy carcass from side to side. and the proud, graceful, half - timid, half - defiant bearing of the elk was in its own way quite as noteworthy ; they seemed to glory in their own power and beauty, and yet to be ever on the watch for foes against whom they knew they might not dare to contend. the true still - hunter should be a lover of nature as well as of sport, or he will miss half the pleasure of being in the woods.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5058535268270694, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 15, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:49.605213"} {"text": "a key conclusion of this discussion is the fact that all sectors of the economy must achieve deep reductions, not just one or two. this certainly includes the transportation system, which in california is the largest single source of ghgs ( 38 percent of the total, according to the california air resources board ). transportation - related emissions, in turn, are a product of three factors : - the fuel efficiency of vehicles - the carbon content of fuels - vehicle miles traveled ( vmt ) what does this really mean in practice? well, if we think of fuel efficiency and carbon content collectively as \" carbon efficiency \" ( or carbon emission per mile ), then we see that the carbon efficiency times the vmt must be reduced on the order of 88 percent per capita in forty years. if carbon efficiency were quintupled over that time period through a combination of fuel efficiency gains and decarbonization of fuel stocks, we would still need to reduce vmt by 40 percent per capita relative to today ' s levels. in other words, we would have to \" make do \" with 40 percent less personal driving, trucking, business travel and all other uses of motorized vehicles. if carbon efficiency is merely doubled, we would need to reduce the per capita vmt by 76 percent! are these changes feasible? certainly. in fact, there are americans right now who live well on 76 percent less vmt than their average compatriots. they ' re the americans who live in dense urban centers such as new york and san francisco. bringing the transportation system into line with our 2050 climate goals means making sure ( among other things ) that vastly more americans can live in those kinds of truly dense, mixed - use environments, rather than simply somewhat - more - dense suburban settings ( which tend to achieve vmt reductions of only about 20 - 30 percent ). it can be done - - but modest changes to how we build urban regions won ' t get us there.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5176974450968441, "token_count": 394, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:49.613259"} {"text": "click the study aids tab at the bottom of the book to access your study aids ( usually practice quizzes and flash cards ). study pass is our latest digital product that lets you take notes, highlight important sections of the text using different colors, create \" tags \" or labels to filter your notes and highlights, and print so you can study offline. study pass also includes interactive study aids, such as flash cards and quizzes. highlighting and taking notes : if you ' ve purchased the all access pass or study pass, in the online reader, click and drag your mouse to highlight text. when you do a small button appears \u2013 simply click on it! from there, you can select a highlight color, add notes, add tags, or any combination. if you ' ve purchased the all access pass, you can print each chapter by clicking on the downloads tab. if you have study pass, click on the print icon within study view to print out your notes and highlighted sections. to search, use the text box at the bottom of the book. click a search result to be taken to that chapter or section of the book ( note you may need to scroll down to get to the result ). view full student faqs 17. 2 two - way trade - distinguish between one - way trade and two - way trade. - explain why two - way trade may occur. the model of trade presented thus far assumed that countries specialize in producing the good in which they have a comparative advantage and, therefore, engage in one - way trade. one - way ( or interindustry ) tradesituation in which countries specialize in producing the goods in which they have a comparative advantage and then export those goods so they can import the goods in which they do not have a comparative advantage. occurs when countries specialize in producing the goods in which they have a comparative advantage and then export those goods so they can import the goods in which they do not have a comparative advantage. however, when we look at world trade, we also see countries exchanging the same goods or goods in the same industry category. for example, the united states may both export construction materials to canada and import them from canada. american car buyers can choose chevrolets, fords, and chryslers. they can also choose imported cars such as toyotas. japanese car buyers may choose to purchase toyotas \u2014 or imported cars such as chevrolets, fords, and chryslers. the united states imports cars from japan and exports cars to it. conversely, japan imports cars from", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5039646488614888, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:49.693436"} {"text": "cars such as toyotas. japanese car buyers may choose to purchase toyotas \u2014 or imported cars such as chevrolets, fords, and chryslers. the united states imports cars from japan and exports cars to it. conversely, japan imports cars from the united states and exports cars to it. international trade in which countries both import and export the same or similar goods is called two - way ( or intraindustry ) trade. international trade in which countries both import and export the same or similar goods. two reasons countries import and export the same goods are variations in transportation costs and seasonal effects. in the example of the united states and canada both importing and exporting construction materials, transportation costs are the likely explanation. it may be cheaper for a contractor in northern maine to import construction materials from the eastern part of canada than to buy them in the united states. for a contractor in vancouver, british columbia, it may be cheaper to import construction materials from somewhere in the western part of the united states than to buy them in canada. by engaging in trade, both the american and canadian contractors save on transportation costs. seasonal factors explain why the united states both imports fruit from and exports fruit to chile. another explanation of two - way trade in similar goods lies in recognizing that not all goods are produced under conditions of perfect competition. once this assumption is relaxed, we can explain two - way trade in terms of a key feature of monopolistic competition and some cases of oligopoly : product differentiation. suppose two countries have similar endowments of factors of production and technologies available to them, but their products are differentiated \u2014 clocks produced by different manufacturers, for example, are different. consumers in the united states buy some clocks produced in switzerland, just as consumers in switzerland purchase some clocks produced in the united states. indeed, if two countries are similar in their relative endowments of factors of production and in the technologies available to them, two - way trade based on product differentiation is likely to be more significant than one - way trade based on comparative advantage. in comparison to the expansion of one - way trade based on comparative advantage, expansion of two - way trade may entail lower adjustment costs. in the case of two - way trade, there is specialization within industries rather than movement of factors of production out of industries that compete with newly imported goods and into export industries. such adjustments are likely to be faster and less painful for labor and for the owners of the capital and natural resources involved. because two - way trade often occurs in the context of imperfect competition,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5186792902741049, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:49.695456"} {"text": "build your own simple random numbers liam o \u2019 connor got me thinking about the best way to explain the idea of a pseudo - random number generator to new programmers. this post is my answer. if you already understand them, there won \u2019 t be anything terribly new here. that said, i enjoy clean examples even for easy ideas, so if you do too, then read on! note : the title may have caused some confusion. i \u2019 m not suggesting you use the trivial algorithms provided here for any purpose. indeed, they are intentionally over - simplified to make them more understandable. you should read this as an explanation of the idea of how generating random numbers works, and then use the random number generators offered by your operating system or your programming language, which are far better than what \u2019 s provided here. suppose you \u2019 re writing a puzzle game, and you need to choose a correct answer. or suppose you are writing a role - playing game, and need to decide if the knight \u2019 s attack hits the dragon or deflects off of its scales. or you \u2019 re writing a tetris game, and you need to decide what shape is going to come next. in all three of these situations, what you really want is a random number. random numbers aren \u2019 t the result of any formula or calculation ; they are completely up to chance. well, here \u2019 s the sad truth of the matter : computers can \u2019 t do that. yes, that \u2019 s right. picking random numbers is one of those tasks that confound even the most powerful of computers. why? because computers are calculating machines, and we just said that random numbers aren \u2019 t the result of any calculation! of course, you \u2019 ve probably played games on a computer before that seem to pick numbers at random, so you may not believe me. what you \u2019 re seeing, though, aren \u2019 t really random numbers at all, but rather pseudo - random numbers. pseudo - random numbers are actually the result of a mathematical formula, but one designed to be so complicated that it would be hard to recognize any pattern in its results! writing a pseudo random number generator a lot of smart people actually spend a lot of time on good ways to pick pseudo - random numbers. they try a bunch of different complicated formulas, and try to make sure that patterns don \u2019 t pop up. but we can build a simple one pretty easily to pick pseudo - random numbers from 1 to 10. here it is, in the programming language haskell : random i = 7 *", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5216049131336429, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:49.716737"} {"text": ", and try to make sure that patterns don \u2019 t pop up. but we can build a simple one pretty easily to pick pseudo - random numbers from 1 to 10. here it is, in the programming language haskell : random i = 7 * i ` mod ` 11 since it \u2019 s a function, it needs to have an input. it then multiplies that input by 7, and then finds the remainder when dividing by 11. we \u2019 ll give it the previous number it picked as input, and it will give us back the next one. suppose we start at 1. then we get the following : random 1 - > 7 random 7 - > 5 random 5 - > 2 random 2 - > 3 random 3 - > 10 random 10 - > 4 random 4 - > 6 random 6 - > 9 random 9 - > 8 random 8 - > 1 let \u2019 s look at the range of answers. since the answer is always a remainder when dividing by 11, it \u2019 ll be somewhere between 0 and 10. but it should be pretty easy to convince ourselves that if the number we give as input is between 1 and 10, then 0 isn \u2019 t a possibile answer : if it were, then we \u2019 d have found two numbers, both less than 11, that multiply together to give us a multiple of 11. that \u2019 s impossible because \u2026. 11 is prime. so we \u2019 re guaranteed that this process picks numbers between 1 and 10. it seems to pick them in a non - obvious order with no really obvious patterns, so that \u2019 s good. we appear to have at least a good start on generating random numbers. notice a couple things : - we had to pick somewhere to start. in this case, we started out by giving an input of 1. that \u2019 s called the seed. if you use the same seed, you \u2019 ll always get the exact same numbers back! why? because it \u2019 s really just a complicated math problem, so if you do the same calculation with the same numbers, you \u2019 ll get the same result. - to get the next number, we have to remember something ( in our case, the last answer ) from the previous time. that \u2019 s called the state. the state is important, because it \u2019 s what makes the process give you different answers each time! if you didn \u2019 t remember something from the last time around, then you \u2019 d again be doing the same math problem with the same numbers, so you \u2019 d get the same answer. doing", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5463920574570156, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:49.717879"} {"text": "what makes the process give you different answers each time! if you didn \u2019 t remember something from the last time around, then you \u2019 d again be doing the same math problem with the same numbers, so you \u2019 d get the same answer. doing better by separating state unfortunately, our random number generator has a weakness : you can always predict what \u2019 s coming next, based on what came before. if you write tetris using the random number generator from earlier, your player will soon discover that after a line, they always get an l shape, and so on. what you really want is for your game to occasionally send them a line followed by a t, or even pick two lines in a row from time to time! how do we do this? well, the next answer that \u2019 s coming depends on the state, so our mistake before was to use the previous answer as the state. the solution is to use a state that \u2019 s bigger than the answer. we \u2019 ll still be looking for random numbers from 1 to 10, but let \u2019 s modify the previous random number generator to remember a bigger state. now, since state and answer are different things, our random function will have two results : a new state, and an answer for this number. random i = ( j, ans ) where j = 7 * i ` mod ` 101 ans = ( j - 1 ) ` mod ` 10 + 1 - - just the ones place, but 0 means 10 that says take the input, multiply by 7, and find the remainder mod 101. since 101 is still prime, this will always give answers from 1 to 100. but what we really wanted was a number from 1 to 10, just like the one we had before. that \u2019 s fine : we \u2019 ll just take the ones place ( which is between 0 and 9 ) and treat 0 as 10. the tens place doesn \u2019 t really change the answer at all, but we keep it around to pass back in the next time as state. let \u2019 s see how this works : random 1 - > ( 7, 7 ) random 7 - > ( 49, 9 ) random 49 - > ( 40, 10 ) random 40 - > ( 78, 8 ) random 78 - > ( 41, 1 ) random 41 - > ( 85, 5 ) random 85 - > ( 90, 10 ) random 90 - > ( 24, 4 ) random 24 - > ( 67, 7 ) random 67 - > ( 65, 5 ) random 65 - > (", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5312185410467505, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:49.720276"} {"text": "random 41 - > ( 85, 5 ) random 85 - > ( 90, 10 ) random 90 - > ( 24, 4 ) random 24 - > ( 67, 7 ) random 67 - > ( 65, 5 ) random 65 - > ( 51, 1 ) excellent! now instead of going in a fixed rotation, some numbers are picked several times, and some haven \u2019 t been picked yet at all ( but they will be, if we keep going ), and you can no longer guess what \u2019 s coming next just based on the last number you saw. in this random number generator, the seed was still 1, and the state was a number from 1 to 100. people who are really interested in good random numbers sometimes talk about the period of a pseudo - random number generator. the period is how many numbers it picks before it starts over again and gives you back the same sequence. our first try had a period of 10, which is rather poor. our second try did much better : the period was 100. that \u2019 s still pretty far off, though, from the random number generators in most computers, the period of which can be in the millions or billions. real world pseudo - random number generators our two toy pseudo - random number generators were fun, but you wouldn \u2019 t use them in real programs. that \u2019 s because operating systems and programming languages already have plenty of ways to generate pseudo - random numbers. and those were created by people who probably have more time to think about random numbers than you do! but some of the same ideas come up there. for example, consider this ( specialized ) type signature for the random function in the haskell programming language : random : : stdgen - > ( int, stdgen ) look familiar? stdgen is the state, and choosing a random int gives you back the int, and a new stdgen that you can use to get more pseudo - random numbers! many programming languages, including haskell, also have \u201c global \u201d random number generators that remember their state automatically ( in haskell, that is called randomio ), but under the covers, it all comes down to functions like the ones we \u2019 ve written here \u2026 except a lot more complex. where to get a seed we \u2019 ve still left one question unanswered : where does the seed come from? so far, we \u2019 ve always been using 1 for the seed, but that means that each time the program runs, it will get the same numbers back. so we end up with", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5554422323419378, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:49.721199"} {"text": "question unanswered : where does the seed come from? so far, we \u2019 ve always been using 1 for the seed, but that means that each time the program runs, it will get the same numbers back. so we end up with a similar situation to what we saw before, where players will realize that a game starts with the same sequence of random events each time. to solve this problem, the seed should come from somewhere that won \u2019 t be the same each time. here are two different ways to seed a random number generator. - mostly, pseudo - random number generators are seeded from a clock. imagine if you looked at the second hand on a clock, used it to get a number from 1 to 60, and used that for your seed. then the game would only act the same if it started at the same number of seconds. even better, you could take the number of seconds since some fixed time in the past, so you \u2019 d get an even bigger difference in seeds. ( entirely by coincidence, computers often use the number of seconds since january 1, 1970. ) - you might try to get a good seed from details of the way the user uses your program. for example, you can look at the exact place the user first clicks the mouse, or exactly how much time passes between pressing keys. they will most likely not be exact, and click a few pixels off or type ever so slightly slower, even if they are trying to do exactly the same thing. so, again, you get a program that acts differently each time. this is called using entropy. most of the time, using the computer \u2019 s built - in clock is okay. but suppose you \u2019 re making up a code word. it would be very bad if someone could guess your code word just by knowing when you picked it! ( they would also need to know how your computer or programming language picks random numbers, but that \u2019 s not normally kept secret ; they can probably find that out pretty easily. ) computer security and privacy often depends on picking unpredictable random numbers \u2014 ones that people snooping on you won \u2019 t be able to guess. in that case, it \u2019 s important that you use some kind of entropy, and not just the clock. in fact, when security is at stake, you can use entropy to modify the state as well, to make sure things don \u2019 t get too predictable. most operating systems have special ways of getting \u201c secure \u201d random numbers that handle this for you. another example of entropy : if you play", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5276965875744655, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:49.722308"} {"text": ", you can use entropy to modify the state as well, to make sure things don \u2019 t get too predictable. most operating systems have special ways of getting \u201c secure \u201d random numbers that handle this for you. another example of entropy : if you play the game dragon warrior for the nintendo, but use an emulator instead of a real nintendo, then you can save a snapshot of your game before you fight a monster, memorize what the monsters are going to do, and figure out exactly the right way to respond. when you load the game from the snapshot and try again, as long as you do the same things, the monster will respond in exactly the same way! that \u2019 s because the snapshot saves the state of the random number generator, so when you go back and load from the snapshot, the computer picks the same random numbers. so if a fight against a monster is going well but you make a disastrous move at the end, you can load your snapshot and repeat the exact same fight up to that point. the same trick doesn \u2019 t work in dragon warrior 2 ( or later ones ), though! why not? because the company that makes the game started using entropy in their sequel. so now little things like exactly how long you wait between pressing buttons will change the game. since you can \u2019 t possibly time everything exactly the same down to hundredths or thousandths of a second, the task is hopeless, and you have to just take your chances and trust to luck. so as you can see, random numbers can become a very tricky topic. but ultimately it \u2019 s all just a complicated formula, a seed, and a state.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5950109633138496, "token_count": 337, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:49.722926"} {"text": "| name, symbol, number | | krypton, kr, 36 | chemical series | | noble gases | | group, period, block | | 18, 4, p | | appearance | | colorless | | atomic mass | | 83. 798 ( 2 ) g / mol | | electron configuration | | [ ar ] 3d10 4s2 4p6 | | electrons per shell | | 2, 8, 18, 8 | | density | | ( 0 \u00b0c, 101. 325 kpa ) | | melting point | | 115. 79 k | ( - 157. 36 \u00b0c, - 251. 25 \u00b0f ) | boiling point | | 119. 93 k | ( - 153. 22 \u00b0c, - 243. 8 \u00b0f ) | critical point | | 209. 41 k, 5. 50 mpa | | heat of fusion | | 1. 64 kj \u00b7 mol\u22121 | | heat of vaporization | | 9. 08 kj \u00b7 mol\u22121 | | heat capacity | | ( 25 \u00b0c ) 20. 786 j \u00b7 mol\u22121 \u00b7 k\u22121 | | crystal structure | | cubic face centered | | electronegativity | | 3. 00 ( pauling scale ) | | ionization energies | | 1st : 1350. 8 kj \u00b7 mol\u22121 | | 2nd : 2350. 4 kj \u00b7 mol\u22121 | | 3rd : 3565 kj \u00b7 mol\u22121 | | atomic radius ( calc. ) | | 88 pm | | covalent radius | | 110 pm | | van der waals radius | | 202 pm | | thermal conductivity | | ( 300 k ) 9. 43 mw \u00b7 m\u22121 \u00b7 k\u22121 | | speed of sound | | ( gas, 23 \u00b0c ) 220 m / s | | speed of sound | | ( liquid ) 1120 m / s | | cas registry number | | 7439 - 90 - 9 | krypton ( ipa : / \u02c8kr\u026apt\u0259n / or / \u02c8kr\u026aptan / ) is a chemical element with the symbol kr and atomic number 36. a colorless, odorless, tasteless noble gas, krypton occurs in trace amounts in the atmosphere, is isolated by fractionating liquefied air, and is often used with other rare gases in fluorescent lamps. krypton is inert for most practical purposes but it is known to form compounds with fluorine. krypton can also form clathrates with water when atoms of", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5738874457474423, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:49.727511"} {"text": "air, and is often used with other rare gases in fluorescent lamps. krypton is inert for most practical purposes but it is known to form compounds with fluorine. krypton can also form clathrates with water when atoms of it are trapped in a lattice of the water molecules. notable characteristics edit krypton, a noble gas due to its very low chemical reactivity, is characterized by a brilliant green and orange spectral signature. it is one of the products of uranium fission. solidified krypton is white and crystalline with a face - centered cubic crystal structure which is a common property of all \" rare gases \". in 1960 an international agreement defined the metre in terms of light emitted from a krypton isotope. this agreement replaced the longstanding standard metre located in paris which was a metal bar made of a platinum - iridium alloy ( the bar was originally estimated to be one ten millionth of a quadrant of the earth ' s polar circumference ). but only 23 years later, the krypton - based standard was replaced itself by the speed of light \u2014 the most reliable constant in the universe. in october 1983 the bureau international des poids et mesures ( international bureau of weights and measures ) defined the metre as the distance that light travels in a vacuum during 1 / 299, 792, 458 s. like the other noble gases, krypton is widely considered to be chemically inert. following the first successful synthesis of xenon compounds in 1962, synthesis of krypton difluoride was reported in 1963. other fluorides and a salt of a krypton oxoacid have also been found. arkr + and krh + molecule - ions have been investigated and there is evidence for krxe or krxe +. there are 32 known isotopes of krypton. naturally occurring krypton is made of five stable and one slightly radioactive isotope. krypton ' s spectral signature is easily produced with some very sharp lines. 81kr is the product of atmospheric reactions with the other naturally occurring isotopes of krypton. it is radioactive with a half - life of 250, 000 years. like xenon, krypton is highly volatile when it is near surface waters and 81kr has therefore been used for dating old ( 50, 000 - 800, 000 year ) groundwater. 85kr is an inert radioactive noble gas with a half - life of 10. 76 years, that is produced by", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5892387486232729, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:49.729165"} {"text": "is near surface waters and 81kr has therefore been used for dating old ( 50, 000 - 800, 000 year ) groundwater. 85kr is an inert radioactive noble gas with a half - life of 10. 76 years, that is produced by fission of uranium and plutonium. sources have included nuclear bomb testing, nuclear reactors, and the release of 85kr during the reprocessing of fuel rods from nuclear reactors. a strong gradient exists between the northern and southern hemispheres where concentrations at the north pole are approximately 30 % higher than the south pole due to the fact that most 85kr is produced in the northern hemisphere, and north - south atmospheric mixing is relatively slow. krypton fluoride laser edit - for more details on this topic, see krypton fluoride laser. the compound will decompose once the energy supply stops. during the decomposition process, the excess energy stored in the excited state complex will be emitted in the form of strong ultraviolet laser radiation. - los alamos national laboratory - krypton - usgs periodic table - krypton - \" chemical elements : from carbon to krypton \" by : david newton & lawrence w. baker - \" krypton 85 : a review of the literature and an analysis of radiation hazards \" by : william p. kirk | this page uses content from wikipedia. the original article was at krypton. the list of authors can be seen in the page history. as with chemistry, the text of wikipedia is available under the gnu free documentation license. |", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5442378592076982, "token_count": 312, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:49.729788"} {"text": "researchers have recently been trying to discover if pretending has implications for child development. when we see kids at play we are reminded that children live in a far more wondrous, whimsical world than the rest of us. a pile of wooden blocks is a vast city, and some sticks the inhabitants. indeed, often about the time babies begin to walk and talk, they also begin to pretend - - giving a stuffed animal a sip from their cup or covering up a doll for sleep. there are definite indications that having a good imagination translates into more creativity as an adult but is it possible to connect pretend play and the ability to get along socially in the world? researchers are specifically looking at whether pretend play facilitates the development of children \u2019 s theory of mind - the ability to understand that others have thoughts and feelings all their own. \" it ' s been a big focus of research recently and some of the work is really fascinating, \" says developmental psychologist alison gopnik, phd, of the university of california at berkeley. \" the only downside is, no one has an answer yet. \" there are studies being done examining how well and at what stage children distinguish reality from fantasy and theories are being developed about the role of imagination and pretend play in child development. for now, the questions are mainly academic, but some day the answers could lead to a better grasp of how imaginative play influences how well children get on in the world.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5135389357821714, "token_count": 289, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:49.745238"} {"text": "biol subject gateway as an integrated part of sciverse, sciverse scopus is the world ' s largest abstract and citation database of peer - reviewed literature and quality web sources with smart tools to track, analyze, and visualize research. sciencedirect covers many scientific disciplines including biology, chemistry, and environmental science. pubmed includes over 15 million citations for biomedical articles back to the 1950 ' s. these citations are from medline and additional life science journals. pubmed includes links to many sites providing full text articles, medical and scientific textbooks and other related sources. pubmed also links to other services developed by the national center for biotechnology information ( ncbi ). biomed central publishes over 200 peer - reviewed open access journals. indexes journals in a variety of subjects, including biology, chemistry, and environmental science. many full - text articles are available. agricola ( agricultural online access ) serves as the catalog and index to the collections of the national agricultural library. the records describe publications and resources encompassing all aspects of agriculture and allied disciplines, including animal and veterinary sciences, entomology, plant sciences, forestry, aquaculture and fisheries, farming and farming systems, agricultural economics, extension and education, food and human nutrition, and earth and environmental sciences. provides fulltext access to core scholarly journals in the arts and sciences this collection of electronic books covers topics related to environmental science, including environmental chemistry, ecology, environmental toxicology, forestry, sustainability, and more. greenr ( global reference on the environment, energy, and natural resources ) is a database that offers content on the development of emerging green technologies and discusses issues on the environment, sustainability and more. reference qh540. 4. e515 2008 this is a free, fully searchable collection of articles written by scholars, professionals, educators, and other experts. the articles are written in non - technical language and will be useful to students, educators, scholars, professionals, as well as to the general public. reference qh360. 2. o83 2002 reference qr9. e53 2000 reference ql7. g7813 2003 reference qr358. e53 1999 this two volume encyclopedia describes the most famous scientific concepts, principles, laws, and theories in astronomy, biology, chemistry, geology, mathematics, medicine, meteorology, and physics. this encyclopedia considers both the professional ethics of science and technology, and the social, ethical, and political issues raised by science and technology. this encyclopedia covers a wealth of topics on the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5096654472599408, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:49.754750"} {"text": "tuesday, august 10, 2010 survival of the fittest or altruistic suicide? the answer is that suicide at the cellular level doesn \u2019 t kill the whole organism. such self destruction serves a range of purposes, from guiding development to keeping cancer at bay. in short, cell death in a multicellular organism can be a good thing. but if cell suicide in multicellular organisms passes the evolutionary test, what about recent findings of suicide in unicellular organisms? new genome data from the great barrier reef demosponge ( amphimedon queenslandica ) reveals high levels of unexpected complexity, for this lowly sponge has an impressive complement of genes. as one evolutionist put it, \u201c this flies in the face of what we think of early metazoan evolution. \u201d another evolutionist asked perhaps an even more telling question. \u201c what i want to know now, \u201d he asked, \u201c is what were all these genes doing prior to the advent of sponge? \u201d that \u2019 s a good question because some of those genes are for programmed suicide. what this sponge genome apparently tells us is that programmed cell death would have to have arisen in single - cell organisms. suicide at the cellular level did kill the whole organism \u2014 and that doesn \u2019 t make evolutionary sense. with evolution what we must believe is that programmed cell death did not arise in multicellular species, but in unicellular species. in other words, an intricate, highly complex, set of tools and signals somehow arose and, rather than leading to enhanced survival as evolution calls for, they led to destruction. evolutionists will need yet another one of their just - so stories to rationalize this.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5169523683770557, "token_count": 336, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:49.778944"} {"text": "\u201c hell, \u201d wrote jean - paul sartre in his play no exit, \u201c is other people \u201d. but satan, in milton \u2019 s paradise lost, utters this anguished cry : \u201c which way i flie is hell ; my self am hell. \u201d he goes on : \u201c the mind is its own place, and in itself / can make a heav \u2019 n of hell, a hell of heav \u2019 n. \u201d both quotes are drawn from the recent christmas edition of the economist ; this is my favourite end of the year read, containing as it does an eclectic collection of long articles on a variety of subjects. one such piece, \u2018 into everlasting fire \u2019, examines the evolution of the concept of hell across time and in different faiths. i remember reading dante \u2019 s divine comedy in my late teens. the classic work contains probably the most gruesome and vivid description of hell in literature. the section titled \u2018 the inferno \u2019 gives a detailed account of the nine circles of hell, ranging from the outer circle for unbaptised babies to the innermost one where satan is frozen up till his neck. there was no concept of hell in early judaism, and it only made an appearance due to hellenic influence. but even then the jewish gehenna is more of a purgatory where souls are cleansed ; whatever their deeds in life, they don \u2019 t stay in this waiting room for more than 12 months. in medieval christianity, the vatican authorised the sale of \u2018 indulgences \u2019 that helped to offset the buyer \u2019 s sins after he died. this device raised a lot of money for the church, but was subject to much abuse as the rich used it as a licence to sin. in fact, this was one of the major aberrations that martin luther wanted to cleanse christianity of. having read of this practice at university, i was delighted to learn recently that it is still possible to buy indulgences online. in a sense, this is not unlike our custom of asking the local mosque to send a group of students to recite from the holy book. we hope that after a relative \u2019 s death, this will help the dear departed to clear up some of his or her sins. we have all seen these young aspiring clerics racing through the sacred verses at funerals. note also the similarity between the jewish gehenna and our jahannum. the latter, of course, is quite detailed in its description of everlasting torments, while in the new testament", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5006162138184519, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:49.788218"} {"text": "you can use the foil method to multiply out binomials of the form. foil stands for first - outer - inner - last. first means multiply the first terms ; outer means multiply ; inner gives the term ; and finally last gives the term the wolfram demonstrations project embed interactive demonstration more details \u00bb download demonstration as cdf \u00bb download author code \u00bb more by author squaring a binomial binomial theorem ( step - by - step ) eric w. weisstein ed pegg jr location of complex roots of a real quadratic parameters for plotting a quartic thomas mueller and r. w. d. nickalls the structure of the real roots of a quintic polynomial the number of distinct real roots of a real polynomial multiplying a monomial and a linear polynomial high school algebra i high school mathematics browse all topics related curriculum standards common core state standards for mathematics the # 1 tool for creating demonstrations and anything technical. explore anything with the first computational knowledge engine. the web ' s most extensive course assistant apps \u00bb an app for every course \u2014 right in the palm of your hand. wolfram blog \u00bb read our views on math, science, and technology. computable document format \u00bb the format that makes demonstrations ( and any information ) easy to share and interact with. stem initiative \u00bb programs & resources for educators, schools & students. join the initiative for modernizing note : your message & contact information may be shared with the author of any specific demonstration for which you give feedback. \u00a9 2013 wolfram demonstrations project & contributors | note : to run this demonstration you need mathematica 7 + or the free mathematica player 7ex download or upgrade to mathematica player 7ex i already have", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5521556108243528, "token_count": 353, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:49.798619"} {"text": "in this essay, the individualist anarchist writer charles johnson offers an analysis of the concrete mechanisms of capitalism, and of how the revolutionary potential of free economic relationships is diverted and deformed when markets are constrained to labor under bosses, monopoly and government. johnson revisits, and updates, benjamin tucker \u2019 s classic \u201c four monopolies \u201d analysis of state capitalism, arguing that the case for tucker \u2019 s free - market anticapitalism is stronger than ever, as we take into account not only the growth and retrenchment of the land monopoly, money monopoly, patent monopoly, and protectionist monopoly, but also the metastatic spread of state - capitalist monopolies into agribusiness, infrastructure, utilities, health care, and regulatory protectionism. for most of the twentieth century, american libertarians saw themselves, and were seen as, defenders of \u201c capitalism. \u201d until nearly the end of the 20th century, anticapitalist anarchism was sidelined in political debate, and most simply ceased to be treat it as a live option ; meanwhile, most american libertarians, and nearly all of their opponents, seemed to agree that opposing state control of the economy meant defending business against the attacks of \u201c big government. \u201d the purpose and effect of laissez faire was simply to unleash existing forms of commerce from political restraints, and to produce something which would look, more or less, like business as usual, only more so : bigger, faster, stronger, and no longer held back by government from pushing the corporate business model to the hilt. this was almost a complete reversal from the attitude of traditional libertarians like benjamin tucker, an attitude which we might call \u2018 free - market anti - capitalism. \u2019 tucker was one of the best - known defenders of free markets in nineteenth - century america... yet he repeatedly described his views as a form of \u201c anarchistic socialism. \u201d... what could \u201c socialism \u201d mean for a radical, free - market individualist like tucker? certainly not government control of industry. rather, what tucker was pointing out was his opposition to actually - existing capitalist business practices, and his support for workers \u2019 control over the conditions of their own labor \u2013 the control denied by the four monopolies and the artificial inequalities of wealth and bargaining power they fostered. for tucker, then, a libertarian politics meant an attack on economic privilege \u2013 by removing the political privileges that propped it up, and dismantling monopolies by exposing them to competition from below", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5272187849602014, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:49.829461"} {"text": "the distribution of wealth : a theory of wages, interest and profits the place of distribution within the traditional divisions of economics we have undertaken to solve a test problem of distribution \u2014 to ascertain whether the division of the social income into wages, interest and profits is, in principle, honest. we have seen that this compels us to enter the realm of production, in order to find whether these incomes are earned. is each of them specifically created by the agent that gets it? if it is, the entire science of distribution is nothing more than a science of the process of specific production. in any case, the relation of the wealth - creating process to the wealth - dividing process needs a most searching examination. the terms, production, distribution, exchange and consumption, have been used to designate four divisions of economic science. these, however, are not distinct divisions ; for one of them includes two of the others. the production of wealth, as it is carried on by an organized society, is a process that embraces within itself both exchange and distribution. this fact makes it necessary completely to rearrange economic theory, for purposes of study, and to divide it according to a new principle. the old landmarks of the science will not entirely disappear, for it will still be necessary to speak of production, distribution, etc., as processes that are going on, and that can be defined and understood. as divisions of the science, however, they will vanish ; for the demarcations that have been made between them correspond to nothing in actual life. they are forced distinctions, made for the sake of resolving into smaller areas a field that is too large to be dealt with as a whole. as we throw them away, the economic field takes on an entirely new appearance, and it will soon be seen that this is its true and natural appearance. this field will still, however, have its divisions ; and it is a striking fact that the study which shows how hopelessly blended are exchange, distribution and production has also the effect of revealing three divisions of economics that are natural and clear. we attain the true divisions, in fact, by perceiving why we may not use the old ones. production is the bringing of commodities into existence ; and in any state except a primitive one it is accomplished by a division of labor. the producer is a specialist, selling one article, or a part of an article, and buying what he needs with the proceeds. only society in its entirety is an all - around creator of goods. this is equivalent to", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5810343035949311, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:49.879801"} {"text": "by a division of labor. the producer is a specialist, selling one article, or a part of an article, and buying what he needs with the proceeds. only society in its entirety is an all - around creator of goods. this is equivalent to saying that social production is now accomplished by means of exchanges. the passing of goods from man to man enables all society to make all goods ; and the two expressions, \" division of labor, \" on the one hand, and \" exchange, \" on the other, merely describe in different ways the organized process of creating wealth, as contrasted with the method of isolated and independent production. where a thing stays in one man ' s hands until it is finished and in use, production is not yet socialized. * 3 society in its entirety is the one producer of wealth. exchange is, then, the socializing element in production. it is a characteristic part of the comprehensive process. the relation of man to nature in the productive operation remains unchanged, however much society may be organized. the earth still gives matter, and man transforms it. the making of a steel tool in a modern shop is, in this respect, akin to the fashioning of a stone hatchet by a prehistoric man. what is new in social production is the relation of man to man. interdependence has supplanted independence : a great organization has taken the place of a mass of unconnected producers. specializing and exchanging have made this difference. production by society as a whole, moreover, involves a fixing of values. if we part with our own products, something must decide how much we are to get in return for them. the ratios of exchange that a market establishes have, not unnaturally, been treated in that division of the science which is customarily entitled exchange. is that, however, the proper place for them? there is a kind of distribution that does not fix the rates of wages and interest, but determines how much one industry, as a whole, including its laborers, its capitalists and its entrepreneurs, shall get, as compared with other industries. it determines whether one whole branch of business shall be more prosperous than another. this is an intermediate part of the general distributing operation. and it is accomplished by means of prices. when wheat, for example, is high in price, the farming industry is well paid, as compared with others ; and when wheat is cheap, that industry is ill paid. if what we have in mind is the so - called \" market price \" of an article,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.546560287350164, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:49.880867"} {"text": "example, is high in price, the farming industry is well paid, as compared with others ; and when wheat is cheap, that industry is ill paid. if what we have in mind is the so - called \" market price \" of an article, \u2014 the immediate price of any given supply of an article, \u2014 this kind of value governs what we may call group distribution. if steel, for example, sells at a high rate, a large income goes to the group that produces it. this income distributes itself somewhere in the group ; but how much of it laborers get, and how much capitalists and employers get, is a question that we do not now raise. this is determined by an ultimate distribution taking place within the groups. group distribution is a preliminary division of the social income, and it deals with branches of industry in their entirety. the terms of this primary division of the social income depend on the prices of different kinds of goods. farmers want wheat to be dear, as miners want ore to be dear, etc. prices, then, fix the incomes of these groups. the great income of all society \u2014 that which is to be distributed \u2014 really consists of concrete articles, all for some use, most of them are goods for consumption ; and they serve to stock retailers ' shops, while waiting for purchasers. in some way this promiscuous stock of consumers ' goods gets divided into shares, of which every man, whether he be a laborer or a capitalist, gets a part. there is no way in which the fixing of the terms of this division can be begun and completed after the goods are finished and exposed for sale. if, before the stock of goods was ready to be taken by consumers, nothing had been done to decide how much each laborer and each a capitalist might have, the distribution would have to be made according to some arbitrary rule and by some officer of the state. the terms of the division that is actually made, however, are fixed as the production of the goods goes on : the goods are really apportioned in the making. the creation of such a general stock of commodities for use is a great synthesis, which goes on in a systematic way. one group of producers makes the article a, another group makes b, another c, etc. as a is sold, the sum that is paid for it is apportioned among the entire group that makes it ; and as b is sold, the returns from this sale are divided, in the same way, among all who have helped to", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.579655471174779, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:49.881820"} {"text": ". as a is sold, the sum that is paid for it is apportioned among the entire group that makes it ; and as b is sold, the returns from this sale are divided, in the same way, among all who have helped to make this article. the prices of completed articles thus fix the incomes of groups in their entirety, these sub - groups are, in an equally exact way, divided into sub - groups. thus it takes farmers, wool merchants, manufacturers, dyers, cloth merchants and tailors to make a coat. each of these classes constitutes a sub - group ; and each gets a share of the returns of the general group \u2014 a share in every case dependent on prices. if wool is dear, farmers thrive ; and if the difference between the price of wool and the price of cloth is large, manufacturers thrive. it is market values that fix the incomes of sub - groups, as well as those of groups. neither of those price - adjusting operations, however, directly fixes wages and interest. this is the final and critical part of distribution. it takes place within the sub - groups, and it constitutes the third and final division that has to be made. the portions of income that fall to farmers, manufacturers, etc., as such, have to be further subdivided ; for a share must be paid to every laborer and to every capitalist. this last division is not made, however, as the mere general divisions are made, by a mere sale of finished goods : finer and more difficult adjustments are involved. we need now to have clearly in mind the systematic way in which the division of the grand stock of usable goods proceeds, the manner in which it follows the stages of production and the part that the fixing of exchange values has in it. this distribution goes on in three distinct stages. there are to be made a division, a subdivision and a final subdivision of the social income. the first division fixes the income of industrial groups ; the second fixes that of sub - groups, and the final division adjusts wages and interest within each of the innumerable sub - groups in the system. the shares of the groups and those of the sub - groups depend entirely on the prices of goods, and therefore the fixing of market values results in the adjustment of the terms of group distribution, thus, let a ' ' ' represent some one completed product, any bread ; and let a represent raw material, the standing wheat of which it is mode. a ' may then represent the wheat as threshed and", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5596574480276906, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:49.882754"} {"text": "the terms of group distribution, thus, let a ' ' ' represent some one completed product, any bread ; and let a represent raw material, the standing wheat of which it is mode. a ' may then represent the wheat as threshed and conveyed to the elevator of a milling company, a ' ' ' may represent it as it is ground into flour, and a ' ' ' may represent it baked into loaves. in like manner b, b ', etc., represent another commodity \u2014 say, woollen clothing \u2014 in its several stages of advancement, and the series of c ' s represent still another commodity. all the a ' s constitute the product of one general group ; and the price of a ' ' ' fixes the size of its entire group income. the prices of b ' ' ' and c ' ' ' likewise fix the general incomes of the two groups that make them. similarly, the difference between the price of a ' ' and that of a ' ' ' fixes the income of the sub - group that transforms the one article into the other. in this case the difference is the gross income of the baking industry. in the same way, the difference between the price of a ' and that of a ' ' determines the income of the flouring industry, etc. the income of each sub - group in the whole series, then, depends directly on prices. a philosophy that goes behind such market prices, however, brings us to what are called \" natural \" or \" normal \" prices. these are the values, expressed in terms of money, to which, in the long run, market values tend to conform. these normal values are also in another way, phenomena of distribution ; for a certain force that operates within the sphere of group distribution establishes the normal standards to which market values tend to conform. we have just seen that market prices fix the incomes of the different groups, as such, and so control distribution in its early stages. we have now to see that a deeper force, and one that also acts in distribution, controls normal prices. market prices are the cause of group distribution ; normal prices are the effect of a certain phenomenon of distribution. the adjustment of natural or normal prices is a part of the distributive process. the movements that make prices \" natural \" are, in fact, efforts on the part of different men to get their natural shares of income. prices are at their natural level when labor and capital in one industry produce as much and get as much as they do in any other", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5848815502260625, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:49.883724"} {"text": "prices \" natural \" are, in fact, efforts on the part of different men to get their natural shares of income. prices are at their natural level when labor and capital in one industry produce as much and get as much as they do in any other. normal prices mean equalized wages and equalized interest. if the prices of wheat, wool, iron, lumber, etc., were such that no laborer and no capitalist could acquire an enlarged producing power by leaving the industry that creates one of these commodities, and betaking himself to one that makes another, the price of each of the commodities would be normal. the familiar definition of natural price is : that which conforms to the cost of production. the economist has been in the habit of putting himself, in imagination, in the business man ' s position, and of considering the money that he pays out in producing an article as the cost and what he gets by selling the article as the return. the tendency of competition, according to this conception, is to bring the price down to the point at which the return equals the cost. this is, however, an individualistic and limited view of the law of normal prices. it presents that law as it appears to a man who is performing his one particular part of the social operation of creating wealth. the broad view, on the other hand, presents the law as it appears to a student who has all society within the range of his vision. it is, indeed, true that the normal price of each article is its cost. the cause of this, however, is not local in the industry ; it is not anything that takes place within the one group that makes the commodity. the influence that brings, let us say, cotton cloth to a natural price is one that works throughout the productive system. a broadly social tendency it is, in fact, that makes any one price normal. the traditional statement of the law of normal price is not incorrect ; but it is misleading, because it is partial and inadequate. it presents things from an entrepreneur ' s point of view, instead of from a social point of view. it will be seen, when we make a fuller study of this subject, that a condition in which all things sell for the amount of money that they have cost \u2014 including interest and wages of management, as elements of cost \u2014 is a state in which the gross gains of the different industrial groups are brought to pro rata equality, that is, to a condition in which the returns of all groups yield the same amounts per unit of capital", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5802139843288672, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:49.886595"} {"text": "of management, as elements of cost \u2014 is a state in which the gross gains of the different industrial groups are brought to pro rata equality, that is, to a condition in which the returns of all groups yield the same amounts per unit of capital and also the same amounts per unit of labor. cost prices, then, are those that give equalized earnings. it is comparative gains, and not the gains of any one group, that test prices, and determine whether they are normal. thus, the present price of wheat is such as to afford a larger product per unit of capital than is afforded in some other industries ; it is above the natural standard, and would be so even if wages and interest were locally so high that entrepreneurs got nothing above cost of production. if the result of this should be should be to draw men and capital from other occupations to the raising of this cereal, the operation would end by reducing to nothing the excess of gains that is now secured in this occupation. prices would then be normal, provided that no other causes had meanwhile noted to disturb the equality of the earning power of labor and capital in the group system. it is because the prices then realized would afford to the different industrial groups equalized returns, that the prices themselves are to be called normal. the term really signifies that group distribution is in a natural state. equal products everywhere per unit of labor and equal products per unit of capital \u2014 this is the condition that affords natural prices of goods. incidentally, this condition gives what have been defined as cost prices. when, therefore, men have no further inducement to move from one group to another, \u2014 that is, when group distribution is natural, \u2014 prices are natural. this requires that labor and capital shall be so apportioned among the various industries that there is neither overproduction of one article nor underproduction of another. society must, in short, so direct its productive energies as to make different goods in the right quantities. the production of each specific article must be normal in amount, in order that the prices of it may be normal. the influence that brings production to this natural state is the effort of laborers and capitalists to seize any special gain that maybe offered to them, by moving to any group in which the price of the product is high. this is clearly an operation in group distribution. thus an influence that originates in distribution brings about a state of social production in which exchange values are normal. where, then, within the four traditional divisions of economic science should the study of exchange value", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5668395954932363, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:49.887716"} {"text": "high. this is clearly an operation in group distribution. thus an influence that originates in distribution brings about a state of social production in which exchange values are normal. where, then, within the four traditional divisions of economic science should the study of exchange value be located? the phenomenon itself is directly connected with exchange : the proximate cause of it is a state of production ; the ultimate influence that controls it is an action of the forces of distribution. it is clear that the study of market value falls within the science of distribution. on the surface it is current market prices that control the distribution which takes place among different groups or specific industries. these prices, however, are transient, and they fluctuate about certain more permanent standards. the tendency of group distribution to become normal \u2014 that is, to bring wages and interest to an approximate equality in different industries \u2014 draws prices toward the normal standard. what, then, is left to be treated under the title, exchange? only the actual passing of goods from hand to hand. this process results in ranging men in distinct groups, each of which has its part to play in the process of social production. exchange fixes the form of organization of industrial society. back of each finished article that the shops offer to us there is ranged a series of specialized producers, each of whom has taken his turn in putting a touch upon it. intricate, indeed, is the organization of society for productive purposes ; but the principles that give shape to it are simple. they are the subjects of the theory of exchange, which is the theory of the organization of industrial society. when we examine the system of groups of which society is composed, we shall perceive the full meaning of this statement. for the present, be it noted that exchanges divide and subdivide industry : they range its forces in groups and sub - groups, the functions of which are determined by natural law. it is, further, clear that all this disposing of the agents of production \u2014 this putting of some labor and capital here, and other labor and capital there \u2014 is a phenomenon of social production, a part of the social productive organization. it is a certain marshalling of the productive forces, placing them where they will do the most good. production, in fact, embraces every economic operation except consumption. exchange is merely the typical feature of production, as carried on by groups. under this head we shall describe the group system of industry. we have seen that an influence which acts in distribution fixes the sizes of the groups and the amount of", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5969528430964544, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 7, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:49.888807"} {"text": "consumption. exchange is merely the typical feature of production, as carried on by groups. under this head we shall describe the group system of industry. we have seen that an influence which acts in distribution fixes the sizes of the groups and the amount of goods that each shall create. in the way that we have just noted, it guards against the production of too much of one commodity and too little of another. this is also a part of the all - embracing process of social production. there is another and an even more important kind of distribution that falls within production. the distribution which connects itself with values, and the study of which gives a science of value, is that which takes place between different industries in their entirety. thus, a high price for wheat makes the raising of that cereal a well - paid occupation, and puts a large sum into the possession of the group of laborers, capitalists and entrepreneurs who jointly raise it. how much of this large return goes to laborers? hew much goes to capitalists? how much remains in the hands of entrepreneurs? these, as we noted, are questions involving distribution of another kind. within each industry there is this final division to be made. after the returns of each sub - group, taken as a whole, have been determined, this lump sum is to be apportioned among different claimants within it ; and this is the final process in the distributing of the social income. in the final division that takes place within the sub - groups \u2014 the division that separates the gross earnings of each of them into wages, interest and profits \u2014 a law of production rules. so far as natural laws are unperverted, labor tends to get, as its share, what it separately produces ; and capital does the same. the laborer who has helped a farmer to raise wheat naturally gets the value of that part of the wheat crop which is separately due to his labor. this statement requires proof, and will receive it : but it must stand for the present, as a thesis to be established by a later study. what is now clear is that, if it should be established, the whole of distribution as well as the whole of exchange, would be included within the organized process of producing wealth. unravel the web of the social product, tracing each thread to its source, and you will have solved the problem of distribution. this is an analytical study. it traces backward, step by step, the synthesis by which, through the putting together of many different things, the great social dividend of usable goods", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5752390160170517, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 8, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:49.889777"} {"text": "to its source, and you will have solved the problem of distribution. this is an analytical study. it traces backward, step by step, the synthesis by which, through the putting together of many different things, the great social dividend of usable goods is created. it first traces to each group its share in the creating of the grand total ; then it traces the part of this that each sub - group has contributed : : and finally it attributes to labor and capital their several shares in the creating of the sub - group product. we may, then, gather into the comprehensive science of production all the economic processes that go on in an organized or social way. there is, then, it appears, no separating of the processes that traditional theories have treated as distinct divisions of the science. here, for example, working in a shoe shop, is a man who gets two dollars a day. let us set before ourselves the problem of accounting for the amount of his wages. he is a part of a sub - group ; and we have first to account for the way in which society has thrown itself into the systematic shape of groups and sub - groups, which exchange products with each other. we discuss the theory of exchange, in the narrow and accurate sense of the term, when we account for this group arrangement which is brought about for the sake of carrying on production in an organized way. in treating exchange, therefore, we are entering on the treatment of production. what the man gets is a part of what his sub - group gets ; and this is fixed by the law of group distribution \u2014 the law of market value. market value, however, depends on the relative quantities of the different articles that are produced ; and this is saying that it depends on comparative group production. we are, then, still within the more general science of production when we thus try to trace to its causes the income of the sub - group from which the shoemaker ' s wages are taken. when we have discovered the influences that act on the sub - group ' s income, we must see why the shoemaker ' s share of that income is two dollars a day. this will take us into a further study of specific production. we shall have to find out, first, whether the man ' s pay tends to equal what he separately produces ; and, secondly, what fixes the amount that he is able to produce. this is the study of distribution in its final stage, but it is also a study of production. we have, then, studied in part each of the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5524356389879468, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 9, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:49.890781"} {"text": "separately produces ; and, secondly, what fixes the amount that he is able to produce. this is the study of distribution in its final stage, but it is also a study of production. we have, then, studied in part each of the four traditional subjects except consumption, in investigating the causes of the two dollar wage for the shoemaker ' s labor ; and yet we have been, all the while, within the subject of social production. consumption alone remains an individualistic process. we produce our food cooperatively, but we eat it each one for himself. society makes our clothing, builds our houses, etc. ; but when we get our clothes, we wear them without assistance ; and we dwell under our roofs in the same independent way. society, however, reacts on our natures, and changes and multiplies our wants. a desire to associate with others, while consumption is going on, may even give a kind of collectivity to the process by which some products are used. thus, we enjoy dining together ; and we listen to music and addresses in assemblies, getting a part of our pleasure from the presence of others ; but there is no cooperation in the consumption of goods that resembles what takes place in the production of them. there is no obvious group system, and no cooperation of agents such as labor and capital. it is to the sensibilities of individuals that products address themselves ; and therefore consumption is the individualistic part of social economy. if we look, then, at the relations of man to man, we find that production and consumption are not on the same plane. one is a collective operation : it is nothing, if not organized. the other is an individualistic operation : it consists in the using by each man of what society, by its intricate system of production, has made for him. in an accurate sense, the one process is a part of social economy and the other is not. if we look at the relations of man to nature, we find that production and consumption are entirely coordinate, \u2014 that one of them is the reversal of the other. man acts on nature in the one case, and nature acts on man in the other. cultivate the earth till it gives you food, and you have produced a kind of wealth by acting on nature ; but the food restores your wasted tissues and your lost energy by acting on you. man making wealth and wealth making man constitute the whole economic operation. humanity takes the active and aggressive attitude in the former part of the process, and it takes the passive", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5463585157860471, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 10, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:49.891720"} {"text": "but the food restores your wasted tissues and your lost energy by acting on you. man making wealth and wealth making man constitute the whole economic operation. humanity takes the active and aggressive attitude in the former part of the process, and it takes the passive and recipient attitude in the latter part. in the simplest mode of living these two processes are the only ones that take place. a primitive man, living alone, would kill game and eat it ; he would make clothing and wear it ; he would build a hut and live in it : in short, he would act on nature and let nature react on him, and that would constitute the whole of his economy. he would have nothing to do with exchange and distribution. this, indeed, is all that an economic society does, if we consider it only as a unit. it produces its food, its clothing, its shelter and its myriad of articles of comfort and luxury ; and then it uses them. it produces them in an organized way, indeed, and it uses them in an unorganized way. incidental to the making of them are the trading and sharing processes that are termed exchange and distribution ; but production and consumption still exhaust the whole economy : there is no phenomenon of wealth that lies outside of them. these are the facts to be recognized in entering on the study of distribution. in carrying that study to completion we cannot get outside of the field of social production, and we cannot avoid including within our more limited field the subject of exchange. value is the chief subject that has customarily been treated in the division of exchange ; but the theory of value and that of group distribution are one and the same. notes for this chapter an article is not finished, in the economic sense, till the retail merchant has found the customer whose needs it satisfies. the sale of completed articles is thus the terminal act of social production. end of notes return to top", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5589427893445684, "token_count": 384, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 11, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:49.892560"} {"text": "0 \u2013 1, london 1783, that philidor understood very well modern concepts like : power of passed pawns ; bad and good pieces ; space advantage ; open files ; pawn structure ; importance of center. l ' analyse du jeu des echecs | this section uses algebraic notation to describe chess moves. | in 1749, philidor published his famous book analyse du jeu des echecs. he printed a second edition in 1777, and a third edition in 1790. the book was such an advance in chess knowledge that by 1871, it had gone through about 70 editions, and had been translated into english, german, russian and italian. in it, philidor analyzed nine different types of game openings. most of the openings of philidor are designed to strengthen and establish a strong defensive center using pawns. he is the first one to realize the new role of the pawn in the chess game ; and his most famous advice was the saying \" the pawns are the soul of chess. \" more precisely philidor said : mon but principal est de me rendre recommandable par une nouveaute dont personne ne s ' est avise, ou peut - etre n ' a ete capable ; c ' est celle de bien jouer les pions ; ils sont l ' ame des echecs : ce sont eux - memes qui forment uniquement l ' attaque et la defense et de leur bon ou mauvais arrangement depend entierement le gain ou la perte de la partie. translation : my main purpose is to make myself commendable by a novelty of which no one was aware or perhaps was capable [ of discovering ] ; this is to play the pawns well ; they are the soul of chess : it is they which uniquely determine the attack and the defence, and on their good or bad arrangement depends entirely the winning or losing of the game. it was said that the reason why philidor emphasized the pawns in the chess game was related to the political background during the eighteenth century of france, and that he regarded pawns as the \" third rank \" on the chess board ( citizens were regarded as the third rank of the society before the french revolution started in 1789 ). he also included analysis of certain positions of rook and bishop versus rook, such analysis being still current theory even today. he is most famous for showing an important drawing technique with a rook and pawn versus rook endgame,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5371269379809953, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:50.052686"} {"text": "french revolution started in 1789 ). he also included analysis of certain positions of rook and bishop versus rook, such analysis being still current theory even today. he is most famous for showing an important drawing technique with a rook and pawn versus rook endgame, in a position known as the philidor position. the philidor defense ( 1. e4 e5 2. nf3 d6 ) is named for him. philidor \u2019 s book was the very first ( 1 ) that gave detailed annotations on how to play the middlegame, ( 2 ) that presented chess strategy as a whole, and ( 3 ) that presented the concepts of the blockade, prophylaxis, positional sacrifice, and mobility of the pawn formation. early critics of the analyse du jeu des echecs include those of the modenese school ( ercole del rio, lolli or ponziani ), who in contrast to the french, advocated a free piece play, gambit openings and tactical complications ; they also found some of the variations reported in the analyse to be unsound ( in particular those related with f7 \u2013 f5 push in the philidor defence 1. e4 e5 2. nf3 d6 3. d4 f5?! ). some of philidor ' s disciples - - bernard, carlier, leger, and verdoni, who met at the cafe de la regence under the name of societe des amateurs \u2014 also criticized his work. in their book, traite des amateurs, they expressed many criticisms and comments on his earlier printed book, arguing that the variations reported in philidor ' s analyse are more instructive than correct. nevertheless, the games of the traite can be regarded, together of those of philidor, as typical examples of the understanding of chess during the enlightenment, and the societe des amateurs was much closer to philidor than to the modenese school. notable chess games - captain smith vs francois andre philidor, london, england 1790, bishop ' s opening : berlin defense ( c24 ), 0 \u2013 1 good sample of philidor ' s ideas about pawns ; plus a nice mating combination at the end - francois andre philidor vs nn, unknown 1749, bishop ' s opening : boi variation ( c23 ), 1 \u2013 0 this game \u2014 possibly a composition by philidor \u2014 demonstrates the value of passed pawns final years philidor was stranded in england", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5045217329590266, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:50.053891"} {"text": "williams, h. paul ( 2009 ) logic and integer programming. international series in operations research & management science. springer, london, uk. isbn 9780387922799 integer programming ( discrete optimization ) is best used for solving problems involving discrete, whole elements. using integer variables, one can model logical requirements, fixed costs, sequencing and scheduling requirements, and many other problem aspects. whether it \u2019 s taught in or graduate programs or in math or computer science programs ; in courses called \" integer programming, \" \" combinatorial optimization, \" \" combinatorial optimization and integer programming \" or simply \" advanced operations management, \" it \u2019 s a part of every or curriculum, and one of its greatest teachers has developed a text that shows how to use logic in integer programming to develop models with much greater precision. paul williams, a leading authority on modeling in integer programming, has written a concise, readable introduction to the science and art of using modeling in logic for integer programming. written for graduate and postgraduate students, as well as academics and practitioners, the book is divided into four chapters that all avoid the typical format of definitions, theorems and proofs and instead introduce concepts and results within the text through examples. references are given at the end of each chapter to the more mathematical papers and texts on the subject, and exercises are included to reinforce and expand on the material in the chapter. chapter 1 gives a basic introduction to logic and its aims, and goes on to explain the propositional and predicate calculus. chapter 2 explains linear programming ( lp ) and integer programming ( ip ) using the machinery of logic ; explains the fundamental structural and mathematical properties of these types of models, along with the main methods of solving ip models ; covers main areas of practical application ; and attempts to distinguish between computationally \u2018 difficult \u2019 and \u2018 easy \u2019 classes of problem. chapter 3 applies logic to the formulation of ip models using the methods explained in chapter 1 and looks at the deeper mathematical concepts involved. chapter 4 then covers the fundamental problem of computational logic : the satisfiability problem, which lies at the heart of the entire book. methods of solving with both logic and ip are given and their connections are described. applications in diverse fields are discussed, and williams shows how ip models can be expressed as satisfiability problems and solved as such. | additional information : | | \u00a9 2009 h. paul williams | | library of congress subject classification : | | z bibliography. library science. information resources > za information resources > za4050 electronic", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5938888991019935, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:50.123755"} {"text": "sportsmen and their sweaters : knitting patterns as historical sources polley, martin ( 2009 ) sportsmen and their sweaters : knitting patterns as historical sources. in, recording leisure lives : sports, games and pastimes, bolton, uk, 07 apr 2009. full text not available from this repository. old knitting patterns are easy to see as ephemeral, disposable items, artefacts of everyday life that we can see in our memory on our mothers \u2019 laps, but that we don \u2019 t readily picture in an archive. they are produced for a very specific purpose, and are not designed to become historians \u2019 sources. however, cultural historians and historians of everyday life can learn from them, and can use them as windows on to their time of production. using sport - related knitting patterns from winchester school of art \u2019 s knitting reference library as a case study, this paper will look at what historians can get from this type of evidence : both empirical evidence about disposable income, materials, and technology, and household economics, and more subjective, cultural evidence about class, identity, and gender. the paper will build on the call that i made for sports historians to use wider variety of sources in sports history : a practical guide ( palgrave, 2007 ). | item type : | | conference or workshop item ( paper ) | | keywords : | | knitting, sport, clothing, fashion, history | | subjects : | | g geography. anthropology. recreation > gv recreation leisure h social sciences > hn social history and conditions. social problems. social reform d history general and old world > da great britain | divisions : | | university structure - pre august 2011 > school of education > leadership, school improvement and effectiveness | date deposited : | | 15 jul 2009 | | last modified : | | 02 mar 2012 13 : 12 | | contributors : | | polley, martin ( author ) | date : | | 7 april 2009 | | rdf : | | rdf + n - triples, rdf + n3, rdf + xml, browse. | actions ( login required )", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.517545252588907, "token_count": 430, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:50.126535"} {"text": "| \" zero in on \" = focus on or direction your attention to a particular issue | \" i think we need to zero in on the main causes of water pollution and start solving them one at a time. \" \" leave no stone unturned \" = do everything possible to solve a problem \" things might look bad, but leave no stone unturned in trying to find the answer to our company ' s economic problems. \" more of randall ' s favorite learning resources [ quiz script ] first, name three environmental problems that face our world today, how people can help solve these problems. what image comes to your mind when you think of \" recycling \"? | i. pre - listening exercises [ top ] | helpful tip : recycling is one important way of conserving our world ' s natural resources. talk with you family about what you can do to better recycle your trash. | listen to the conversation by pressing the \" play \" button of the audio type you want to hear, and answer the questions. press the \" final score \" button to check your quiz. | ii. listening exercises [ top ] 2. listen to the conversation again as you read the quiz script. | iii. post - listening exercises [ top ] | what are five specific things individuals can do to protect the environment? what are some reasons why people do not recycle or are careless when they dispose of garbage? are there any unique programs in your city or country that promote recycling and protecting the environment? now, write your opinions on a similar topic at randall ' s esl blog here. randall ' s sites : daily esl | esl blog | ezslang | train your accent | tips for students | hiking in utah", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5684322145843195, "token_count": 349, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:50.129924"} {"text": "concept. the basic idea is that the human mind can keep track of about seven at once, or can differentiate between seven or so different ( but similar ) things. the phrase comes from the title of a 1956 paper by harvard professor george a. miller titled, the magical number seven, plus or minus two : some limits on our capacity for processing information, which begins : my problem is that i have been persecuted by an integer. for seven years this number has followed me around, has intruded in my most private data, and has assaulted me from the pages of our most public journals. this number assumes a variety of disguises, being sometimes a little larger and sometimes a little smaller than usual, but never changing so much as to be unrecognizable. the persistence with which this number plagues me is far more than a random accident. there is, to quote a famous senator, a design behind it, some pattern governing its appearances. either there really is something unusual about the number or else i am suffering from delusions of persecution. miller goes on to present data from a number of experiments which support the idea ( by arriving at the number seven ). topics of the experiments he reviewed included, \" span of immediate memory \", \" capacity for absolute judgements of the position of a dot on a square \", and ( my favorite ) \" capacity for absolute judgements of saltiness", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6343084793352226, "token_count": 283, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:50.131633"} {"text": "a team of researchers from universite laval, chu de quebec, and pharmaceutical firm glaxosmithkline ( gsk ) has discovered a way to stimulate the brain \u2019 s natural defense mechanisms in people with alzheimer \u2019 s disease. toll - like receptor 4 stimulation with the detoxified ligand monophosphoryl lipid a improves alzheimer \u2019 s disease - related pathology, presented in an early online edition of the proceedings of the national academy of sciences ( pnas ), opens the door to the development of a treatment for alzheimer \u2019 s disease and a vaccine to prevent the illness. one of the main characteristics of alzheimer \u2019 s disease is the production in the brain of a toxic molecule known as amyloid beta. microglial cells, the nervous system \u2019 s defenders, are unable to eliminate this substance, which forms deposits called senile plaques. the team led by dr. serge rivest, professor at universite laval \u2019 s faculty of medicine and researcher at the chu de quebec research center, identified a molecule that stimulates the activity of the brain \u2019 s immune cells. the molecule, known as mpl ( monophosphoryl lipid a ), has been used extensively as a vaccine adjuvant by gsk for many years, and its safety is well established. in mice with alzheimer \u2019 s symptoms, weekly injections of mpl over a twelve - week period eliminated up to 80 % of senile plaques. in addition, tests measuring the mice \u2019 s ability to learn new tasks showed significant improvement in cognitive function over the same period. the researchers see two potential uses for mpl. it could be administered by intramuscular injection to people with alzheimer \u2019 s disease to slow the progression of the illness. it could also be incorporated into a vaccine designed to stimulate the production of antibodies against amyloid beta. \u201c the vaccine could be given to people who already have the disease to stimulate their natural immunity, \u201d said serge rivest. \u201c it could also be administered as a preventive measure to people with risk factors for alzheimer \u2019 s disease. \u201d \u201c when our team started working on alzheimer \u2019 s disease a decade ago, our goal was to develop better treatment for alzheimer \u2019 s patients, \u201d explained professor rivest. \u201c with the discovery announced today, i think we \u2019 re close to our objective. \u201d in addition to rivest, the study \u2019 s co - authors are jean - philippe michaud, antoine lampron, peter theriault, paul prefontaine, mohammed filal", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5035670578797328, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:50.156979"} {"text": "gcn lab review device spots, stops advanced malware before it can cripple a network fireeye ' s virtual machines profile an attack and then disrupt it before it strikes a lot of protections are built into most federal and corporate networks these days. between firewalls, intrusion prevention systems, port monitoring and even desktop antivirus, you would think security is pretty air tight. yet major breaches such as the recent hack of the sony playstation network and other high - profile attacks show bad guys can still find ways to get through sophisticated defenses, especially if they are patient and target attacks specifically at an agency or group. the fireeye malware protection system, the gcn product of the month for june, has an unusual approach to these exploits. it uses a unique system of virtual machines that lets malware do whatever it wants, and then shuts it down on the real network. as such, no signatures are needed and even new attacks are caught before any significant damage occurs. advanced persistent threats are a new way of life is china out - gunning u. s. in cyber war? the fireeye is deployed in three components as appliances. there is an e - mail monitor, an internet traffic monitor and a control device that lets those two systems communicate with each other and work together to stop threats. the fireeye team came into the gcn lab to show what happens during a type of attack that most current protections would miss. in this example, we used the same type of technique that was performed in the recent aurora attack, considered an advanced persistent threat that targeted several high - tech firms in 2009 - 2010. in that event, hackers patiently stalked hand - chosen victims for months, gathering data on corporate security before sending e - mail messages and instant messaging notes that appeared to come from friends. in many cases, the attack was tweaked to specifically get around whatever security was in place. most attacks were delivered as a malicious binary file designed to look like a normal. jpg. once the. jpg was in place, it called home and downloaded encrypted packages of malware that were designed to steal data and cripple networks. gears of a virtual machine when a similar program was sent into a network protected by fireeye, the malicious binary began to do its dirty work like it was programmed to do. but it didn \u2019 t know that fireeye had moved it over to a virtual machine and not to an end - user \u2019 s computer. fireeye watched as the program phoned home", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5370419780208444, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:50.179121"} {"text": "began to do its dirty work like it was programmed to do. but it didn \u2019 t know that fireeye had moved it over to a virtual machine and not to an end - user \u2019 s computer. fireeye watched as the program phoned home and gathered more malware components from compromised systems. it didn \u2019 t matter that the incoming malware components were encrypted to get around traditional virus scanners, because for the bad programs to activate, they had to un - encrypt themselves. and when they did, fireeye watched the process unfold. after the details of the attack were known, ports and ip addresses were blocked to prevent the malware from working its evil on the actual network. the fireeye e - mail scanner and the internet traffic scanner worked together to stop anything bad from happening. in a sense, fireeye creates a virtual honey pot for malware, lets it do what it wants, but only on the virtual and easily purged machine. then it prevents the same things from hurting the real network. a very detailed report is generated showing exactly who inside the network was targeted, what files were used and how dangerous the threat actually is to overall security. copies of all the malicious files are kept and stored in case administrators or analysts want to further examine them to learn more about the hackers. that data could be used to prevent future attacks, or even prosecute the guilty parties since the hackers \u2019 digital fingerprints will still be all over the captured files. if an attack is delivered by e - mail, fireeye can stop it from ever reaching the network, because the mail can simply be delayed while the virtual machines examine anything suspicious. however, if the attack is delivered in real time, such as through a corrupted web page, one user in the network will likely be infected because code will be executing on their computer at the same time as the virtual machine. calls out for new malware will be blocked, since fireeye monitors both inbound and outbound traffic, but one person will still have the corrupted files sitting on their computer. the good news is that administrators are immediately told exactly who is infected and how they got that way, and the infection is sealed up on that single machine. fireeye also works if someone brings a keydrive with malware into the network directly without first passing through the fireeye scanner. in that case, the malicious activity would be caught because of the outbound traffic that is being scanned, which can also be run through a virtual machine for processing. pricing for the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5123401780460272, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:50.180135"} {"text": "plants have evolved a number of cold - response genes encoding proteins that induce tolerance to freezing, alter water absorption and initiate many other low temperature induced processes. in the 1 april genes and development, jian - kang zhu and colleagues of the department of plant sciences, university of arizona, shed light on how these genes are regulated. lee et al. report that the protein hos1 negatively regulates cold - response genes in arabidopsis. at low temperatures, hos1 relocalizes from the cytoplasm to the nucleus where it regulates gene expression ; hos1 mutants show an excessive induction of cold - response genes. the hos1 gene was mapped to chromosome ii of arabidopsis and cloned. it encodes a protein of 915 amino acids with a nuclear localization signal and a ring finger. proteins with this motif have been implicated in the breakdown of other proteins by a process that involves ubiquitination. lee et al. speculate that hos1 might regulate the function of cold - response genes by targeting the gene products for degradation. lee h, xiong l, gong z, ishitani m, stevenson b, zhu jk : the arabidopsis hos1 gene negatively regulates cold signal transduction and encodes a ring finger protein that displays cold - regulated nucleo - cytoplasmic partitioning. genes dev 2001, 15. department of plant sciences, university of arizona", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5151934953591786, "token_count": 289, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:50.181633"} {"text": ", dubbed grb 090423, is an example of one of the most violent explosions in the universe. it is thought to have been associated with the cataclysmic death of a massive star - triggered by the centre of the star collapsing to form a \" stellar - sized \" black hole. \" swift detects something like 100 gamma ray bursts per year, \" said professor tanvir. \" and we follow up on lots of them in the hope that eventually we will get one like this one - something really very distant. \" another team, led by italian astronomer ruben salvaterra studied the afterglow independently with the national galileo telescope in la palma. little red dot he told bbc news : \" this kind of observation is quite difficult, so having two groups have the same result with two different instruments makes this much more robust. \" \" it is not surprising - we expected to see an event this distant eventually, \" said professor salvaterra. \" but to be there when it happens is quite amazing - definitely something to tell the grandchildren. \" a gamma - ray burst recipe models assume grbs arise when giant stars burn out and collapse during collapse, super - fast jets of matter burst out from the stars collisions occur with gas already shed by the dying behemoths the interaction generates the energetic signals detected by swift remnants of the huge stars end their days as black holes the astronomers were able to calculate the vast distance using a phenomenon known as \" red shift \". most of the light from the explosion was absorbed by intergalactic hydrogen gas. as that light travelled towards earth, the expansion of the universe \" stretches \" its wavelength, causing it to become redder. \" the greater that amount of movement [ or stretching ], the greater the distance. \" he said. the image of this gamma ray burst was produced by combining several infrared images. \" so in this case, it ' s the redness of the dot that indicates that it is very distant, \" professor tanvir explained. before this record - breaking event, the furthest object observed from earth was a gamma ray burst 12. 9 billion light - years away. \" this is quite a big step back to the era when the first stars formed in the universe, \" said professor tanvir. \" not too long ago we had no idea where the first galaxies came from, so astronomers think this is a profound moment. \" this is... the last blank bit of the map of the universe - the time between the big bang and the formation of these early", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5031979277756582, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:50.192497"} {"text": "pretext that library books may not be taken outside. harry \u2019 s suspicions of snape continue to grow. harry notices that snape is limping. going off to retrieve the book from snape, harry overhears snape talking to argus filch about the three - headed dog, which makes harry even more suspicious. the next morning, the quidditch match begins. harry plays the position of seeker, which means he must capture a little object called the golden snitch. he spots it and is flying toward it when the slytherin seeker pushes him out of the way and is penalised. later in the game, harry \u2019 s broom begins moving uncontrollably. hagrid comments that only dark magic could make a broomstick so hard to manage. hermione notices that snape is staring at harry and muttering to himself. as the weasley twins try to rescue their team - mate harry, hermione rushes over to snape, sneaks behind him, and sets his robe on fire. suddenly, the spell on harry \u2019 s broom is broken and harry is once again in control. he starts speeding toward the ground and lands, catching the golden snitch in his mouth. hagrid takes harry back to his hut with hermione and ron, who tells harry that snape was putting a curse on his broomstick. hagrid does not believe this charge, asking why snape would try to kill harry. harry tells hagrid about snape getting injured by the dog in the third - floor corridor. hagrid involuntarily reveals that the three - headed dog, fluffy, is his, and that what the dog is guarding is a secret known only to albus dumbledore and a man named nicolas flamel. christmas is approaching. malfoy teases harry about having to stay at hogwarts for the holiday as he doesn ' t have parents. harry, however, is looking forward to spending christmas away from the dursleys, especially because ron is also staying at hogwarts. the day the before the end of term, hermione tears harry and ron away from a conversation with hagrid to look in the library for more information about nicolas flamel. the librarian catches harry prowling around the restricted - books section of the library and kicks him out. the christmas season on christmas day, harry and ron awaken to presents, though harry \u2019 s are fewer. harry receives a flute from hagrid", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5101129295140046, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:50.221535"} {"text": "it is impossible for the information in dna to have emerged through coincidences and natural processes. the theory of evolution, which accounts for the origin of life in terms of chance, cannot provide a coherent explanation for even the existence of the most basic molecules in the cell. advances in genetic science and the discovery of the nucleic acids, dna and rna, represented still further impasses for the theory. in 1955, research by two scientists, james watson and francis crick, brought to light the dna \u2019 s unbelievably complex structure and design. the molecule known as dna, found in every one of the 100 trillion cells in the human body, contains a flawless structural blueprint for the body as a whole. information regarding all a person \u2019 s characteristics, from external appearance to the structures of the internal organs, is recorded in the dna through a special coding system, via the arrangement of four special molecules that constitute the dna spiral. these molecules, known as nucleotides, are referred to by their initial letters : a, t, g and c. all the structural differences between human beings stem from these letters being arranged differently from one another. the arrangement of these molecules in dna determines a person \u2019 s structure, down to the minutest detail. in addition to features such as height and the color of the eyes, hair and skin, the blueprints concerning the body \u2019 s 206 bones, 600 muscles, 100 billion nerve cells and 100 trillion cells are all contained in the dna in any single cell. if you were to put down all the information in dna on paper, you would need to a library of 900 volumes of 500 pages each. yet this unimaginable amount of information is coded in the components of the dna known as genes. any error arising in the arrangement of the nucleotides making up a gene will make that gene totally functionless. bear in mind that there are 40, 000 genes in the human body, and it seems absolutely impossible for the millions of nucleotides comprising these genes to have assumed their correct order by chance. a medium protein might include about 300 amino acids. the dna gene controlling this would have about 1, 000 nucleotidase in its chain. since there are four kinds of nucleotidase in a dna chain, one consisting of 1, 000 links could exist in 41000 or 10600. ten multiplied by itself 600 times gives the figure 1 followed by 600 zeros! imagine how many universes it would take to accommodate 10600 dna chains!", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5801824988899318, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:50.231520"} {"text": "dna chain, one consisting of 1, 000 links could exist in 41000 or 10600. ten multiplied by itself 600 times gives the figure 1 followed by 600 zeros! imagine how many universes it would take to accommodate 10600 dna chains! 130 following a small logarithmic calculation, in 41000 is equivalent to a probability of 1 in 10600. that number is 1 followed by 600 zeros. since 1 followed by 11 zeros equals 1 trillion, it is absolutely impossible to conceive of the number represented by 1 and 600 zeros. the impossibility of nucleotides coming together by chance to constitute dna and rna is expressed by the french evolutionist scientist paul auger : we have to sharply distinguish the two stages in the chance formation of complex molecules such as nucleotides by chemical events. the production of nucleotides one by one \u2014 which is possible \u2014 and the combination of these within very special sequences. the second is absolutely impossible. 131 the chances of a protein and nucleic acid ( dna - rna ) forming are far beyond what is estimated. in fact, the odds of a specific protein chain coming about are astronomically small. 132 the theory of evolution has not proven any of the evolutionary formations alleged to have taken place at the molecular level. as science progresses, far from producing answers to these questions, it actually makes those questions more complex and unanswerable, and thus confirms creation by default. however, evolutionists have conditioned themselves to deny creation and are thus left with no alternative than to believe in the impossible. in his book evolution : a theory in crisis, the well - known australian molecular biologist michael denton describes the situation : to the skeptic, the proposition that the genetic programmes of higher organisms, consisting of something close to a thousand million bits of information, equivalent to the sequence of letters in a small library of 1, 000 volumes, containing in encoded form countless thousands of intricate algorithms controlling, specifying, and ordering the growth and development of billions and billions of cells into the form of a complex organism, were composed by a purely random process is simply an affront to reason. but to the darwinist, the idea is accepted without a ripple of doubt \u2014 the paradigm takes precedence! 133 130 frank b. salisbury, \u201c doubts about the modern synthetic theory of evolution. \u201d american biology teacher, september 1971, p. 336. 131 paul auger, de la physique theorique a la biologie, 1970, p. 118. 132 ali demi", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5867526342719933, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:50.232719"} {"text": "| rosat home page | | rosat the time variability of x - ray emission can be studied with the hri since each detected photon has its time of arrival recorded by the detector. the accuracy of this time is limited by the electronic resolution of the hri processor which is 61 sec relative to the rosat spacecraft clock. the relative arrival times of photons during a single observation is accurate to this value. the absolute accuracy of the rosat spacecraft clock, and its conversion to ut, is expected to be a few milliseconds. the hri has a processing dead time during which events may not be counted which varies between 0. 36 and 1. 35 msec per event. the variation is discussed in section 188. 8. 131. 52 and depends on the fine position of the event. thus there is a dead time correction that needs to be made for calculating the true event rate from a source. a mean dead time of = 0. 81 msec can be used for this purpose, and the true rate is then given by :, where n is the observed rate. due to the telescope wobble and the small variations in the qe of the hri on spatial scales of a few arc minutes ( see fig. 5. 13 ), the count rate of a source can vary by 5 % between the extremities of a wobble. this can produce a low amplitude source variability on a time scale of approximately 100 - 400 seconds in some sources. as for the pspc, the hri observations are typically interrupted once per orbit, and sometimes as much a three times per orbit. typical continuous viewing times for a source will be about 2000 seconds, with some cases lasting up to 4000 seconds. long term monitoring of sources on time scales of weeks of more will be limited by the solar view constraints of the satellite. this limits source accessibility to about one month every six months for a source in the elliptic plane, with greater access time for sources closer to the ecliptic poles.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5308708968889211, "token_count": 405, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:50.246293"} {"text": "may be of interest to some of my readers. 1. data protection challenge of the future : what is big data? the three v \u2019 s - volume, velocity, and variety \u2013 are the essential characteristics of \u201c big data \u201d. while data protection and privacy laws are still busy catching up with technologies of yesterday, big data is growing at a lightning speed on a daily basis. how can companies deal with the data protection challenges brought about by big data in order to truly benefit from the opportunities introduced by big data? first, one must truly grasp what is big data. we interview jeff jonas, chief scientist at ibm entity analytics, to obtain his perspectives and definition of big data, and his experience handling big data. 2. when did data become big? big data did not become big overnight. what i think happened is data started getting generated faster than organizations could get their hands around it. then one day you simply wake up and feel like you are drowning in data. on that day, data felt big. 3. please explain and elaborate on the characteristics of big data? big data means different things to different people. personally, my favorite definition is : \u201c something magical happens when very large corpuses of data come together. \u201d some example of this can be seen at google, for example google flu trends and google translate. in my own work, i witnessed this first in 2006. in this particular system, the system started getting higher quality predictions and faster as it ingested more data. this is so counter intuitive. the easiest way to explain this though is to consider the familiar process of putting a puzzle together at home. why is it do you think the last few pieces are as easy as the first few \u2013 even though you have more data in front of you then ever before? same thing really that is happening in my systems these days. it \u2019 s rather exciting to tell you the truth. to elaborate briefly on the new physics of big data, i pinpointed the three phenomena of big data physics in my blog entry - big data. new physics \u2013 drawing from my personal experience of 14 years of designing and deploying a number of multi - billion row context accumulating systems : 1. better prediction. simultaneously lower false positives and lower false negatives 2. bad data good. more specifically, natural variability in data including spelling errors, transposition errors, and even professionally fabricated lies \u2013 all helpful. 3. more data faster. less compute effort as the database gets bigger. another definition of big data is related to the ability for organizations to", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5926821301568097, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:50.290758"} {"text": ", natural variability in data including spelling errors, transposition errors, and even professionally fabricated lies \u2013 all helpful. 3. more data faster. less compute effort as the database gets bigger. another definition of big data is related to the ability for organizations to harness data sets previously believed to be \u201c too large to handle. \u201d historically, big data means too many rows, too much storage and too much cost for organizations who lack the tools and ability to really handle data of such quantity. today, we are seeing ways to explore and iterate cheaply over big data. 4. when did data become big for you? what is your \u201c big data \u201d processing experience? as previously mentioned, for me, big data is about the magical things that happen when a critical mass is reached. to be honest, big data does not feel big to me unless it is hard to process and make sense of. a few billion rows here and a few billion rows there \u2013 such volumes once seemed a lot of data to me. then helping organizations think about dealing volumes of 100 million or more records a day seemed like a lot. today, when i think about the volumes at google and facebook, i think : \u201c now that really is big data! \u201d my personal interest and primary focus on big data these days is : how to make sense of data in real time, that is fast enough to do something about the transaction while the transaction is still happening. while you swipe that credit card, there is only a few seconds to decide if that is you or maybe someone pretending to be you. if an unauthorized user is inside your network, and data starts getting pumped out, an organization needs sub - second \u201c sense and respond \u201d capabilities. end of day batch processes producing great answers is simply late! 5. what are the technologies currently adopted to process big data? the availability of big data technologies seems to be growing by leaps and bounds and on many fronts. we are seeing a large corporate investments resulting in commercial products \u2013 at ibm two examples would be ibm infosphere streams for big data in motion and ibm infosphere big insights for pattern discovery over data at rest. there are also many big data open source efforts under way for example hadoop, cassandra and lucene. if one were to divide these into types one would find some well suited for streaming analytics and others for batch analytics. some help organizations harness structured data while others are ideal for unstructured data. one thing is for sure \u2013 there are many options, and there will be many more choices to come as big data", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5702130608694491, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:50.291855"} {"text": "complicates this : i think many consumers would be surprised to know what is computationally possible with big data. for example, where you are going to be next thursday at 5 : 35pm or your three best friends, and which two of them are not on facebook. big data is making it harder to have secrets. to illustrate using lines from my blog entry - using transparency as a mask \u2013 \u2018 unlike two decades ago, humans are now creating huge volumes of extraordinarily useful data as they self - annotate their relationships and yours, their photographs and yours, their thoughts and their thoughts about you \u2026 and more. with more data, comes better understanding and prediction. the convergence of data might reveal your \u201c discreet \u201d rendezvous or the fact you are no longer on speaking terms your best friend. no longer secret is your visit to the porn store and the subsequent change in your home \u2019 s late night energy profile, another telling story about who you are \u2026 again out of the bag, and little you can do about it. pity \u2026 you thought that all of this information was secret. \u2019 9. what are the privacy concerns & threats big data might bring about - to companies and to individuals whose data are contained in ' big data '? my number one recommendation to organizations is \u201c avoid consumer surprise. \u201d 10. how are companies currently applying privacy protection principles before / after big data has been processed? i think there are many best practices being adopted. one of my favorites involves letting consumers opt - in instead of opting them in automatically and then requiring them to opt - out. one new thing i would like to see become a new best practice is : a place on the web site, for example my bank, where i can see a list of third parties whom my bank has shared my data with. i think this transparency would be good and certainly would make consumers more aware. 11. what is \u201c big data \u201d, according to jeff jonas? big data is a pile of data so big - and harnessed so well - that it becomes possible to make substantially better predictions, for example, what web page would be the absolute best web page to place first on your results, just for you.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5401761065248425, "token_count": 444, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:50.294529"} {"text": "have you ever eaten gluten? no, not glue \u2014 gluten! if you ' ve ever eaten a piece of bread, a slice of pizza, or a bowl of cereal, chances are you have. gluten ( say : gloo - tin ) is a protein found in wheat, rye, and barley \u2014 grains that are in many everyday foods. most of us eat food with gluten with no trouble. but for some people, eating gluten can cause a reaction in their bodies. someone who has this problem has celiac ( say : see - lee - ak ) disease. after you eat food, it goes to your stomach, which is part of a group of organs that make up your digestive system. an important part of the digestive system is the small intestine, which is lined with villi ( say : vil - eye ). villi are usually described as microscopic, finger - like projections. weird, huh? fingers in your intestines! but don ' t forget that they ' re microscopic, meaning they are extremely small \u2014 so small you can ' t see them without a microscope. the villi are important because they absorb nutrients into the body. for someone with celiac disease, eating gluten \u2014 in a piece of bread, for instance \u2014 causes an immune system reaction. your immune system ordinarily keeps you from getting sick, but in someone with celiac disease, the body starts damaging and destroying the villi. without villi, the body can ' t absorb vitamins and nutrients from food. without enough nutrients, a kid ' s body has a tough time staying healthy and growing properly. even if the person eats a lot, he or she still might lose weight and might develop anemia ( say : uh - nee - me - uh ) from not absorbing enough iron. no one is sure why celiac disease happens, but it appears to run in families. you have a 5 % to 10 % chance of getting celiac disease if someone in your family has it. it ' s common in people from the northern european countries and the united states. how common? about 1 in every 133 people in the united states has celiac disease. obviously, many people who have celiac disease do not know it. if all these people were diagnosed, celiac disease would be more common than type 1 diabetes. fortunately, awareness is growing about the problem, and there are better ways of testing people for it. signs and symptoms some common symptoms of", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5334959479013, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:50.361250"} {"text": "stupor, seizures, and can be fatal. how is the sample collected for testing? a blood sample is obtained by inserting a needle into a vein in the arm. note : if undergoing medical tests makes you or someone you care for anxious, embarrassed, or even difficult to manage, you might consider reading one or more of the following articles : coping with test pain, discomfort, and anxiety, tips on blood testing, tips to help children through their medical tests, and tips to help the elderly through their medical tests. another article, follow that sample, provides a glimpse at the collection and processing of a blood sample and throat culture. is any test preparation needed to ensure the quality of the sample? no test preparation is needed. however, timing of the sample collection may affect results. generally, lithium blood levels are performed 12 - 18 hours after the last dose ( also known as a \" trough \" level ). tell the laboratorian who is drawing your blood when you took your last dose so that the results can be interpreted correctly. ask a laboratory scientist this form enables you to ask specific questions about your tests. your questions will be answered by a laboratory scientist as part of a voluntary service provided by one of our partners, american society for clinical laboratory science. if your questions are not related to your lab tests, please submit them via our contact us form. thank you. * indicates a required field note : this article is based on research that utilizes the sources cited here as well as the collective experience of the lab tests online editorial review board. this article is periodically reviewed by the editorial board and may be updated as a result of the review. any new sources cited will be added to the list and distinguished from the original sources used. sources used in current review tietz textbook of clinical chemistry and molecular diagnostics. burtis ca, ashwood er and bruns de, eds. 4th ed. st. louis, missouri : elsevier saunders ; 2006, pp 1271 - 1272. harrison ' s principles of internal medicine. 16th ed. kasper d, braunwald e, fauci a, hauser s, longo d, jameson jl, eds. mcgraw - hill, 2005 pg 2557. ( updated march 24, 2009 ) lee d, gupta m. toxicity, lithium from medscape. available online at http : / / emedicine. medscape. com / article / 815523 - overview through http : / / emedicine. medscape. com. accessed", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5018817597517751, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:50.648629"} {"text": "this work presents a myth - busting account of how class conflict and economic development, and not only interstate rivalry, led to the emergence of the modern state system. inspired by the groundbreaking historical work of robert brenner, teschke argues that property relations provide the key to unlocking the changing meaning of ' international ' across the medieval, early modern and modern periods. challenging the reification of the treaty of westphalia, teschke shows that international politics remained under the control of dynastic and absolutist political elites that were rooted in feudal property regimes. the book rejects a commonplace of european history : that the treaties of westphalia not only closed the thirty years \u2019 war but also inaugurated a new international order driven by the interaction of territorial sovereign states. benno teschke, through this thorough and incisive critique, argues that this is not the case. domestic \u2018 social property relations \u2019 shaped international relations in continental europe down to 1789 and even beyond. the dynastic monarchies that ruled during this time differed from their medieval predecessors in degree and form of personalization, but not in underlying dynamic. 1648, therefore, is a false caesura in the history of international relations. for real change we must wait until relatively recent times and the development of modern states and true capitalism. in effect, it \u2019 s not until governments are run impersonally, with no function other than the exercise of its monopoly on violence, that modern international relations are born. | the myth of 1648 - benno teschke | | 14. 84 mb |", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5284826137956855, "token_count": 315, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:50.681409"} {"text": "was noticed from 7 : 38 to 9 : 21 tlst that the lmre ( lander mounted rover equipment ) link quality, which is a measure of how well it is receiving good data frames ( 1 complete frame = 6 byte ack + 250 bytes of data ) from the rover, dropped to 44 % and continued to degrade to 14 %. after that point no more good data was received from the rover for the remainder of the sequence. a large number of garbled frames ( ones containing crc errors ), however, continued to be received by the lmre modem which indicated that the rover modem was still transmitting, and had not completely failed. during this period when rover communications degraded, the lander switched from the low gain antenna to the high gain antenna after doing a sun - search with the imp camera. also, the lander + y petal was elevated to 45\u00b0, an air - bag retraction sequence was run, and the petal was returned to a horizontal position. all during this time the rover was in the stowed configuration on the petal with its antenna down. lastly, it was decided not to deploy both rover ramps that day and wait until sol 2 to perform the rover release, standup and egress down the rear ramp. sol 1 considerations : the following have been considered and discounted as communications problems : the following are the most likely contributors to the communication degradation problem : the protocol at the data - link layer used on the uhf link between sojourner and the pathfinder lander is of the acknowledge / negative - acknowledge ( ack / nak ) type. there is no forward error correction channel coding whatsoever. the response of ack or nak is dictated by a cyclic redundancy character ( crc ) check computed over the contents of each transmission frame. a frame generating a nak can be retried up to three times before the software errors - out and skips to the next frame in the transmission queue. ack / nak protocols are very simple to implement and permit confidence in the fidelity of the data transfer when signaled by the ack confirmation, but they are extremely fragile data - link layer implementations : that is, the throughput of the link can collapse catastrophically for small incremental changes in the bit error rate ( ber ) of the physical layer. click on this graph to see how quickly the probability of receiving different size data frames can change with just a small change in ber performance. the maximum frame size used on the uhf", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5078254652129055, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:50.730049"} {"text": "in the bit error rate ( ber ) of the physical layer. click on this graph to see how quickly the probability of receiving different size data frames can change with just a small change in ber performance. the maximum frame size used on the uhf link between the sojourner rover and the pathfinder lander is 256 bytes, and examination of the graph shows a rapid collapse of communications throughput for bit error rates exceeding approximately 10 - 4. note also that short frames ( those of length less than 256 bytes ) can get through with high probability even when those of maximal length are likely to fail. it was this phenomenon that was frequently observed on sol 1 and 2 : short frames got across ; fully stuffed frames did not. clearly the communications problem was not one of hardware failure or even of hardware intermittency, it was mainly an increase in bit error rate that was coupled with an extremely unforgiving data - link layer protocol. sol 2 rover telecom scenario : during the night of sol 1 the lander experienced a software reset which, it was concluded, did not affect the quality of the lander to rover uhf link. also, it has been concluded that switching between both lmre modem dc - dc converters had no corrective effect. it is likely that because of configuration differences with the location of the hga and imp that scattering / multipath conditions at the beginning of sol 2 had changed. the changes may have made the communications environment favorable enough to allow reception to occur. the rover woke up nominally via alarm clock on sol 2 at 07 : 01 : 53 tlst with no a / d problems. the small packet size command sequences for sol 2 were received normally by the rover. this indicated that the rover was able to receive data without any problems and it then began transmitting data to the lander. its first level 2 health check showed that its modem temperature was at - 30c, much colder than the day before because no modem heating was performed. the rover was still stowed on the petal with its antenna down. data was apparently buffered on the rover overnight when comm with the lander was lost. a total of 31, 491 bytes of sequence data were received. this coincides with the amount of eeprom available for buffering data ( 32k ). all indications are that the rover continued to perform runout or commanded sequence but had no place to buffer the additional data. the rover unstow ( cmd 2520 ) command executed nominally at 11 : 47 :", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5335116989749292, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:50.731026"} {"text": "search loci : convergence : the reader may here observe the force of numbers, which can be successfully applied, even to those things, which one would imagine are subject to no rules. there are very few things which we know, which are not capable of being reduc ' d to a mathematical reasoning ; and when they cannot it ' s a sign our knowledge of them is very small and confus ' d ; and when a mathematical reasoning can be had it ' s as great a folly to make use of any other, as to grope for a thing in the dark, when you have a candle standing by you. of the laws of chance ( 1692 ) georg cantor at the dawn of point - set topology a first course in point - set topology can be challenging for the student because of the abstract level of the material. in an attempt to mitigate this problem, we use the history of point - set topology to obtain natural motivation for the study of some key concepts. in this article, we study an 1872 paper by georg cantor. we will look at the problem cantor was attempting to solve and see how the now familiar concepts of a point - set and derived set are natural answers to his question. we emphasize ways to utilize cantor ' s methods in order to introduce point - set topology to students. in his introduction to his book introduction to phenomenology, msgr. robert sokolowski writes as a philosopher, msgr. sokolowski is accustomed to the traditional methods of teaching philosophy to undergraduates \u2013 start with plato, aristotle and the other ancients, continue with developments through the scholastic and enlightenment eras, and then show how modern philosophy builds upon all that has gone before. he must be puzzled, then, by the lack of attention to the historical development of ideas that generally attends to the teaching of mathematics. he perceives that something important is missing, and he is correct. in recent years, interest has grown considerably in developing an historical approach to the teaching of mathematics. victor katz has edited an anthology of articles giving different perspectives on the development of mathematics in general from an historical point of view. some authors, such as klyve, stemkoski, and tou, focus on one particular historical figure \u2013 in their case, euler \u2013 important to the development of mathematics. there is also interest in the historical development of certain areas of mathematics commonly included in the undergraduate curriculum. brian hopkins has written a textbook introducing discrete mathematics from an historical point of view ; david bressoud has written two textbooks that present", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6122413618708575, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:50.760104"} {"text": "development of mathematics. there is also interest in the historical development of certain areas of mathematics commonly included in the undergraduate curriculum. brian hopkins has written a textbook introducing discrete mathematics from an historical point of view ; david bressoud has written two textbooks that present analysis from an historical perspective (, ) ; and adam parker has compiled an original sources bibliography for ordinary differential equations instructors that contains many of the original papers in odes. this is the first paper in a planned series that will outline ways to introduce point - set topology concepts motivated by their place in history. to borrow a phrase from david bressoud, it is an \" attempt to let history inform pedagogy \" [ 2, p. vii ]. a growing collection of the historic papers that are important to the development of point - set topology may be found on the author ' s web site. this paper focuses on the seminal work of georg cantor ( 1845 - 1918 ), a german mathematician well - known for his contributions to the foundations of set theory, but whose contributions to point - set topology are not very well known. cantor \u2019 s works are collected in. for complete biographical information, see dauben \u2019 s definitive work. table of contents scoville, nicholas, \" georg cantor at the dawn of point - set topology, \" loci ( march 2012 ), doi : 10. 4169 / loci003861", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5706087067662972, "token_count": 283, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:50.760734"} {"text": "unitary method problem date : 02 / 01 / 99 at 19 : 13 : 36 from : tamara subject : a unitary method problem runts come in a carton. there are 8 packages in one carton. there are 3 boxes in each package. if there are 170 runts in one box, how many runts are there in 6 cartons? date : 03 / 01 / 99 at 17 : 48 : 36 from : doctor swiss subject : re : a unitary method problem this can be a difficult question to take in all at once. the best way to approach it is to break it down into steps. the first step is to notice how runts, boxes, packages, and cartons are related. it might help to draw a diagram, like this one : 170 runts / box - - > 3 boxes / package - - > 8 packages / carton - - > 6 cartons just so you know, by runt / box, we mean runts in a box. now you can see how everything is related, and you can also see the steps that you have to take. now to find out the number of runts in 6 cartons, it would help us to see how many packages are in 6 cartons. why? well, once we know the number of packages in 6 cartons, we can find out the number of boxes in 6 cartons, and finally the number of runts in 6 cartons. so now we are trying to find the number of packages in 6 cartons. we know the number of packages on 1 carton is 8. what if we had 2 cartons? then we would have 8 cartons from the first package and 8 from the second, for a total of 8 + 8 = 16. note that this is also 8 * 2 = 16 cartons. try this for 3 cartons. i hope you can see the jump and figure out that there are 8 * 6 packages in 6 cartons. you can repeat this process to find that there are 3 * 8 * 6 boxes in 6 cartons. you need one more step to find the number of runts in 6 cartons. it turns out that this problem is just one big multiplication problem. please write back if you need more help or have any more questions. good luck, - doctors swiss, teeple, and stacey, the math forum http : / / mathforum. org / dr. math / search the dr. math library : ask dr. mathtm \u00a9 1994 - 2013 the math forum", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5582851161440041, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:50.763928"} {"text": "seasonal affective disorder sorry no news is found... your search criteria may have been too narrow. you can quickly re - sort the news in different ways by clicking on the tabs at the top of this page. seasonal affective disorder ( sad ), also known as winter depression, winter blues, summer depression, summer blues, or seasonal depression, is a mood disorder in which people who have normal mental health throughout most of the year experience depressive symptoms in the winter or summer, spring or autumn year after year. in the diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders ( dsm - iv ), sad is not a unique mood disorder, but is \" a specifier of major depression \". although experts were initially skeptical, this condition is now recognized as a common disorder, with its prevalence in the u. s. ranging from 1. 4 percent in florida to 9. 7 percent in new hampshire. the u. s. national library of medicine notes that \" some people experience a serious mood change when the seasons change. they may sleep too much, have little energy, and may also feel depressed. though symptoms can be severe, they usually clear up. \" the condition in the summer is often referred to as reverse seasonal affective disorder, and can also include heightened anxiety. sad was formally described and named in 1984 by norman e. rosenthal and colleagues at the national institute of mental health. there are many different treatments for classic hormones ( winter - based ) seasonal affective disorder, including light therapy with sunlight or bright lights, antidepressant medication, cognitive - behavioral therapy, ionized - air administration, and carefully timed supplementation of the hormone melatonin. this text uses material from wikipedia and is available under the gnu free documentation license. latest spotlight news you ' re standing near an airport luggage carousel and your bag emerges on the conveyor belt, prompting you to spring into action. how does your brain make the shift from passively waiting to taking action when... 26 minutes ago | not rated yet | 0 | widely available in pharmacies and health stores, phosphatidylserine is a natural food supplement produced from beef, oysters, and soy. proven to improve cognition and slow memory loss, it ' s a popular treatment for older... 50 minutes ago | 5 / 5 ( 1 ) | 0 | ( medical xpress ) \u2014 native peoples in regions where cameras are uncommon sometimes react with caution when their picture is taken. the fear that something must have been stolen from them to create the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5044171284181259, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:50.775030"} {"text": "50 minutes ago | 5 / 5 ( 1 ) | 0 | ( medical xpress ) \u2014 native peoples in regions where cameras are uncommon sometimes react with caution when their picture is taken. the fear that something must have been stolen from them to create the photo... 1 hour ago | 3. 5 / 5 ( 2 ) | 0 | australian scientists have charted the path of insulin action in cells in precise detail like never before. this provides a comprehensive blueprint for understanding what goes wrong in diabetes. 1 hour ago | 4. 5 / 5 ( 2 ) | 0 | researchers at emory university have identified a protein that stimulates a pair of \" orphan receptors \" found in the brain, solving a long - standing biological puzzle and possibly leading to future treatments for neurological... 1 hour ago | not rated yet | 0 | the level of immunity to the recently circulating h7n9 influenza virus in an urban and rural population in vietnam is very low, according to the first population level study to examine human immunity to the virus, which was... 1 hour ago | not rated yet | 0 | in a striking, unexpected discovery, researchers at albert einstein college of medicine of yeshiva university have determined that vitamin c kills drug - resistant tuberculosis ( tb ) bacteria in laboratory culture. the finding... 1 hour ago | 5 / 5 ( 1 ) | 0 | in a remote fishing community in venezuela, a lone fisherman sits on a cliff overlooking the southern caribbean sea. this man \u2013 \u2013 the lookout \u2013 \u2013 is responsible for directing his comrades on the water,... 3 hours ago | 4 / 5 ( 1 ) | 0 | over the past few decades, scientists have developed many devices that can reopen clogged arteries, including angioplasty balloons and metallic stents. while generally effective, each of these treatments... 5 hours ago | 5 / 5 ( 3 ) | 0 |", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_entanglement", "similarity_score": 0.5038110803426827, "token_count": 387, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:50.775793"} {"text": "as the more accessible methods for micro energy ( microwatt - hour to watt - hour ) harvesting and storage become commercialized, the research community will focus on extremes in efficiency and cost breakthroughs and exploration of entirely new methods and applications. make no mistake ; there is plenty of exciting new ground to be covered! we will in this session profile the space of current and anticipated micro energy harvesting needs and approaches suitable for sensing, computing, and communications. the berkeley sensor & actuator center will conduct this afternoon - through - evening conference and reception at the leeds certified green david brower center on the edge of the beautiful uc berkeley campus on wednesday march 9th. applications drivers : energy consumption in communicating sensor networks will radical reductions in power requirements of wireless radios and integrated sensors and processors make energy \u201c harvesting \u201d ubiquitous, or unnecessary? application requirements, hardware trends, and protocol efficiency will be discussed in the context of energy harvesting solutions. advanced sensing technology for harsh environments present and future research directions for harsh environment telemetry will be discussed in this presentation. using the application of sensors in geothermal power plants as a focus, a comprehensive research program will be described for the development of sensors, telemetry, energy harvesting, materials, packaging and bonding. aluminum nitride and silicon carbide material technologies ( as well as other related material technologies ) will be described. energy harvesting and sensing for the power grid bsac work on energy harvesting and wireless sensors for the smart grid will be discussed. the current situation of sparse deployment of expensive sensors for even basic electrical parameters and without ability to quickly locate faults, and with no way of predicting future faults will be addressed by these technologies. as renewable but rapidly fluctuating wind and solar power sources are connected, the sensing and actuation situation will become critical. small, hermetically sealed, meso - scale and mems - based lightweight sensors and scavengers with the goal of increase in the granularity of sensing and the controllability of our power grids. some of these devices involve piezo - magnetic harvesting, mems - on - glass manufacture and packaging, and scavengers that draw the small amount of energy they need from the power lines themselves. they will include new methods for extending the usable life of piezoelectric members. cost effective and efficient microphotovoltaics solar energy presents a viable candidate for fossil fuel replacement. in this regard, developing technologies for $ 1 / w installed pv system is needed. the choice of materials and cell architecture, the cost", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5628370096030264, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:50.786124"} {"text": "members. cost effective and efficient microphotovoltaics solar energy presents a viable candidate for fossil fuel replacement. in this regard, developing technologies for $ 1 / w installed pv system is needed. the choice of materials and cell architecture, the cost and abundance of the raw materials, the component manufacturing costs, the cell design and framework, the capital cost, and the installation costs are all important contributing factors to the final cost. although there is considerable current focus on the absorber materials and the required deposition processes, the rest of the cell, including transparent conductors, texturing, optical coatings, etc., and reliability are equally important. all of these are fundamentally materials related problems and progress requires an interdisciplinary approach drawing on materials science, chemistry, applied physics, mechanical and electrical engineering, however, significant challenges exist in developing efficient and low cost systems that are scalable to small formats and small capacities ( micropower ) as well as to commercial scale ( kilowatts to megawatts ). micro energy storage micro energy storage is indispensable for energy harvester systems. energy generation from various resources is required to be stored and released when the power is needed. two systems are commonly known in the macroscale systems : battery and supercapacitors. this talk will provide efforts in micro energy storage systems including high power density supercapacitors with high energy storage capability and nanostructure - based micro batteries. biologically - inspired scavenging technologies recent developments focusing on two very different bio - inspired energy harvesting microsystems will be discussed. the first, in collaboration with cfd corporation, is a miniaturized electrochemical system for harvesting energy from an insect \u2019 s reactions with the sugar trehalose. the system is being designed to produce 100 \u2032 s of uw \u2019 s in a compact footprint, suitable for powering instrumentation on a cyborg insect. a similar system is being studied for mammalian implants. the second topic will briefly discuss developments in the scavenging of power from evaporation and low pressure head flows, including our work on microscale boundary - layer turbines ( so - called tesla turbines ), a topic which has applications beyond scavenging. panel and mixing reception the topics are certain to generate interest if not some controversy among the audience and speakers. an extended reception and mixing event will allow continuation of the discussions and renewal of prior and establishment of new connections among practitioners, students, and investors of impacted applications. agenda and registration can be found here : http : / / bsac. berkeley", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5611137289759652, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:50.787297"} {"text": "after participating in this activity, students will be able to : - describe the difference between herbivores, carnivores, and producers. - answer questions about the interdependence of herbivores, carnivores, and producers as members of a food chain. - answer questions about how pollution affects food chains. all living organisms depend on one another for food. by reviewing the relationships of organisms that feed on one another, students begin to see how all organisms \u2014 including humans \u2014 are linked. if students understand the relationships in a simple food chain, they will better understand the importance and sensitivity of these connections, and why changes to one part of the food chain almost always impact another. a food chain is a simplified way to show the relationship of organisms that feed on each other. it \u2019 s helpful to classify animals in a simple food chain by what they eat, or where they get their energy. green plants, called producers, form the basis of the aquatic food chain. they get their energy from the sun and make their own food through photosynthesis. in the great lakes, producers can be microscopic phytoplankton ( plant plankton ), algae, aquatic plants like elodea, or plants like cattails that emerge from the water \u2019 s surface. herbivores, such as ducks, small fish, and many species of zooplankton ( animal plankton ), eat plants. carnivores ( meat eaters ) eat other animals and can be small ( i. e, frog ) or large ( i. e, lake trout ). omnivores are animals ( including humans ) that eat both plants and animals. each is an important part of the food chain. in reality, food chains overlap at many points \u2014 because animals often feed on multiple species \u2014 forming complex food webs. food web diagrams depict all feeding interactions among species in real communities. these complex diagrams often appear as intricate spider webs connecting the species. see : unit 1, lesson 2 this lesson demonstrates that changes in one part of a food chain or web may affect other parts, resulting in impacts on carnivores, herbivores, and eventually on producers. an example of this might be the harmful effects of pollution. the point that should be made is that when something disrupts a food web, humans should try to understand and minimize the disturbance. students should also come to recognize that humans, too, are part of this complex web of life.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5039676799837307, "token_count": 504, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:50.794853"} {"text": "a few months ago i read about a very simple but fun probability puzzle. someone tells you : try to solve it yourself. john baez mentions that you would think or he would think that the information about tuesday is irrelevant because the days of the week are independent of the sex and we only care about the latter. \u201c i have two children. at least one is a boy born on a tuesday. [ and if it were not the case, i would have told you. ] what is the probability i have two boys? \u201d so you would think that there are 4 equally represented groups of 2 - kid families, namely boy - boy, boy - girl, girl - boy, and girl - girl families where the two hyphenated words refer to the younger and older kid, respectively. only the girl - girl families are eliminated, and 1 of the remaining 3 groups is a two - boy family, so the conditional probability is 1 / 3. however, that ' s a wrong result. the information about the tuesday actually does matter. here ' s why : in all families with exactly 2 children, one may label the children as the \" younger \" and \" older \" one, even if the difference is just in seconds. each kid may be born on any day and have any sex, so there are 14 equally likely possibilities for each child. the two children are independent ( forget that the phenomenon of twins tends to increase the same - day pairs ), so there are 14 x 14 possibilities for two kids. each of these 14 x 14 possibilities is equally likely. so 1 / 196 of the world ' s families with exactly 2 kids fits each condition. among the 196 types of the families, how many of them contain at least one tuesday son? well, in 14 of them, the younger kid is a tuesday son ( the older one may be anything chosen from the 14 possibilities ). in 14 other of them ( the younger can be anything ), the older one is a tuesday son. however, i have counted the families with two tuesday sons twice. so there are 14 + 14 - 1 = 27 possibilities among the 196 for which the condition \" at least one kid is a tuesday son \" is satisfied. this is the assumption which is a part of the calculation of the conditional probability. we need the other part, too. among these 27 / 196 of the families, 13 / 196 of all families have two boys, by pure counting, so the result is p = 13 / 27as the fraction of the families that satisfied the condition.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5424101874951797, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:50.804984"} {"text": "need the other part, too. among these 27 / 196 of the families, 13 / 196 of all families have two boys, by pure counting, so the result is p = 13 / 27as the fraction of the families that satisfied the condition. note that it is just slightly less than 1 / 2 = 13. 5 / 27 i. e. much more than 1 / 3. i had to highlight the result because almost no one reads the full article and almost no one notices that the right results is neither 1 / 3 nor 1 / 2. indeed, the large difference of the right result from 1 / 3 appears because one de facto identifies one of the sons by mentioning that it is the kid from tuesday. if you assumed there were infinitely many days in a week and you would take any family with at least one tuesday kid, the \" tuesday \" information would identify this kid completely ( two tuesday kids would be infinitesimally unlikely ), and the question what is the probability of 2 sons would be reduced to the question what is the probability that the other, equally specific kid - the non - tuesday kid - is male - which is of course 1 / 2. i will discuss this \" identification \" and reasons why the result is close to 1 / 2 at the very end. indistinguishable kids ' bound states with kids that would satisfy the bose or fermi statistics, the counting would be different but equally straightforward. instead of 14 x 14 = 196 possibilities, one has 14 x 15 / 2 = 105 for bosons ( the symmetric triangle ) and 14 x 13 / 2 = 91 ( the antisymmetric triangle ) for fermions. among the 105 or 91 options, how many of them contain at least one tuesday son? well, in these two cases, we can ' t say which of them is older and younger : they ' re identical. so if there is at least 1 tuesday son, the number of states with at least 1 tuesday son is 14 for the bosons - we can just create the other particle into the 1 - particle state - or 13 for the fermions - we can also add the second creation operator, but with another tuesday son, the state will vanish because of pauli ' s exclusion principle. among these 14 or 13 states respectively, for bosons and fermions, 7 or 6 are two - son states, respectively. so the odds are 7 / 14 = 1 / 2 for the bosons and 6 / 13 for the fermions. note that the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6564483815895399, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:50.805923"} {"text": "states respectively, for bosons and fermions, 7 or 6 are two - son states, respectively. so the odds are 7 / 14 = 1 / 2 for the bosons and 6 / 13 for the fermions. note that the bosons literally saturate the 1 / 2 bound while the fermions are just slightly below it. why not one third? finally, i want to comment on \" why the information about tuesday matters \". if we sum up the probabilities for the problems where the son is born on sunday, monday... and up to saturday, shouldn ' t we get the same result? and by symmetry, the result must be equal for all 7 days, so doesn ' t each term have to be 1 / 3? the answer is that we can ' t add the probabilities in this way because the \" at least one monday son \" etc. are assumptions, not propositions conditioned by these assumptions, and they ' re not disjoint. at any rate, the calculation is nonlinear because the conditional probabilities have the probability of the assumption in the denominator rather than the numerator, so you can ' t simply add the possibilities in any way. the word term in the previous paragraph is therefore incorrect. how and why 1 / 3 gets enhanced to nearly 1 / 2 if you were only told that \" one of the kids is a boy \", the mixed families would be overrepresented over the two - boy families by the 2 - to - 1 ratio because boy - girl and girl - boy families are as likely as boy - boy families ; again, the kids notation is younger - older. however, if you ' re told that \" one of the kids is a tuesday boy \", this overrepresentation almost disappears. why? because 1 / 7 of the boy - girl and girl - boy families have a tuesday boy. but ( approximately ) 2 / 7 of the boy - boy families have at least one tuesday boy because each of these two boys has a chance to be born on tuesday. in this way, the boy - boy families ( nearly ) compensate the factor of two by which they were underrepresented relatively to the mixed families. bonus : this puzzle and crackpot sean carroll ' s misunderstanding of logic this logical puzzle is actually a very precise pedagogical example showing what ' s wrong with the thinking of various people about the arrow of time. some people - those who say that the information about tuesday doesn ' t", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6325235865983478, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:50.806883"} {"text": "carroll ' s misunderstanding of logic this logical puzzle is actually a very precise pedagogical example showing what ' s wrong with the thinking of various people about the arrow of time. some people - those who say that the information about tuesday doesn ' t matter and who typically end up with the result 1 / 3 - think that prob ( cond, any _ day ) = prob ( cond, monday ) +... + prob ( cond, sunday ) where \" cond \" is an extra condition. so if we make a statement about a specific object and if this statement doesn ' t prefer any day of the week, then adding the information about \" its \" day of the week doesn ' t matter. it only reduces the probability by a factor of 7 if the probability is day - blind. that ' s right for \" conclusions \" or \" outcomes \". however, the error that these people are making is that they think that this \" additive \" counting of the probabilities also holds for the probabilities of assumptions, i. e. probabilities of conditions in the conditional probability. but no such a linearity exists over there. conditions ( and initial states ) don ' t follow the same maths as the outcomes ( and final states )! there is no condition - outcome or past - future symmetry in mathematical logic! that ' s why it matters for the probabilities whether the information about tuesday is specified even though there is nothing special about tuesday.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_computing", "similarity_score": 0.5865774175947287, "token_count": 302, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:50.807454"} {"text": "potsdam \u2013 clarkson university ' s egon matijevic, the victor k. lamer professor of colloid and surface science, and evgeny katz, the milton kerker chair in colloid science, are listed in the h - index of living scientists. the h - index attempts to measure both the scientific productivity and the apparent scientific impact of a scientist. the index is based on the set of the scientist ' s most cited papers and the number of citations that they have received in other people ' s publications. at ranking # 218, matijevic, with an h of 69, has published 69 papers ( among total 575 papers ), which have each received at least 69 citations. at ranking # 380, katz, with an h of 60, has published 60 papers ( among more than 300 papers ), which have each received at least 60 citations. it should be noted that this listed of the most - cited chemists totals only 587 worldwide with the two clarkson ' s professors among them. the index was suggested by physicist jorge e. hirsch as a tool for determining quality of scientific publications of a person and is sometimes called the hirsch index or hirsch number. the purpose of this index is similar to the popular impact factor, which is used to rank the quality of scientific journals, but it is applied to a person. the definition of the h - index and the explanations of its importance can be found at http : / / en. wikipedia. org / wiki / h - index. the latest list, compiled by henry schaefer of the university of georgia, together with colleague amy peterson, was updated in november 2010 and can be found at http : / / www. rsc. org / chemistryworld / news / 2007 / april / 23040701. asp.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5592700199317058, "token_count": 362, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:50.847005"} {"text": "referendum, which allowed voters to repeal laws that they did not support, and recall, which allowed voters to remove elected officials from office. many progressives supported women ' s suffrage, helping women secure the right to vote through the adoption of the nineteenth amendment to the united states constitution in 1919. progressives also battled against city bosses, including cincinnati, ohio ' s george cox, by hiring city managers. while progressives enacted numerous positive reforms, some of their goals were questionable. they did seek to make the united states government more democratic and to protect american workers, but they also sought to force their social and political beliefs on others. progressives opposed immigration and enacted several immigration restrictions during the 1920s. progressives also tried to force immigrants to adopt progressive moral beliefs. one way they tried to accomplish this was through settlement houses. settlement houses existed in most major cities during the late nineteenth and the early twentieth centuries. they were places where immigrants could go to receive free food, clothing, job training, and educational classes. while all of these items greatly helped immigrants, progressives also used the settlement houses to convince immigrants to adopt \" american \" or progressive beliefs, causing the foreigners to forsake their own culture. during the 1920s, many progressives also joined the ku klux klan, a self - proclaimed religious group that was to enforce morality - - based on progressive beliefs - - on other people. due to such the progressives ' participation in prohibition, the ku klux klan, and immigration restrictions, many americans stopped supporting the progressive movement. while aspects of its beliefs remain today, as a functioning and clearly identifiable group, the progressive movement began to weaken by the late 1920s and the early 1930s.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5047514214200822, "token_count": 339, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:50.872057"} {"text": "using openmp - the book and examples use this forum to discuss the book : using openmp - portable shared memory parallel programming by barbara chapman, gabriele jost and ruud van der pashttp : / / mitpress. mit. edu / catalog / item / default. asp? ttype = 2 & tid = 11387 the sources are available as a free download under the bsd license. each source comes with a copy of the license. please do not remove this. you are encouraged to try out these examples and perhaps use them as a starting point to better understand and perhaps further explore openmp. each source file constitutes a full working program. other than a compiler and run time environment to support openmp, nothing else is needed. with the exception of one example, there are no source code comments. not only are these examples very straightforward, they are also discussed in the above mentioned book. as a courtesy, each source directory has a make file called \" makefile \". this file can be used to build and run the examples in the specific directory. before you do so, you need to activate the appropriate include line in file makefile. there are include files for several compilers and unix based operating systems ( linux, solaris and mac os to precise ). these files have been put together on a best effort basis. the user ' s guide that is bundled with the examples explains this in more detail. please post your feedback about the book and / or these examples to this forum.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.539308259167009, "token_count": 310, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:50.908163"} {"text": "- proton transfer networks and the mechanism of long range proton transfer in proteins ( 2010 ) - the main energy providing reaction systems in living cells, for example the photosynthesis or the respiratory chain, are based on long range proton transfer ( lrpt ) reactions. even since these lrpt reactions have been heavily investigated in the last decades, the mechanism of these reactions is still not completely understood. the reaction kinetics of the lrpt are under heavy discussion and it is not clear, whether the reorientation of the hydrogen bond network ( hbn ) or the electrostatic barrier for the charge transfer is rate limiting. the main purpose of this work is to investigate the dynamics of chemical reactions inside of proteins, focused on long range proton transfer reactions. electron transfer reactions, rotations of water molecules or conformational changes of the protein are also considered. the developed sequential dynamical monte carlo ( sdmc ) method is applicable to almost all kinds of chemical reactions. for all proton transfer reactions, the hbn of a protein plays a major role. protons are transferred along such hydrogen bonds. therefore, knowledge about the hydrogen bond network of a protein is crucial for the simulation of lrpt systems. the hbn can be calculated from the protein structure and the rotational state of the amino acid side chains. the reaction rate can be calculated from the electrostatic energies of the participating proton donor and acceptor groups. these two criteria are combined for the decision if a proton transfer between two molecules is possible and how fast this transfer would happen. while the calculation of electrostatic energies of protonatable amino acid side chains or relevant cofactors in proteins ( among them also water molecules ) is already solved - implemented in various programs - the remaining tasks - calculating the hydrogen bond network followed by calculating the reaction rates - were solved during this work. before the hydrogen bond network and the electrostatic energies could be calculated, the lack of water positions in many available crystallographically resolved protein structures made it necessary to develop an algorithm to detect internal cavities in proteins and fill these cavities with water molecules. the derived water positions could be included in the electrostatic calculations as well as in the calculation of the hbn. the simulation of the lrpt in gramicidin a ( ga ) compared to experimental data of the proton transfer in this polypeptide showed the possibilities of the simulation of the lrpt by the sdmc algorithm. the promising results encouraged us to investigate the mechanism of the lrpt, especially, if the re", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5795352093882262, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:50.922246"} {"text": "to experimental data of the proton transfer in this polypeptide showed the possibilities of the simulation of the lrpt by the sdmc algorithm. the promising results encouraged us to investigate the mechanism of the lrpt, especially, if the reorientation of the hbn or the electrostatic energy barrier of the charge transfer is rate limiting for the lrpt. the results indicate, that both effects influence the lrpt and none of them is exclusively responsible for the lrpt rate. further analysis of the hydrogen bond network topology showed that graph algorithms can be used to analyze these networks. hydrogen bond networks can be clustered into regions which are close connected to each other. on the other hand, residues connecting two or more of these densely connected regions might play an important role for proton transfer pathways since a loss of such residues cuts a proton transfer pathway. a comparison of an analysis of the hbn topology of the photosynthetic reaction center with mutation studies of the same system showed, that residues identified as important for proton transfer by the mutation studies are identified as connection points between clusters by the network analysis. the developed algorithms together with the introduction of a new method for the simulation of the lrpt process ( sdmc ) improved the picture of the proton transfer processes in proteins. starting from the protein structure, the developed algorithms cover all steps from the detection of protein cavities, the placement of water molecules in these cavities, the calculation and analysis of the hydrogen bond network, the simulation of the lrpt and the investigation of the reaction kinetics. the analysis of the hbn by graph theoretical methods gives further insight into the hbn topology and identifies residues important for proton transfer pathways and therefore important for the protein activity.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_computing", "similarity_score": 0.5766982936295522, "token_count": 351, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:50.923990"} {"text": "closing in on the planck constant sep 25, 1998 physicists in the us have made the most accurate measurements ever of the planck constant, h. edwin williams and colleagues at the national institute of standards and technology in gaithersburg, maryland, measured h by comparing the voltage needed to control the velocity of a coil moving vertically in an magnetic field, with the current that has to be passed through the coil to balance gravity in the same magnetic field. the measurement could lead to a new reference stand for the kilogram ( phys. rev. lett. 81 2404 ). the kilogram is currently defined by a platinum - iridium alloy maintained at the bureau international des poids et mesures ( bipm ) in paris and six official copies. however, the official mass of the standard kilogram has been known to vary with time, hence the interest in defining the kilogram is terms of fundamental constants like h. the highly stable magnetic field needed for the experiment is generated by a superconducting magnet that has been cooled to 4 kelvin. the experiment also uses two induction coils : the lower coil is fixed to the support structure of the experiment, while the upper coil can move. this upper coil is also attached to a wheel balance above the experiment. in the first stage of the measurement, the mass balance is empty and a small force is applied to the upper coil, forcing it to move at 2mm / s. the researchers found that this generated a voltage of 1. 018 \u00b1 0. 001 v across the moving coil. in the second stage of the experiment, a 500 g countermass is balanced by a - 10. 18 ma current in the induction coil. both stages were repeated over many months to obtain a value of 6. 62606891 ( 58 ) x 10 - 34 joule seconds for the planck constant. this result - which corresponds to an accuracy of 9 parts in 108 - is a factor of 15 better than previous measurements. the team hope to improve on this result by another factor of 10 by modifying their experiment.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.6084829319947637, "token_count": 420, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:50.965472"} {"text": "ultrafast electron microscope makes movies dec 8, 2006 physicists have created a new form of electron microscopy that can make \" movies \" of atoms as they undergo ultra - rapid chemical or structural transitions. ahmed zewail and colleagues at the california institute of technology in the us have used coincident electron and laser pulses to follow vanadium and oxygen atoms as they rearranged themselves on a vanadium oxide surface over the course of several picoseconds. the researchers say that the technique could also be used to study a wide range of ultrafast biological and physical phenomena. ( proc. natl. acad. sci. 103 18427 ) ). electron microscopes have better resolution than optical microscopes because high - energy electrons have a much shorter wavelength than light. the resolution can be further improved by using coherent electron wavepackets, which can contain as few as one electron. the wavelengths of these packets are much smaller than the space between individual atoms and can be brought to a very sharp focus, allowing objects to be imaged with atomic - scale resolution. the packets are of extremely short duration and this can be exploited to take \u201c snapshots \u201d of atoms as they undergo structural or chemical transitions. in 2005, zewail and colleagues used coherent electron packets to take single snapshots of a number of materials and biological samples. now the researchers have further refined their technique to take a time sequence of images that allowed them to watch vanadium and oxygen atoms rearrange themselves in a process that can take as little as 100 femtoseconds ( 10 - 13 seconds ). the timing sequence is generated by femtosecond laser pulses as illustrated in the figure \" ultrafast microscope \". each pulse is split into two pulses \u2013 one is used by the microscope to create the electron pulse and the other is used to heat the sample. according to zewail, the crucial and most difficult part of the technique is coordinating the arrivals of the laser and electron pulses at the sample with an accuracy of just a few femtoseconds. this is particularly difficult because the laser pulse travels at the speed of light, while the electron pulse lags behind at about two thirds the speed of light. the coincident laser pulse is used to heat the sample and drive a transition from a low - temperature crystal structure to a high - temperature structure. by changing the delay between the laser and electron pulses in regular time steps, the researchers were able to take snapshots of the atoms at different sample temperatures. zewai", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6097141539772197, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:50.969624"} {"text": "individual differences | methods | statistics | clinical | educational | industrial | professional items | world psychology | - for a non - technical introduction to the topic, please see introduction to genetics. genetics ( from ancient greek \u03b3\u03b5\u03bd\u03b5\u03c4\u03b9\u03ba\u03bf\u03c2 genetikos, \u201c genitive \u201d and that from \u03b3\u03b5\u03bd\u03b5\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2 genesis, \u201c origin \u201d ), a discipline of biology, is the science of heredity and variation in living organisms. the fact that living things inherit traits from their parents has been used since prehistoric times to improve crop plants and animals through selective breeding. however, the modern science of genetics, which seeks to understand the process of inheritance, only began with the work of gregor mendel in the mid - nineteenth century. although he did not know the physical basis for heredity, mendel observed that organisms inherit traits in a discrete manner \u2014 these basic units of inheritance are now called genes. genes correspond to regions within dna, a molecule composed of a chain of four different types of nucleotides \u2014 the sequence of these nucleotides is the genetic information organisms inherit. dna naturally occurs in a double stranded form, with nucleotides on each strand complementary to each other. each strand can act as a template for creating a new partner strand \u2014 this is the physical method for making copies of genes that can be inherited. the sequence of nucleotides in a gene is translated by cells to produce a chain of amino acids, creating proteins \u2014 the order of amino acids in a protein corresponds to the order of nucleotides in the gene. this is known as the genetic code. the amino acids in a protein determine how it folds into a three - dimensional shape ; this structure is, in turn, responsible for the protein ' s function. proteins carry out almost all the functions needed for cells to live. a change to the dna in a gene can change a protein ' s amino acids, changing its shape and function : this can have a dramatic effect in the cell and on the organism as a whole. although genetics plays a large role in the appearance and behavior of organisms, it is the combination of genetics with what an organism experiences that determines the ultimate outcome. for example, while genes play a role in determining a person ' s height, the nutrition and health that person experiences in childhood also have a large effect. - main article : history of genetics although the science of genetics began with the applied and theoretical work of gregor mendel in the mid - 1800s, other theories of inheritance preceded mendel. a", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5968498467244303, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:51.017055"} {"text": "health that person experiences in childhood also have a large effect. - main article : history of genetics although the science of genetics began with the applied and theoretical work of gregor mendel in the mid - 1800s, other theories of inheritance preceded mendel. a popular theory during mendel ' s time was the concept of blending inheritance : the idea that individuals inherit a smooth blend of traits from their parents. mendel ' s work disproved this, showing that traits are composed of combinations of distinct genes rather than a continuous blend. another theory that had some support at that time was the inheritance of acquired characteristics : the belief that individuals inherit traits strengthened by their parents. this theory ( commonly associated with jean - baptiste lamarck ) is now known to be wrong \u2014 the experiences of individuals do not affect the genes they pass to their children. other theories included the pangenesis of charles darwin ( which had both acquired and inherited aspects ) and francis galton ' s reformulation of pangenesis as both particulate and inherited. mendelian and classical geneticsedit the modern science of genetics traces its roots to gregor johann mendel, a german - czech augustinian monk and scientist who studied the nature of inheritance in plants. in his paper \" versuche uber pflanzenhybriden \" ( \" experiments on plant hybridization \" ), presented in 1865 to the naturforschender verein ( society for research in nature ) in brunn, mendel traced the inheritance patterns of certain traits in pea plants and described them mathematically. although this pattern of inheritance could only be observed for a few traits, mendel ' s work suggested that heredity was particulate, not acquired, and that the inheritance patterns of many traits could be explained through simple rules and ratios. the importance of mendel ' s work did not gain wide understanding until the 1890s, after his death, when other scientists working on similar problems re - discovered his research. william bateson, a proponent of mendel ' s work, coined the word genetics in 1905. ( the adjective genetic, derived from the greek word genesis - \u03b3\u03b5\u03bd\u03b5\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2, \" origin \" and that from the word genno - \u03b3\u03b5\u03bd\u03bd\u03c9, \" to give birth \", predates the noun and was first used in a biological sense in 1860. ) bateson popularized the usage of the word genetics to describe the study of inheritance in his inaugural address to the third international conference on plant hybridization in london, england, in 1906. after the red", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5515114291142118, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:51.019842"} {"text": "was first used in a biological sense in 1860. ) bateson popularized the usage of the word genetics to describe the study of inheritance in his inaugural address to the third international conference on plant hybridization in london, england, in 1906. after the rediscovery of mendel ' s work, scientists tried to determine which molecules in the cell were responsible for inheritance. in 1910, thomas hunt morgan argued that genes are on chromosomes, based on observations of a sex - linked white eye mutation in fruit flies. in 1913, his student alfred sturtevant used the phenomenon of genetic linkage to show that genes are arranged linearly on the chromosome. < span id = \" molecular \" / > although genes were known to exist on chromosomes, chromosomes are composed of both protein and dna \u2014 scientists did not know which of these was responsible for inheritance. in 1928, frederick griffith discovered the phenomenon of transformation ( see griffith ' s experiment ) : dead bacteria could transfer genetic material to \" transform \" other still - living bacteria. sixteen years later, in 1944, oswald theodore avery, colin mcleod and maclyn mccarty identified the molecule responsible for transformation as dna. the hershey - chase experiment in 1952 also showed that dna ( rather than protein ) was the genetic material of the viruses that infect bacteria, providing further evidence that dna was the molecule responsible for inheritance. james d. watson and francis crick determined the structure of dna in 1953, using the x - ray crystallography work of rosalind franklin that indicated dna had a helical structure ( i. e., shaped like a corkscrew ). their double - helix model had two strands of dna with the nucleotides pointing inward, each matching a complementary nucleotide on the other strand to form what looks like rungs on a twisted ladder. this structure showed that genetic information exists in the sequence of nucleotides on each strand of dna. the structure also suggested a simple method for duplication : if the strands are separated, new partner strands can be reconstructed for each based on the sequence of the old strand. although the structure of dna showed how inheritance worked, it was still not known how dna influenced the behavior of cells. in the following years, scientists tried to understand how dna controls the process of protein production. it was discovered that the cell uses dna as a template to create matching messenger rna ( a molecule with nucleotides, very similar to dna ). the nucleotide sequence of a messenger rna is used to create an amino acid sequence in protein ;", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5746302631846358, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:51.020968"} {"text": "was discovered that the cell uses dna as a template to create matching messenger rna ( a molecule with nucleotides, very similar to dna ). the nucleotide sequence of a messenger rna is used to create an amino acid sequence in protein ; this translation between nucleotide and amino acid sequences is known as the genetic code. with this molecular understanding of inheritance, an explosion of research became possible. one important development was chain - termination dna sequencing in 1977 by frederick sanger : this technology allows scientists to read the nucleotide sequence of a dna molecule. in 1983, kary banks mullis developed the polymerase chain reaction, providing a quick way to isolate and amplify a specific section of a dna from a mixture. through the pooled efforts of the human genome project and the parallel private effort by celera genomics, these and other techniques culminated in the sequencing of the human genome in 2003. features of inheritanceedit discrete inheritance and mendel ' s lawsedit - main article : mendelian inheritance at its most fundamental level, inheritance in organisms occurs by means of discrete traits, called genes. this property was first observed by gregor mendel, who studied the segregation of heritable traits in pea plants. in his experiments studying the trait for flower color, mendel observed that the flowers of each pea plant were either purple or white - and never an intermediate between the two colors. these different, discrete versions of the same gene are called alleles. in the case of pea plants, each organism has two alleles of each gene, and the plants inherit one allele from each parent. many organisms, including humans, have this pattern of inheritance. organisms with two copies of the same allele are called homozygous, while organisms with two different alleles are heterozygous. the set of alleles for a given organism is called its genotype, while the observable trait the organism has is called its phenotype. when organisms are heterozygous, often one allele is called dominant as its qualities dominate the phenotype of the organism, while the other allele is called recessive as its qualities recede and are not observed. some alleles do not have complete dominance and instead have incomplete dominance by expressing an intermediate phenotype, or codominance by expressing both alleles at once. when a pair of organisms reproduce sexually, their offspring randomly inherit one of the two alleles from each parent. these observations of discrete inheritance and the segregation of", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5752495166976379, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:51.021918"} {"text": "an intermediate phenotype, or codominance by expressing both alleles at once. when a pair of organisms reproduce sexually, their offspring randomly inherit one of the two alleles from each parent. these observations of discrete inheritance and the segregation of alleles are collectively known as mendel ' s first law or the law of segregation. notation and diagramsedit geneticists use diagrams and symbols to describe inheritance. a gene is represented by a letter ( or letters ) \u2014 the capitalized letter represents the dominant allele and the recessive is represented by lowercase. often a \" + \" symbol is used to mark the usual, non - mutant allele for a gene. in fertilization and breeding experiments ( and especially when discussing mendel ' s laws ) the parents are referred to as the \" p \" generation and the offspring as the \" f1 \" ( first filial ) generation. when the f1 offspring mate with each other, the offspring are called the \" f2 \" ( second filial ) generation. one of the common diagrams used to predict the result of cross - breeding is the punnett square. interactions of multiple genesedit organisms have thousands of genes, and in sexually reproducing organisms assortment of these genes are generally independent of each other. this means that the inheritance of an allele for yellow or green pea color is unrelated to the inheritance of alleles for white or purple flowers. this phenomenon, known as \" mendel ' s second law \" or the \" law of independent assortment \", means that the alleles of different genes get shuffled between parents to form offspring with many different combinations. ( some genes do not assort independently, demonstrating genetic linkage, a topic discussed later in this article. ) often different genes can interact in a way that influences the same trait. in the blue - eyed mary ( omphalodes verna ), for example, there exists a gene with alleles that determine the color of flowers : blue or magenta. another gene, however, controls whether the flowers have color at all : color or white. when a plant has two copies of this white allele, its flowers are white - regardless of whether the first gene has blue or magenta alleles. this interaction between genes is called epistasis, with the second gene epistatic to the first. many traits are not discrete features ( eg. purple or white flowers ) but are instead continuous features ( eg. human height and skin color ). these complex traits are the product of many", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6271196821391456, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:51.022908"} {"text": "with the second gene epistatic to the first. many traits are not discrete features ( eg. purple or white flowers ) but are instead continuous features ( eg. human height and skin color ). these complex traits are the product of many genes. the influence of these genes is mediated, to varying degrees, by the environment an organism has experienced. the degree to which an organism ' s genes contribute to a complex trait is called heritability. measurement of the heritability of a trait is relative - in a more variable environment, the environment has a bigger influence on the total variation of the trait. for example, human height is a complex trait with a heritability of 89 % in the united states. in nigeria, however, where people experience a more variable access to good nutrition and health care, height has a heritability of only 62 %. molecular basis for inheritanceedit dna and chromosomesedit - main article : dna the molecular basis for genes is deoxyribonucleic acid ( dna ). dna is composed of a chain of nucleotides, of which there are four types : adenine ( a ), cytosine ( c ), guanine ( g ), and thymine ( t ). genetic information exists in the sequence of these nucleotides, and genes exist as stretches of sequence along the dna chain. viruses are the only exception to this rule \u2014 sometimes viruses use the very similar molecule rna instead of dna as their genetic material. dna normally exists as a double - stranded molecule, coiled into the shape of a double - helix. each nucleotide in dna preferentially pairs with its partner nucleotide on the opposite strand : a pairs with t, and c pairs with g. thus, in its two - stranded form, each strand effectively contains all necessary information, redundant with its partner strand. this structure of dna is the physical basis for inheritance : dna replication duplicates the genetic information by splitting the strands and using each strand as a template for synthesis of a new partner strand. genes are arranged linearly along long chains of dna sequence, called chromosomes. in bacteria, each cell has a single circular chromosome, while eukaryotic organisms ( which includes plants and animals ) have their dna arranged in multiple linear chromosomes. these dna strands are often extremely long ; the largest human chromosome, for example, is about 247 million base pairs in length. the dna of a chromosome is associated with structural proteins that organize, compact, and control access to the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5704227991375912, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:51.023886"} {"text": "in multiple linear chromosomes. these dna strands are often extremely long ; the largest human chromosome, for example, is about 247 million base pairs in length. the dna of a chromosome is associated with structural proteins that organize, compact, and control access to the dna, forming a material called chromatin ; in eukaryotes, chromatin is usually composed of nucleosomes, repeating units of dna wound around a core of histone proteins. the full set of hereditary material in an organism ( usually the combined dna sequences of all chromosomes ) is called the genome. while haploid organisms have only one copy of each chromosome, most animals and many plants are diploid, containing two of each chromosome and thus two copies of every gene. the two alleles for a gene are located on identical loci of sister chromatids, each allele inherited from a different parent. an exception exists in the sex chromosomes, specialized chromosomes many animals have evolved that play a role in determining the sex of an organism. in humans and other mammals, the y chromosome has very few genes and triggers the development of male sexual characteristics, while the x chromosome is similar to the other chromosomes and contains many genes unrelated to sex determination. females have two copies of the x chromosome, but males have one y and only one x chromosome - this difference in x chromosome copy numbers leads to the unusual inheritance patterns of sex - linked disorders. - main article : asexual reproduction when cells divide, their full genome is copied and each daughter cell inherits one copy. this process, called mitosis, is the simplest form of reproduction and is the basis for asexual reproduction. asexual reproduction can also occur in multicellular organisms, producing offspring that inherit their genome from a single parent. offspring that are genetically identical to their parents are called clones. eukaryotic organisms often use sexual reproduction to generate offspring that contain a mixture of genetic material inherited from two different parents. the process of sexual reproduction alternates between forms that contain single copies of the genome ( haploid ) and double copies ( diploid ). haploid cells fuse and combine genetic material to create a diploid cell with paired chromosomes. diploid organisms form haploids by dividing, without replicating their dna, to create daughter cells that randomly inherit one of each pair of chromosomes. most animals and many plants are diploid for most of their lifespan, with the haploid form reduced to single cell gametes. although they do not use the haploid / diploid method", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.569693504336591, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:51.024918"} {"text": "that randomly inherit one of each pair of chromosomes. most animals and many plants are diploid for most of their lifespan, with the haploid form reduced to single cell gametes. although they do not use the haploid / diploid method of sexual reproduction, bacteria have many methods of acquiring new genetic information. some bacteria can undergo conjugation, transferring a small circular piece of dna to another bacterium. bacteria can also take up raw dna fragments found in the environment and integrate them into their genome, a phenomenon known as transformation. these processes result in horizontal gene transfer, transmitting fragments of genetic information between organisms that would be otherwise unrelated. - main article : chromosomal crossover the diploid nature of chromosomes allows for genes on different chromosomes to assort independently during sexual reproduction, recombining to form new combinations of genes. genes on the same chromosome would theoretically never recombine, however, were it not for the process of chromosomal crossover. during crossover, chromosomes exchange stretches of dna, effectively shuffling the gene alleles between the chromosomes. this process of chromosomal crossover generally occurs during meiosis, a series of cell divisions that creates haploid cells. the probability of chromosomal crossover occurring between two given points on the chromosome is related to the distance between them. for an arbitrarily long distance, the probability of crossover is high enough that the inheritance of the genes is effectively uncorrelated. for genes that are closer together, however, the lower probability of crossover means that the genes demonstrate genetic linkage - alleles for the two genes tend to be inherited together. the amounts of linkage between a series of genes can be combined to form a linear linkage map that roughly describes the arrangement of the genes along the chromosome. - main article : genetic code genes generally express their functional effect through the production of proteins, which are complex molecules responsible for most functions in the cell. proteins are chains of amino acids, and the dna sequence of a gene ( through rna intermediate ) is used to produce a specific protein sequence. this process begins with the production of an rna molecule with a sequence matching the gene ' s dna sequence, a process called transcription. this messenger rna molecule is then used to produce a corresponding amino acid sequence through a process called translation. each group of three nucleotides in the sequence, called a codon, corresponds to one of the twenty possible amino acids in protein - this correspondence is called the genetic code. the flow of information is unidirectional : information is transferred", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5938802364554683, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 7, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:51.026024"} {"text": "group of three nucleotides in the sequence, called a codon, corresponds to one of the twenty possible amino acids in protein - this correspondence is called the genetic code. the flow of information is unidirectional : information is transferred from nucleotide sequences into the amino acid sequence of proteins, but it never transfers from protein back into the sequence of dna \u2014 a phenomenon francis crick called the central dogma of molecular biology. the specific sequence of amino acids results in a unique three - dimensional structure for that protein, and the three - dimensional structures of protein are related to their function. some are simple structural molecules, like the fibers formed by the protein collagen. proteins can bind to other proteins and simple molecules, sometimes acting as enzymes by facilitating chemical reactions within the bound molecules ( without changing the structure of the protein itself ). protein structure is dynamic ; the protein hemoglobin bends into slightly different forms as it facilitates the capture, transport, and release of oxygen molecules within mammalian blood. a single nucleotide difference within dna can cause a single change in the amino acid sequence of a protein. because protein structures are the result of their amino acid sequences, some changes can dramatically change the properties of a protein by destabilizing the structure or changing the surface of the protein in a way that changes its interaction with other proteins and molecules. for example, sickle - cell anemia is a human genetic disease that results from a single base difference within the coding region for the \u03b2 - globin section of hemoglobin, causing a single amino acid change that changes hemoglobin ' s physical properties. sickle - cell versions of hemoglobin stick to themselves, stacking to form fibers that distort the shape of red blood cells carrying the protein. these sickle - shaped cells no longer flow smoothly through blood vessels, having a tendency to clog or degrade, causing the medical problems associated with this disease. some genes are transcribed into rna but are not translated into protein products - these are called non - coding rna molecules. in some cases, these products fold into structures which are involved in critical cell functions ( eg. ribosomal rna and transfer rna ). rna can also have regulatory effect through hybridization interactions with other rna molecules ( eg. microrna ). nature versus nurtureedit although genes contain all the information an organism uses to function, the environment plays an important role in determining the ultimate phenotype \u2014 a dichotomy often referred to as", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6091362494526389, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 8, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:51.027044"} {"text": "molecules ( eg. microrna ). nature versus nurtureedit although genes contain all the information an organism uses to function, the environment plays an important role in determining the ultimate phenotype \u2014 a dichotomy often referred to as \" nature vs. nurture. \" the phenotype of an organism depends on the interaction of genetics with the environment. one example of this is the case of temperature - sensitive mutations. often, a single amino acid change within the sequence of a protein does not change its behavior and interactions with other molecules, but it does destabilize the structure. in a high temperature environment, where molecules are moving more quickly and hitting each other, this results in the protein losing its structure and failing to function. in a low temperature environment, however, the protein ' s structure is stable and functions normally. this type of mutation is visible in the coat coloration of siamese cats, where a mutation in an enzyme responsible for pigment production causes it to destabilize and lose function at high temperatures. the protein remains functional in areas of skin that are colder \u2014 legs, ears, tail, and face \u2014 and so the cat has dark fur at its extremities. environment also plays a dramatic role in effects of the human genetic disease phenylketonuria. the mutation that causes phenylketonuria disrupts the ability of the body to break down the amino acid phenylalanine, causing a toxic build - up of an intermediate molecule that, in turn, causes severe symptoms of progressive mental retardation and seizures. if someone with the phenylketonuria mutation follows a strict diet that avoids this amino acid, however, they remain normal and healthy. - main article : regulation of gene expression the genome of a given organism contains thousands of genes, but not all these genes need to be active at any given moment. a gene is expressed when it is being transcribed into mrna ( and translated into protein ), and there exist many cellular methods of controlling the expression of genes such that proteins are produced only when needed by the cell. transcription factors are regulatory proteins that bind to the start of genes, either promoting or inhibiting the transcription of the gene. within the genome of escherichia coli bacteria, for example, there exists a series of genes necessary for the synthesis of the amino acid tryptophan. however, when tryptophan is already available to the cell, these genes for tryptophan synthesis are no longer needed. the presence of", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5868231476646613, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 9, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:51.028089"} {"text": ", there exists a series of genes necessary for the synthesis of the amino acid tryptophan. however, when tryptophan is already available to the cell, these genes for tryptophan synthesis are no longer needed. the presence of tryptophan directly affects the activity of the genes \u2014 tryptophan molecules bind to the tryptophan repressor ( a transcription factor ), changing the repressor ' s structure such that the repressor binds to the genes. the tryptophan repressor blocks the transcription and expression of the genes, thereby creating negative feedback regulation of the tryptophan synthesis process. differences in gene expression are especially clear within multicellular organisms, where cells all contain the same genome but have very different structures and behaviors due to the expression of different sets of genes. all the cells in a multicellular organism derive from a single cell, differentiating into variant cell types in response to external and intercellular signals and gradually establishing different patterns of gene expression to create different behaviors. as no single gene is responsible for the development of structures within multicellular organisms, these patterns arise from the complex interactions between many cells. within eukaryotes there exist structural features of chromatin that influence the transcription of genes, often in the form of modifications to dna and chromatin that are stably inherited by daughter cells. these features are called \" epigenetic \" because they exist \" on top \" of the dna sequence and retain inheritance from one cell generation to the next. because of epigenetic features, different cell types grown within the same medium can retain very different properties. although epigenetic features are generally dynamic over the course of development, some, like the phenomenon of paramutation, have multigenerational inheritance and exist as rare exceptions to the general rule of dna as the basis for inheritance. - main article : mutation during the process of dna replication, errors occasionally occur in the polymerization of the second strand. these errors, called mutations, can have an impact on the phenotype of an organism, especially if they occur within the protein coding sequence of a gene. error rates are usually very low \u2014 1 error in every 10 \u2013 100 million bases \u2014 due to the \" proofreading \" ability of dna polymerases. ( without proofreading error rates are a thousand - fold higher ; because many viruses rely on dna and rna polymerases that lack proofreading ability, they experience higher mutation rates. ) processes that increase the rate of changes in", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5642358684945092, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 10, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:51.029098"} {"text": "beneficial mutations can cause a species to evolve into forms that better survive their environment, a process called adaptation. new species are formed through the process of speciation, a process often caused by geographical separations that allow different populations to genetically diverge. the application of genetic principles to the study of population biology and evolution is referred to as the modern synthesis. as sequences diverge and change during the process of evolution, these differences between sequences can be used as a molecular clock to calculate the evolutionary distance between them. genetic comparisons are generally considered the most accurate method of characterizing the relatedness between species, an improvement over the sometimes deceptive comparison of phenotypic characteristics. the evolutionary distances between species can be combined to form evolutionary trees - these trees represent the common descent and divergence of species over time, although they cannot represent the transfer of genetic material between unrelated species ( known as horizontal gene transfer and most common in bacteria ). research and technologyedit model organisms and geneticsedit although geneticists originally studied inheritance in a wide range of organisms, researchers began to specialize in studying the genetics of a particular subset of organisms. the fact that significant research already existed for a given organism would encourage new researchers to choose it for further study, and so eventually a few model organisms became the basis for most genetics research. common research topics in model organism genetics include the study of gene regulation and the involvement of genes in development and cancer. organisms were chosen, in part, for convenience \u2014 short generation times and easy genetic manipulation made some organisms popular genetics research tools. widely used model organisms include the gut bacterium escherichia coli, the plant arabidopsis thaliana, baker ' s yeast ( saccharomyces cerevisiae ), the nematode caenorhabditis elegans, the common fruit fly ( drosophila melanogaster ), and the common house mouse ( mus musculus ). medical genetics researchedit medical genetics seeks to understand how genetic variation relates to human health and disease. when searching for an unknown gene that may be involved in a disease, researchers commonly use genetic linkage and genetic pedigree charts to find the location on the genome associated with the disease. at the population level, researchers take advantage of mendelian randomization to look for locations in the genome that are associated with diseases, a technique especially useful for multigenic traits not clearly defined by a single gene. once a candidate gene is found, further research is often done on the same gene ( called an ortholo", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5675004112713158, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 12, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:51.031493"} {"text": "look for locations in the genome that are associated with diseases, a technique especially useful for multigenic traits not clearly defined by a single gene. once a candidate gene is found, further research is often done on the same gene ( called an orthologous gene ) in model organisms. in addition to studying genetic diseases, the increased availability of genotyping techniques has led to the field of pharmacogenetics \u2014 studying how genotype can affect drug responses. although it is not an inherited disease, cancer is also considered a genetic disease. the process of cancer development in the body is a combination of events. mutations occasionally occur within cells in the body as they divide. while these mutations will not be inherited by any offspring, they can affect the behavior of cells, sometimes causing them to grow and divide more frequently. there are biological mechanisms that attempt to stop this process ; signals are given to inappropriately dividing cells that should trigger cell death, but sometimes additional mutations occur that cause cells to ignore these messages. an internal process of natural selection occurs within the body and eventually mutations accumulate within cells to promote their own growth, creating a cancerous tumor that grows and invades various tissues of the body. dna can be manipulated in the laboratory. restriction enzymes are a commonly used enzyme that cuts dna at specific sequences, producing predictable fragments of dna. the use of ligation enzymes allows these fragments to be reconnected, and by ligating fragments of dna together from different sources, researchers can create recombinant dna. often associated with genetically modified organisms, recombinant dna is commonly used in the context of plasmids - short circular dna fragments with a few genes on them. by inserting plasmids into bacteria and growing those bacteria on plates of agar ( to isolate clones of bacteria cells ), researchers can clonally amplify the inserted fragment of dna ( a process known as molecular cloning ). ( cloning can also refer to the creation of clonal organisms, through various techniques. ) dna can also be amplified using a procedure called the polymerase chain reaction ( pcr ). by using specific short sequences of dna, pcr can isolate and exponentially amplify a targeted region of dna. because it can amplify from extremely small amounts of dna, pcr is also often used to detect the presence of specific dna sequences. dna sequencing and genomicsedit one of the most fundamental technologies developed to study genetics, dna sequencing allows researchers to determine the sequence of nucleotide", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5644490199723496, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 13, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:51.032633"} {"text": "small amounts of dna, pcr is also often used to detect the presence of specific dna sequences. dna sequencing and genomicsedit one of the most fundamental technologies developed to study genetics, dna sequencing allows researchers to determine the sequence of nucleotides in dna fragments. developed in 1977 by frederick sanger and coworkers, chain - termination sequencing is now routinely used to sequence dna fragments. with this technology, researchers have been able to study the molecular sequences associated with many human diseases. as sequencing has become less expensive and with the aid of computational tools, researchers have sequenced the genomes of many organisms by stitching together the sequences of many different fragments ( a process called genome assembly ). these technologies were used to sequence the human genome, leading to the completion of the human genome project in 2003. new high - throughput sequencing technologies are dramatically lowering the cost of dna sequencing, with many researchers hoping to bring the cost of resequencing a human genome down to a thousand dollars. the large amount of sequences available has created the field of genomics, research that uses computational tools to search for and analyze patterns in the full genomes of organisms. genomics can also be considered a subfield of bioinformatics, which uses computational approaches to analyze large sets of biological data. - animal breeding - animal mate selection - animal strain differences - assortive mating - behavioural genetics - blood groups - family resemblance - genetic counselling - population genetics - genetic disorders - genetic engineering - human accelerated regions - hybrids ( biology ) - instinctive behaviour - reproductive technology - selective breeding - sexual reproduction - species differences - translocation ( chromosomes ) - \u2191 genetikos, henry george liddell, robert scott, \" a greek - english lexicon \", at perseus - \u2191 genesis, henry george liddell, robert scott, \" a greek - english lexicon \", at perseus - \u2191 online etymology dictionary - \u2191 griffiths et al. 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( 2002 ), i. 3. proteins : protein function - \u2191 how does sickle cell cause disease?. brigham and women ' s hospital : information center for sickle cell and thalassemic disorders. url accessed on 2007 - 07 - 23. - \u2191 imes dl, geary la, grahn ra, lyons la ( 2006 ). albinism in the domestic cat ( felis catus ) is associated with a tyrosinase ( tyr ) mutation. animal genetics 37 ( 2 ) : 175. - \u2191 medlineplus : phenylketonuria. nih : national library of medicine. url accessed on 2008 - 03 - 15. - \u2191 brivanlou ah, darnell je jr ( 2002 ). signal transduction and the control of gene expression. science 295 ( 5556 ) : 813 \u2013 818. - \u2191 alberts et al. ( 2002 ), ii. 3. control of gene expression \u2013 the tryptophan repressor is a simple switch that turns genes on and off in bacteria - \u2191 jaenisch r, bird a. epigenetic regulation of gene expression : how the genome integrates intrinsic and environmental signals. nature genetics 33 ( 3s ) : 245 \u2013 254. - \u2191 chandler vl ( 2007 ). paramutation : from maize to mice. cell 128 : 641 \u2013 645. - \u2191 griffiths et al. ( 2000 ), chapter 16 ( mechanisms of gene mutation ) : spontaneous mutations - \u2191 kunkel ta ( 2004 ). dna replication fidelity. journal of biological chemistry 279 ( 17 ) : 16895 \u2013 16898. - \u2191", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5790271042185178, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 18, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:51.041213"} {"text": "\u2191 griffiths et al. ( 2000 ), chapter 16 ( mechanisms of gene mutation ) : spontaneous mutations - \u2191 kunkel ta ( 2004 ). dna replication fidelity. journal of biological chemistry 279 ( 17 ) : 16895 \u2013 16898. - \u2191 griffiths et al. ( 2000 ), chapter 16 ( mechanisms of gene mutation ) : induced mutations - \u2191 griffiths et al. ( 2000 ), chapter 17 ( chromosome mutation i : changes in chromosome structure ) : introduction - \u2191 sawyer sa, parsch j, zhang z, hartl dl ( 2007 ). prevalence of positive selection among nearly neutral amino acid replacements in drosophila. proc. natl. acad. sci. u. s. a. 104 ( 16 ) : 6504 \u2013 10. - \u2191 griffiths et al. ( 2000 ), chapter 24 ( population genetics ) : variation and its modulation - \u2191 griffiths et al. ( 2000 ), chapter 24 ( population genetics ) : selection - \u2191 griffiths et al. ( 2000 ), chapter 24 ( population genetics ) : random events - \u2191 darwin, charles ( 1859 ). on the origin of species, 1st, 1, john murray.. related earlier ideas were acknowledged in darwin, charles ( 1861 ). on the origin of species, 3rd, xiii, john murray. - \u2191 gavrilets s ( 2003 ). perspective : models of speciation : what have we learned in 40 years?. evolution 57 ( 10 ) : 2197 \u2013 2215. - \u2191 wolf yi, rogozin ib, grishin nv, koonin ev ( 2002 ). genome trees and the tree of life. trends genet. 18 ( 9 ) : 472 \u2013 479. - \u2191 the use of model organisms in instruction. university of wisconsin : wisconsin outreach research modules. url accessed on 2008 - 03 - 15. - \u2191 ncbi : genes and disease. nih : national center for biotechnology information. url accessed on 2008 - 03 - 15. - \u2191 davey smith, g, ebrahim, s ( 2003 ). \u2018 mendelian randomization \u2019 : can genetic epidemiology contribute to understanding environmental determinants of disease?. international journal of epidemiology 32 : 1 \u2013 22. - \u2191 pharmacogenetics fact sheet. nih : national institute of general medical sciences. url accessed on 2008 - 03 - 15. - \u2191 strachan t, read ap ( 1999 ). human molecular genetics 2, second edition, john wiley", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5672919659435796, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 19, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:51.042070"} {"text": "diagnosing fasd in canada and harmonized most differences between the iom and university of washington ' s systems. each diagnostic system requires that a complete fasd evaluation include assessment of the four key features of fasd, described below. a positive finding on all four features is required for a diagnosis of fas, the first diagnosable condition of fasd that was discovered. however, prenatal alcohol exposure and central nervous system damage are the critical elements of the spectrum of fasd, and a positive finding in these two features is sufficient for an fasd diagnosis that is not \" full - blown fas. \" diagnoses are described in a following section. key features of fasdedit each of the key features of fasd can vary widely within one individual exposed to prenatal alcohol. while consensus exists for the definition and diagnosis of fas across diagnostic systems, minor variations among the systems lead to differences in definitions and diagnostic cut - off criteria for other disgnoses across the fasd continuum. ( the central nervous system ( cns ) damage criteria particularly lack clear consensus. ) a working knowledge of the key features is helpful in understanding fasd diagnoses and conditions, and each are reviewed with attention to similarities and differences across the four diagnostic systems. in terms of fasd, growth deficiency is defined as significantly below average height, weight or both due to prenatal alcohol exposure, and can be assessed at any point in the lifespan. growth measurements must be adjusted for parental height, gestational age ( for a premature infant ), and other postnatal insults ( e. g., poor nutrition ), although birth height and weight are the preferred measurements. deficiencies are documented when height or weight falls at or below the 10th percentile of standardized growth charts appropriate to the patient ' s population. criteria for fasd are least specific in the iom diagnostic system ( \" low birth weight..., decelerating weight not due to nutrition..., [ or ] disproportional low weight to height \" p. 4 of executive summary ), while the cdc and canadian guidelines use the 10th percentile as a cut - off to determine growth deficiency. the \" 4 - digit diagnostic code \" allows for mid - range gradations in growth deficiency ( between the 3rd and 10th percentiles ) and severe growth deficiency at or below the 3rd percentile. growth deficiency ( at severe, moderate, or mild levels ) contributes to diagnoses of fas and pfas", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5161074874560357, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:51.065105"} {"text": "damage to the brain or brain structures caused by prenatal alcohol exposure. structural impairments may include microcephaly ( small head size ) of two or more standard deviations below the average, or other abnormalities in brain structure ( e. g., agenesis of the corpus callosum, cerebellar hypoplasia ). microcephaly is determined by comparing head circumference ( often called occipitofrontal circumference, or ofc ) to appropriate ofc growth charts. other structural impairments must be observed through medical imaging techniques by a trained physician. because imaging procedures are expensive and relatively inaccessible to most patients, diagnosis of fasd is not frequently made via structural impairments except for microcephaly. when structural impairments are not observable or do not exist, neurological impairments are assessed. in the context of fasd, neurological impairments are caused by prenatal alcohol exposure which causes general neurological damage to the central nervous system ( cns ), the peripheral nervous system, or the autonomic nervous system. a determination of a neurological problem must be made by a trained physician, and must not be due to a postnatal insult, such as a high fever, concussion, traumatic brain injury, etc. all four diagnostic systems show virtual agreement on their criteria for cns damage at the neurological level, and evidence of a cns neurological impairment due to prenatal alcohol exposure will result in a diagnosis of fas or pfas, and functional impairments are highly likely. neurological problems are expressed as either hard signs, or diagnosable disorders, such as epilepsy or other seizure disorders, or soft signs. soft signs are broader, nonspecific neurological impairments, or symptoms, such as impaired fine motor skills, neurosensory hearing loss, poor gait, clumsiness, poor eye - hand coordination, or sensory integration dysfunction. many soft signs have norm - referenced criteria, while others are determined through clinical judgment. when structural or neurological impairments are not observed, all four diagnostic systems allow cns damage due to prenatal alcohol exposure to be assessed in terms of functional impairments. functional impairments are deficits, problems, delays, or abnormalities due to prenatal alcohol exposure ( rather than hereditary causes or postnatal insults ) in observable and measurable domains related to daily functioning, often referred to as developmental disabilities. there is no consensus on a specific pattern of functional impairment", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5282195356768802, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:51.070335"} {"text": "abnormalities due to prenatal alcohol exposure ( rather than hereditary causes or postnatal insults ) in observable and measurable domains related to daily functioning, often referred to as developmental disabilities. there is no consensus on a specific pattern of functional impairments due to prenatal alcohol exposure and only cdc guidelines label developmental delays as such, so criteria ( and fasd diagnoses ) vary somewhat across diagnostic systems. the four diagnostic systems list various cns domains that can qualify for functional impairment that can determine an fasd diagnosis : - evidence of a complex pattern of behavior or cognitive abnormalities inconsistent with developmental level in the following cns domains - sufficient for a pfas or arnd diagnosis using iom guidelines - performance at two or more standard deviations on standardized testing in three or more of the following cns domains - sufficient for an fas, pfas or static encephalopathy diagnosis using 4 - digit diagnostic code - general cognitive deficits ( e. g., iq ) at or below the 3rd percentile on standardized testing - sufficient for an fas diagnosis using cdc guidelines - performance at or below the 16th percentile on standardized testing in three or more of the following cns domains - sufficient for an fas diagnosis using cdc guidelines - performance at two or more standard deviations on standardized testing in three or more of the following cns domains - sufficient for an fas diagnosis using canadian guidelines ten brain domainsedit a recent effort to standardize assessment of functional cns damage has been suggested by an experienced fasd diagnostic team in minnesota. the proposed framework attempts to harmonize iom, 4 - digit diagnostic code, cdc, and canadian guidelines for measuring cns damage viz - a - viz fasd evaluations and diagnosis. the standardized approach is referred to as the ten brain domains and encompasses aspects of all four diagnostic systems ' recommendations for assessing cns damage due to prenatal alcohol exposure. the framework provides clear definitions of brain dysfunction, specifies empirical data needed for accurate diagnosis, and defines intervention considerations that address the complex nature of fasd with the intention to avoid common secondary disabilities. the proposed ten brain domains include : - achievement, adaptive behavior, attention, cognition, executive functioning, language, memory, motor skills, sensory integration or soft neurological problems, social communication the fetal alcohol diagnostic program ( fadp ) uses unpublished minnesota state criteria of performance at 1. 5 or more standard deviations on standardized testing in three or more of the ten brain domains to determine cns damage. however, the ten brain domains are", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.503837360185055, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:51.071360"} {"text": "the fetal alcohol diagnostic program ( fadp ) uses unpublished minnesota state criteria of performance at 1. 5 or more standard deviations on standardized testing in three or more of the ten brain domains to determine cns damage. however, the ten brain domains are easily incorporated into any of the four diagnostic systems ' cns damage criteria, as the framework only proposes the domains, rather than the cut - off criteria for fasd. prenatal alcohol exposureedit prenatal alcohol exposure is determined by interview of the biological mother or other family members knowledgeable of the mother ' s alcohol use during the pregnancy ( if available ), prenatal health records ( if available ), and review of available birth records, court records ( if applicable ), chemical dependency treatment records ( if applicable ), or other reliable sources. exposure level is assessed as confirmed exposure, unknown exposure, and confirmed absence of exposure by the iom, cdc and canadian diagnostic systems. the \" 4 - digit diagnostic code \" further distinguishes confirmed exposure as high risk and some risk : - high risk - confirmed use of alcohol during pregnancy known to be at high blood alcohol levels ( 100mg / dl or greater ) delivered at least weekly in early pregnancy. - some risk - confirmed use of alcohol during pregnancy with use less than high risk or unknown usage patterns. - unknown risk - unknown use of alcohol during pregnancy. - no risk - confirmed absence of prenatal alcohol exposure. amount, frequency, and timing of prenatal alcohol use can dramatically impact the other three key features of fasd. while consensus exists that alcohol is a teratogen, there is no clear consensus as to what level of exposure is toxic. the cdc guidelines are silent on these elements diagnostically. the iom and canadian guidelines explore this further, acknowledging the importance of significant alcohol exposure from regular or heavy episodic alcohol consumption in determining, but offer no standard for diagnosis. canadian guidelines discuss this lack of clarity and parenthetically point out that \" heavy alcohol use \" is defined by the national institute on alcohol abuse and alcoholism as five or more drinks per episode on five or more days during a 30 day period. \" the 4 - digit diagnostic code \" ranking system distinguishes between levels of prenatal alcohol exposure as high risk and some risk. it operationalizes high risk exposure as a blood alcohol concentration ( bac ) greater than 100mg / dl delivered at least weekly in early pregnancy. this bac level is typically reached by a 55kg female drinking six to eight beers in one sitting. for many adopted", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5064631298352409, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:51.073997"} {"text": "susan. backside of lip - philtrum guides ( 2004 ) ( pdf ). university of washington, fetal alcohol syndrome diagnostic and prevention network. retrieved on [ [ 2007 - 04 - 11 ] - \u2191 west, j. r. ( ed. ) ( 1986 ). alcohol and brain development. new york : oxford university press. - \u2191 17. 0 17. 1 fadp - fetal alcohol diagnostic program - \u2191 18. 0 18. 1 18. 2 18. 3 18. 4 18. 5 lang, j. ( 2006 ). ten brain domains : a proposal for functional central nervous system parameters for fetal alcohol spectrum disorder diagnosis and follow - up. journal of the fas institute, 4, 1 - 11. can be downloaded at http : / / www. motherisk. org / jfas _ documents / jfas _ 5012 _ final _ e12 _ 6. 28. 6. pdf - \u2191 u. s. department of health and human services. ( 2000 ). national institute on alcohol abuse and alcoholism. tenth special report to the u. s > congress on alcohol and health : highlights frfom current research. washington, dc : the institute. - \u2191 20. 0 20. 1 20. 2 streissguth, a. ( 1997 ). fetal alcohol syndrome : a guide for families and communities. baltimore : brookes publishing. isbn 1 - 55766 - 283 - 5. - \u2191 malbin, d. ( 2002 ). fetal alcohol spectrum disorders : trying differently rather than harder. portland, or : fascets, inc. isbn 0 - 9729532 - 0 - 5. - \u2191 smith, d. w. ( 1981 ). fetal alcohol syndrome and fetal alcohol effects. neurobehavioral toxicology and teratology, 3, 127. - \u2191 aase, j. m., jones, k. l., & clarren, s. k. ( 1995 ). do we need the term fae? pediatrics, 95 ( 3 ), 428 - 430. - \u2191 sokol, r. j., & clarren, s. k. ( 1989 ). guidelines for use of terminology describing the impact of prenatal alcohol on the offspring. alcoholism : clinical and experimental research, 13 ( 4 ), 597 - 598. - samhsa fetal alcohol spectrum disorders center of excellence - u. s. congressional caucus on fetal alcohol spectrum disorders - nofas - uk | this page", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.503304586288403, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 12, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:51.080228"} {"text": "that you \u2019 re a religious person. \" and i realized that being a person of faith and having a community, that having a base in faith, is a source of support that others don \u2019 t have. now, some people said to me that my reaction was courageous. but i \u2019 ve always felt anger at the suffering of others. for me, anger is energy, it \u2019 s a force. you channel energy positively or negatively. being sensitive to situations of injustice and the necessity of confronting difficult situations like those we see every day, we have to get angry to provoke energy and react. if an act of injustice doesn \u2019 t provoke anger in me, it could be seen as indifference, passivity. it \u2019 s injustice that motivates us to do something, to take risks, knowing that if we don \u2019 t, things will remain the same. anger has made us confront police and soldiers. something that i discovered is that the police and soldiers are used to their superiors shouting at them, and they \u2019 re used to being mistreated. so when they run into a woman, otherwise insignificant to them, who demands things of them and shouts at them in an authoritarian way, they are paralyzed. and we get results. i consider myself an aggressive person, and it has been difficult for me to manage that within the context of my religious education. but it does disarm authorities. i normally dress this way, in a way that my friends call monklike. that \u2019 s fine. it keeps people off guard. i give a certain mild image, but then i can, more efficiently, demand things, shout. for example, one time there was a guy who disappeared for twenty days. we knew he was in the military hospital, and we filed habeas corpus petitions on his behalf. but the authorities simply denied having him in custody. one night we were informed that he was being held at a particular state hospital. we went the next day. they denied us access. i spent the whole morning studying the comings and goings at the hospital to see how i could get in. during a change in shifts, i slipped by the guards. when i got to the room where this person was, the nurse at the door told me i could not go in. \" we are not even allowed in, \" she said. i told her that i would take care of myself ; all i asked of her was that she take note of what i was going to do and that if they did something to me, she should call", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5491233122476326, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:51.114983"} {"text": "for one aes is built for three key sizes 128, 192 or 256 bits. currently, brute - forcing 128 bits is not even close to feasible. hypothetically, if an aes key had 129 bits, it would take twice as long to brute - force a 129 bit key than a 128 bit key. this means larger keys of 192 bits and 256 bits would take much much much longer to attack. it would take so incredibly long to brute - force one of these keys that the sun would stop burning before the key was realized. that ' s a big freaking number. that ' s how many possibly keys there are. assuming the key is random, if you divide that by 2 then you have how many keys it will take on average to brute - force aes - 256 in a sense we do have the really big cipher keys you are talking of. the whole point of a symmetric key is to make it unfeasible to brute - force. in the future, if attacking a 256bit key becomes possible then keysizes will surely increase, but that is quite a ways down the road. the reason rsa keys are much larger than aes keys is because they are two completely different types of encryption. this means a person would not attack a rsa key the same as they would attack an aes key. attacking symmetric keys is easy. - start with a bitstring - decrypt ciphertext with that bitstring. - if you can read it, you succeeded. - if you cannot read it then increment the bitstring attacking an rsa key is different... because rsa encryption / decryption works with big semi - prime numbers... the process is mathy. with rsa, you don ' t have to try every possible bit string. you try far fewer than 2 ^ 2048 bitstrings... but it ' s still not possible to bruteforce. this is why rsa and aes keys differ in size. to sum up everything and answer your question in 1 sentence. we don ' t need ridiculously big symmetric keys because we already have ridiculously big symmetric keys. 256 bit encryption sounds wimpy compared to something like a 2048 bit rsa key, but the algorithms are different and can ' t really be compared ' bit to bit ' like that. in the future if there is a need to longer keys then there will be new algorithms developed to handle larger keys. and if we ever wanted to go bigger on current hardware,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5683957620977991, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:51.132548"} {"text": "in the free software movement, we believe computer users should have the freedom to change and redistribute the software that they use. the \u201c free \u201d in free software refers to freedom : it means users have the freedom to run, modify and redistribute the software. free software contributes to human knowledge, while non - free software does not. universities should therefore encourage free software for the sake of advancing human knowledge, just as they should encourage scientists and scholars to publish their work. alas, many university administrators have a grasping attitude towards software ( and towards science ) ; they see programs as opportunities for income, not as opportunities to contribute to human knowledge. free software developers have been coping with this tendency for almost 20 years. when i started developing the gnu operating system in 1984, my first step was to quit my job at mit. i did this specifically so that the mit licensing office would be unable to interfere with releasing gnu as free software. i had planned an approach for licensing the programs in gnu that ensures that all modified versions must be free software as well, an approach that developed into the gnu general public license ( gnu gpl ), and i did not want to have to beg the mit administration to let me use it. over the years, university affiliates have often come to the free software foundation for advice on how to cope with administrators who see software only as something to sell. one good method, applicable even for specifically funded projects, is to base your work on an existing program that was released under the gnu gpl. then you can tell the administrators, \u201c we \u2019 re not allowed to release the modified version except under the gnu gpl \u2014 any other way would be copyright infringement. \u201d after the dollar signs fade from their eyes, they will usually consent to releasing it as free software. you can also ask your funding sponsor for help. when a group at nyu developed the gnu ada compiler, with funding from the u. s. air force, the contract explicitly called for donating the resulting code to the free software foundation. work out the arrangement with the sponsor first, then politely show the university administration that it is not open to renegotiation. they would rather have a contract to develop free software than no contract at all, so they will most likely go along. whatever you do, raise the issue early \u2014 certainly before the program is half finished. at this point, the university still needs you, so you can play hardball : tell the administration you will finish the program, make it usable, if they", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5091869488051862, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:51.169244"} {"text": "program for that string. entering nothing at the \" find string? \" will cause the last string to be searched for again from the current cursor position on. the [ f4 ] key is used for the replace function. when this key is pressed, the user is asked what string to search for. after typing in this string and pressing [ enter ], the user is asked what string to change it to. all occurrences of the first string will then be highlighted, and the user will be asked \" replace? ( y / n / g / esc )? \". pressing [ y ] will replace that occurrence of the search string. pressing [ n ] will skip that occurrence. pressing [ g ] will replace all remaining occurrences. pressing [ esc ] will abort the replace function. the [ f5 ] key must be used with care. when [ f5 ] is pressed, the program will ask \" are you sure? ( y / n )? \". pressing [ y ] will then erase the entire tape ; if it has not been saved it will be lost. this key is used to erase everything in order to start new. the [ f6 ] key is used to exit the editor, save the current text, and run the programs that appear when the key is pressed. the programs available from the editor will be listed on the screen with a single character to the left of each. pressing the key corresponding to any of those characters will cause the related program to be run. pressing an invalid key will return operation to the editor as if nothing had happened. the [ f7 ] key is used to read in a previously stored file from the disk. after pressing this key, the user is asked for a file name. entering the file name and pressing [ enter ] will cause that file to be appended to the text already loaded into the editor. entering a cam - wizard device name will cause the text to be read from that device using the protocol and handshaking defined for that device in io. cfg. the [ f8 ] key is used to write a file to a disk or to the printer. entering a valid ms - dos file name causes the text to be saved on a disk file and typing the word printer will cause the text to be sent to the printer. entering a cam - wizard device name ( such as punch, or a machine name ) will cause the tape code to be sent to that device using the protocol and handshaking defined for that device in io. cfg. the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5229822968655146, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:51.203327"} {"text": "to the printer. entering a cam - wizard device name ( such as punch, or a machine name ) will cause the tape code to be sent to that device using the protocol and handshaking defined for that device in io. cfg. the [ f9 ] key is used for block editing functions. blocks of text can be copied and deleted using the block edit command. when pressed, the system will prompt you for the function, either mark block start, mark block end, copy block, or delete block. blocks must be defined before they can be copied or deleted. the [ f10 ] key is used to renumber a tape. this function will ask the increment to use for renumbering the tape. at this time the user can specify the number to be counted by and the number of digits to use on the tape. for instance if you type 005, then the tape will be numbered by 5 and each n number on the tape will take up 3 digits. ( 005, 010, 015, 020... ). send mail to email @ example. com with questions or comments about this web site. please read our usage rules before using any information from this site. copyright \u00a9 2000 swe engineering last modified : june 10, 2002", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5497192309833117, "token_count": 261, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:51.204731"} {"text": "this book is at the opposite end of the spectrum, so to speak, from the previously - mentioned source. in this book, williamson and the other authors discuss music from an expertise on the art itself. there is no mention of digital music, sampling, file - sharing, or other similar topics to be found anywhere in the book. in their places are excerpts from sheet music and examples of lyrics. they offer their expert commentary on subjects ranging from chopin to snoop dogg, from dante to the beatles, and each is approached with the same level of intellect and scholarship. multiple chapters cover the creation of music from scratch \u2013 as told from the songwriter \u2019 s point of view, and it is this unique perspective that offers a new form of insight into the practice of digital sampling. another important factor in this work is the chapter entitled \u201c mimesis, gesture, and parody in musical word - setting. \u201d this chapter not only explores the implications that a parody has on an original work but sets the framework for parody with an historical narrative about its origins. at first, this seemed to be irrelevant to the topic of digital sampling and copyright law, but after further inspection, it became apparent that this knowledge is very important to the understanding of parody and its stance in copyright law. words and music discusses at length many different styles and genres of modern music, primarily \u201c gangsta, \u201d or hardcore, rap. this genre is a unique example because not only is it arguably the heaviest on lyrical content out of all kinds of music, but also because it is notorious for its sampling practices and is quite possibly the realm in which the most copyright infringement cases take place. reading a scholarly assessment on such genres is especially helpful for this topic seeing as it provides a critical, but not condemning eye on the subject. this is all - to - rare in today \u2019 s academic and scholarly publications, and to have a source such as this is very useful in the terms of this research paper.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5490683839642522, "token_count": 392, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:51.206919"} {"text": "a commercial airline? or a rogue geoengineering experiment? the world economic forum has put out a new report on global risks for 2013, and the report \u2019 s chapter on \u201c x factors \u201d \u2014 concerns more remote than the report \u2019 s primary risks, but still worthy of note \u2014 includes a section on rogue \u201c geoengineering \u201d experiments. geoengineering involves large - scale efforts to either remove carbon from the atmosphere, or to remake the atmosphere \u2019 s chemical or physical make - up to offset the effects of climate change. the most plausible scenario mentioned by the report uses aircraft to inject particles into the atmosphere to mimic the way eruptions of volcanic ash block sunlight, and thus cool the climate. more far - fetched scenarios go so far as deploying mirrors into orbit to reflect sunlight. such projects involve a host of funding and deployment problems, as well as the serious risk of unintended consequences for both the climate and the billions of humans who rely on it. for instance, a project at the uk - based stratospheric particle injection for climate engineering project, or \u201c spice, \u201d working on the idea to mimic volcanic ash, was delayed in october over environmental concerns. unfortunately, this leaves an opening for smaller nations or even commercial interests to begin experimenting with geoengineering unilaterally, say researchers at the world economic forum : nobody envisions deployment of solar radiation management anytime soon, given the difficulties in resolving a suite of governance issues ( evidenced by the fact that even the relatively simple spice experiment in the uk foundered in the midst of controversy ). beginning with britain \u2019 s royal society, many academic and policy bodies have called for cautious research as well as broader conversation about the implications of such technologies. but this has led some geoengineering analysts to begin thinking about a corollary scenario, in which a country or small group of countries precipitates an international crisis by moving ahead with deployment or large - scale research independent of the global community. the global climate could, in effect, be hijacked by a rogue country or even a wealthy individual, with unpredictable costs to agriculture, infrastructure and global stability. [... ] for example, an island state threatened with rising sea levels may decide they have nothing to lose, or a well funded individual with good intentions may take matters into their own hands. there are signs that this is already starting to occur. in july 2012 an american businessman sparked controversy when he dumped around 100 tonnes of iron sulphate into the pacific ocean off the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.503451948998285, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:51.234913"} {"text": "perhaps due to the association in the trope name ). - royalty : generally used to represent power, wealth or prestige. these are often used in high school settings to refer to \" the popular kids \". - princess : often the alpha bitch, however, a wealthy or popular girl of any sort will often be equated to a princess ( for an example of this comparison, look no farther than this site ). a queen will often refer to the same stereotype, especially if there is a corresponding? - king : generally the leader of a group or organization or the reigning champion of something ( i. e. \" the king of table tennis \" ). in the aforementioned high school settings, the king will often be a jerk jock. - unicorn : the mythological \" horse with a horn, \" although many different descriptions of them exist. usually pure, gentle and noble, although subversions do exist. being able to draw a unicorn ' s attention is generally a virgin power. strongly associated with chastity, and often a motif for young girls. - wolves : while the wolf ' s image has been getting better in recent times, increasingly being seen as a \" spirit of the wild, \" people can ' t quite get over \" little red riding hood \". while the wolf is an animal motif at the same time, the wolf as a threat to young girls / sexual predator seems to have its roots in the fairy tale. - in germanic countries, the wolf is ( or was historically ) the equivalent of the devil - they even have an expression about them that ' s interchangable with \" speak of the devil \". open / close all folders anime and manga - revolutionary girl utena uses a fairytale motif in order to deconstruct the romance fairytale of the prince as male love interest saving the princess. - skip beat!! ' s kyouko seems to believes that fairies are real, and very often acts following cinderella - like fairy tales tropes, seeing the ( mostly villainous ) characters she interprets as princesses under a curse. there is not wrong genre savvyness, just a girl whose life has been so horrible she just prefer to believe she could be rescued and become a real princess, even if she knows it isn ' t. pity nobody had informed her how the fair folk and the old fairy tales truly are... - princess tutu mixes magical girl tropes and fairy tale motifs with references to specific stories and ballets. the first season mostly plays the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5279774737275927, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:51.258317"} {"text": "penguindrum has had allusions to various fairytales involving apples, but so far the most prominent motif seems to be the resemblance of the siblings ' lives to an in - universe fairytale about a man named mary and his three little lambs offending a goddess. - alice from mahou tsukai no yoru possesses magic which revolves around fairy tales. - the manga akagami no shirayukihime is based on the tale of \" snow white \". ( the title literally means \" red - haired snow white \". ) the first chapter in particular has a lot of tributes to the original story. live action television - homestuck in sburb, all players are given a particular class and aspect that determines their powers. the classes are themed around typical high fantasy character types such as ' prince ', ' witch ', and ' knight '. then there ' s the kingdoms of derse and prospit who double up this trope with chess motifs, as well as the fact that all sburb players are considered to be princes or princesses of one or the other. then there ' s terezi loving dragons and tavros liking fairies ( and since god tier trolls possess wings, they ' re sort of fairies as well ) and feferi being an actual princess. of course, all the fantasy elements are mixed with a good deal of science fiction and technology as well. - the \" such stuff as dreams are made on \" arc of roommates has both general fairy tale motifs and more specifically swan lake allusions in it ' s dream sequences to symbolically communicate information to the main character ( jareth ) note. the fair folk don ' t do simple.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5187879775920993, "token_count": 346, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:51.260461"} {"text": "part of twisted. python view source these are methods which you can register pre - call and post - call external functions to augment their functionality. people familiar with more esoteric languages may think of these as \" method combinations \". this could be used to add optional preconditions, user - extensible callbacks ( a - la emacs ) or a thread - safety mechanism. the four exported calls are : all have the signature ( class, methodname, callable ), and the callable they take must always have the signature ( instance, * args, * * kw ) unless the particular signature of the method they hook is known. hooks should typically not throw exceptions, however, no effort will be made by this module to prevent them from doing so. pre - hooks will always be called, but post - hooks will only be called if the pre - hooks do not raise any exceptions ( they will still be called if the main method raises an exception ). the return values and exception status of the main method will be propogated ( assuming none of the hooks raise an exception ). hooks will be executed in the order in which they are added. | class | | hookerror | | an error which will fire when an invariant is violated. | | function | | addpre | | hook. addpre ( klass, name, func ) - > none | | function | | addpost | | hook. addpost ( klass, name, func ) - > none | | function | | removepre | | hook. removepre ( klass, name, func ) - > none | | function | | removepost | | hook. removepre ( klass, name, func ) - > none | | function | | pre | | ( private ) munging to turn a method name into a pre - hook - method - name | | function | | post | | ( private ) munging to turn a method name into a post - hook - method - name | | function | | orig | | ( private ) munging to turn a method name into an ` original ' identifier | | function | | _ xxx | | string manipulation garbage. | | function | | _ addhook | | ( private ) adds a hook to a method on a class | | function | | _ removehook | | ( private ) removes a hook from a method on a class | | function | | _ enhook | | ( private )", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.520968463322669, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:51.263181"} {"text": "exactly located ( exactlylocated ) the actual, minimal location of an object. this is a subrelation of the more general predicate sumo / base - ontology related wordnet synsets - the precise location of something ; a spatially limited location ; \" she walked to a point where she could survey the whole street \" agar obj is partly located in region, to yah kuch subobj nahin, ki subobj is a part of obj aur subobj is exactly located in region. ( partlylocated? obj? region ) ( part? subobj? obj ) ( exactlylocated? subobj? region ) ) ) ) agar obj is exactly located in region, to yah kuch otherobj nahin, ki otherobj is exactly located in region aur otherobj is not equal to obj. ( exactlylocated? obj? region ) ( exactlylocated? otherobj? region ) ( equal? otherobj? obj ) ) ) ) ) ) \" thing ki jagah time tha \" is equal to region agar hai thing is exactly located in region during time. ( wherefn? thing? time ) ( exactlylocated? thing? region ) ) )", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.594167701493242, "token_count": 266, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:51.265605"} {"text": "meter is the organization of speech rhythms ( verbal stresses ) into regular patterns, in terms of both the arrangement of stresses and their frequency of repetition per line of verse. poetry is organized by the division of each line of verse into \" feet, \" metric units which each consist of a particular arrangement of strong and weak stresses. the most common metric unit is the iambic foot, in which an unstressed syllable is followed by a stressed one ( as in the words \" revrse \" and \" compse \" ). here is a table of meters and their names. meter is also determined by the number of feet in a line. a line with five feet is called pentameter ; thus, a line of five iambs is known as \" iambic pentameter \" ( the most common metrical form in english poetry ). the most common line lengths are : trimeter : three feet tetrameter : four feet pentameter : five feet hexameter : six feet ( an \" alexandrine \" when iambic ) heptameter : seven feet ( a \" fourteener \" when iambic ) naturally, there is a degree of variation from line to line, as a rigid adherence to the meter results in unnatural or monotonous language. a skillful poet manipulates breaks in the prevailing rhythm of a poem for particular effects. john donne, for example, rarely held to the meter of his lines for more than a few feet at a time. these lines from his holy sonnet 14 ( 1633 ) are written in iambic pentameter, but the stress patterns vary a great deal : that i may rise and stand, o ' erthrow me, and bend your force to break, blow, burn and make me new.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5350714479157517, "token_count": 361, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:51.291347"} {"text": "failure - to - thrive is when a child is not growing as expected. it does not include children who are small for their age. the exact definition is not completely agreed upon. children grow quickly in the first few years of life. a child with failure - to - thrive will have a height and weight that is well below other children of their age. your child may have also had a normal growth pattern that began to slow down. initially the child has similar height and weight than their peers but at follow - up appointments the child ' s height and weight does not keep up with their peers. in general, failure - to - thrive means that a child : - is at or below the 3rd to 5th percentile for height and weight. t - has failed to grow as expected. this is shown by dropping two growth percentiles. for example, the child goes from the 75th percentile to below the 25th percentile. failure - to - thrive is split into several types according to the cause. types include : - organic failure - to - thrive \u2014 caused by some other medical condition - nonorganic failure - to - thrive \u2014 occurs in children with no known medical condition - mixed failure - to - thrive \u2014 occurs when the child has features of both organic and nonorganic failure - to - thrive gastrointestinal disease may make it difficult for your child to eat or absorb food. this may include : - reflux \u2014 stomach acid backs up into the throat. this can make it uncomfortable to swallow. - pyloric stenosis \u2014 valve on the stomach can not close properly, this can lead to reflux. - cleft lip and / or palate \u2014 birth defects of the lip and roof of the mouth, this condition can make it difficult to eat solid foods. - hirschsprung ' s disease \u2014 a condition that can cause a blockage in the intestines - hepatitis \u2014 liver disease that can cause general fatigue and ill feeling - cirrhosis \u2014 liver disease that can cause general fatigue and ill feeling - pancreatic insufficiency \u2014 pancrease helps digestion of fats, if there is a problem, food may not be properly absorbed into the body - malabsorption \u2014 general problem in the intestines ability to absorb food - milk protein intolerance \u2014 inability for the baby to digest proteins found in milk, even if the baby is taking in enough milk it is not getting to the body kidney disease \u2014 can decrease your child ' s appetite and impair growth - ur", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5020714952182832, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:51.307168"} {"text": "207. yugoslavia faces the millennium : conflict and continuity a decade after the fall of communism, there remains little discussion within the public sphere of the fundamental differences that separate the states and societies of western and eastern europe. this oversight is regrettable not only because it limits our ability to resolve problems in the balkans, but also because that region is far more representative of the world at large than is western europe. a case in point is the region ' s multiethnic demography, for which there are many historical and current parallels the world over. the uncritical, century - long rush to adopt the west european nation - state model has resulted in a steady succession of secessions, civil wars, and partitions not only in central europe, but throughout the former soviet union, as well as in east timor, eritrea, and palestine. today, many statesmen, journalists and scholars advocate ethnic separation as the only solution, even though it would involve population exchanges. will \" peace through partition \" become the final solution to ethnic conflict in afghanistan, chechnya, chiapas, cyprus, kurdestan, macedonia, the philippines, rwanda, sri lanka, sudan, and western sumatra? for the most part, granting autonomy has acted as a \" safety valve \" in retarding centrifugal forces among concentrated ethnic minorities. the examples of kosovo, northern ireland, quebec, republika srpska, slovakia, and the six republics of tito = s yugoslavia however, suggest that such a solution is never truly \" permanent \" since it simultaneously perpetuates separate identities and offers career opportunities to those politicians who choose to exploit nationalism as a populist tool for coming to power. in seeking entry into the european union, the yugoslav and other central european successor states need to accept not only multiethnicity in their own countries, but recognize its reemergence in western europe and the rest of the \" post - industrial \" world. the past century offers numerous examples of the triumph of ethnic coexistence, especially in places like the bukovina, srem, vojvodina, and prewar bosnia, where a balance of power between ethnic groups simultaneously allayed minority paranoia while encouraging all groups to cooperate with one another. where no such balance exists, interethnic stability depends heavily on the perception of protection afforded minorities by the rule of law, supplemented by the majority group ' s willingness to be deferential toward their search for security and reassurance. the east - west dichotomy is also evident", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5137997031852227, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:51.327802"} {"text": "stability depends heavily on the perception of protection afforded minorities by the rule of law, supplemented by the majority group ' s willingness to be deferential toward their search for security and reassurance. the east - west dichotomy is also evident in distinctive manifestations of nationalism and liberalism. whereas western media and statesmen routinely attribute serb atrocities to a carefully nurtured \" persecution complex, \" few observers recognize the pervasive sense of a deprived manifest destiny that weighs on the historical consciousness of all of the successor nations of the former multiethnic habsburg, ottoman and tsarist / soviet empires. one consequence is a militant and intolerant brand of nationalism that has justified discrimination and, sometimes, violence against neighboring ethnic groups. another consequence is the inclusion of a purely nationalist agenda in the basket of borrowed western enlightenment ideas, adopted by east europeans without the necessary region - specific modifications. the unfortunate result has been the simplistic equation of democracy with majority rule, shorn of such indispensable attributes as the rule of law, freedom of thought and expression, individual rights and toleration, and the obligations of civic responsibility. admittedly, the combined ottoman and communist heritage partly explains the political immaturity of balkan liberalism. but foreign critics who scoff at what robert hayden terms \" constitutional nationalism \" and the inevitable tyrannies of the majority that it creates forget that western europe ( and its north american progeny ) never experienced a prolonged period of foreign oppression. this distinction suggests that much of the yugoslav successor states and eastern europe ' s other newly independent states will need a prolonged period of national independence before they can purge the demons of their subjugation by foreign multiethnic empires. these states could perhaps obviate or minimize the need for this evolutionary step by demythologizing their own history, redefining nationality to include all citizens regardless of ethnicity, and enriching the public perception of \" democracy \" with those attributes and obligations that protect the rights of all citizens. mass media and visual imagery it takes considerable optimism to advocate remolding a society ' s mentality, in this case to conform with western models of nationalism and liberalism ; to force an entire region to do so requires equally heavy doses of ethnocentrism and arrogance. yet, if central europe is keen on integrating with the west, then it is incumbent on the region ' s elites to go beyond their uncritical appropriation of the nation - state model to embrace those patently universal enlightenment values that make nationhood and popular sovereignty", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5706201604141738, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:51.329123"} {"text": "adapt, namely the ability of modern authoritarian regimes to culturally manipulate and criminally assault their own people. the emergence of what gale stokes has termed the \" omnicompetent state \" represents only the latest stage in the centuries - long, state - building process. nor is it the first time its evolution has challenged the conscience of the international community. during early modern times the aggressive behavior of the first \" great powers \" promoted systemic paranoia and almost continuous international conflict. to address this problem, over the past century, the international community has contemplated applying universal standards of behavior inside sovereign countries. notwithstanding isolated cases of unilateral, third - party intervention in uganda and cambodia, nato ' s air offensive against rump yugoslavia in 1999 represents a watershed in the enforcement of internationally recognized norms of conduct ( as prescribed by the un charter ) within the frontiers of a sovereign state. journalist seymour hirsch is doubtless correct in attributing the resulting \" clinton doctrine \" to the worldwide mediation of cnn and other global agents of visual media. yet another factor has been \" u. s. leadership \" that combines contrived appeals to national self - interest with a very real sense of moral outrage. whatever the motivations, policy planners should certainly contemplate and, hopefully reinforce, the prospect of appending the body of international law to facilitate such humanitarian interventions in order to meet this latest, twentieth - century challenge posed by the state - building process. the pivotal role that the u. s. has played in yugoslavia over the past five years underscores a fourth development that demands constant attention, especially by its own policymakers. the dissolution of the soviet union marked two potential watersheds in the history of international relations : an abrupt halt to the five - century - long european arms race that began with france ' s invasion of italy in 1494, and the usurpation of the balance of power by u. s. hegemony. whether these developments will become fixed structures or merely temporary \" conjunctures \" will depend on how the u. s. handles itself on the international stage, especially in matters that challenge the pretensions and perceived interests of countries like france, russia, or china. in the past, competing states have capitalized on the arrogant unilateralism of momentary hegemons such as charles v, louis xiv, revolutionary france and wilhelmine germany to reestablish a new balance comprising a coalition of major powers. so far, the u. s. has defied this dynamic by sustaining an ostensibly multilateral", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5001478371784521, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:51.331152"} {"text": "##gemons such as charles v, louis xiv, revolutionary france and wilhelmine germany to reestablish a new balance comprising a coalition of major powers. so far, the u. s. has defied this dynamic by sustaining an ostensibly multilateral foreign policy in the kuwait, bosnia and kosovo conflicts, as well as in less strategically significant humanitarian interventions around the world. forestalling the re - assembly of a new bi - polar balance of power however, will take constant vigilance so long as stress remains between the u. s. self - interest and that of other great powers. the fateful faux pas of past hegemons suggests that the u. s. should limit overtly self - seeking initiatives ( such as contravening the abm treaty ), while helping to construct a universal legal framework to promote an international status quo that seals u. s. hegemony. if international law is the first resort of the strong, it is also the last refuge of the weak. hence the tremendous advantages that such a framework offers to the states and societies of the former yugoslavia. once the u. s. and its allies have established the requisite parameters for collaboration, they can leave it to each of the newly former yugoslav republics to set its own pace for aid and integration with the new europe. charles ingrao spoke at an ees noon discussion on may 2, 2000", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5259131412561246, "token_count": 281, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:51.331810"} {"text": "viticulture - n. : the cultivation or culture of grapes enology - n. : a science that deals with wine and wine making the v & e department combines the sciences of viticulture and enology in a single research and teaching unit that encompasses all of the scientific disciplines that impact grape growing and winemaking. for over one hundred years the university of california has maintained an active and productive program in research and education in viticulture and enology. the continuing excellence of the department has enabled california growers and vintners to develop practices that have allowed the golden state to achieve its potential and become a premier wine - producing region. wendell jacob honors the memory of his father, harry e. jacob - - former v & e faculty member. wendell jacob honors the memory of his father, harry e. jacob, former v & e faculty member. by allison chilcott ( note : this article first appeared in outlook 2005, the publication of college of agricultural and environmental sciences. ) students and campus visitors alike will learn to identify dozens of varieties of grapes - - including table, wine, and raisins - - when the harry e. jacob demonstration vineyard opens adjacent to the robert mondavi institute for wine and food science courtyard in 2008. the demonstration vineyard will serve as uc davis \u2019 primary vineyard education site for classes and tours hosted by the department of viticulture and enology. this unique interactive learning center, to...", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_entanglement", "similarity_score": 0.5331020822832631, "token_count": 296, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:51.336216"} {"text": "key : \" s : \" = show synset ( semantic ) relations, \" w : \" = show word ( lexical ) relations display options for sense : ( gloss ) \" an example sentence \" - s : ( n ) bear ( massive plantigrade carnivorous or omnivorous mammals with long shaggy coats and strong claws ) - s : ( n ) bear ( an investor with a pessimistic market outlook ; an investor who expects prices to fall and so sells now in order to buy later at a lower price ) - s : ( v ) bear ( have ) \" bear a resemblance \" ; \" bear a signature \" - s : ( v ) give birth, deliver, bear, birth, have ( cause to be born ) \" my wife had twins yesterday! \" - s : ( v ) digest, endure, stick out, stomach, bear, stand, tolerate, support, brook, abide, suffer, put up ( put up with something or somebody unpleasant ) \" i cannot bear his constant criticism \" ; \" the new secretary had to endure a lot of unprofessional remarks \" ; \" he learned to tolerate the heat \" ; \" she stuck out two years in a miserable marriage \" - s : ( v ) bear ( move while holding up or supporting ) \" bear gifts \" ; \" bear a heavy load \" ; \" bear news \" ; \" bearing orders \" - s : ( v ) bear, turn out ( bring forth ) \" the apple tree bore delicious apples this year \" ; \" the unidentified plant bore gorgeous flowers \" - s : ( v ) bear, take over, accept, assume ( take on as one ' s own the expenses or debts of another person ) \" i ' ll accept the charges \" ; \" she agreed to bear the responsibility \" - s : ( v ) hold, bear, carry, contain ( contain or hold ; have within ) \" the jar carries wine \" ; \" the canteen holds fresh water \" ; \" this can contains water \" - s : ( v ) yield, pay, bear ( bring in ) \" interest - bearing accounts \" ; \" how much does this savings certificate pay annually? \" - s : ( v ) wear, bear ( have on one ' s person ) \" he wore a red ribbon \" ; \" bear a scar \" - s : ( v ) behave, acquit, bear, deport, conduct, comport, carry ( behave in a certain manner ) \" she carried herself well \" ; \" he bore himself with dignity \" ; \"", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5898756888158935, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:51.340949"} {"text": "key : \" s : \" = show synset ( semantic ) relations, \" w : \" = show word ( lexical ) relations display options for sense : ( gloss ) \" an example sentence \" - s : ( n ) skim ( a thin layer covering the surface of a liquid ) \" there was a thin skim of oil on the water \" - s : ( n ) skim, skimming ( reading or glancing through quickly ) - s : ( v ) plane, skim ( travel on the surface of water ) - s : ( v ) skim over, skim ( move or pass swiftly and lightly over the surface of ) - s : ( v ) scan, skim, rake, glance over, run down ( examine hastily ) \" she scanned the newspaper headlines while waiting for the taxi \" - s : ( v ) skim, skip, skitter ( cause to skip over a surface ) \" skip a stone across the pond \" - s : ( v ) skim ( coat ( a liquid ) with a layer ) - s : ( v ) skim, skim off, cream off, cream ( remove from the surface ) \" skim cream from the surface of milk \" - s : ( v ) skim, skim over ( read superficially ) - s : ( adj ) skim, skimmed ( used of milk and milk products from which the cream has been removed ) \" yogurt made with skim milk \" ; \" she can drink skimmed milk but should avoid butter \"", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.6240982863422769, "token_count": 311, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:51.343746"} {"text": "romanticism, poe, and the raven the era of romanticism spans from the late 1700 ' s to the mid 1800 ' s following the french revolution ; therefore, \" romanticism \" encompasses characteristics of the human mind in addition to the particular time in history when these qualities became dominant in culture. romanticism depicts an artistic movement which emerged from reaction against dominant attitudes and approaches of the 18th century. romanticism established realism in literature through creativity, innovation, exploration, and vivid imagery. by expanding beyond the definition of love, romanticism, accented by mystery, delves into the strange and fantastic aspects of human experiences. \" to escape from society, the romantics turned their interests to remote and faraway places ; the medieval past ; folklore and legends, and nature and the common man. \" edgar allen poe is noted as one of the few american \" romantic \" poets. poe ' s poem \" the raven \" portrays romanticism as characterized by emotion, exotica, and imagination. a friend of edgar allen poe, r. h. horne, wrote of \" the raven \", \" the poet intends to represent a very painful condition of the mind, as of an imagination that was liable to topple over into some delirium or an abyss of melancholy, from the continuity of one unvaried emotion. \" edgar allen poe, author of \" the raven, \" played on the reader ' s emotions. the man in \" the raven \" was attempting to find comfort from the remembrance of his lost love. by turning his mind to lenore and recalling how her frame will never again bless the chair in which he now reposes, he is suddenly overcome with grief, whereby the reader immediately feels sorry for the lonely man. the reader pities the man ' s state of mind. in addition to an emotional characteristic, poe also portrays the exotic. exotic means \" unnatural \". exotic means a raven that speaks only one word. exotic means a bird that refuses to leave and insists in staying in one place. finally, exotic means a life of torment of the speakers soul. the man is drawn to the bird to seek an answer to the monotonous reply of \" finally, \" the raven : is characterized by imagination. the man imagines that a raven is a godsend, intended to relieve him of his anguish. the man imagines that like all other blessings of his life, the bird will leave. the man ' s imagination rebukes the bird. the man calls the bird a \" thing of evil \". the reader imagines a", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5245331235784817, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:51.389914"} {"text": "( pdf 151 kb ) in recent years, scientists working at the intersection of two historically well - developed fields, retinal physiology and circadian biology, upended the conventional view of retinal organization with the confirmation of a nonvisual ocular photoreceptor system. the fact that the eye has functions beyond image perception holds the potential to explain why a significant proportion of patients with progressive degenerative ocular disease suffer from sleep disturbances. an understanding of these non - rod / non - cone photoreceptors might also explain seasonal affective disorder ( sad ), jet lag and depression in the blind. it has the potential to influence intraocular lens selection for cataract patients. \u201c the shocker is, you don \u2019 t need rods and cones to synchronize your circadian clock to the local light - dark cycle, \u201d said russell n. van gelder, md, phd. \u201c there \u2019 s this whole other photoreceptive system lurking in the retina entraining your circadian system. \u201d dr. van gelder is professor and chairman of ophthalmology at the university of washington in seattle. the eye is a camera, and clock, too the notion of a parallel ocular universe began more than 80 years ago with the observation that blind mice continued to show pupil constriction in response to light. 1 over time, researchers at about a dozen labs worldwide pursued the idea that the circadian and classical visual systems process light information in different ways. russell g. foster, bsc, phd, chairman of both circadian neuroscience and ophthalmology at oxford university, noted that by 2001, scientists had established the existence of a subset of photosensitive retinal ganglion cells ( referred to in the literature as either prgcs or iprgcs, intrinsically photosensitive rgcs ) that regulate a variety of different responses to environmental brightness, including sleep propensity. this small subpopulation of rgcs responds directly to light and relays information along the nonvisual pathway to the brain \u2019 s circadian pacemaker, located in the suprachiasmatic nucleus of the hypothalamus, dr. foster said. they do this by employing the photopigment melanopsin, which is believed to set the circadian clock and initiate other nonimage forming visual functions. dr. foster has shown that loss of melanopsin in the prgcs attenuates circadian responses to light", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5360250070957581, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:51.423932"} {"text": "light meter, he explained. \u201c this light meter controls at least three different aspects of physiology : circadian clock synchronization, pupillary light response and sleep. that is, it directly drives sleep and wakefulness in mice, \u201d he said. \u201c the obvious question is : what is the effect on human health if these cells are sick? \u201d studies link glaucoma and sleep problems. one possible answer to that question comes out of a study conducted by dr. van gelder himself, linking optic nerve disease to sleep disturbances. 3 his study, which monitored sleep patterns in a population of blind children, found that optic nerve disease is predictive of increased daytime napping in young visually impaired subjects. \u201c we saw kids with end - stage glaucoma who had a hard time adjusting to the wake / sleep cycle of the outside world, \u201d dr. van gelder said. \u201c if you \u2019 re blind from an optic nerve disease, you \u2019 re nine times more likely to have significant daytime sleepiness than if you are blind from other causes. \u201d a study by other researchers found that melanopsin - using cells in rats died after researchers induced an increase in iop. \u201c the results, \u201d the researchers write, \u201c suggest that serious attention should be paid to the function of the nonimage forming system in glaucoma patients in the future. \u201d 4 implications and applications the discovery of novel photoreceptors within the eye is leading researchers down a number of new paths. here are three areas they \u2019 ve been looking at. iol selection. cataract surgery has been associated with improvement in the sleep / wake cycle, possibly because the prgcs are maximally sensitive in the \u201c blue \u201d ( 480 nm ) part of the spectrum, while the yellow discoloration of a cataractous lens may reduce transmission of available photons to the retina. this has implications for what dr. foster called \u201c the general global move toward implanting yellow, blue - filtering lenses. \u201d the impact of blue - filtering lenses is a question worth pursuing, he said, noting that circadian rhythms might be affected if these lenses reduce the amount of blue light available to the melanopsin pigment. seasonal affective disorder. ignacio provencio, phd, a professor of biology at the university of virginia, studies the genetics of circadian rhythms and has discovered that a mutation in a gene that codes for melanopsin may play a role in causing seasonal affective disorder ( sad ). 1 this", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5400213883700946, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:51.438424"} {"text": ", a professor of biology at the university of virginia, studies the genetics of circadian rhythms and has discovered that a mutation in a gene that codes for melanopsin may play a role in causing seasonal affective disorder ( sad ). 1 this finding, said dr. van gelder, could suggest that depression, common in the blind, may be a form of sad. \u201c blindness, \u201d he said, \u201c may be like the effect of living in chronic winter. \u201d nonvisual light perception. after ablating all rods and cones in mice, dr. foster and colleagues found that the mice were still fully able to constrict their pupils under bright light conditions. 2 \u201c these findings raise some important clinical considerations regarding the diagnosis of \u2018 complete \u2019 blindness, \u201d dr. foster said. \u201c clearly, any such diagnosis should take into account both visual and nonvisual elements, that is, the health and function of both the rod and cone and prgc photoreceptive systems. \u201d dr. foster advised that blind individuals who are found to be light sensitive should expose their eyes to sufficient daytime light to maintain normal circadian entrainment and sleep / wake rhythms. 1 roecklein, k. et al. j affect disord 2009 ; ( 114 ) 279 \u2013 285. 2 foster, r. g. et al. j comp physiol 1999 ; 169 : 211 \u2013 220. how to help patients dr. van gelder advised ophthalmologists to be mindful of the potential interplay of certain ocular diseases and these novel rgcs. \u201c we, as ophthalmologists, should expect that patients with advanced optic nerve disease may have difficulty synchronizing their lives with the light / dark cycle. \u201d ask some questions. therefore, he said, when physicians see patients who have a bilateral optic nerve disease, such as glaucoma, anterior ischemic optic neuropathy or optic atrophy, they should ask relevant questions : how \u2019 s your sleep? do you feel in synch with day and night? do you find yourself awake at inopportune hours and sleepy during others? consider a referral. dr. van gelder advised referring patients who have trouble sleeping to a sleep disorder clinic. \u201c this is a treatable disorder, \u201d he said, citing the work of alfred j. lewy, md, phd, a psychiatrist at oregon health & science university, who has been treating blind patients with melatonin for some 20 years. 5", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5413114341610672, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:51.440241"} {"text": "this is a treatable disorder, \u201d he said, citing the work of alfred j. lewy, md, phd, a psychiatrist at oregon health & science university, who has been treating blind patients with melatonin for some 20 years. 5 though melatonin is available over the counter, dr. van gelder cautioned ophthalmologists not to prescribe it without a referral to a sleep clinic because there are well - established treatment protocols. melatonin will shift the clock, and shifting at the wrong time can actually make things worse, he said. the point, said dr. van gelder, is attending to those patients who suffer from sleep disorders. \u201c we would never look at a patient with optic nerve hypoplasia without thinking they might have a systemic disease. but we don \u2019 t see a patient with end - stage optic nerve disease and immediately think that this person is at risk for sleep disorders. we should. \u201d 1 keeler, c. e. am j physiol 1927 ; 81 : 107 \u2013 112. 2 foster, r. g. and m. w. hankins. curr biol 2007 ; 17 : r746 \u2013 r751. 3 wee, r. and r. n. van gelder. ophthalmology 2004 ; 111 ( 2 ) : 297 \u2013 302. 4 wang, h. z. et al. chin med j 2008 ; 121 ( 11 ) : 1015 \u2013 1019. 5 lewy, a. j. cold spring harb symp quant biol 2007 ; 72 : 623 \u2013 636.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5056069445257186, "token_count": 330, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:51.444858"} {"text": "biodegradable transistors - - made from us wednesday, march 7, 2012 award - winning tau research uses self - assembling blood, milk, and mucus proteins to build next generation technology silicon, a semi - conducting element, is the basis of most modern technology, including cellular phones and computers. but according to tel aviv university researchers, this material is quickly becoming outdated in an industry producing ever - smaller products that are less harmful to the environment. now, a team including ph. d. students elad mentovich and netta hendler of tau ' s department of chemistry and the center for nanoscience and nanotechnology, with supervisor dr. shachar richter and in collaboration with prof. michael gozin and his ph. d. student bogdan belgorodsky, has brought together cutting - edge techniques from multiple fields of science to create protein - based transistors \u2014 semi - conductors used to power electronic devices \u2014 from organic materials found in the human body. they could become the basis of a new generation of nano - sized technologies that are both flexible and biodegradable. working with blood, milk, and mucus proteins which have the ability to self - assemble into a semi - conducting film, the researchers have already succeeded in taking the first step towards biodegradable display screens, and they aim to use this method to develop entire electronic devices. their research, which has appeared in the journals nano letters and advanced materials, recently received a silver award at the materials research society graduate student awards in boston, ma. building the best transistor from the bottom up netta hendler, elad mentovich, and bogdan belgorodsky one of the challenges of using silicon as a semi - conductor is that a transistor must be created with a \" top down \" approach. manufacturers start with a sheet of silicon and carve it into the shape that is needed, like carving a sculpture out of a rock. this method limits the capabilities of transistors when it comes to factors such as size and flexibility. the tau researchers turned to biology and chemistry for a different approach to building the ideal transistor. when they appled various combinations of blood, milk, and mucus proteins to any base material, the molecules self - assembled to create a semi - conducting film on a nano - scale. in the case of blood protein, for example, the film is approximately four nanometers high. the current technology in use now is 18 nanometers, says men", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_computing", "similarity_score": 0.5110276020974129, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:51.503855"} {"text": "self - assembled to create a semi - conducting film on a nano - scale. in the case of blood protein, for example, the film is approximately four nanometers high. the current technology in use now is 18 nanometers, says mentovich. together, the three different kinds of proteins create a complete circuit with electronic and optical capabilities, each bringing something unique to the table. blood protein has the ability to absorb oxygen, mentovich says, which permits the \" doping \" of semi - conductors with specific chemicals in order to create specific technological properties. milk proteins, known for their strength in difficult environments, form the fibers which are the building blocks of the transistors, while the mucosal proteins have the ability to keep red, green and, blue fluorescent dyes separate, together creating the white light emission that is necessary for advanced optics. overall, the natural abilities of each protein give the researchers \" unique control \" over the resulting organic transistor, allowing adjustments for conductivity, memory storage, and fluorescence among other characteristics. a new era of technology technology is now shifting from a silicon era to a carbon era, notes mentovich, and this new type of transistor could play a big role. transistors built from these proteins will be ideal for smaller, flexible devices that are made out of plastic rather than silicon, which exists in wafer form that would shatter like glass if bent. the breakthrough could lead to a new range of flexible technologies, such as screens, cell phones and tablets, biosensors, and microprocessor chips. just as significant, because the researchers are using natural proteins to build their transistor, the products they create will be biodegradable. it ' s a far more environmentally friendly technology that addresses the growing problem of electronic waste, which is overflowing landfills worldwide. for more technology news from tel aviv university, click here.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5535345586190783, "token_count": 390, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:51.504723"} {"text": "u. s. ag wary as monsanto heads to supreme court the case also is important to regenerative medicine that relies on stem cell technologies. a stem cell by definition is a cell that can self - replicate, thus the case may answer the question of whether a patentee can control progeny of a patented stem cell, according to antoinette konski, a partner with foley & lardner ' s intellectual property practice group. monsanto, a $ 13 billion behemoth in agricultural seed and chemical sales, also sees the case as much bigger than itself. \" this case really centers on the question of twenty - first century technology such as what we bring in agriculture and other companies bring for say stem cell research or nanotechnology.... and how they ' re going to be handled under principles of intellectual property law, \" said monsanto general counsel dave snively. because seeds self - replicate, creating progeny when planted, they are unlike more traditional patented products. using a computer or smartphone does not create more computers or phones. but using a seed can make new seeds. for generations all around the world, farmers have practiced the art of saving seed, holding onto some of the grain they harvest each season to plant in a subsequent season. the advent of patented biotech seeds has changed that as monsanto and rival seed developers barred farmers from seed saving, arguing that if farmers do not buy new seed each year the companies cannot recoup the millions they spend to develop the specialty seeds. transgenic crops, which splices genes from other species into plant dna, have given farmers crops that resist insects and tolerate treatments of herbicide, making killing weeds easier for farmers. the majority of u. s. corn and soybean acres are now planted with patented biotech seeds. the case before the supreme court traces its roots to 1999, when bowman decided to plant a \" second crop \" of soybeans after he harvested winter wheat from the farmstead he runs near sandborn, indiana. while he used monsanto ' s roundup ready engineered seeds for his main, or \" first \" crop, bowman said he decided to use inexpensive commodity grain that he could purchase from a local grain elevator for his \" second \" planting of soybeans in late june. yields are generally lower for late - planted soybeans because conditions tend to be more optimal in april and may. the mixture of grain bowman bought, which he dubbed \" junk, \" carried no patent technology agreement and no directive prohibiting seed saving as do the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_entanglement", "similarity_score": 0.5300907600429812, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:51.511503"} {"text": "with several of his inventions on display in the smithsonian institute, 67 patents to his name, and over 100 inventions, ben kleinerman, 91, radiates electrifying enthusiasm for improving the lives of others through his creative brainstorms - - from the quirky to the essential. if there is one thing ben kleinerman is proud of, it ' s his unique role in israel ' s victory in the 1967 six - day war. he was the principal engineer and program manager of the ka - 56 camera at fairchild camera corp. at the time, and they had just developed a brand new technology. in the underbelly of a fighter plane, this special panoramic camera was equipped with their novel infrared - enabled poromat film. an ingenious device, the advantage of this camera and its unique film was that fighter jets could do surveillance and reconnaissance missions, capturing images of the territory beneath them, instantly develop those pictures while still in the air, and then turn around and strike with amazing accuracy. prior to the ka56, the reconnaissance plane had to first land and then develop the film, giving the enemy time to re - order the airfield, replacing decoys in the positions of the real metal planes. the state of israel sat in agonizing uncertainty, surrounded by seven countries whose military power far outweighed the skimpy israeli defense forces. the state of israel sat in agonizing uncertainty, surrounded by seven countries whose military power far outweighed the skimpy israeli defense forces. brigadier general mordecai hod, commander - in - chief of the israeli air force, commandeered kleinerman ' s specialized camera, the ka56 the egyptian air force was readying itself for battle, with some planes and hundreds of decoys made out of paper mache and wood stretched out on the tarmac. israeli jets flew stealthily above, snapping infrared - sensitive pictures with their newly outfitted cameras, and within minutes correctly bombing with the short supply of bombs that they had. the successful air strike crippled the egyptian army and was a decisive factor in israel ' s miraculous victory. five days later, the war was over. \" after the war, general hod came to the united states, to our offices, to personally thank us later on, \" ben reminisces, \" but i was already in texas, working on the mars orbiter and voyager, so i wasn ' t there to get his thanks in person. \" ben invented the forerunner of today ' s electric toothbrush -", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5105009809084663, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:51.520630"} {"text": "visitors to marvel at - - a 400 - foot, 16 mm tape reel filled with ten minutes of birthday scenery, mankind ' s first ever audio - visual home presentation! in 1964, he created an ekg machine so lightweight and portable that it was the size of a king pack of cigarettes, effectively replacing the bulky machines carried by doctors who made home visits, as was the style of the day. the cardio - sensor didn ' t give a printable readout ; instead, it was a cardiograph which allowed doctors to interpret a patient ' s pqrst heartbeat curve to quickly diagnose a problem. when the cardio - sensor device hit the market, the cities of new york and atlanta immediately purchased hundreds. in the shadow of the cold war, city officials, worried about a russian nuclear attack, wanted to be prepared for the grisly prospect of doctors arriving on the scene of catastrophe, urgently needing to differentiate between victims who were still alive and those who had already died. with generals clark and eisenhower eastman kodak worked with him to develop a patent that would make magnetic soundtracks unalterable, thereby preventing nefarious re - recordings. \" while john f. kennedy was in office, we took a speech of his, recorded it as magnetic sound on 16mm film. kennedy had said, ' we will never bomb and attack cuba. ' the way the magnetic soundtrack works, it was very easy for someone to change his words to say, ' we will bomb and attack cuba. ' the apparatus detected the erased word ' never. we showed the world what could happen. \" next time you watch the weather channel, you ' ll see another ben kleinerman original, \" the green screen, \" built by federal manufacturing and engineering for cbs as a background projection system. ben also worked for years in the thrust and tailwind of world war ii as personal field photographer of generals clark and eisenhower, following them around italy and austria and capturing the minutiae of their lives. he rubbed shoulders with the rich and famous in his capacity as army photographer, an insider at all diplomatic events. \" i worked with eisenhower. we went to see hitler ' s eagle ' s nest in austria. \" \" i was assigned to general clark for almost four years and i was with him every day of the week. and while clark was away, i worked with eisenhower. we went to see hitler ' s eagle ' s nest in austria. \" while courting his wife, ben brought her to the pentagon to see his handiwork ; she", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5071077215646769, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:51.522740"} {"text": "of the week. and while clark was away, i worked with eisenhower. we went to see hitler ' s eagle ' s nest in austria. \" while courting his wife, ben brought her to the pentagon to see his handiwork ; she was duly impressed. they were shown thousands of official photos take by ben. in the circular room there was a selection of larger photos. along with joe rosenthal ' s famous photo of the flag raising at iwo jima, there was ben ' s photo of hitler ' s coffee table at the eagle ' s nest being signed by general eisenhower and seven other generals. all in the family life hasn ' t been easy for ben kleinerman. in 1981, he was stricken with guillain barre disease, similar in nature to polio. while many victims die from the illness, ben ' s lungs were not affected but he experienced total paralysis and could only move his eyelid. for seven months, he didn ' t move and he communicated with his family through his left eyelid. but he never complained. ben ' s son, gavriel ( gil ) built a piezo - electric device \u2013 a pressure - sensitive pointer that enabled ben to signal once his left thumb began functioning - - which the hospital permitted for ben ' s use. ( ben ' s dependence on oxygen meant no spark - producing devices allowed. ) ben made a substantial recovery and hasn ' t looked back since his illness. his prolific patents, though nurtured with plenty of love and effort, pale in comparison to his true love - - his three children, kay, gavriel, and janie, and his wife of 63 years, margery, who shares his passion for inventions. \" i ' ve always tried to get my wife involved in my inventing - - so many things are her ideas. she gives me a lot of inspiration. \" ben feels he has truly made his mark on the world and takes great pleasure in his work, especially in the inexplicable brilliance of divine providence that can only be detected many years later. case in point : ben ' s son gavriel, executive vice president of aish hatorah, jerusalem, sits in an office that overlooks the western wall that was liberated in 1967 with the help of his father ' s technology.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.525974074098021, "token_count": 467, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:51.523625"} {"text": "news - ocean observations photo credit : peter rejcek posted : july 7, 2010 courtesy : antarctic sun by peter rejcek underwater robots and marine animals outfitted with scientific sensors are part of a proposed strategy for monitoring polar oceans into the 21st century, particularly a stretch of sea along the western antarctic peninsula, which is undergoing rapid climate changes. the proposal comes in the june 18, 2010 issue of the journal science by a group of scientists who conduct research in antarctica, most of whom currently work on the palmer long term ecological research ( pal lter ) program. since 1993, the pal lter has monitored the region near the u. s. antarctic program a\u20ac\u2122s palmer station, close to the northern end of the peninsula, mainly on an annual ship - based survey each january. the scientists suggest profound changes to the environment necessitate new ways to make measurements of the ocean and atmosphere. for example, midwinter surface temperatures have increased by about 6 degrees centigrade in the past 50 years. eighty - seven percent of the western peninsula glaciers are in retreat, and the sea ice season has shortened by nearly 90 days. in their report, the scientists describe a multi - faceted approach to ocean observation, using glider robots that measure ocean characteristics continuously for weeks at a time and tourist vessels, ferries, and other a\u20ac\u0153ships of opportunitya\u20ac outfitted with chemical and biological sensors. in the last few years, the pal lter program added autonomous underwater vehicles called slocum gliders through a group from rutgers university led by oscar schofield, who is the lead author on the review paper in science. a\u20ac\u0153in just the first few weeks that we had the glider out last year, we collected as much data as the cruises had collected since 1993, a\u20ac said hugh ducklow, a co - author of the science paper and lead principal investigator for the pal lter, in an earlier interview with the sun. the authors also suggest outfitting oceanographic instruments on animals such as elephant seals and penguins to provide information on animal behavior and oceanographic conditions. recent tagging of adelie penguins nesting near palmer station has helped scientists understand the link between nutrient upwelling in underwater canyons and where penguins forage. a\u20ac\u0153wea\u20ac\u2122re looking for ways to use our existing capabilities to obtain data, a\u20ac said ducklow, director of the ecosystems centerat the marine biological laboratory ( mbl ), in a recent press release from mbl. a\u20ac\u0153our goal is to", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5126229595620573, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:51.642082"} {"text": "what is a poster? a poster is a \u201c public \u201d piece of paper conveying information through text ( words ) and / or graphic images ( symbols or pictures ). it \u2019 s usually designed to be displayed vertically on a wall or window and is large enough to be seen and read from a relatively short distance. its main target audience is the person walking by. a poster must convey its message with immediacy and purpose, because people on the street are often in a hurry. posters are sometimes huge and can be seen from a long distance and may appear along highways ( on bill boards ) or on the sides of buildings. posters may also appear in much smaller versions, sometimes like a postcard, and are called handbills. whatever the size or shape, posters have a job to do and that is to convey information. posters carry many kinds of information : - they may call the population to rally, revolt or celebrate ( e. g. political or propaganda posters ) - they may alert citizens to health hazards or the presence of other dangers in the community ( e. g. educational posters ) - they may announce the coming of a wonderful theatre, music or dance performance ( e. g. marketing posters ) all effective posters must : - grab your attention - entice you to read the information they display - present the information clearly and fully, so that you understand what the poster wants to say - convince you to rally, revolt, take part, take precautions, be on the lookout or buy a ticket. the marketing poster is an important tool in most campaigns to sell arts events to the public.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.510711444339196, "token_count": 323, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:51.649367"} {"text": "understanding children who have been affected by maltreatment and prenatal alcohol exposure both maltreatment and prenatal alcohol exposure result in lifelong impairments that significantly affect multiple developmental processes of school - age children, including language, social communication, social cognition, and executive functioning. this program provides a framework for the creation of more effective assessment and intervention processes for this population by speech - language pathologists and audiologists. you will be able to : - discuss the brain structures and functions that are affected by complex trauma and prenatal alcohol exposure and the relative effects on the developmental functions of attachment, affect regulation, and information processing. - recognize sensory modulation difficulties in children with the potential to have maltreatment and / or prenatal alcohol exposure. - use a framework appropriate for assessing the social communication of children who have been affected by maltreatment and prenatal alcohol exposure. - discuss connections among emotional competence, alexithymia, and communication and language impairments. - recognize cultural issues involved in appropriately identifying the occurrence of maltreatment. - enumerate various ways the child welfare system affects the lives of the children and families who have been affected by maltreatment and fetal alcohol spectrum disorder ( fasd ). view the table of contents [ pdf ] 6 / 17 / 2012 to 5 / 3 / 2015", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5000075645215494, "token_count": 273, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:51.653703"} {"text": "logging in or signing up robot arm asguest58216 download post to : url : related presentations : share add to flag embed email send to blogs and networks add to channel uploaded from authorpoint lite insert youtube videos in powerpont slides with as desktop copy embed code : embed : flash ipad copy does not support media & animations wordpress embed customize embed url : copy thumbnail : copy the presentation is successfully added in your favorites. views : 1039 category : product traini.. license : all rights reserved like it ( 0 ) dislike it ( 0 ) added : august 02, 2010 this presentation is public favorites : 0 presentation description no description available. comments posting comment... premium member presentation transcript build your own robot arm : build your own robot arm trinidad september 2008 nico beute what will we do today? ( 1 ) : what will we do today? ( 1 ) we will build a robot arm from simple materials the arm would pick up a plastic cup from a distance of 45cm lift the cup to a height of at least 15cm bring the cup back to rest and release it you cannot get too close \u2026 : you cannot get too close \u2026 cup student robot arm 45cm you cannot get any closer than 45cm to the cup at any time what will we do today? ( 2 ) : what will we do today? ( 2 ) lift and release the cup when it is upside down lift and release the cup when it is full of candy do not spill use the same design ( possibly with a modified end effector ) to lift a pen why is this experiment useful to teachers and students? : why is this experiment useful to teachers and students? it teaches technological design it requires mathematical calculations for design it relates to the studies of motion and force it requires communication in writing ( design ) and orally ( explaining the design principles ) principles & standards for school mathematics : principles & standards for school mathematics geometry : use visualization, spatial reasoning, and geometric modeling to solve problems analyze characteristics and properties of two - and three - dimensional geometric shapes and develop mathematical arguments about geometric relationships problem solving : recognize and apply geometric ideas in areas outside of the mathematics classroom apply and adapt a variety of appropriate strategies communication : communicate mathematical thinking coherently and clearly to peers, teachers, and others outline and procedures : outline and procedures divide into teams of two ( 2 ) review the requirements discuss a solution and create a sketch of your design build a model of your design with given materials test your model redesign after testing", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5364340230989963, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:51.665075"} {"text": "| avesta - - zoroastrian archives | | contents | | prev | | history3 | | next | | glossary | the idea of god in the millennium yahweh, the only god of the hebrews. we have already seen the eclipse of the old gods and the rise of the new ones in india during the millennium that opened with zarathushtra and ended with the advent of jesue. the monotheistic idea greatly developed during this period among the jews who were a subject race under the persians and whose religion was influenced by zoroastrianism. as judaism later gave much to christianity and mohammedanism, the knowledge of the belief in the godhead among this people is of great interest, and we shall discuss it in brief. a race of sturdy nomads of semitic stock tending their flocks from times immemorial in the arabian desert, of handsome features with prominent aquiline nose, is seen settling down in palestine about thirteen centuries before the christian era. many of their kinsmen had laboured and suffered as slaves in egypt, until moses brought them deliverance. the hebrews, as the people are known to history, found their new settlement already populated by the civilized canaanites. the new - comers intermarried with them and adopted their civilization. they succeeded later in founding a kingdom, and under the heroic ruler david, jerusalem became the centre of jewish religious life and the sanctuary of their national god yahweh. during the period of the divided kingdoms of judah and israel prophetic literature of great value arose and enriched human thought. the kingdom of israel ended in 721 b. c., and judah met with her destruction in 586 b. c. the persians brought the jews deliverance and allowed them to restore the temple of jerusalem that was destroyed by nebuchadnezzar. they flourished under the tolerant persian rule, codified their religious laws, collected and copied the sermons and teachings and songs and ancient writings that they stilt possessed. thus in a few centuries more there came into being the scriptures known as the old testament, the most precious legacy of the hebrews to mankind. when they had lived in small groups, each tribe had its god, whom the people worshipped. gradually a more powerful god from among these won the universal respect of the race. he was yahweh, worshipped in the earlier stages in the form of a brazen serpent, until the idol worship gave place to a purer form of godhead", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5068547939973946, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:51.821365"} {"text": "in consequence of which he suffers. man is born good, it is said, but when he goes astray from the path of goodness, he brings calamity on his head. when there were strife and chaos stalking the earth, the sages felt that peace and harmony reigned above in heaven. perfect was the way or heaven or the tao or the one universal principle, the ultimate reality. happiness would fall to the lot of mankind, if it followed faithfully the way. the imitation of the way or heaven was therefore the ideal of earthly conduct. it was virtue and virtue brought happiness. man ' s duty was to cultivate the way and the sages undertook to teach it to mankind. the way was one which to all thinkers looked alike, but the methods of reaching it as taught by them were different. lao - tze, a great mystic born in 601 b. c., is the founder of taoism. he teaches quietism. confucius ( 551 - 479 b. c. ) is the man of the world and teaches a moral code of personal conduct. his relgion is a discipline of life and his system is a reaction against taoism. ahura mazdaahura, mazda, and ahura mazda. the name of god still retains its two elements separate. these have not yet coalesced into one word. in the metrical sections of the younger avesta the two elements are sometimes used apart from each other, or either one of the terms may be used to designate the supreme being, but in the prose compositions the collocation ahura mazda generally occurs as a compound phrase. in the formation of compounds, however, either ahura or mazda alone is used for the sake of convenience. the ahura compounds such as ahura - dhata, ' created by ahura, ' ahura - tkaesha, ' of the faith of ahura, ' or the adjectival form ahuiri, ' of ahura, ' invariably represent the divine lord ahura mazda. similarly, the mazda element in the compounds mazda - dhata, ' created by mazda, ' mazda - yasna, ' worshipper of mazda, ' mazdo - frasasta, ' taught by mazda, ' mazdo - fraokhta, or mazdaokhta, ' spoken by mazda, ' invariably stands for ahura mazda himself. | ahura mazda is the highest object of worship. ahura mazda still holds sovereign sway over both the worlds ;", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5355011726266439, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:51.824361"} {"text": "nothing in his creation comes up to the level of man, who is the greatest and the best of all creations. 33 through the wisdom of ahura mazda the world has come into being, and through his divine wisdom it will come also to an 32. y1. 1, 2, 12 ; 2. 12 ; 12. 7 ; 17. 12 ; 37. 1 ; 38. 3 ; vr7. 4 ; vd19. 13, 16, 35 ; 21. 4, 8, 12 ; aog. 30. 33. aog. 30. spenta mainyubelief in an intermediary spirit between god and the world. from the days of thales ( about 600 b. c. ), the head of the school of miletus, the greek thinkers were in touch with the orient. the ionians were in close contact with the persians. pythagoras, we have seen, was believed by the classical writers to have been the pupil of zoroaster, though several centuries intervened between them. numenius of apamea says that pythagoras and plato reproduce the ancient wisdom of the magi and brahmans, egyptians and jews. alexandria became later a cosmopolitan seat of learning, and the intellectual east and west met there. it was here that judaism and afterwards christianity were hellenized. the wisdom of the east was held in high esteem at alexandria. persian influence, it seems, had been felt in greece in the early formative period of its philosophy. zarathushtra, we have noticed, postulated a quasi - independent spirit intermediary between the godhead and the universe, anaxagoras calls it nous, acting between god, and the world as the regulating principle of existence. plato says in his timaeus that the universe becomes an organism through the universal world - soul that is created by the demiurge, the supreme deity. the old testament refers to the spirit of yahweh. 1 philo judaeus unites the greek and jewish ideas about logos and says that logos is the first - born son of god and acts as a viceregent of god between god and the world. he is the prototypal man after whose image all men are created. logos is something more than plato ' s idea of the good, because, like spenta mainyu, he is creatively active. in common with spenta mainyu, logos is not a personal being, and like spenta mainyu again,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5433109733496122, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 7, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:51.828653"} {"text": "logos is something more than plato ' s idea of the good, because, like spenta mainyu, he is creatively active. in common with spenta mainyu, logos is not a personal being, and like spenta mainyu again, he appears sometimes as identified with god and at other times seems to be an attribute of god. the avestan texts refer to spenta mainyu and his adversary angra mainyu as thworeshtar or the fashioners or cutters and, speaking about the work of logos, philo speaks of him as tomeus, ' the cutter, ' employing the word of the same meaning. again as spenta mainyu or the spirit of light is shadowed by the opposite spirit of darkness, so logos, says philo, is the shekinah or glory or light of god, but he is also the darkness or shadow of god. this is so because, he adds, the creature reveals only half the creator and hides the other half. in the book of wisdom of solomon, wisdom, identical with the greek logos, is the divine essence, living a quasi - independent existence in god and side by side with god. she works as the active agent of god in the creation of the world. in mithraism, mithra held the position of the mediator between god who was unknowable and unapproachable and mankind. he fashioned the world as demiurge. the intermediary spirit of god occurs throughout the new testament. numenius of apamea, writing in the second century, says that god has bestowed divine qualities upon a second god who acts in the world as the power for good. the supreme god or the first principle, he adds, works in the spiritual world, whereas the activity of the second god extends to the spiritual as well as material world. origen, writing shortly after him, says that god created logos or the son. his relation to the father is the same as that which exists between ahura mazda and spenta mainyu. the son or logos, says origen, is co - eternal and co - equal with the father, but the son is lesser than the father. clement of alexandria says that logos, represents the will, power, and energy of god. he is the creator on behalf of god. he has introduced harmony in the universe and conducts its affairs as the pilot. | | 1. genesis 1. 2. | | the relation between ahura mazda and his holy spirit. it remains as subtle in", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5037887498875511, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 8, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:51.829526"} {"text": "is the creator on behalf of god. he has introduced harmony in the universe and conducts its affairs as the pilot. | | 1. genesis 1. 2. | | the relation between ahura mazda and his holy spirit. it remains as subtle in the younger avestan texts as it was in the gathas. we have already seen in the treatment of this highly abstract concept, as it is portrayed in the gathic texts, that the term spenta mainyu either designated ahura mazda as his divine attribute, or occurred as a being separate from the godhead. the later avestan texts, it seems to us, lead us to the idea that spenta mainyu has no independent existence apart from ahura mazda, in other words, as shown above, he is not a personal being. the later avesta, moreover, as we shall see in the subsequent pages, teaches that all earthly and heavenly beings, belonging to the kingdom of goodness, including ahura mazda himself, have their fravashis, or guardian spirits. spenta mainyu alone in the realm of the good is without his guardian spirit. furthermore, spenta mainyu does not receive homage and invocation from man, as do ahura mazda, the amesha spentas, and the yazatas. in one passage the faithful dedicate their thoughts, words, deeds, and all to him. 2 spenta mainyu, therefore, may be taken as an attribute of ahura mazda which is either conjointly used with the godhead as his distinguishing epithet, or occurs alone by itself to designate the supreme being. in this latter use, it may be said, spenta mainyu represents ahura mazda, in the same manner as the royal title ' his majesty ' is frequently used as a substitute for the name of a king. | | 2. y58. 6. | | in contradistinction to the evil creation of angra mainyu, or the evil spirit, the avestan texts speak of the good creation as belonging to spenta mainyu, the holy spirit. 3 he maintains the sky, the waters, the earth, the plants, and the children to be born. 4 the stars also are spoken of as the creatures of the holy spirit. 5 he created mithra ' s chariot, inlaid with stars and made of heavenly substance. 6 he is spoken of as the holier of the two spirits. 7 he struggles with angra mainyu to seize the kingly glory [ khwarrah ]. 8", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5060195671102797, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 9, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:51.830378"} {"text": "zoroaster ' s teachings in regard to asha. 97. y1. 4 ; 2. 4 ; 3. 6 ; 4. 9 ; 6. 3 ; 7. 6, 17. 3 ; 22. 6 ; 59. 3 ; yt4. 9 ; sr1. 7 ; 2. 7 ; afr. 4. 2 ; g. 2, 9, 12. the change that the concept undergoes. the gathic khshathra now takes vairya, ' desirable, ' as its standing epithet, and hence both the terms combine to form the name of this archangel. this archangel of ahura mazda99 gradually loses the abstract side of his nature in the avestan texts. in the gathic prose text of the yasna haptanghaiti the abstract idea of the divine kingdom occurs but once. in this solitary passage the devout long for the everlasting kingdom of ahura mazda. 100 throughout the younger avestan texts this abstract idea of the spiritual kingdom recedes into the background, or rather is entirely lost sight of. true, khshathra vairya is still occasionally invoked by name along with the other celestial beings, but his higher function as the genius of the sovereign power in the abstract entirely falls out. | khshathra vairya as the genius of earthly wealth. materially khshathra vairya is the genius of metal, and his activity is now limited to guarding this concrete creation of god. he is not spoken of as the genius of the celestial riches of the divine kingdom of ahura mazda. khshathra vairya and the molten metal are invoked side by side. 101 in fact he very soon loses even this trait of his work ; he is identified with metal and just becomes metal itself. 102 thrita, the first reputed healer of the bodies of mortals, received from him a surgical instrument for healing. 103 | | 101. vr20. 1 ; yt2. 7 ; sr1. 4 ; 2. 4. 102. yt10. 125 ; vd9. 10 ; 16. 6 ; 17. 6, 8. as the genius of metal, khshathra vairya is the lord of earthly riches. he generously bestows his possessions on the poor. he is sometimes invoked in company of marezhdika, ' mercy, ' 104 who is styled the protector of the poor. we can trace this relation of khshathra vairya as the merciful help", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5036819320731905, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 21, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:51.843355"} {"text": ", or concrete objects of nature. many of them preside over both spiritual and material phenomena. the nature yazatas hvarekhshaeta, mithra, maonghah, ardvi sura, atar, and others personify the sun, light, moon, water, and fire. at times their names designate merely the objects of nature that they personify. this simultaneous treatment of the dual aspect of these angels is frequently found in one and the same paragraph and makes it difficult to distinguish the actual impersonations from the personified objects. very often praise and sacrifice are offered more to the sun, light, moon, water, and fire as such than to the yazatas presiding over them. we learn from herodotus that the persians sacrificed unto the sun, moon, earth, fire, water, and winds. 7 | | 7. herod. 1. 131. | instances are not wanting in which a yazata begins his career as the personification of some one particular virtue or an object of nature, but with the lapse of time either substitutes for it some other or widens his sphere of activity and takes some new virtue in the abstract or some new object of nature under his guardianship in addition to his original duty. some of the yazatas are lacking in real individuality. the functions of the yazatas. various are the boons that the yazatas give unto man. 8 by hundreds and by thousands they gather together the light of the sun and pour it upon the earth. 9 men invoke them with sacrifices10 and in return they help men, they have a share of invocation and sacrifice offered unto ahura mazda, who is not jealous of the oblations thus dedicated to his subordinates. they are the holy, mighty, beneficent ones, 11 full of glory and healing. 12 apart from the general work which the yazatas perform as a class of spiritual beings, they are severally allotted different functions, which we shall notice under their respective headings. 8. y65. 12, 14. 9. yt6. 1 ; ny1. 11 11. y25. 8 ; 65. 12, 14 ; g2. 6. offerings and sacrifices to the yazatas. libations of milk and haoma, of the draonah [ dron ], or wafer - bread, and of meat are the objects generally dedicated to the angels, who always demand that man shall not forget their", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5116467491984769, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 25, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:51.848005"} {"text": "4 ; vsp. 1. 7 ; 2. 9 ; yt10. 146. yt15 ; sr. 1. 21 ; 2. 21 ; vd. 3. 1 ; g. 1. 7. 230. yt8. 2 ; 10. 4. 232. yt23. 7 ; 24. 6. | physical and mental inequality leads to economic inequality. providence does not distribute the physical and mental gifts to man on the basis of equality. some are born with agile, robust, and healthy bodies, whereas others are burdened with sluggish, weak, and sickly bodies. mankind has contributed considerably by its vice of ages to the deformity of body and derangement of mind. men and women are born with unequal physical and mental strength. the strong and strenuous, cunning and resourceful, vigorous and adventurous mercilessly overthrow the weak and slow, simple and dull, timid and indolent in the fierce scramble for the good things of life. the unequal distribution by nature of the gifts of body and brain, aided by selfishness and greed on the part of man bring about economic inequality. the disparity of poverty and wealth has appeared on the face of the earth ever since society took to settled life and, with the division of labour, embarked upon earning means of livelihood by different kinds of work. the strong have exploited the labour of the weak and forced them to slave like beasts of burden with their eyes raining tears of sorrow. the fear of starvation has hovered over millions of huts like vultures. the poor have generally lived in squalor and sickness and died like flies. countless persons have not experienced a full and satisfied stomach from birth to death. kindly mothers have eaten only half the bread that their children may have the other half. multitudes of children have lived with wasted cheeks, sunken eyes, and emaciated bodies among the dregs of life. men and women have sweated and starved and grown gray before their time. physical sufferings have rendered many the shadows of themselves, made them live two years in one and age fast. many have found it hard to equate the income and expenses, and earned a precarious living. the people whose tragedy it has been to be poor have always outnumbered the rich in the world. | | when life has thus denied many the barest necessities of life, it has loaded others with abundance. men of industry and enterprise have amassed riches, others have inherited wealth, still others have", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5125930339389481, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 52, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:51.889359"} {"text": "same time the moon and the personification of the moon. the seventh yasht and the third nyaish are dedicated to this divine personage. here also we find throughout the description of the waxing and the waning of the moon, the periods of the new and the full moons, and the benefit that the light of the moon imparts to the world. we hear much of the concrete moon, but very little of the abstract person of the angel. the sole - created bull, the progenitor of the animal world, is invoked along with the moon. 389 the moon waxes and wanes through ahura mazda. 390 the amesha spentas gather the glory of the moon and distribute it upon the earth. 391 when the moon warms up with its light, the golden coloured plants grow up from the earth during the spring. 392 | | 388 herod. 7. 37. 389 sr. 1. 12 ; 2. 12. 390 yt7. 2 ; ny3. 4. 391 yt7. 3 ; ny3. 5. 392 yt7. 4 ; ny3. 6. the moon is constantly spoken of as the possessor of the seed of the bull. 393 the moon is furthermore described as the bestower, radiant, glorious, possessed of water, possessed of warmth, possessed of knowledge, wealth, riches, discernment, weal, verdure, good, and the healing one. 394 the twelfth day of the month is dedicated to the moon. 395 393 see gray, in spiegel memorial volume, p. 160 - 168. 394 yt7. 5 ; ny3. 7. | deification of the endless light. anaghra raochah means the endless light. it is the celestial light as opposed to the earthly light. 396 in the order of naming the various kinds of heavenly lights, anaghra raochah comes after the stars, moon and the sun. 397 like the stars, the moon, and the sun, this supreme light stood without motion until the fravashis or the guardian spirits showed it its path of movement. 398 | | 397 y71. 9 ; yt12. 35 ; 13. 57 ; g. 3. 6. anaghra raochah is personified as a yazata, being invoked at the sacrifice, 399 and the thirtieth day of the zoroastrian calendar bears", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.51349137278632, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 72, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:51.913852"} {"text": "night, or two or fifty nights, or even a hundred nights. 419 tishtrya affirms that owing to his power to further righteousness, he is worthy of sacrifice and invocation, and if people will offer him libations and haoma in sacrifice, he will grant them heroic children, and purity unto their souls, the riches of oxen and horses. 420 he pours down water in abundance upon the earth, brings prosperity unto the whole creation, when he receives the offering of a sacrifice and is propitiated, rejoiced, and satisfied. 421 never, in that event, would the hostile horde invade the countries, nor would any calamity or evil of any kind befall them. 422 yet in spite of all this, the bounteous kindness of tishtrya grants boons to his votary whether he prays for them or not. 423 his fight with the demon of drought. tishtrya is opposed in his work of producing rain by his adversary apaosha, the demon of drought, who keeps back the rain. the tishtrya yasht gives a picturesque account of the struggle between them. in the combat with the fiend that holds the world in clutch through famine and drought, apaosha, who appears in the form of a terrifying black horse, assaults his opponent and in their opening combat succeeds in forcing tishtrya to retreat. worsted by the fiend, tishtrya mourns his defeat and complains that men do not sufficiently sacrifice unto him as they do unto other celestial powers, for had they not been sparing in their invocation, he would have been able to bring a further strength of ten horses, of ten camels, of ten oxen, of ten mountains, and of ten rivers to his side. ahura mazda himself, thereupon, offers a sacrifice unto tishtrya and thus imparts new strength to him. thus emboldened, he now, with renewed vigour, attacks his rival for the second time, and after a fierce struggle overcomes him. his triumph is hailed as the triumph of the waters, plants, and the religion of mazda, for tishtrya is now in a position to bring prosperity to the country. 424 ahura mazda, the amesha spentas, as well as mithra, ashi vanghuhi, and parendi, are among those that help tishtrya in this war of the elements for the benefit of mankind425 a", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5000629776177379, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 76, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:51.920869"} {"text": "reflections after 50 years of space a protege of wernher von braun, jesco von puttkamer has spent his long career working in human spaceflight. in this long essay, von puttkamer gives his perspective on humanity ' s next steps into the universe. here he discusses the lessons mars has to teach us. for the longer future, the significance of the iss for the opening of a new era of peaceful cooperation between nations will undoubtedly be of considerably greater import that the important work underway on board today. in the wake of the process of worldwide restructuring and redefinition following the cold war of yesteryear, iss is acting as a catalyst for international understanding and collaboration. it helps to foster and form new partnerships among the nations of the earth, to inspire our youth, and to stimulate and support the next generation of scientists, engineers, entrepreneurs and businessmen. it cannot fail in that because, fundamentally, it represents an answer to the age - old human drive for exploration of the unknown, the push toward new goals and frontiers. i ' ll return to this aspect below. for human missions to mars, the vision discussed here, the space station assumes a key position : as residence in space it will provide a kind of early bridgehead to the new continent outside earth, to our next major goal, mars. first of all, relative to its development and operation, the iss can be considered something like an early \" demo \" model for a major international mars program in later years. even more, as an orbital research and development facility it establishes and cements, in the longer range, the scientific and technical foundations of future human planetary missions. for the latter, it could also, with appropriate extensions, serve as a transportation node and port - of - embarkation. as mentioned above, foremost among its research objectives are life sciences, particularly with regards to humans in space and all \" human factors \" associated with protection of health, well - being, and productivity of crews during extended stays in space - which do represent the toughest hurdles on the road to mars. they are : the effects of zero - g and the development of potent countermeasures, protection against radiation, maintenance of stability and productivity of small multi - cultural groups of humans in close confinement and extended isolation, and the development of reliable closed - cycle life - support systems for multi - year missions. these missions also require new technologies such as aerobraking ( to help conserve propellants by utilizing the atmospheres of mars and earth for flight maneuvers ), storage and", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5322554299986916, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:51.959487"} {"text": "development of reliable closed - cycle life - support systems for multi - year missions. these missions also require new technologies such as aerobraking ( to help conserve propellants by utilizing the atmospheres of mars and earth for flight maneuvers ), storage and handling of cryogenics, ( i. e., gases supercooled to liquid form ), new spacesuits with greater flexibility and higher comfort for strenuous activity on the mars surface, solar and nuclear power systems, and local - resources utilization for producing propellants and other substances necessary for life. to shorten flight time and thus reduce the en - route exposure to microgravity and space radiation, human mars missions will also favor nuclear propulsion systems. nasa is studying advanced nuclear propulsion concepts, and our russian iss partner roskosmos is well advanced in the development of nuclear - electric propulsion. our exploration of the red planet is aimed not just at the search for life or later settlement by people but also at nearer - term objectives of quite concrete relevance for the present, motivated by fundamental questions such as why our sun has planets in the first place, how is it possible that earth and with it we humans exist, and is earth ' s and our existence an extraordinary or normal occurrence in the cosmos? why are we in this world, how did it come about, could it also have happened differently, and what will become of us? even more importantly, we are also exploring mars in order to better understand our terrestrial environment, to improve our ability to more accurately determine what we are changing on earth by our activities - on its surface and its atmosphere. mars is particularly well suited for such comparative planetology. the exploration of its topography, geology, geography, atmosphere, weather and climate conditions, developmental phases, indeed the entirety of its physical and chemical characteristics will add fundamentally to our knowledge and understanding of our own environment, thus serving considerably more than just the pure satisfaction of abstract human curiosity. mars ' formation and development still pose great riddles for science : it is the only other planet beside earth with a surface clearly marked by complex geological processes caused by ice ages, glaciers, and flowing water in niagara quantities. and that in a world which is so bone - dry today that all water in its presently considerably thinned - down carbon dioxide atmosphere would form a layer only two to five hundredths millimeter thick if it rained down to the ground all at once. mars has ice fields, mysterious dark zones, bright \" deserts \", and various types of cloud formations which are subject to continual", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5647278856358189, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:51.961074"} {"text": "cell cycle pathway the cell cycle pathway is a unidirectional process that governs cell division. this process, which cannot be reversed once started, is critical for cell survival. the cell cycle typically involves four phases : s phase, in which dna is replicated, m phase, in which chromosomes are separated and two distinct cells are formed, and g1 and g2 phases during which the cell is preparing for cell division. the majority of the cell cycle pathway is regulated by two classes of proteins : cyclin - dependent kinases ( cdks ) and cyclins. cyclins and cdks form complexes that enable cdks to phosphorylate and activate specific cell cycle intermediates. in the initial stages of the cell - cycle signal, cyclin d will bind to cdk4 and this complex will phosphorylate the retinoblastoma ( rb ) gene. during a quiescent state, rb is bound to dna and blocks the transcription of specific genes. after phosphorylation, rb becomes unbound and genes necessary for the cell cycle are now accessible. the cell cycle pathway is a highly - regulated process that incorporates three major checkpoints. the first checkpoint is the g1 checkpoint, which determines whether or not a cell will enter into the cell division process. the second checkpoint, g2, will determine if the cell will enter into mitosis. both the g1 and g2 checkpoints can be affected by the presence or absence of various growth factors, dna damage, or replicative senescence. the final checkpoint, metaphase, ensures proper chromosome alignment prior to cell division. the cell cycle pathway is intrinsically linked to cell survival and cell death. for instance, failure of a cell to meet the requirements of the individual cell cycle checkpoints will result in the cell undergoing apoptosis. in cancer, the cell cycle checkpoints are often dysfunctional. checkpoint proteins, such as rb or p53, are often mutated or inactivated and this can result in cell division despite incomplete dna synthesis and segregation errors. inappropriate continuation of the cell cycle can lead to genomic instability, which is a common feature of malignant cells. 1. nigg. 1995. cyclin - dependent protein kinases : key regulators of the eukaryotic cell cycle. bioessays. 17 ( 6 ) : 471 - 80.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.524318403930063, "token_count": 485, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:51.969463"} {"text": "by dr. aleksandra drizo dr. aleksandra drizo, phosphoreduc llc. ceo, 70 south winooski avenue ; burlington, vt, usa 05405. corresponding author : firstname. lastname @ example. org phosphorus pollution problem water eutrophication caused by excess nutrient loading from human activities has been recognized as one of the major water quality issues for several decades ( 1, 2 ). the world resources institute has identified 415 hypoxic coastal zones in the world. the situation is even more alarming for freshwater resources with 54 % of lakes in asia, 53 % in europe, 48 % in north america, 41 % in south america and 30 % in africa being identified as eutrophic ( 3 ). although some environments are more greatly influenced by changing levels of nitrogen, addition of just 1 g of phosphorus promotes the growth of up to 100 g algae, and as such, represents the principal trigger of eutrophication and toxic blue - green algae blooms. the effect of algae blooms these blooms can decrease the oxygen levels in the waters, resulting in fish kills and reduced biodiversity. they can also cause foul odors and tastes, diminishing the recreational appeal of the waters or their potential for use as a water supply source. some species have even been found to release chemicals that are toxic to animals and humans. sources of phosphorus pollution given the magnitude of eutrophication worldwide, solutions for reducing phosphorus loading from municipal, agricultural, industrial, urban and rural point and nonpoint sources have been sought worldwide. while point source pollution is definable and thus controllable, nonpoint ( diffuse ) pollution originates from a variety of run - off sources, and consequently, controlling this type of contamination is even more complex, requiring an integration of technological, socio - economical and educational factors. methods of phosphorus removal methods for phosphorus removal from wastewaters and storm water runoff have emerged over the past few years. however, the current absence of the governmental regulations for phosphorus discharge limits, coupled with the extremely high costs of environmental technologies verification ( etv ) programs impose insurmountable obstacles in phosphorus removal technologies applications. current regulatory framework despite the recognized need for phosphorus reduction worldwide ( 2 - 5 ), the current regulatory framework for attenuation of this type of contamination has been extremely limited. phosphorus discharge criteria have been developed only for municipal wastewater treatment facilities ( mwtf ) and, in a very few developed countries. moreover, the current phosphorus removal methods ( either chemical or biological ) used in mw", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5159810586610909, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:52.010593"} {"text": "was awarded the seed start - up funding that enabled me to establish my business phosphoreduc llc ( www. phosphoreduc. com ). the seed funding also provided necessary funding for patent applications. we currently have patents pending for the two of our technologies, one for phosphorus removal from point pollution sources and the other for phosphorus removal from agricultural and urban drain outflows. our filtration systems are passive systems consisting of one or more filter units filled with iron ( fe ) and / or calcium ( ca ) based filtration material, modified steel slag, a recyclable by - product from the steel industry. the filtration media is packed, arranged and engaged with one another in specially - designed modules so as to form a modular composite filter, according to the method developed by phopshoreduc llc. to date, we have demonstrated that phosphoreduc filter systems reduce phosphorous, suspended solids and pathogens ( e. coli ) loads from sewage, agricultural and urban point and nonpoint pollution sources by 70 \u2013 100 percent by systems implemented in a variety of climatic regions, on 4 continents. the examples of phosphoreduc applications include : 1. agricultural runoff treatment : a simple cartridge system installed to reduce phosphorus and solids from agricultural tile drains collecting water from 30 acres in vermont achieved reductions averaging 72 % and 75 %, respectively ( figure 1 ). currently, there is no agricultural practice designed to reduce phosphorus loading from agricultural tile drains. we have showed that phosphorus concentrations measured in 6 different agricultural drains over 10 spring storm events exceeded critical 0. 1 - 0. 2 mg / l p concentrations for incipient eutrophication in each rain event. feed bunks ( silage leachate ) runoff treatment, known as one of the most toxic waste streams on farms. currently, the vegetative treatment area ( practice code 635 ) is the major \u201c best management practice \u201d recommended by the us natural resources conservation service ( nrcs ) and widely implemented to treat silage leachate runoff on farms in the us ( 7 ). while it cannot achieve more than 20 % phosphorus reduction efficiency, the current cost of this practice implementation is in order of $ 15, 220 per acre. the results from a 2 year investigation by our research team has shown that the implementation of an innovative \u201c treatment train \u201d consisting of a phosphoreduc filter, and a vegetative trench could achieve up to 90 % phosphorus reduction at half the cost of the currently recommended 635", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5121060070700534, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:52.015263"} {"text": "by our research team has shown that the implementation of an innovative \u201c treatment train \u201d consisting of a phosphoreduc filter, and a vegetative trench could achieve up to 90 % phosphorus reduction at half the cost of the currently recommended 635 practice ( 8 ). 2. urban stormwater treatment phosphoreduc filter installed in columbus, oh to treat a golf - course stormwater pond achieved an average of 85 % reduction efficiency. several follow up installations are planned in 2012. 3. sewage treatment phosphoreduc filter has been implemented in southern taiwan to test system efficacy in sewage wastewater treatment originating from the university student residences. this system showed nearly 100 % reductions in dissolved and total phosphorus and suspended solids over 10 months of investigation ( 9 ). following successful treatment in taiwan, two filter installations are currently planned to reduce phosphorus loading originating from a mixed sewage and urban runoff effluent and causing eutrophication of tubarao lagoons in vitoria state, brazil. the future of innovative phosphorus removal technologies despite all of the above obstacles, during the past two years phosphoreduc technologies started to gain interest among governmental agencies in the us and internationally. we have contributed to eutrophication prevention and water quality improvements in over 40 laboratory, pilot, demonstration and full scale projects across 5 continents ( europe, north america, south america, asia, new zealand ). in sweden, professor gunno renman developed polonite based systems for phosphorus removal from residential septic systems. however, polonite filtration material is made from the natural calcium rich material found only in poland, which restricts systems applications beyond these two countries. in any future research and development of phosphorus removal technologies we ought to keep in mind the fact that as a key component of fertilizers, phosphorus is fundamental for the world \u2019 s food supplies, and an irreplaceable and essential element of life with its sole source as phosphate - bearing rocks ( 10 - 11 ). phosphorus resources are non - renewable with global reserves estimated to reach their peak in the next 50 - 100 years ( 10 ). the current rate of phosphate extraction is reported at 167 million tonnes per year with a growing demand that accounts for a 2 % annual increase. with continuing decline of global phosphate reserves, the impacts are likely be immense, particularly in terms of rising food prices, growing food insecurity and widening inequalities between developed and developing countries ( 10 - 11 ). thus, not only should we continue research, development and implementation", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5226003745168721, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:52.016760"} {"text": "renman, g. ( 2011 ). the use of blast furnace and electric arc furnace steel slag in water pollution control. ferrous slag - resource development for an environmentally sustainable world. euroslag publication no. 5. pp 103 - 11. url : http : / / www. euroslag. org / about - us / history / conferencesdetail /? tx _ ttnews [ tt _ news ] = 19 & chash = ae437d3893598f2b5faf16f5edf6a16c. ( 7 ) usda nrcs ( 2008 ). vegetative treatment area practice 635. usda, natural resources conservation service \u2015 practice code 635. url : http : / / www. nrcs. usda. gov / internet / fse _ documents / nrcs143 _ 026548. pdf ( 8 ) drizo, a., liang, k. and gorres, j. ( 2011 ). phosphorus and e. coli reduction from silage leachate via innovative phosphoreduc filtration. final report to the conservation innovations grants program, submitted december 2011. university of vermont grant agreement number : 69 - 3a75 - 9 - 121. ( 9 ) autm, the association of university technology managers ( 2011 ). academic filtration innovations aim to solve what ails a perishable resource : water. published in the 2011 edition of a better world report. respond, recover, restructure : technologies helping the world in the face of adversity, pp 78 - 83. www. betterworldrpoject. net ( 10 ) the broker ( 2009 ). peak phosphorus - the next inconvenient truth. the broker online 15, august 2009. url : http : / / globalpnetwork. net / resource / peak - phosphorus - next - inconvenient - truth ( 11 ) yoshida, h., van dijk, k., drizo, a., vanginkel, s., matsubae, k. and buehrer, m. ( 2011 ). chapter 6 : phosphorus recovery and reuse. in : dijk, k. and yoshida, h. ( ed. ). phosphorus, food and our future. frontiers in life sciences. in review.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5260689730791906, "token_count": 486, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:52.021145"} {"text": "what is iron deficiency? if you feel like your energy levels are low, you \u2019 re lacking motivation and you could fall asleep at your desk everyday, don \u2019 t blame your job right away. instead, take a close look at the signs and symptoms of iron deficiency. iron deficiency is the most prevalent nutrition deficiency in the world. it occurs when the body \u2019 s stores of iron are low ( the stage prior to anemia ), and, it may or may not cause any symptoms. iron deficiency disproportionately affects those in developing countries but it is also prevalent in industrialized countries. iron deficiency anemia develops when low iron stores persist for a period of time and the body cannot make enough healthy red blood cells to deliver oxygen throughout the body. in the united states, the largest nationwide survey, the national nutrition and health examination surveys ( nhanes ) found that approximately 16 % of teenage girls aged 16 - 19 and 12 % of women aged 20 - 49 are deficient in iron. these numbers are staggering in a country with an abundant food supply and an array of multivitamin and iron supplements. - stoltzfus rj. defining iron - deficiency anemia in public health terms : reexamining the nature and magnitude of the public health problem. j nutr 2001 ; 131 : 565s - 7s. - micronutrient deficiencies. iron deficiency anaemia. world health organization. http : / / www. who. int / nutrition / topics / ida / en / index. html - iron deficiency anemia. national anemia action council. http : / / www. anemia. org / patients / faq / # ida - iron deficiency. mmwr weekly. cdc. 2002 ; 51 ( 40 ) : 897 - 899. http : / / www. cdc. gov / mmwr / preview / mmwrhtml / mm5140a1. htm # tab1 - institute of medicine. food and nutrition board. dietary reference intakes for vitamin a, vitamin k, arsenic, boron, chromium, copper, iodine, iron, manganese, molybdenum, nickel, silicon, vanadium and zinc. washington, dc : national academy press, 2001. - monson er. iron and absorption : dietary factors which impact iron bioavailability. j am dietet assoc. 1988 ; 88 : 786 - 90. - tapiero h, gate l, tew kd. iron : deficiencies", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5000324899539657, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:52.076849"} {"text": "the usa. japanese theorist sato tetsutaro developed the concept of a fleet at a minimum 70 % of the u. s. ' s. this would enable the japanese navy to win two decisive battles, the first early in a war, against the us pacific fleet, and the second against the us atlantic fleet which would inevitably be despatched as reinforcements. evans and peattie, kaigunjapan ' s first priority was to refit the pre - dreadnoughts she had captured from russia, and to complete satsuma and aki. like the south carolinas, the satsumas were designed before dreadnought, but gun shortages in britain ( which supplied them ) delayed her completion and resulted in her carrying a mixed armament, so she was known as a semi - dreadnought. these were followed by a modified aki - type : kawachi and settsu, which were laid down in 1909 and complete in 1912, and were armed with four 12 - inch / 50, eight 12 - inch / 45, ten 6 - inch / 45, and eight 4. 7 - inch / 40. \" although nominally dreadnoughts, these ships did not have a really uniform main battery, since the guns differed in length, and therefore in performance, particularly at very long range. \" page 229, gardiner, robert and gray, randal ( ed ) conway ' s all the world ' s fighting ships 1906 - 1921, conway maritime press, london, 1982. isbn 0 - 85177 - 245 - 5. this would have made fire control very difficult. dreadnoughts in other countries, a bretagne - class battleship. ] ] compared to the other major naval powers, france was slow to start building dreadnoughts, instead finishing the planned danton - class of pre - dreadnoughts, laying down five in 1907 and 1908. it was not until september 1910 the first of the courbet - class was laid down, making france the eleventh nation to enter the dreadnought race. the dreadnought race saw france drop from second to fifth in terms of naval power ; however, the closer alliance with britain made these reduced forces more than adequate for french needs. even though cuniberti had promoted the idea of an all - big - gun battleship in italy well before dreadnought, it took until 1909 for italy to lay down one of her own. the construction of dante alighieri was prompted by rumours of austro - hungarian dreadnought building. a further five dread", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5014741601679334, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 19, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:52.177581"} {"text": "how machine learning can help to understand brain signals if a neurotechnological prosthesis should act upon commands from the brain, these have to be interpreted correctly. it is a challenging task because the amount of data is huge and the signals that the brain emits also change over time. computer scientists therefore want to leave it to learning machines to solve this ever - changing puzzle. | gunnar grah talked to martin riedmiller, machine learning lab | the usual way to make a computer do something goes like this : you decide what problem the machine is supposed to solve for you, then you write a programme that does exactly this. modern washing machines work that way. they have been told exactly what to do at what moment. this approach works very well for clearly defined problems, like getting dirt out of laundry. but there are many problems where solutions are not obvious, and the point of departure might always be a little bit different and require different solutions. in this case, computer scientists opt for letting the computer figure out the optimal solution for itself, an approach that is called \u201c machine learning \u201d. the human as trainer, not programmer machine learning resembles somewhat how humans acquire new skills, i. e. through examples, the structuring of a problem, and gaining experience. if, for instance, a computer is supposed to learn the different appearances of a broad - leaved tree and a conifer, a human \u201c trainer \u201d would provide the learning machine with examples of both classes, telling it in each case which class the tree on the picture belongs to. after some time, the computer will be able to correctly classify the presented trees, even though no human ever provided it with an actual list of things to look out for in order to master the task. if a problem requires not only a classification, but learning a complex procedure, like a robot walking on two legs without falling over, a trainer will at first be required to tell the machine whether an approach was \u201c good \u201d or \u201c bad \u201d. after sufficient training, the machine will master the problem and show some robustness in its solution, even if the situation varies slightly. also, a trained machine will be able to solve a new situation \u2013 e. g. the robot carrying something and therefore changing its weight distribution \u2013 faster than if it was starting from scratch. learning from the brain the secret of machine learning lies in the nature of the software that is at work at its base. a solution to a problem does not exist as specific lines of code that govern how the input from the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_computing", "similarity_score": 0.5207719549893229, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:52.244295"} {"text": "it was starting from scratch. learning from the brain the secret of machine learning lies in the nature of the software that is at work at its base. a solution to a problem does not exist as specific lines of code that govern how the input from the environment is dealt with in order to reach a desired outcome. instead, it employs an \u201c artificial neural network \u201d. this is a kind of programme that took its inspiration from the structure of the brain, where many individual items ( the nerve cells ) solve relatively simple problems ( like adding or multiplying values ), but are able to tackle much more complex tasks by being connected and existing in large numbers. an artificial neural network takes this concept into the realm of bits and bytes, but plays by the same rules. learning, just as in the real brain, manifests itself in the change of connections between individual neurons. these connectivity patterns between a multitude of mathematically represented nerve cells are where the solution to a given problem is stored. in consequence, there exists no neat equation that provides the solution, even though the final answer that the machine provides to a given problem is simple. the biological brain has acted as an inspiration, but computer scientists take this metaphor only as far as it is useful to them. to date, making the individual artificial neuron more and more complex, and thus ever more life - like, has not provided any real advantages, and software engineers therefore tend to go for what works best, not necessarily what comes closest to a real nerve cell. in terms of the general architecture however, natural evolution has led to time - tested concepts that are being exploited. machine learning programmes that analyse images, for instance, draw upon the structure of the visual cortex and the way how it breaks down the task into extracting individual features from a scene. using artificial networks to understand real ones within brainlinks - braintools, the task is a formidable one : machine learning is destined to help analysing signals recorded from brain activity. there is no intrinsic connection though that makes this link between a real and an artificial neural network something special : neither is machine learning the only approach to make sense of the activity of billions of nerve cells, nor is it less suitable to analyse completely different sets of data, like stock market developments. ultimately, machine learning should make it possible to read out movement commands from the brain \u2019 s surface. these could then be sent to a prosthesis or an assistive device like a robot \u2013 the use - case which the strategy \u201c linc \u201d within the cluster", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_computing", "similarity_score": 0.5558126332863141, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:52.245492"} {"text": "learning should make it possible to read out movement commands from the brain \u2019 s surface. these could then be sent to a prosthesis or an assistive device like a robot \u2013 the use - case which the strategy \u201c linc \u201d within the cluster aims for. so far, it is an open question what kind of commands could actually be discriminated within the patterns of signals that electrodes can read out from the brain \u2019 s surface. could machine learning reliably identify the difference between different grasp movements, for instance as they are necessary to grab either a pen or a bottle? will the computer look for individual movements, or will it be able to extract whole intentions like \u201c i want to put the bottle back into the fridge \u201d? such higher concepts would be an elegant way to steer a prosthetic arm. the user would not have to think all commands in the right order and with the right extent, but could leave it to the autonomously planning prosthesis to figure out the best way after sending a general command. however, there is a pitfall : in abstract concepts, it might become even more difficult to know what the activity pattern actually stands for. we might find an activity pattern that appears every time that the person thinks \u201c fridge \u201d, but it might actually stand for an association that the person makes, like \u201c cold \u201d. between the infinite number of possible thoughts and possible connections, this will be an ambitious challenge for data analysis by machine learning. furthermore, it remains to be seen how many activity patterns are identical between individuals. ideally, a patient should not have to go through lengthy training sessions to teach the system all manners of different movements from scratch, but the device should arrive with some pre - installed knowledge of the most basic patterns. even then, there would be enough that the system would have to learn in order to adapt to the individual patient. after all, no two brains \u2013 not even those of twins \u2013 are identical. and it is very likely that the same holds true for the brain \u2019 s activity patterns. but computer scientists are optimistic that these training sessions would not take too long \u2013 rather minutes or hours than days and weeks. but machine learning is not only a useful tool on the user \u2019 s end. likewise, artificial neural networks could come in handy to help a robotic arm or other assistive device to execute movements and find the ideal action to reach a certain goal. what makes machine learning an attractive candidate for this task it that its artificial neural network learned the solution to a problem and wasn \u2019 t spoon -", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_computing", "similarity_score": 0.5601059499108549, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:52.246752"} {"text": "stressarticle free pass stress, in physical sciences and engineering, force per unit area within materials that arises from externally applied forces, uneven heating, or permanent deformation and that permits an accurate description and prediction of elastic, plastic, and fluid behaviour. a stress is expressed as a quotient of a force divided by an area. there are many kinds of stress. normal stress arises from forces that are perpendicular to a cross - sectional area of the material, whereas shear stress arises from forces that are parallel to, and lie in, the plane of the cross - sectional area. if a bar having a cross - sectional area of 4 square inches ( 26 square cm ) is pulled lengthwise by a force of 40, 000 pounds ( 180, 000 newtons ) at each end, the normal stress within the bar is equal to 40, 000 pounds divided by 4 square inches, or 10, 000 pounds per square inch ( psi ; 7, 000 newtons per square cm ). this specific normal stress that results from tension is called tensile stress. if the two forces are reversed, so as to compress the bar along its length, the normal stress is called compressive stress. if the forces are everywhere perpendicular to all surfaces of a material, as in the case of an object immersed in a fluid that may be compressed itself, the normal stress is called hydrostatic pressure, or simply pressure. the stress beneath the earth \u2019 s surface that compresses rock bodies to great densities is called lithostatic pressure. shear stress in solids results from actions such as twisting a metal bar about a longitudinal axis as in tightening a screw. shear stress in fluids results from actions such as the flow of liquids and gases through pipes, the sliding of a metal surface over a liquid lubricant, and the passage of an airplane through air. shear stresses, however small, applied to true fluids produce continuous deformation or flow as layers of the fluid move over each other at different velocities like individual cards in a deck of cards that is spread. for shear stress, see also shear modulus. reaction to stresses within elastic solids causes them to return to their original shape when the applied forces are removed. yield stress, marking the transition from elastic to plastic behaviour, is the minimum stress at which a solid will undergo permanent deformation or plastic flow without a significant increase in the load or external force. the earth shows an elastic response to the stresses caused by earthquakes in the way it propagates seismic waves, whereas it undergoes plastic deformation beneath the surface under", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5815895554728802, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:52.277474"} {"text": "the influence of alcohol or drugs. - wearing a helmet and making sure your children wear helmets when : - riding a bike, motorcycle, snowmobile, scooter, or all - terrain vehicle ; - playing a contact sport, such as football, ice hockey, or boxing ; - using in - line skates or riding a skateboard ; - batting and running bases in baseball or softball ; - riding a horse ; or - skiing or snowboarding. - making living areas safer for seniors, by : - removing tripping hazards such as throw rugs and clutter in walkways ; - using nonslip mats in the bathtub and on shower floors ; installing grab bars next to the toilet and in the tub or shower ; - installing handrails on both sides of stairways ; - improving lighting throughout the home ; and - maintaining a regular physical activity program, if your doctor agrees, to improve lower body strength and balance. 1, 2, 3 - making living areas safer for children, by : - installing window guards to keep young children from falling out of open windows ; and - using safety gates at the top and bottom of stairs when young children are around. - making sure the surface on your child ' s playground is made of shock - absorbing material, such as hardwood mulch or sand. 4 - judge jo, lindsey c, underwood m, winsemius d. balance improvements in older women : effects of exercise training. physical therapy 1993 ; 73 ( 4 ) : 254 \u2013 265. - lord sr, caplan ga, ward ja. balance, reaction time, and muscle strength in exercising older women : a pilot study. archives of physical and medical rehabilitation 1993 ; 74 ( 8 ) : 837 \u2013 839. - campbell aj, robertson mc, gardner mm, norton rn, buchner dm. falls prevention over 2 years : a randomized controlled trial in women 80 years and older. age and aging 1999 ; 28 : 513 \u2013 518. - mack mg, sacks jj, thompson d. testing the impact attenuation of loose fill playground surfaces. injury prevention 2000 ; 6 : 141 \u2013 144.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5128660823044215, "token_count": 431, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:52.338347"} {"text": "evidence suggests that life originated in extreme environments, for example, at high temperatures. the national science foundation ( nsf ) has initiated a program called life in the extreme environment ( lexen ) that is dedicated to finding new and exciting organisms that live in harsh environments. the extreme 2000 research expedition, at hydrothermal vent sites in the sea of cortes, is led by marine scientists george luther and craig cary from the university of delaware and anna - louise reysenbach from portland state university. their chief objective is to make real - time chemical measurements at the vents using microsensors developed by dr. luthers group, which will guide the microbiologists and molecular biologists in dr. carys and dr. reysenbachs groups in finding organisms that are descendants of early chemical detective work at the bottom of the sea hydrothermal vents home to the closest relatives of the oldest life on earth? using special tools housed in a wand on the sub alvin, researchers will be testing the chemistry of vent water in search of microscopic organisms. the wand houses a thermometer, an apparatus called the sipper to collect small water samples, and a super - sensitive the analyzer is like a sophisticated underwater snooper. it can be used near the vents and, from its chemical readings, tell scientists what kind of microbes might live there. while our food chain is based on energy from the sun, the suns rays never reach the deep sea. there, organisms must rely on a different energy source : the chemicals that rocket out of the vents. during a previous expedition, the extreme 2000 scientific team found that the presence of two compounds hydrogen sulfide ( h2s ) and iron monosulfide ( fes ) may be an important indicator of the oldest microscopic vent life. these compounds react to form the mineral pyrite ( fools gold ) and hydrogen gas. the hydrogen provides the energy that these microbes need to grow. with the analyzers help, marine scientists may be able to track down the nearest descendants of the first life on earth, and perhaps on other planets. europa, one of the moons of jupiter, is covered in ice. however, recent findings suggest that portions of the ice move, which is strong evidence that liquid water lies beneath the ice. the water may be maintained in its liquid state by hydrothermal vents. if hydrothermal vents exist on europa, theres a possibility that ancient microbes could live", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.534468998960331, "token_count": 486, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:52.341526"} {"text": "in march 2011, the u. s. computer security company rsa announced that hackers had gained access to security tokens it produces that let millions of government and private - sector employees, including those of defense contractors such as lockheed martin, connect remotely to their office computers. most critical information systems in the united states are operated by the private sector and remain vulnerable to cyber attacks. newly proposed legislation would require businesses to meet minimum standards of protection, but has raised concerns about regulatory overreach. grounded in a realistic assessment of technology, matthew c. waxman and kenneth anderson outline a practical alternative with which to evaluate the use of autonomous weaponry that incorporates codes of conduct based on traditional legal and ethical principles governing weapons and warfare. adam segal says the recent chinese cyberattacks on bloomberg and the new york timeshighlights both the willingness of beijing to shape the narrative about china, as well as the vulnerability the top leadership feels about how they are portrayed. cyber weapons are different from conventional weapons in that their effects do not directly manifest themselves in the \" real world. \" there are three broad categories of potential effects of cyberattacks : personal, economic, and physical. adam segal, cfr ' s maurice r. greenberg senior fellow for china studies, leads a conversation on u. s. - china relations through the lens of cybersecurity issues, as part of cfr ' s academic conference call series. linda robinson discusses her recently released council special report, the future of u. s. special operations forces, which calls for conceptual, institutional, and operational changes to reorient u. s. special operations forces to ensure that they are employed to best effect. foreign governments, non - state actors, and criminal networks are targeting the digital networks of the united states with increasing frequency and sophistication. u. s. cybersecurity has made progress, but relies heavily on the private sector to secure infrastructure critical to national security. cybersecurity expert knake recommends the united states use international forums to promote mechanisms that address security concerns in cyberspace while ensuring the internet remains open for the free exchange of ideas across national boundaries. the council on foreign relations ' david rockefeller studies program \u2014 cfr ' s \" think tank \" \u2014 is home to more than seventy full - time, adjunct, and visiting scholars and practitioners ( called \" fellows \" ). their expertise covers the world ' s major regions as well as the critical issues shaping today ' s global agenda. download the printable cfr experts guide.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5495550554577859, "token_count": 511, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:52.344343"} {"text": "an ambulatory electrocardiogram ( ekg or ecg ) records the electrical activity of your heart while you do your usual activities. ( ambulatory means that you are able to walk. ) ambulatory monitors are referred to by several names, including ambulatory electrocardiogram, ambulatory ekg, holter monitoring, 24 - hour ekg, or cardiac event monitoring. many heart problems become noticeable only during activity, such as exercise, eating, sex, stress, bowel movements, or even sleeping. a continuous 24 - hour recording is more likely to detect any abnormal heartbeats that occur during these activities. many people have irregular heartbeats ( arrhythmias ) from time to time. the importance of irregular heartbeats depends on the type of pattern they produce, how often they occur, how long they last, and whether they occur at the same time you have symptoms. because arrhythmias can occur off and on, it may be hard to record an arrhythmia while you are in the doctor ' s office. there are several different types of ambulatory monitors. your doctor will choose the type that is most appropriate for you and is most likely to help diagnose your heart problem. why it is done ambulatory ekg monitoring is done to : - look for and record irregular heartbeats that occur intermittently or during certain activities. - find out what is causing chest pain, dizziness, or fainting. these are symptoms of possible heart problems. - look for poor blood flow to your heart muscle ( ischemia ). - check to see if treatment for an irregular heartbeat is working. how to prepare many medicines may change the results of this test. be sure to tell your doctor about all the nonprescription and prescription medicines you take. since an ekg is often used to monitor a preexisting heart condition, such as an irregular heartbeat ( arrhythmia ), make sure that your doctor has copies of any previous ekg results. take a shower or bath before the discs are put on. you will not be able to get the discs wet during the test. wear a loose blouse or shirt. do not wear jewelry or clothes with metal buttons or buckles, because these can interfere with the recording. women should not wear an underwire bra for the same reason. if your doctor asks you to keep a symptom and activity diary, be sure you have a method. in this diary, you will record", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5114473816021505, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:52.357595"} {"text": "| tests and services inhalation therapy instruction what is a peak flow meter? a peak flow meter ( pfm ) is a device used to measure how well your child ' s asthma is under control. the device measures air flowing out of the lungs, called peak expiratory flow rate ( pefr ), as a child with asthma forcefully blows into the device. a peak flow meter, when used properly, can reveal narrowing of the airways well in advance of an asthma attack. used mainly by children with moderate to severe and persistent asthma, peak flow meters can help determine : why should a peak flow meter be used? - when to seek emergency medical care. - the effectiveness of your child ' s asthma management and treatment plan. - when to stop or add medication, as directed by your child ' s physician. - what triggers the asthma attack ( such as exercise - induced asthma ). the pfm removes a lot of guesswork out of managing your child ' s asthma. it can provide you, your child ' s physician, or even the school teachers with information about how open the airways are in your child ' s lungs. the pfm can detect small changes in the large airways before your child starts to wheeze. using a pfm every day will let you know when your child ' s peak flows are starting to drop. this allows you to make early changes in your child ' s medication or routine to help prevent your child ' s asthma symptoms from getting worse. the pfm can also identify the value at which you will need to call your child ' s physician or go to the emergency room. how to use a peak flow meter : what are peak flow zones? - use the pfm once daily and whenever your child is experiencing early warning signs. always use the pfm before taking reliever medication. - hold the pfm by the handle. - before each use, make sure the pointer is reset to zero. - have your child stand up straight. remove chewing gum or any food from your child ' s mouth. - have your child take a deep breath and put the mouthpiece in his / her mouth. seal his / her lips and teeth tightly around the mouthpiece. - let your child blow out as hard and as fast as he / she can. remember a fast blast is better than a slow blow. - note the number where the pointer has stopped on the scale. - reset the pointer to zero. - repeat this routine three times. you will know your child has done the technique correctly when the numbers", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5138705319964882, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:52.381208"} {"text": ", and the effectiveness of your child ' s medications ) to your child ' s physician. - every morning, before taking asthma medications - during asthma symptoms or an asthma attack - after taking medication for an asthma attack - other times as recommended by your child ' s physician how can i obtain a peak flow meter? consult your child ' s physician about obtaining a peak flow meter and for step - by - step instructions on how to use the device. if you are using more than one peak flow meter, be sure they are the same brand. what are oximeters? an oximeter is a small machine that measures oxygen saturation ( the amount of oxygen ) in your child ' s blood. to get this measurement, a small sensor ( similar to an adhesive bandage ) is taped onto your child ' s finger or toe. when the oximeter is on, a small red light can be seen in the sensor. the sensor is painless and the red light does not get hot. what is a spirometer? a spirometer is a device used by your child ' s physician that assesses lung function. spirometry, the evaluation of lung function with a spirometer, is one of the simplest, most common pulmonary function tests and may be necessary for any of the following reasons : after taking a deep breath, your child forcefully breathes out into the spirometer as completely and forcefully as possible. the spirometer measures both the amount of air expelled and how quickly the air was expelled from the lungs. the measurements are recorded by the spirometer. - to determine how well the lungs receive, hold, and utilize air - to monitor a lung disease - to monitor the effectiveness of treatment - to determine the severity of a lung disease - to determine whether the lung disease is restrictive ( decreased airflow ) or obstructive ( disruption of airflow ) the normal, healthy values measured by the spirometer for the amount of air exhaled vary from child to child. your results are compared to the average expected in someone of the same age, height, sex, and race, according to the national heart, lung, and blood institute ( nhlbi ). however, if the values fall below 85 percent of the average, it may indicate a lung disease or other airflow obstruction. if a child has abnormal spirometer measurements, he / she may be referred for other lung tests to establish a diagnosis. hand - held nebulizer treatments a nebulizer is a type of inhaler that sprays a fine", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5198733338711576, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:52.386295"} {"text": "obstruction. if a child has abnormal spirometer measurements, he / she may be referred for other lung tests to establish a diagnosis. hand - held nebulizer treatments a nebulizer is a type of inhaler that sprays a fine, liquid mist of medication. this is done through a mask, using oxygen or air under pressure, or an ultrasonic machine ( often used by persons who cannot use a metered - dose inhaler, such as infants and young children, and persons with severe asthma ). a mouthpiece is connected to a machine via plastic tubing to deliver the medication. the medications used in nebulizers help your child by loosening the mucus in the lungs so it can be coughed out more easily, and by relaxing the airway muscles so that more air can move in and out of the lungs. breathing the medication straight into the lungs works better and faster than taking the medication by mouth. nebulizer treatments take about 15 to 20 minutes to give the medication. giving a treatment : the following steps are recommended when giving a treatment to your child. however, always consult your child ' s physician for specific instructions. after each treatment : gather supplies needed, including : - medication to be nebulized - nebulizer set ( nebulizer cup, mouthpiece or mask, tubing to connect to nebulizer machine ) - find a quiet activity to do while your child sits up for the treatment ( i. e., reading a book or playing a quiet game ). - place the nebulizer on a flat surface ( i. e., table or the floor ). - plug the unit into a wall outlet. - connect the air tubing to the nebulizer machine. - put the medication into the nebulizer cup and screw the cap on securely. - connect the other end of the air tubing to the nebulizer cup. - connect the mouthpiece or face mask to the nebulizer cup. - turn the machine on. - check to make sure a fine mist of medication is coming through the face mask or mouthpiece. - place the mouthpiece in the child ' s mouth with the lips sealed around the mouthpiece. - encourage your child to take slow deep breaths in and out of their mouth. the mist should disappear with each breath. - place the mask over your child ' s mouth and nose. the adjustable elastic band may be used to hold the mask in place. - encourage your child to take deep breaths in and out for the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5050163573391766, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:52.387480"} {"text": "adolescent medicine : : orthopaedic problems what is scoliosis? a normal spine, when viewed from behind, appears straight. however, a spine affected by scoliosis shows evidence of a lateral, or sideways, curvature, and a rotation of the back bones ( vertebrae ), giving the appearance that the person is leaning to one side. the scoliosis research society defines scoliosis as a curvature of the spine measuring 10 degrees or greater on x - ray. scoliosis is a type of spinal deformity and should not be confused with poor posture. four common types of curve patterns seen in scoliosis are : what causes scoliosis? in most ( 80 to 85 percent ) cases, the cause of scoliosis is unknown - a condition called idiopathic scoliosis. scoliosis is more common in females than males. according to the national institute of arthritis and musculoskeletal and skin diseases, three to five out of every 1, 000 children develop spinal curves that are considered large enough to require treatment. the american academy of orthopaedic surgeons, in cooperation with the scoliosis research society, describe three different types of scoliosis that can occur in children - congenital ( present at birth ), neuromuscular, or idiopathic. other causes of scoliosis may include : what are the symptoms of scoliosis? the following are the most common symptoms of scoliosis. however, each adolescent may experience symptoms differently. symptoms may include : back pain, leg pain, and changes in bowel and bladder habits are not commonly associated with idiopathic scoliosis. a adolescent experiencing these types of symptoms requires further medical evaluation by a physician. the symptoms of scoliosis may resemble other spinal conditions or deformities, or may be a result of an injury or infection. always consult your adolescent ' s physician for a diagnosis. how is scoliosis diagnosed? the physician makes the diagnosis of scoliosis with a complete medical history of the adolescent, physical examination, and diagnostic tests. the physician obtains a complete prenatal and birth history of the adolescent and asks if other family members are known to have scoliosis. the physician will also ask about developmental milestones since some types of scoliosis can be associated with other neuromuscular disorders. developmental delays may require further medical evaluation. in addition to a complete medical history and physical examination, x - rays ( a diagnostic test which uses invisible electromagnetic energy beams to", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5012617469031312, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:52.392916"} {"text": "the success of a concurrent system depends on well designed hardware, flexible software that controls the hardware, and clear marketing vision. to adapt the changing marketing requirement, hardware and software need to have flexible architectures. this article is focused on software development issues, and discusses concurrency design at application layer as opposed to concurrency inside the operating system. any multi - threaded system can be considered a concurrent system ; for example, a lengthy task can be implemented as a background thread so that it will not block the graphical user interface. here, we are discussing concurrent systems which can be characterized by the following traits : - system input and output can be clearly identified. - system internal consists of system resources, such as hardware modules, which are used to process system input and generates system output. - one or more execution steps are needed for a system input to be processed by system resources and to become a system output. - the system resources and their relationship are identified by system analysis. the concurrency properties of system resources determine the constraints between execution steps, which ultimately define the system concurrency behavior. the above description can be illustrated in figure 1. the system consists of three resources : 2 inputs and 2 outputs. each input needs to go through two steps to become output. resources 1 and 2 are independent and can be parallel. the output of resources 1 and 2 are the input of resource 3, which is independent of 1 and 2. figure 1. a sample concurrent system most concurrent systems have these design goals : - have an easy to understand software architecture so that the desired concurrency can be implemented and verified quickly. - have a solid system concurrency kernel to adapt system environmental changes such as inconsistent hardware responses, and still achieve high system reliability. - have a good scalable architecture to adapt new requirement changes. - system concurrency and throughput are well understood by all teams involved in the system specification and design, not just by a few key software engineers. therefore, the concurrent software should expose how the current system internally works with minimum cost, so that the team communications can be conducted effectively. - different system concurrencies can be achieved with different execution configurations without major interruption to the system reliability. for a complex concurrent system, the design cost to achieve such goals could be very high for inexperienced engineers. most systems end up with only a few engineers who can understand and maintain the fragile concurrent kernels. what is needed to meet the concurrent system design goal from a management perspective? - to have the capability to quickly understand the marketing or hardware concurrency requirement, and to provide a clear road map on how to", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5461131619875549, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:52.431212"} {"text": "can understand and maintain the fragile concurrent kernels. what is needed to meet the concurrent system design goal from a management perspective? - to have the capability to quickly understand the marketing or hardware concurrency requirement, and to provide a clear road map on how to achieve the desired software system concurrency at an early stage of development, not when delivering the alpha or beta product. this requires the software engineer to have a clear understanding of the system resource concurrency at the very beginning. - to shorten the cycle of turning the desired concurrency into a real functioning software system. - to communicate the achievable concurrency goal to other teams frequently, and to adjust the concurrency accordingly based on new marketing input, or new resource constraints improvements or limitations, such as hardware. the followings are common issues found in a concurrent software design : - the software team member is not very experienced in concurrency design. most teams have engineers knowing threads, critical sections, semaphores, and events. but, this usually does not guarantee achieving the design goals listed above. - the understanding of system concurrency is very slow. the software engineer could not present a full picture of how the system concurrency design is going to be working until the alpha or beta stage. therefore, nobody will question how the system concurrency is designed since there is no good method to communicate the software design. the engineer usually gives you his / her understanding of the system concurrency on small pieces, which is hard to convince the software team manager or other teams that the software team has fully understood the system and will be able to deliver on schedule. - the marketing group has a wrong system throughput assumption and commitment at the beginning of a project, with false understanding of the system resource constraints, or the complexity for available engineers to achieve the desired high throughput without sacrificing software system reliability. the marketing group might assume that software engineers could just achieve it, but have no way to verify it during the process until it is too late. - almost all designs do not have a clear distinction between the code controlling the system resource operation and the code performing the system resource concurrency. this architecture makes it very hard to enhance upon new concurrency requirements. by simply using a synchronization object, such as a critical section, event, or semaphore from the operating system, it ' s almost impossible to perform such a partition without a major investment on the system architecture design. unfortunately, most applications do not separate the two domains and let one engineer handle all of them, who is already overwhelmed by the concurrency choreography. the software", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5190436861895836, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:52.432484"} {"text": "it ' s almost impossible to perform such a partition without a major investment on the system architecture design. unfortunately, most applications do not separate the two domains and let one engineer handle all of them, who is already overwhelmed by the concurrency choreography. the software manager usually does not understand the importance of such a design, or they don ' t have the time to spend on infrastructure building, and just want to see something is beginning to work. the result is that more time will be wasted during debugging and the feature enhancement period. - the fragile concurrency architecture is hard to understand. it is almost impossible for new engineers to take over the design, except to abandon the old one, and then propose a \" better architecture \" which usually goes through the same design cycle and delays the schedule. the software manager usually is not aware of the engineer ' s redesign approach except to accept it, since both the engineer and manager have no choice to improve the old architecture. - the manager and software engineer mistakenly think that object oriented analysis of the concurrent hardware modules will guarantee a good concurrent software design which delivers a flexible concurrent software architecture. most ooa just help engineers to identify objects in a system without concurrency analysis, and engineers have to use a synchronization object in the operating system to address concurrency. if this approach is used, it will not help achieve the concurrent system design goals listed above. unfortunately, most systems are designed with such approach. - engineers begin to experience an unexplained hang, and begin to put a sleep function somewhere to solve weird timing problems, simply because the understanding of system resource concurrency is not complete at the beginning, and the design can not adapt to a different running environment. when switching to different platforms, such as a faster machine, software needs major retest, or a possible overhaul. and the engineer and the manager begin to hide facts from the upper manager. the development cost goes up, and the software always needs major \" improvements \" to adapt to a new hardware with a newly tuned concurrency, which should not happen if it is well designed at the beginning. - typically, the design of a system concurrency is architected by a senior person in a team, and it is very hard for other people to challenge the delicate design. system maintenance and enhancement for the concurrency part is a major issue with such a design approach. how to address those issues the cost of making a complex concurrent system flexible and reliable is extremely high for average engineers who simply use the operating system ' s critical section, semaphore, event, and", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_computing", "similarity_score": 0.5036453637592703, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:52.433710"} {"text": "a major issue with such a design approach. how to address those issues the cost of making a complex concurrent system flexible and reliable is extremely high for average engineers who simply use the operating system ' s critical section, semaphore, event, and thread. to address the above problems, we need to develop a platform to help engineers in modeling a concurrent system with an easily understood object model, communicating the design by a user friendly graphical user interface, and verifying the internal concurrency of the design quickly by simulation. - a simple concurrent object model is needed. an object oriented analysis method based on the model should be easy to perform. - an inter - task communication mechanism is provided based on the object model to allow task synchronization. - a design development toolkit is needed to support the object oriented analysis, and helps software engineers to spend more time on understanding the system concurrency, and system resource controlling during implementation, instead of struggling with multithreaded code that is implemented with operating system synchronization objects such as critical sections, semaphores, and events. - the design platform provides a graphic presentation of the system concurrent execution status that helps software engineers to present and to validate a design effectively. eventually, it will help the whole team, even different groups, to understand the system concurrency internals. - the object model and its development toolkit allow separation of the code performing system resource concurrency and the code performing system resource control. in figure 1, the code controlling resource 1 is a resource control domain. the code controlling independent resources 1 and 2 to operate in parallel is a system resource concurrency domain. this architecture helps the manager to partition the concurrent system design work into two domains so that it can be assigned to different engineers to improve team productivity and product reliability. usually, a manager will not offer a resource to implement above the environment to help the design long term, since it is very time consuming and no immediate results can be seen. jek platform is designed to address these issues with the above concurrent system design goals, and makes concurrent problems easier to model for software engineers. jek sdk automatically turns a modeled application job into a concurrent execution engine. the object model also separates the resource synchronization code and the resource control code, so that the engineer can spend more time understanding system concurrency, instead of dealing with operating system synchronization objects, which is used by most software engineers. it will also help the engineer to spend more time communicating their understanding of the system concurrency within a team, or with other", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_computing", "similarity_score": 0.5320659411376939, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:52.435996"} {"text": "more time understanding system concurrency, instead of dealing with operating system synchronization objects, which is used by most software engineers. it will also help the engineer to spend more time communicating their understanding of the system concurrency within a team, or with other teams. here, two samples are presented ( please go to www. jekplatform. com / codeprojectsamples. htm to get the source code ) to demonstrate how the jek platform works : - sample 1 : philosophers dining problem. - sample 2 : automated coffee machine. sample 1. philosophers dining problem the philosophers dining problem is five philosophers sitting around a table doing what they do best : thinking and eating. in the middle of the table is a plate of food, and in between each philosopher is a fork. the philosophers spend most of their time thinking, but when they get hungry, they reach for the two forks next to them and start eating. a philosopher cannot begin eating until he has both forks. when he is done eating, he puts the sticks down and continues thinking. to solve the problem with jek platform, five routes are defined to represent the actions of five philosophers. each route has two tasks : eat and think. obviously, eat task of each philosopher ' s route can not be active at the same time because of resource constraints. a mutex synchronization resource is used to restrict the eat task of each philosopher. the resource allocation scheduling algorithm in the jek kernel has an important feature to avoid a deadlock in this sample : if one philosopher gets a fork and finds another is already taken, it will release the one and notify other tasks in other routes so that other philosopher can continue to eat. the following diagram, figure 2, illustrates the philosopher dining job execution engine ' s timing diagram. the application code is pretty simply since it does not need to handle threads and thread synchronization that is handled in the jek sdk, but simply describes the resources ( forks ) and tasks ( philosophers ' actions ). figure 2. jek studio monitors the philosophers dining job execution in figure 2, jek studio gui has four components illustrated by four yellow bubbles : - the task matrix presents the application engine internal structure and the real - time execution activity status. - the task timing diagram presents a more detailed real - time execution status for tasks, which helps developers to understand and to validate concurrent system behavior quickly. - the activity resource matrix presents real - time task activity resource status. - the synchronization resource matrix presents real", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_computing", "similarity_score": 0.5685590984679626, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:52.437230"} {"text": "presents a more detailed real - time execution status for tasks, which helps developers to understand and to validate concurrent system behavior quickly. - the activity resource matrix presents real - time task activity resource status. - the synchronization resource matrix presents real - time task occupy status. - the task trace window displays log status, which is also saved in a log file. in jek studio, five routes are shown in the task matrix. its execution is shown in the task execution timing diagram. the four blue bubbles are explained as follows : - blue bubble 1. job execution engine starts to execute job. philosophers 1 and 4 start to eat. - blue bubble 2. philosophers 3 and 5 start to eat at the same time. philosophers 1 and 4 start to rest at the same time. the reason that philosopher 3 and 5 can start to eat at the same time is because the application code is configured so that the eat time for all philosophers are the same. the rest times are also the same for all philosophers. - blue bubble 3. it ' s interesting to observe the job execution status after a few loops. philosophers 1, 2, 4 are resting. philosophers 3 and 5 are eating. if observed carefully, philosophers 3 and 5 are not starting to eat at the exact same time. philosophers 1, 2, 4 do not rest at the same time. - blue bubble 4. this is another interesting job execution status. only one philosopher, # 2, is eating at this moment. philosophers 1, 3, 4, 5 are all resting. the reason, the resting times of all philosophers are longer than eating times. - another observation is that fairness is not guaranteed for each route. it ' s unpredictable which philosopher will get a chance to eat next time based on the scheduler used. - route starvation is possible. in other words, some philosophers might never get a chance to eat. this is not demonstrated in the graph since the result is random. you can try to start the engine a few times and the results could be different each time. if not using simulation, it is very hard for a software engineer to answer : if scenarios marked by the blue bubbles 3 and 4 are possible. sample 2. automated coffee machine an automated coffee machine mixes milk, sugar, and coffee into a cup, and serves the cup to customer when it is done. figure 3. coffee machine model analysis the coffee machine has five robots : - platform robot. it holds the coffee cup, so that milk, sugar, and coffee can be poured into it and gets mixed", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5584946900136581, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:52.438431"} {"text": "displayed with different y axis values. multiple bars in the same y axis represent the same task executed at different times. route 1 controlling milk, sugar, and coffee robot ( orange color ) has three tasks from bottom to top : - task1 _ 1 : control milk robot to pour milk. - task1 _ 2 : control sugar robot to pour sugar. - task1 _ 3 : control coffee robot to pour coffee. route 2 controlling cup robot ( blue ) has two tasks from bottom to top : - task2 _ 1 : control cup robot to put cup onto platform robot. - task2 _ 2 : control platform robot to serve mixed coffee to customer. the six blue bubbles in figure 4 are explained as follows : - blue bubble 1. task2 _ 1 puts a cup onto the platform robot. - blue bubble 2. task1 _ 1 and task1 _ 2 pour milk and sugar into an empty cup at the same time. - blue bubble 3. task1 _ 2 finishes pouring sugar and task1 _ 1 is still pouring milk. - blue bubble 4. task1 _ 3 starts pouring coffee. - blue bubble 5. task2 _ 2 controls the platform robot to serve mixed coffee. - blue bubble 6. repeat the same process. figure 4. coffee machine execution status of solution 1 this robot is not very efficient. route 1 is idle after blue bubble 5. to increase the throughput, another independent platform robot is added to make route 1 as busy as possible. the position of platform robot 1 is different from that of platform robot 2. therefore, the control code for pouring milk, sugar, and coffee is different in context, but have the same structure. figure 5 is a new robot diagram. figure 5. platform 2 robot is added route 3 ( burgundy red color ) is added to serve second cup, which is presented as red in figure 6. it has identical tasks as defined in route 2. since a new platform robot is added, route 2 and 3 are redefined as follows : route 2 controlling cup robot ( blue ) has two tasks : - task2 _ 1 : control cup robot to put cup onto platform robot 1. - task2 _ 2 : control platform robot 1 to serve mixed coffee to customer 1. route 3 controlling cup robot ( burgundy red ) has two tasks : - task3 _ 1 : control cup robot to put cup onto platform robot 2. - task3 _ 2 : control platform robot 2 to serve mixed coffee to customer 2. figure 6. solution 2 coffee machine has two platform robots the five", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5031308401861252, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 7, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:52.440424"} {"text": "the actions of serving sugar, milk, and coffee to platform robot 2. the design of route 3 and 4 are the same as before. figure 7 is the timing diagram of a new coffee machine. figure 7. new concurrency of higher system throughput for the coffee machine with 2 platform robots the five blue bubbles in figure 7 are explained as follows : - blue bubble 1. task4 _ 1 puts cup onto platform robot 1. - blue bubble 2. task1 _ 1 and task1 _ 2 pour milk and sugar into empty cup at the same time to the cup platform robot 1. the cut robot starts to put a cup on platform 2 since it is free at this time. - blue bubble 3. task2 _ 2 starts to add sugar into cup 2 on platform robot 2. the reason that this action can happen is that the sugar robot just finishes adding sugar for cup 1 on platform robot 1. it is also clear that the milk robot is still busy pouring milk into cup 1. therefore, cup 2 only has sugar for now. - blue bubble 4. task2 _ 1 starts to pour milk into cup 2 since it just finishes pouring milk for cup 1 on platform robot 1. coffee robot begins to add coffee into cup 1 on platform robot 1. - blue bubble 5. cup robot begins to serve cup 1 to customer since coffee is done for cup 1. it is obvious that the choreography of this new coffee machine is different from that of the previous coffee machine. it appears to a user that its robots are smarter and works more intelligently since it starts to do the next job more promptly. the above three samples demonstrate the following : - it is easy to model and to analyze the concurrency of machine control with the jek platform. - to adapt to a new hardware configuration, the jek sdk helps achieve new system concurrency with minimum code changes. - jek studio can visually identify system throughput potential quickly so that better throughput can be achieved. - the samples demonstrated in these solutions have a pretty simple architecture ( see downloaded code ). if not using the jek platform, can we solve the problem quickly? a few questions are raised here. - if several teams, such as marketing, hardware, and software, are working on the product, they might stop when solution 2 is working. do they know that solution 3 is the best solution? can they figure it out quickly? - team members might be satisfied when they see that robots are working in parallel. if it is found that improvements can be made, how much code change", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5046618483900622, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 9, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:52.442476"} {"text": "this multimedia lesson for grades 7 - 10 explores the physical forces that act in concert to create snowflakes. students build an apparatus that creates conditions similar to a winter cloud and produce their own snow crystals indoors. by watching the snow crystals grow, they learn about how snowflake size and shape is determined by the forces that act on water molecules at the atomic and molecular levels. digital models and snowflake photo galleries bring together a cohesive package to help kids visualize what ' s happening at the molecular scale. editor ' s note : this lab activity calls for dry ice. see related materials for a link to the noaa ' s \" dry ice safety \" guidelines, and for a link to snow crystal images produced by an electron microscope. lewis structures, vsepr, condensation, covalent bond, crystals, electron sharing, ice, physics of snowflakes, snow formation, valence electrons, valence shell metadata instance created january 2, 2013 by caroline hall january 2, 2013 by caroline hall aaas benchmark alignments ( 2008 version ) 4. the physical setting 4b. the earth 6 - 8 : 4b / m15. the atmosphere is a mixture of nitrogen, oxygen, and trace amounts of water vapor, carbon dioxide, and other gases. 4d. the structure of matter 6 - 8 : 4d / m1a. all matter is made up of atoms, which are far too small to see directly through a microscope. 6 - 8 : 4d / m1cd. atoms may link together in well - defined molecules, or may be packed together in crystal patterns. different arrangements of atoms into groups compose all substances and determine the characteristic properties of substances. 6 - 8 : 4d / m3cd. in solids, the atoms or molecules are closely locked in position and can only vibrate. in liquids, they have higher energy, are more loosely connected, and can slide past one another ; some molecules may get enough energy to escape into a gas. in gases, the atoms or molecules have still more energy and are free of one another except during occasional collisions. 9 - 12 : 4d / h2. the number of protons in the nucleus determines what an atom ' s electron configuration can be and so defines the element. an atom ' s electron configuration, particularly the outermost electrons, determines how the atom can interact with other atoms. atoms form bonds to other atoms by transferring or sharing electrons. 9 - 12 : 4d / h7a. atoms often join with one another in various", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.6002061293106195, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:52.448519"} {"text": "electron configuration, particularly the outermost electrons, determines how the atom can interact with other atoms. atoms form bonds to other atoms by transferring or sharing electrons. 9 - 12 : 4d / h7a. atoms often join with one another in various combinations in distinct molecules or in repeating three - dimensional crystal patterns. 12. habits of mind 12c. manipulation and observation 6 - 8 : 12c / m3. make accurate measurements of length, volume, weight, elapsed time, rates, and temperature by using appropriate devices. < a href = \" http : / / www. compadre. org / precollege / items / detail. cfm? id = 12568 \" > wgbh educational foundation. teachers ' domain : why do snowflakes come in so many shapes and sizes?. boston : wgbh educational foundation, 2010. < / a > teachers ' domain : why do snowflakes come in so many shapes and sizes? ( wgbh educational foundation, boston, 2010 ), www document, ( http : / / www. teachersdomain. org / resource / lsps07. sci. phys. matter. lpsnowflakes / ). teachers ' domain : why do snowflakes come in so many shapes and sizes?. ( 2010 ). retrieved may 21, 2013, from wgbh educational foundation : http : / / www. teachersdomain. org / resource / lsps07. sci. phys. matter. lpsnowflakes / wgbh educational foundation. teachers ' domain : why do snowflakes come in so many shapes and sizes?. boston : wgbh educational foundation, 2010. http : / / www. teachersdomain. org / resource / lsps07. sci. phys. matter. lpsnowflakes / ( accessed 21 may 2013 ). teachers ' domain : why do snowflakes come in so many shapes and sizes?. boston : wgbh educational foundation, 2010. 21 may 2013 < http : / / www. teachersdomain. org / resource / lsps07. sci. phys. matter. lpsnowflakes / >. % t teachers ' domain : why do snowflakes come in so many shapes and sizes? % d 2010 % i wgbh educational foundation % c boston % u http : / / www. teachersdomain. org / resource / lsps07.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5711335646922044, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:52.450175"} {"text": "modern programming languages have little support for writing secure software, making it all too easy to write programs with exploitable vulnerabilities. in these lectures, we explore a general technique based on type qualifiers that allows programmers to write down, in their souce code, their intentions with respect to security. we will describe how to mechanically verify that annotated code adheres to the policy. we will discuss the theoretical foundations and practical implementation issues. as a particular example, we show how to use type qualifiers to find format - string vulnerabilities in widely - deployed c programs and to find other security vulnerabilites in the linux kernel. we will also look at alias analysis, another important program analysis problem, and show how a must - alias analysis system corresponds to a system for statically checking access control. this series of lectures will discuss the requirements, protocols, and components of network security software on the internet. topics will include secure tunnels, security for web services, privacy constraints, design features that create or address dos threats, and the use of programmable security tokens in network protocols. the primary emphasis will be the relationship between models and design, including topics like the quantification of dos threats, models for code security in programmable tokens, strategies for composition and interoperation, and practical strategies for formal analysis of network protocol designs and software. in these lectures, we will analyze the security infrastructure in current, main - stream programming systems and platforms such as the java virtual machine and common language runtime. we will explain how byte code verification collaborates with the class loader and security manager to provide a secure run - time environment. we will also use theoretical tools to determine what properties current security systems based on stack inspection have and provide concrete proposals for improving the infrastructure for next - generation programming languages and systems.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.618616691995667, "token_count": 369, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:52.479199"} {"text": "microsoft windows 8 and windows server 2012, the latest operating system and windows makeover, were released in fall 2012. for programmers, many new apis were included in the features added. several of the new features focus on the venerable sockets interface, the basic network paradigm first introduced in berkeley software distribution ( bsd ) unix in the early 1980s. sockets still form the basis for networking on all of the major platforms including windows, mac os, linux, ios, and android. you might want to consider these new windows socket apis for your next project when writing new apps or refactoring older applications for windows. new windows 8 features for sockets programming are found at both ends of the network spectrum : - window runtime ( winrt ) sockets : used for low - level networking in windows store apps. - high - performance sockets : used in writing network servers for desktop apps that need low network latency and the highest performance. - websockets : the other new networking apis are socket - related, at least in name ; these are extensions to the http protocols for the creation of a special web socket that is fully bidirectional once the connection is established, either endpoint can initiate or send packets. herein i provide a brief introduction to these new networking socket features available on windows 8 and windows server 2012. the focus will be more on winrt sockets, since these will appeal to a larger set of developers. sockets and windows the original berkeley socket implementation developed in 1983 was very simple, based on the design of unix file i / o. a network socket became a special type of file handle. bsd networking functions were basic : socket ( open or create ), connect ( for tcp ), close. several types of sockets were supported including tcp ( stream ), udp ( datagram ), and later unix domain sockets. for tcp servers and applications receiving udp packets, the listen functions would bind to a network address and listen for incoming packets. for use with udp, there were the recvfrom functions. a few other functions were provided for getting and setting socket options, getting a host by name or address ; and there were the poll functions to check on the state of a socket. with the adoption of windows sockets ( winsock ) in 1993, microsoft added support for sockets to windows. the initial winsock 1. 1 api was relatively modest with calls similar to bsd unix plus a number of windows - specific extension functions. over time, the winsock api has grown larger and", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5116686765900493, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:52.571775"} {"text": "technological development in teaching and learning 23 feb 2012 10 : 49 the second day of the ngl conference opened with a presentation by charles crook, professor at the university of nottingham, and docent in information and communications technology. professor charles crook, university of nottingham. he spoke about how the latest technology creates new situations, which in turn lead to new experiences in terms of student learning. the interpersonal dynamic in teaching and learning has changed. in his presentations, charles crook talked about his work examining what actually happens with learning when people use technology and learn alongside others instead of individually. he makes comparisons with earlier ideas within pedagogy, referring to piaget and vygotsky. \" there exists an undeniable tension between teaching and learning and technology, \" he states. charles crook mentions two symptoms of e - learning at institutes of education. one is the many students per teacher and the other is a changed pedagogy. what does it mean to be educated? he has looked at quality in communication and interaction between students in their work. he has also examined the significance of place and students ' study environment. the presentation provided an interesting insight into the research that requires a position alongside the technological developments within the world of teaching. it is important to establish in what ways social situations create new grounds for teaching and learning. translation based on the original text by annette skogsjo. photo by annette skogsjo. ngl pa hogskolan dalarna next generation learning conference", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5322769231014406, "token_count": 300, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:52.582204"} {"text": "we consider a simple pure substance under hydrostatic conditions described by the following fundamental equation : where the extensive variables u, v and n are the internal energy, the volume, and the number of particles respectively, and the intensive variables t, p and are the temperature, the pressure and the chemical potential respectively. equation ( ) corresponds to the choice of the variables u, v and n as independent variables of the entropy s ( u, v, n ). these variables are precisely those which are fixed and determine the macrostate of the members of the microcanonical ensemble and consequently s is the relevant potential in this statistical ensemble. it is useful to define the following quantities :, and so that eq. ( ) can then be written in the dimensionless form : in general, for other thermodynamic systems with degrees of freedom, one will have : where are extensive variables, and the corresponding entropic conjugate variables. massieu - planck functions are entropic thermodynamic potentials defined as legendre transformations of the entropy. in the case of a pure substance, the following ( dimensionless ) potentials can be formally defined : the function was first introduced by massieu, and it is called massieu ' s potential. the function was introduced by planck and is called planck ' s. potential. given the extensivity of, and using euler ' s theorem for homogeneous functions, it is easy to see that. therefore the legendre transformation of all variables redefines the entropy, substituting eq. ( ) into the differentials of the potentials defined above one gets : from eq. ( ) one obtains : the above equations allow a re - derivation of all the standard thermodynamic equations in terms of, and. for instance, maxwell relations can be deduced, by imposing that the equations ( ) - ( ) are exact differentials ( equality of crossed derivatives ). moreover, eq. ( ) is the gibbs - duhem equation which states that the complete set of intensive variables of the system are not all independent. on the other hand, the extremal condition of leads us to deduce that, and are homogeneous at equilibrium.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.6606314115842777, "token_count": 450, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:52.658014"} {"text": "with solar and wind energies maturing as recognized alternative - power sources, there are other alternatives providing clean power on scales both large and small. these power generators are distinctive in how they create electricity and are a growing business for electrical contractors ( ecs ) that take note of them. biomass is the most commercially established \u201c other \u201d alternative energy. popularly used to create biofuels, such energy sources are being used for on - site power cogeneration or distributed generation. biofuel is sustainable, offering carbon - neutral emissions output. a nonfossil - fuel source, its most popular \u201c feedstocks, \u201d as they are called, include wood waste, agricultural residues ( straw, manure, grasses ) and municipal solid waste. when used to create energy, feedstocks become the fuel for biopower. biofuel is certainly not a new idea. wood was north america \u2019 s primary heating source until coal. by the 1950s, electricity and natural gas displaced wood heat. the energy crisis of the 1970s brought new attention, research and new ideas to biomass as an alternative - energy source. by the 1980s, biomass power plants were being built in north america. today, the biomass power association ( bpa ) in portland, maine, represents 80 biomass power plants in 20 states across the country. biopower systems are typically direct - fired, co - fired, gasification or modular ( transportable ). a growing sector industrial info resources ( iir ) in texas, a provider of global market intelligence for industrial, heavy manufacturing and energy markets, reports more than $ 3 billion in u. s. biomass power - generation projects are scheduled to begin construction this year. research by biomass power and thermal magazine reveals a 20 percent increase in proposed biomass projects going into this year. the top 10 states with the most operating plants and proposed projects are california ( 22 ), florida ( 16 ), new york ( 14 ), new hampshire ( 14 ), maine ( 11 ), michigan ( 11 ), massachusetts ( 10 ), minnesota ( 9 ), pennsylvania ( 9 ) and connecticut ( 8 ). in addition, the california energy commission has set an ambitious goal to add as much as 2, 200 megawatts ( mw ) of biomass power by 2020, part of that state \u2019 s goal to achieve 33 percent of its electricity from renewable sources by that year. though biomass currently plays a relatively small role in the u. s. electric power - generation market - \u2014 it represents about 10 gigawatts ( gw ) of electricity generation", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5083913736253732, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:52.678724"} {"text": "[ this section may require several minutes to download ] please click on underlined categories to view : [ to search for subject matter, depress ctrl / f ] : plants yielding fibers have been second only to food plants in their usefulness to humans and their influence on the furthering of civilization. primitive humans in their attempts to obtain the three most important necessities for life : food, shelter & clothing, focused on plants. even though animal products were available, some form of clothing was needed that was lighter and cooler than skins and hides. it was easier to obtain from plants such items as bowstrings, nets, snares, etc. also plant products were available from the leaves, stems and roots of many plants to construct shelter. very early on plant fibers have had a more extensive use than silk, wool and other animal fibers. gradually as humans \u2019 needs multiplied, the use of vegetable fibers increased greatly until presently they continue to be of great importance even after the onset of plastics. it is impossible to estimate the number of species of fiber plants, but over a thousand species of plants have yielded fibers in america alone, and over 800 occur in the philippines. however, plant fibers of commercial importance ore relatively few, the greater number being native species used locally by primitive peoples in all parts of the world. their durability often exceeds those of synthetic manufacture, one example being sisal & manila hemps. the most prominent fibers of the present are of great antiquity. the cultivation of flax, for example, dates back to the stone age of europe, as discovered in the remains of the swiss lake dwellers. linen was used in ancient egypt and cotton was the ancient national textile of india, being used by all the aboriginal peop0les of the new world as well. ramie or china grass has been grown in the orient many thousands of years. plastic materials are often used instead of natural products because they cost less and sometimes tend to be more durable. however, natural plant products continue to have some superior attributes and are used when materials are readily available. there are six principal groups of fibers distinguished according to the way in which they are used. textile fibers are the most important in that they are used for fabrics, cordage and netting. to make fabrics and netting flexible fibers are twisted together into thread or yarn and then either spun, knitted, woven or in some other way utilized. fabrics include cloth for wearing apparel, domestic use, awnings, sails, etc., and also coarser materials such as gunn", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5183885053556715, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:52.984129"} {"text": "are twisted together into thread or yarn and then either spun, knitted, woven or in some other way utilized. fabrics include cloth for wearing apparel, domestic use, awnings, sails, etc., and also coarser materials such as gunny and burlap. fabric fibers are all of some commercial value. netting fibers that are used for hammocks, lace and all forms of nets include many of the commercial fabric fibers and a number of native fibers as well. both commercial and native fibers are used for cordage. for this the individual fibers are twisted together instead of being woven. binder twine, fish lines, hawsers, rope and cables are among the many types. brush fibers are stiff tough fibers including small stems and twigs that are utilized for making brooms and brushes. rough weaving & plaitling fibers. plaits are fibrous, flat and pliable strands that are interlaced to make straw hats, baskets, sandals, chair seats, etc. the most elastic strands are woven together for mattings and the thatched roofs of houses. the supple twigs or woody fibers are for making chairs, baskets and other wickerwork. filling fibers are used for stuffing mattresses, cushions and in upholstery ; for caulking seams in boats and in casks and barrels ; as stiffening in plaster and as packing material. natural fabrics are usually obtained from tree basts that are extracted from bark in layers or sheets and pounded into rough substitutes for lace or cloth. fibers for paper manufacture includes textile fibers and wood fibers that are used in either the raw or manufactured state. a plant cannot be restricted absolutely to any single group because the same fiber may be used for different purposes. also, a plant may yield more than one kind of fiber. thus the following discussion includes species that are considered in the group in which they are of the greatest importance. all fibers are similar in that they are sclerenchyma cells that serve as part of the plant skeleton. they are predominantly long cells with thick walls and small cavities and usually pointed ends. the walls often contain lignin as well as cellulose. fibers occur singly or in small groups, but they are more apt to form sheets of tissue with the individual cells overlapping and interlocking. fibers may occur in almost any part of a plant : stems, leaves, fruits, seeds, etc. the four main types grouped according to their origin include bast fibers, wood fibers, scleren", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5214422487516904, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:52.986243"} {"text": "the individual cells overlapping and interlocking. fibers may occur in almost any part of a plant : stems, leaves, fruits, seeds, etc. the four main types grouped according to their origin include bast fibers, wood fibers, sclerenchyma cells associated with the vascular bundle strands in leaves, and surface fibers that are hair like outgrowths on the seeds of the plants. the term \u201c bast fiber \u201d is subject to criticism, as it gives no indication as to the particular tissue or region in which the fibers occur. it might be preferable to designate those fibers that occur in the outer parts of the stem as cortical fibers, pericyclic fibers or phloem fibers. but \u201c bast \u201d is a term that has been in use for a long time and is so established in commerce that it will be used in this discussion. fibers of economic importance occur in many different plant families, especially those from the tropics. some of the more important families are the palmaceae, gramineae, liliaceae, musaceae, amaryllidaceae, malvaceae, urticaceae, linaceae, moraceae, tiliaceae, bromeliaceae, bombacaceae, and luguminosae. these fibers must be long and possess a high tensile strength and cohesiveness with pliability. they must have a fine, uniform, lustrous staple and must be durable and abundantly available. only a small number of the different kinds of fibers possess these traits and are thus of commercial importance. the principal textile fibers are grouped into three classes : surface fibers, soft fibers and hard fibers, with the last two often referred to as long fibers. surface or short fibers include the so - called cottons. the soft fibers are the bast fibers that are found mainly in the pericycle or secondary phloem of dicotyledon stems. bast fibers are capable of subdivision into very fine flexible strands and are used for the best grades of cordage and fabrics. included are hemp, jute, flax and ramie. hard or mixed fibers are structural elements found mainly in the leaves of many tropical monocots, although they may be found in fruits and stems. they are used for the more coarse textiles. sisal, abaca, henequen, agaves, coconut and pineapple are examples of plants with hard fibers. cotton is one of the greatest of all industrial crops. it is the principal fiber plant as well as one", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5178207372627682, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:52.987368"} {"text": "coarse textiles. sisal, abaca, henequen, agaves, coconut and pineapple are examples of plants with hard fibers. cotton is one of the greatest of all industrial crops. it is the principal fiber plant as well as one of the oldest and most economical. it was known since ancient times and well before written records. there are references to cotton by the ancient greeks and romans. cotton was found in india before 1, 800 b. c. the hindus were believed to be one of the first people to weave cloth in the eastern hemisphere, although reference to nordic traders of woven goods in north america during the bronze age has been made by fell 1982 ( http : / / faculty. ucr. edu / ~ legneref / bronze / fell2. htm ). cotton was introduced to europe by the arabs who called the plant \u201c qutn. \u201d the plant had several origins because columbus found it in cultivation in the west indies, and it was known to the amerindians of neotropical america in pre - columbian times. cotton became a commercial crop in the united states after 1787.. several species of the genus gossypium provide what we call cotton. the fine fibrous hairs that occur on the seeds constitute the raw material. these hairs are flattened, twisted and tubular. they compose the lint, floss or staple. their length and other qualities vary with the different varieties. the plant is a perennial shrub or small tree naturally, but under cultivation it is treated as an annual. it branches freely and grows to a height of 4 - 8 ft. cotton thrives in sandy soil in humid regions that are near water. this environment is typified in the southern united states and in the river valleys of india and egypt. cotton matures in 5 - 6 months and is ready to harvest soon after. hundreds of varieties have been developed from wild ancestors or produced by breeding during the long period of cultivation. varieties differ in fiber character as well as other morphological features. cotton is a difficult group to classify and the exact number of species is subject to argument. cultivated cottons of commercial importance are usually referred to one or another of four species : gossypium barbadense and g. hirsutum in the western hemisphere and g. arboreum and g. herbaceum in the eastern hemisphere. 1. - - gossypium barbadense probably originated in tropical south america. the flowers are bright yellow with purple spots. the fruit, or boll, has", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5088556947347618, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:52.988378"} {"text": "at various points along the path toward productive nanosystems for molecular manufacturing it would be useful to be able to calculate the properties and reactions of assemblies of atoms of various sizes. within the domain of non - relativistic quantum mechanics, such information is supplied by the schrodinger equation, but this can only be solved analytically for the hydrogen atom and ions with only one electron. for larger atoms and molecules, numerical solutions require compromises between computational feasibility and accuracy. recent work from researchers at argonne national laboratory suggests that machine learning can be an efficient alternative to numerical computations. a hat tip to kurzweilai. net for pointing to this new scientist article by lisa grossman \u201c molecules from scratch without the fiendish physics \u201c : a suite of artificial intelligence algorithms may become the ultimate chemistry set. software can now quickly predict a property of molecules from their theoretical structure. similar advances should allow chemists to design new molecules on computers instead of by lengthy trial - and - error. our physical understanding of the macroscopic world is so good that everything from bridges to aircraft can be designed and tested on a computer. there \u2019 s no need to make every possible design to figure out which ones work. microscopic molecules are a different story. \u201c basically, we are still doing chemistry like thomas edison, \u201d says anatole von lilienfeld of argonne national laboratory in lemont, illinois. the chief enemy of computer - aided chemical design is the schrodinger equation. in theory, this mathematical beast can be solved to give the probability that electrons in an atom or molecule will be in certain positions, giving rise to chemical and physical properties. but because the equation increases in complexity as more electrons and protons are introduced, exact solutions only exist for the simplest systems : the hydrogen atom, composed of one electron and one proton, and the hydrogen molecule, which has two electrons and two protons. \u2026 the researchers developed a machine learning model to calculate the atomisation energy \u2014 the energy of all the bonds holding a molecule together and applied it to a database of 7165 small organic molecules of known structure and atomization energy and containing up to seven atoms of carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, or sulfur, plus the number of hydrogen atoms necessary to saturate the bonds. these molecules had atomization energies ranging from 800 to 2000 kcal / mol. the model was trained on a subset of 1000 compounds and then used to calculate the energies of the remaining molecules in the database. the results showed a mean error of only 9.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.6297201629126505, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:53.113380"} {"text": "august 5, 2008 taking play seriously by robin marantz henig part viiii koach karl continues this great article on \" play \" \u2026 bateson, a prominent play scholar who recognizes the quandary posed by equifinality, suggested that play is the best way to reach certain goals. through play, an individual avoids what he called the lure of \u2018 \u2018 false endpoints, \u2019 \u2019 a problem - solving style more typical of harried adults than of playful youngsters. false endpoints are avoided through play, bateson wrote, because players are having so much fun that they keep noodling away at a problem and might well arrive at something better than the first, good - enough solution. but maybe the flexibility hypothesis is itself a false endpoint. maybe the idea that play is the best route to a whole host of good results \u2014 creativity, social agility, overall mental suppleness \u2014 is just the first idea scientists landed on, and they were inclined to accept it because it fit so well with their innate ideas about the nature of childhood. this is the view of a small group of play scholars we \u2019 ll call the play skeptics. what worries the play skeptics is that most people in the industrialized west \u2014 scientists in the field, play advocates and all the rest of us, parents, teachers, doctors, scholars, all the children and all the aging children \u2014 have been ensnared by what skeptics call the \u2018 \u2018 play ethos. \u2019 \u2019 by this they mean the reflexive, unexamined belief that play is an unmitigated good with a crucial, though vaguely defined, evolutionary function. \u2018 \u2018 play ethos \u2019 \u2019 comes from peter smith, a psychology professor at the university of london and a leading authority on play \u2019 s effect on children \u2019 s emotional development. he uses it as a cautionary term, a reminder that most conclusions about play \u2019 s adaptive function have so far been based not on scientific evidence but on wishful thinking. in one of his early experiments, smith and his colleagues put 3 - and 4 - year - olds in two different play settings. in one group the children were allowed to play, in whatever way they felt like, with several wooden sticks. in the other group they were shown by an adult \u2018 \u2018 play tutor \u2019 \u2019 how to fit two sticks together to make a longer one. then the children were given two tasks. first they had to retrieve a marble by connecting two sticks. both groups performed this task,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5399571049975018, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:53.137827"} {"text": "throughout life there are many times when outside influences change or influence decision - making. the young child has inner motivation to learn and explore, but as he matures, finds outside sources to be a motivating force for development, as well. along with being a beneficial influence, there are moments when peer pressure can overwhelm a child and lead him down a challenging path. and, peer pressure is a real thing \u2013 it is not only observable, but changes the way the brain behaves. as a young adult, observational learning plays a part in development through observing and then doing. a child sees another child playing a game in a certain way and having success, so the observing child tries the same behavior. albert bandura was a leading researcher in this area. his famous bobo doll studies found that the young child is greatly influenced by observing other \u2019 s actions. when a child sees something that catches his attention, he retains the information, attempts to reproduce it, and then feels motivated to continue the behavior if it is met with success. observational learning and peer pressure are two different things \u2013 one being the observing of behaviors and then the child attempting to reproduce them based on a child \u2019 s own free will. peer pressure is the act of one child coercing another to follow suit. often the behavior being pressured is questionable or taboo, such as smoking cigarettes or drinking alcohol. peer pressure and the brain recent studies find that peer pressure influences the way our brains behave, which leads to better understanding about the impact of peer pressure and the developing child. according to studies from temple university, peer pressure has an effect on brain signals involved in risk and reward department, especially when the teen \u2019 s friends are around. compared to adults in the study, teenagers were much more likely to take risks they would not normally take on their own when with friends. brain signals were more activated in the reward center of the brain, firing greatest during at risk behaviors. peer pressure can be difficult for young adults to deal with, and learning ways to say \u201c no \u201d or avoid pressure - filled situations can become overwhelming. resisting peer pressure is not just about saying \u201c no, \u201d but how the brain functions. children that have stronger connections among regions in their frontal lobes, along with other areas of the brain, are better equipped to resist peer pressure. during adolescence, the frontal lobes of the brain develop rapidly, causing axioms in the region to have a coating of fatty myelin, which insulates them and causes the frontal lobes to more effectively communicate with other", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5458858016436678, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:53.142016"} {"text": "register new player welcome to our world of fun trivia quizzes and quiz games : hard drive basics \" the hard drive is a critical component in a computer system. this is a quiz on some hard drive trivia. good luck and enjoy! \" 15 points per correct answer - no time limit the first hard disks, created in the 1950s, could be up to 20 inches in diameter. which company invented the hard disk? when purchasing a hard disk which of these is generally not a specification that would be of concern? inside the hard disk drive, where is the data actually stored? when a user formats a disk, they are generally performing a high - level format which prepares the drive to hold data. when a low - level format is performed, how does it divide the platter? read and write bits and bytes sectors and tracks kilobytes and megabytes which of these is disk interfaces was the precursor to scsi ( small computer system interface )? hard drive failure rates are measured with mtbf ( mean time between failures ). which of these failures would be reason to replace your current hard disk? can ' t read cds an external hard disk is often purchased by the home computer user for backups of the main hard disk ( generally installed internally to the computer case ). which of these interfaces is commonly used for this purpose? which of these refers to the hard drive circuit board? during the life of a disk, is it true that defragmentation of the file system can significantly improve performance? which of these is not known as one of the world ' s hard disk manufacturers? copyright, funtrivia. com. all rights reserved. legal / conditions of use compiled nov 03 12", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5057033199523724, "token_count": 343, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:53.145152"} {"text": "electrophoresis is a common lab technique used to identify, quantify, and purify nucleic acid fragments and assess quality. rna molecules are negatively charged, and during gel electrophoresis they migrate toward the anode in the presence of an electric current. the length of rna generally determines its migration in the gel, since longer rna molecules move slower than shorter fragments. however, rna molecules are subject to extensive secondary structure via intramolecular base pairing, and this can affect their gel migration. for most applications, rna is run using denaturing conditions to disrupt secondary structure. for applications such as resolving different conformations of rna, native ( or nondenaturing ) gels are recommended. nondenaturing rna electrophoresis gel electrophoresis of rna under nondenaturing conditions maintains the secondary structure of rna molecules. agarose is generally preferred to acrylamide because it has lower toxicity and, at the concentrations needed to resolve typical rna molecules, it is easier to handle. life technologies offers convenient reagents for nondenaturing agarose gel electrophoresis, including hassle - free precast e - gel\u00ae agarose gels and ultrapure\u2122 reagents to pour your own agarose gels. products for nondenaturing rna electrophoresis : denaturing rna electrophoresis to accurately determine the molecular weight of rna molecules, it is essential to run rna gels using denaturing conditions. since northern blots typically seek to characterize rna molecules based on their size, denaturing electrophoresis is commonly used prior to rna analysis by northern blotting.. denaturing conditions disrupt hydrogen bonding so that rna runs without secondary structure, as single - stranded molecules. there are a number of denaturing agents available, including glyoxal, formamide, and methyl mercury. the disadvantage of these compounds is that they are toxic and therefore should be treated with caution. traditionally, formaldehyde has been used as a denaturant for rna electrophoresis. the northernmax\u00ae kit contains a complete set of rnase - free reagents for running formaldehyde - containing agarose gels. these gels must be poured and run in a fume hood. with the northernmax\u00ae - gly kit, rna samples are denatured in glyoxal / dmso loading buffer prior to electrophoresis and run in a formal", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5314491112892248, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:53.322398"} {"text": "deoxidation is the removal of excess oxygen from molten metal. the procedure involves adding materials with a high affinity for oxygen, the oxides of which are either gaseous or readily form slags. the deoxidation of steel is usually performed by adding mn, si and al, or rarely by adding cr, v, ti, zr and b. the deoxidation of molten steel shows a paradox. by increasing the concentration of deoxidizer in the melt over some critical value reoxidation of steel takes place. a few examples of the reoxidation of steel by adding the usual deoxidizers ( si and al ) are examined in this article. deoxidation is the last stage in steelmaking. in the basic oxygen furnace ( bof ) and other similar steelmaking practices the steel bath as the time of tapping contains 400 to 800 ppm activity of oxygen. deoxidation is carried out during tapping by adding into the tap - ladle appropriate amounts of ferromanganese, ferrosilicon and / or aluminum or other special deoxidizers. if at the end of the blow the carbon content of the steel is below specifications, the metal is also recarburized in the ladle. however, large additions in the ladle are undesirable, because of the adverse effect on the temperature of the metal. eight typical conditions of commercial ingots, cast in identical bottle - top molds, in relation to the degree of suppression of gas evolution are shown schematically in figure 1. the dotted line indicates the height to which the steel originally was poured in each ingot mold. depending on the carbon content and particularly of the oxygen content, the ingot structures range from that of a fully killed or dead - killed ingot n\u00b01 to that of a violently rimmed ingot n\u00b08. included in the series are indicated in figure 1 i. e. killed steel n\u00b01, semikilled steel n\u00b02, capped steel n\u00b05, and rimmed steel n\u00b07. figure 1 : series of typical ingot structures rimmed steel usually is tapped without having made additions of deoxidizers to the steel in the furnace or only small additions to the molten steel in ladle, in order to have sufficient oxygen present to give the desired gas evolution by reacting in the mold with carbon. the exact procedures followed depend upon whether the steel has a carbon content in the higher ranges i. e. % c =", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5646553474845601, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:53.342747"} {"text": "steel in ladle, in order to have sufficient oxygen present to give the desired gas evolution by reacting in the mold with carbon. the exact procedures followed depend upon whether the steel has a carbon content in the higher ranges i. e. % c = 0. 12 - 0. 15 or in the lower ranges, e. g. % c = max 0. 10. when the metal in the ingot mold begins to solidify, there is a brisk evolution of carbon monoxide, resulting in an outer ingot skin of relatively clean metal low in carbon and other solutes. such ingots are best suited for the manufacture of steel sheets. capped steel practice is a variation of rimmed steel practice. the rimming action is allowed to begin normally, but is then terminated after a minute or more by sealing the mold with a cast - iron cap. in steels with a carbon content greater than 0. 15 % the capped ingot practice is usually applied to sheet, strip, wire and bars. semikilled steel is deoxidized less than killed steel and there is enough oxygen present in the molten steel to react with carbon forming sufficient carbon monoxide to counterbalance the solidification shrinkage. the steel generally has a carbon content within the range % c = 0. 15 - 0. 30 and finds wide application in structural shapes. killed steel is deoxidized to such an extent that there is no gas evolution during solidification. aluminum is used for deoxidation, together with ferro - alloys of manganese and silicon ; in certain cases calcium silicide or other special strong deoxidizers are used. in order to minimize piping, almost all killed steels are cast in hot - topped big - end up molds. killed steels are generally used when a homogeneous structure is required in the finished steels. alloy steels, forging steels and steels for carburizing are of this type, when the essential quality is soundness. in producing certain extra - deep - drawing steels, a low - carbon ( % c = max 0. 12 ) steel is killed, usually with a substantial amount of aluminum that is added in the ladle, in the mold or both. although the deoxidation of steel by aluminum suppresses the formation of carbon monoxide during solidification, and hence suppresses blow holes, there are many steel processing operations where aluminum killing of steel is undesirable. for example, it is widely recognized that certain alloy steels to", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5049166984922276, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:53.343746"} {"text": "aluminum suppresses the formation of carbon monoxide during solidification, and hence suppresses blow holes, there are many steel processing operations where aluminum killing of steel is undesirable. for example, it is widely recognized that certain alloy steels to be cast as large ingots should not be subject to aluminum killing, because of the piping and of deleterious effects of alumina inclusions on the subsequent processing of ingots for certain applications, e. g. generator - rotor shafts. it has been recognized from the early days of the continuous - casting operation nearly two decades ago that casting difficulties and poor surface conditions are often experienced with aluminum - killed steels. it is for these reasons that other forms of deoxidation are often preferred in a number of steel - processing operations, e. g. silico - managanese deoxidation and / or vacuum carbon deoxidation. deoxidation reactions can be described using the deoxidation equilibrium constant. a wide spectrum of deoxidation equilibria pertaining to the most common deoxidants for steel is summarized in table 1 as a log - log plot of the concentration of oxygen in solution in liquid steel against that of the added elements. table 1 : solubility of the products of deoxidation in liquid iron. | equilibrium constant k * | | k at 1600\u00b0c | | < 1 ppm al | | 1. 1 x 10 - 15 | | - 71600 / t + 23. 28 | | < 1 ppm al | | 4. 3 x 10 - 14 | | - 62780 / t + 20. 17 | | 1. 3 x 10 - 8 | | > 0. 02 % c | | 2. 0 x 10 - 3 | | - 1168 / t - 2. 07 | | > 3 % cr | | 1. 1 x 10 - 4 | | - 40740 / t + 17. 78 | | > 1 % mn | | 5. 1 x 10 - 2 | | - 14450 / t + 6. 43 | | > 20 ppm si | | 2. 2 x 10 - 5 | | - 30410 / t + 11. 59 | | < 0. 3 % ti | | 2. 8 x 10 - 6 | | > 5 % ti | | 1. 9 x 10 - 3 | | < 0. 10 v | | 8. 9 x 10 - 8 | | - 48060 / t +", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5162219459473152, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:53.344625"} {"text": "% ti | | 2. 8 x 10 - 6 | | > 5 % ti | | 1. 9 x 10 - 3 | | < 0. 10 v | | 8. 9 x 10 - 8 | | - 48060 / t + 18. 61 | | > 0. 3 % v | | 2. 9 x 10 - 6 | | - 43200 / t + 17. 52 in all cases, the oxygen and the alloying element in solution are in equilibrium with the appropriate gas, liquid or solid oxide phases at 1600\u00b0c, e. g. 1 atm co, pure b2o3, pure al2o3 etc. the curves for mn, si and c are from compiled data. the curves for cr, v, b, ti and al are based on the recent work done in this laboratory by fruehan using the oxygen galvanic cell previously described in measuring the equilibrium oxygen potentials. - activities are chosen such that amn \u2261 % mn and ao \u2261 % o when % m\u2192o - square brackets [ ] denote component present in molten steel - temperature ( t ) is on the kelvin scale. deoxidation reactions can be described using the deoxidation equilibrium constant. the reaction when the alloying element ( m ) is added to the steel can be represented by : mxoy = xm + yo..... ( 1 ) the deoxidation constant assuming pure mxoy forms ( i. e. unit activity for mxoy ) is given by : k = ( hm ) x ( ho ) y..... ( 2 ) where hm and ho are the henrian activities defined such that activity of the components is equal to its weight percent at infinite dilution in iron. hi = fi ( wt. % i )..... ( 3 ) the activity coefficient fi can be corrected for alloying elements by use of the interaction parameter eji ( d log fi / d log wt % j ) = eji..... ( 4 ) table 2 shows the coefficients of interaction for the common elements of carbon and stainless steels at 1600\u00b0c. table 2 : the coefficients of interaction for the common elements of carbon and stainless steels at 1600\u00b0c | carbon steel 1600\u00b0c | stainless steel 1600\u00b0c for most low alloy steels encountered in ladle metallurgy the activity coefficient can be taken as unity and equation 2 reduces to : km = ( % m ) x ( % o ) y.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5462603781761097, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:53.345527"} {"text": "electricity and magnetism the dot product introduction to the vector dot product. the dot product use this menu to view and help create subtitles for this video in many different languages. you ' ll probably want to hide youtube ' s captions if using these subtitles. - let ' s learn a little bit about the dot product. - the dot product, frankly, out of the two ways of multiplying - vectors, i think is the easier one. - so what does the dot product do? - why don ' t i give you the definition, and then i ' ll give - you an intuition. - so if i have two vectors ; vector a dot vector b - - that ' s - how i draw my arrows. - i can draw my arrows like that. - that is equal to the magnitude of vector a times the - magnitude of vector b times cosine of the - angle between them. - now where does this come from? - this might seem a little arbitrary, but i think with a - visual explanation, it will make a little bit more sense. - so let me draw, arbitrarily, these two vectors. - so that is my vector a - - nice big and fat vector. - it ' s good for showing the point. - and let me draw vector b like that. - vector b. - and then let me draw the cosine, or let me, at least, - draw the angle between them. - this is theta. - so there ' s two ways of view this. - let me label them. - this is vector a. - i ' m trying to be color consistent. - this is vector b. - so there ' s two ways of viewing this product. - you could view it as vector a - - because multiplication is - associative, you could switch the order. - so this could also be written as, the magnitude of vector a - times cosine of theta, times - - and i ' ll do it in color - appropriate - - vector b. - and this times, this is the dot product. - i almost don ' t have to write it. - this is just regular multiplication, because these - are all scalar quantities. - when you see the dot between vectors, you ' re talking about - the vector dot product. - so if we were to just rearrange this expression this - way, what does it mean? - what is a cosine of theta? - let me", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5926364247250333, "token_count": 511, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:53.357828"} {"text": "the dot between vectors, you ' re talking about - the vector dot product. - so if we were to just rearrange this expression this - way, what does it mean? - what is a cosine of theta? - let me ask you a question. - if i were to drop a right angle, right here, - perpendicular to b - - so let ' s just drop a right angle - there - - cosine of theta soh - coh - toa so, cah cosine - - - is equal to adjacent of a hypotenuse, right? - well, what ' s the adjacent? - it ' s equal to this. - and the hypotenuse is equal to the magnitude of a, right? - let me re - write that. - so cosine of theta - - and this applies to the a vector. - cosine of theta of this angle is equal to ajacent, which - is - - i don ' t know what you could call this - - let ' s call - this the projection of a onto b. - it ' s like if you were to shine a light perpendicular to b - - - if there was a light source here and the light was - straight down, it would be the shadow of a onto b. - or you could almost think of it as the part of a that goes - in the same direction of b. - so this projection, they call it - - at least the way i get - the intuition of what a projection is, i kind of view - it as a shadow. - if you had a light source that came up perpendicular, what - would be the shadow of that vector on to this one? - so if you think about it, this shadow right here - - you could - call that, the projection of a onto b. - or, i don ' t know. - let ' s just call it, a sub b. - and it ' s the magnitude of it, right? - it ' s how much of vector a goes on vector b over - - that ' s the - adjacent side - - over the hypotenuse. - the hypotenuse is just the magnitude of vector a. - it ' s just our basic calculus. - or another way you could view it, just multiply both sides - by the magnitude of vector a. - you get the projection of a onto b, which is just a fancy -", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5907467048275221, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:53.358800"} {"text": "vector a. - it ' s just our basic calculus. - or another way you could view it, just multiply both sides - by the magnitude of vector a. - you get the projection of a onto b, which is just a fancy - way of saying, this side ; the part of a that goes in the - same direction as b - - is another way to say it - - is - equal to just multiplying both sides times the magnitude of a - is equal to the magnitude of a, cosine of theta. - which is exactly what we have up here. - and the definition of the dot product. - so another way of visualizing the dot product is, you could - replace this term with the magnitude of the projection of - a onto b - - which is just this - - times the - magnitude of b. - that ' s interesting. - all the dot product of two vectors is - - let ' s just take - one vector. - let ' s figure out how much of that vector - - what component - of it ' s magnitude - - goes in the same direction as the - other vector, and let ' s just multiply them. - and where is that useful? - well, think about it. - what about work? - when we learned work in physics? - work is force times distance. - but it ' s not just the total force - times the total distance. - it ' s the force going in the same - direction as the distance. - you should review the physics playlist if you ' re watching - this within the calculus playlist. let ' s say i have a - 10 newton object. - it ' s sitting on ice, so there ' s no friction. - we don ' t want to worry about fiction right now. - and let ' s say i pull on it. - let ' s say my force vector - - this is my force vector. - let ' s say my force vector is 100 newtons. - i ' m making the numbers up. - 100 newtons. - and let ' s say i slide it to the right, so my distance - vector is 10 meters parallel to the ground. - and the angle between them is equal to 60 degrees, which is - the same thing is pi over 3. - we ' ll stick to degrees. - it ' s a little bit more intuitive. - it ' s 60 degrees. - this distance right here is 10 meters. - so my question is,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.6079835422482566, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:53.359774"} {"text": "is - the same thing is pi over 3. - we ' ll stick to degrees. - it ' s a little bit more intuitive. - it ' s 60 degrees. - this distance right here is 10 meters. - so my question is, by pulling on this rope, or whatever, at - the 60 degree angle, with a force of 100 newtons, and - pulling this block to the right for 10 meters, how much - work am i doing? - well, work is force times the distance, but not just the - total force. - the magnitude of the force in the direction of the distance. - so what ' s the magnitude of the force in the - direction of the distance? - it would be the horizontal component of this force - vector, right? - so it would be 100 newtons times the - cosine of 60 degrees. - it will tell you how much of that 100 - newtons goes to the right. - or another way you could view it if this - is the force vector. - and this down here is the distance vector. - you could say that the total work you performed is equal to - the force vector dot the distance vector, using the dot - product - - taking the dot product, to the force and the - distance factor. - and we know that the definition is the magnitude of - the force vector, which is 100 newtons, times the magnitude - of the distance vector, which is 10 meters, times the cosine - of the angle between them. - cosine of the angle is 60 degrees. - so that ' s equal to 1, 000 newton meters - times cosine of 60. - cosine of 60 is what? - it ' s square root of 3 over 2. - square root of 3 over 2, if i remember correctly. - so times the square root of 3 over 2. - so the 2 becomes 500. - so it becomes 500 square roots of 3 joules, whatever that is. - i don ' t know 700 something, i ' m guessing. - maybe it ' s 800 something. - i ' m not quite sure. - but the important thing to realize is that the dot - product is useful. - it applies to work. - it actually calculates what component of what vector goes - in the other direction. - now you could interpret it the other way. - you could say this is the magnitude of a - times b cosine of theta. - and that ' s", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.574950646538776, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:53.360737"} {"text": "it actually calculates what component of what vector goes - in the other direction. - now you could interpret it the other way. - you could say this is the magnitude of a - times b cosine of theta. - and that ' s completely valid. - and what ' s b cosine of theta? - well, if you took b cosine of theta, and you could work this - out as an exercise for yourself, that ' s the amount of - the magnitude of the b vector that ' s - going in the a direction. - so it doesn ' t matter what order you go. - so when you take the cross product, it matters whether - you do a cross b, or b cross a. - but when you ' re doing the dot product, it doesn ' t matter - what order. - so b cosine theta would be the magnitude of vector b that - goes in the direction of a. - so if you were to draw a perpendicular line here, b - cosine theta would be this vector. - that would be b cosine theta. - the magnitude of b cosine theta. - so you could say how much of vector b goes in the same - direction as a? - then multiply the two magnitudes. - or you could say how much of vector a goes in the same - direction is vector b? - and then multiply the two magnitudes. - and now, this is, i think, a good time to just make sure - you understand the difference between the dot product and - the cross product. - the dot product ends up with just a number. - you multiply two vectors and all you have is a number. - you end up with just a scalar quantity. - and why is that interesting? - well, it tells you how much do these - - you could almost say - - - these vectors reinforce each other. - because you ' re taking the parts of their magnitudes that - go in the same direction and multiplying them. - the cross product is actually almost the opposite. - you ' re taking their orthogonal components, right? - the difference was, this was a a sine of theta. - i don ' t want to mess you up this picture too much. - but you should review the cross product videos. - and i ' ll do another video where i actually compare and - contrast them. - but the cross product is, you ' re saying, let ' s multi", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5399275657964753, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:53.361811"} {"text": "you up this picture too much. - but you should review the cross product videos. - and i ' ll do another video where i actually compare and - contrast them. - but the cross product is, you ' re saying, let ' s multiply - the magnitudes of the vectors that are perpendicular to each - other, that aren ' t going in the same direction, that are - actually orthogonal to each other. - and then, you have to pick a direction since you ' re not - saying, well, the same direction that - they ' re both going in. - so you ' re picking the direction that ' s orthogonal to - both vectors. - and then, that ' s why the orientation matters and you - have to take the right hand rule, because there ' s actually - two vectors that are perpendicular to any other two - vectors in three dimensions. - anyway, i ' m all out of time. - i ' ll continue this, hopefully not too confusing, discussion - in the next video. - i ' ll compare and contrast the cross - product and the dot product. - see you in the next video. be specific, and indicate a time in the video : at 5 : 31, how is the moon large enough to block the sun? isn ' t the sun way larger? have something that ' s not a question about this content? this discussion area is not meant for answering homework questions. share a tip when naming a variable, it is okay to use most letters, but some are reserved, like ' e ', which represents the value 2. 7831... have something that ' s not a tip or feedback about this content? this discussion area is not meant for answering homework questions. discuss the site for general discussions about khan academy, visit our reddit discussion page. flag inappropriate posts here are posts to avoid making. if you do encounter them, flag them for attention from our guardians. - disrespectful or offensive - an advertisement - low quality - not about the video topic - soliciting votes or seeking badges - a homework question - a duplicate answer - repeatedly making the same post - a tip or feedback in questions - a question in tips & feedback - an answer that should be its own question about the site", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5672128542075363, "token_count": 461, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:53.362750"} {"text": "a wide - ranging study of language, including the various political dimensions involved in how and why certain languages gain prestige while others become extinct. how have industrialization and nationalism shaped language variation worldwide? is the writing system a natural outgrowth of speech, or can it simply be changed by government edict? is there really one correct way of speaking english? is the french language being threatened? are chinese characters really based on pictographs? these are just a handful of the many intriguing questions, issues and \u201c linguistic myths \u201d that economist contributor greene investigates in this fascinating glimpse at the global politics of language variation. essentially, the book is a course in sociolinguistics and modern international language politics for the layperson. the author, who speaks nine languages, begins by dispelling a variety of language myths that are pervasive and, to the chagrin of many linguists, seemingly unshakeable \u2014 that some languages are more primitive than others, that the qur \u2019 an cannot be translated from arabic, or that the maori of new zealand have 35 words for dung. greene also exposes grammar sticklers \u2014 people who are obsessively determined to \u201c purify \u201d language and who are nostalgic for a linguistic utopia that never existed \u2014 for the persnickety and curmudgeonly group they really are. the author blends personal narrative, reportage and humor with linguistic analysis, historical research and political punditry, and he surveys some of the most significant issues concerning language today, including the ethnocentrism involved in some english - only activism in america, as well as the draconian \u2014 and largely unsuccessful \u2014 measures of the french academy to keep french free of english words. greene correctly demonstrates that language change, language variety and cross - language borrowing are \u201c highly regular \u201d and, in fact, part of the natural evolution of all languages. an insightful, accessible examination of the way in which day - to - day speech is tangled in a complicated web of history, politics, race, economics and power.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5317635765233214, "token_count": 415, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:53.374196"} {"text": "worm, the cabbage looper ( trichoplusia ni ). the larvae act as bioreactors and produce in large amounts \u2013 and at a much lower cost than conventional reactors based on microorganisms \u2013 the proteins which code these genes, and which are responsible for a protective response in vaccinated individuals. using this method, a dna vaccine can be manufactured with the protozoan protein coding genes, and a second vaccine with proteins associated with these genes ( produced at a low cost using insect larvae ), with the aim of increasing its effectiveness. this vaccine strategy can be used both in a preventive and a therapeutic manner, in both humans and dogs. presently, the possibility of a translational phase is being contemplated with the aim of transferring as quickly as possible the results of this basic research to clinical practices, and of increasing the efficacy even more by using drugs to boost the immune response. todoli f., rodriguez - cortes a., nunez m. del carmen, laurenti m. d., gomez - sebastian s., et al. ( 2012 ) \" head - to - head comparison of three vaccination strategies based on dna and raw insect - derived recombinant proteins against leishmania. \" plos one 7 ( 12 ) : e51181. doi : 10. 1371 / journal. pone. 0009617 universitat autonoma de barcelona : http : / / www. uab. es this press release was posted to serve as a topic for discussion. please comment below. we try our best to only post press releases that are associated with peer reviewed scientific literature. critical discussions of the research are appreciated. if you need help finding a link to the original article, please contact us on twitter or via e - mail.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5210750629816763, "token_count": 364, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:53.382497"} {"text": "study guide \u2013 anthropology 104 note : this is just a guide! any material covered in class, class discussion, videos, or in readings and home work could be incorporated in the midterm or final. this is not a complete summary of all you will need to know in this course. chapter one : what is anthropology? what are the subfields of anthropology? in what way is anthropology holistic, comparative, field work based? what is a frame of reference? what is ethnocentrism? cultural relativism? who was one of the most influential founders of american anthropology? what ethical concerns do anthropologists have? what is theoretical linguistics? how does linguistic anthropology differ from theoretical linguistics? why are anthropologists interested in language? chapter two : why do the inuit have so many words for seals, ice and snow? what is ethnosemantics? cognitive anthropology? ethnoscience? what is a semantic domain? what is \u201c the new ethnography? \u201d what is linguistic relativity? what is linguistic determinism? what is the sapir - whorf hypothesis? what is a \u201c mental map \u201d? what are anthropologists interested in areas of linguistic emphasis? what does the hanunoo color system tell us about the hanunoo? does language affect the way we respond to the material world? chapter three : what is phonology? phonetics? phonemics? what are the differences between acoustic phonetics, auditory phonetics, articulatory phonetics and descriptive phonetics? what is voicing? based on the place of articulation, what are the various ways consonants can be articulated? what are the various manners in which consonants can be articulated? what information do we need to know how a consonant is made or sounds? what information do we need to know how a vowel is formed? what is \u201c rounding \u201d. what is tongue height, tongue place? what are phonenes? what are allophones? what is \u201c complementary distribution \u201d? what does ipa stand for? what is the point of the ipa? what is a minimal pair. chapter four : what is morphology? what is syntax? what is a morpheme? what is a word? what is a base? what is a root? stem? affix? what is a hierarchy in terms of affixes? how are new words created? what is inflection? what is derivation? what are transformational rules, what is generative grammar? what is prescriptive grammar? what is", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5141902546777883, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:53.389905"} {"text": "how do children acquire language? what is broca \u2019 s area of the brain? what is wernicke \u2019 s area? chapter nine : what are the various causes of language change? what is a dialect? what is a language? what is the origin of most european languages? how are new words developed ( lecture )? what is a pidgin? what is a creole? why did the oakland school district want to teach in ebonics? why did that upset people? what is codeswitching? what was the great vowel shift? chapter ten : what is an endangered language? what is language extinction? what are marked forms, and unmarked forms? how can there be bias in grammar? in what ways can language be sexist or racist? can language be sexist even if there are no negative words concerning women? do anthropologists have many opportunities to study language and language use in their daily lives? don \u2019 t forget the readings in the work book, as well! | 3123 | | anthro 104 | | m | | 03 : 30 pm - 06 : 40 pm | | cms 004 | | closed | | syllabus | | no courses are available yet for this semester. please check back later. | 3027 | | anthro 104 | | m | | 03 : 30 pm - 06 : 40 pm | | cms 004 | | open | |", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5213513021180933, "token_count": 288, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:53.391577"} {"text": "hacking quantum cryptography just got harder with quantum encryption, in which a message gets encoded in bits represented by particles in different states, a secret message can remain secure even if the system is compromised by a malicious hacker. credit : margita | shutterstock vancouver, british columbia \u2014 no matter how complex they are, most secret codes turn out to be breakable. producing the ultimate secure code may require encoding a secret message inside the quantum relationship between atoms, scientists say. artur ekert, director of the center for quantum technologies at the national university of singapore, presented the new findings here at the annual meeting of the american association for the advancement of science. ekert, speaking saturday ( feb. 18 ), described how decoders can adjust for a compromised encryption device, as long as they know the degree of compromise. the subject of subatomic particles is a large step away from the use of papyrus, the ancient writing material employed in the first known cryptographic device. that device, called a scytale, was used in 400 b. c. by spartan military commanders to send coded messages to one another. the commanders would wrap strips of papyrus around a wooden baton and write the message across the strips so that it could be read only when the strips were wrapped around a baton of matching size. [ the coolest quantum particles explained ] later, the technique of substitution was developed, in which the entire alphabet would be shifted, say, three characters to the right, so than an \" a \" would be replaced by \" d, \" and \" b \" replaced by \" e, \" and so on. only someone who knew the substitution rule could read the message. julius caesar employed such a cipher scheme in the first century b. c. over time, ciphers became more and more complicated, so that they were harder and harder to crack. harder, but not impossible. \" when you look at the history of cryptography, you come up with a system, and sooner or later someone else comes up with a way of breaking the system, \" ekert said. \" you may ask yourself : is it going to be like this forever? is there such a thing as the perfect cipher? \" the perfect cipher the closest thing to a perfect cipher involves what ' s called a one - time pad. \" you just write your message as a sequence of bits and you then add those bits to a key and obtain a cryptogram, \" ekert said. \" if you take the cryptogram and add it to the key, you", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.687284560739307, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:53.422003"} {"text": "pad. \" you just write your message as a sequence of bits and you then add those bits to a key and obtain a cryptogram, \" ekert said. \" if you take the cryptogram and add it to the key, you get plain text. in fact, one can prove that if the keys are random and as long as the messages, then the system offers perfect security. \" in theory, it ' s a great solution, but in practice, it has been hard to achieve. [ 10 best encryption software products ] \" if the keys are as long as the message, then you need a secure way to distribute the key, \" ekert said. the nature of physics known as quantum mechanics seems to offer the best hope of knowing whether a key is secure. quantum mechanics says that certain properties of subatomic particles can ' t be measured without disturbing the particles and changing the outcome. in essence, a particle exists in a state of indecision until a measurement is made, forcing it to choose one state or another. thus, if someone made a measurement of the particle, it would irrevocably change the particle. if an encryption key were encoded in bits represented by particles in different states, it would be immediately obvious when a key was not secure because the measurement made to hack the key would have changed the key. this, of course, still depends on the ability of the two parties sending and receiving the message to be able to independently choose what to measure, using a truly random number generator \u2014 in other words, exercising free will \u2014 and using devices they trust. but what if a hacker were controlling one of the parties, or tampering with the encryption device? ekert and his colleagues showed that even in this case, if the messaging parties still have some free will, their code could remain secure as long as they know to what degree they are compromised. in other words, a random number generator that is not truly random can still be used to send an undecipherable secret message, as long as the sender knows how random it is and adjusts for that fact. \" even if they are manipulated, as long as they are not stupid and have a little bit of free will, they can still do it, \" ekert said. more from livescience. com", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.6975979333385778, "token_count": 470, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:53.422918"} {"text": "click any word in a definition or example to find the entry for that word 90 % of the time, speakers of english use just 7, 500 words in speech and writing. these words appear in red, and are graded with stars. one - star words are frequent, two - star words are more frequent, and three - star words are the most frequent. the thesaurus of synonyms and related words is fully integrated into the dictionary entries. click on the t button in an entry to review the synonyms and related words for that meaning. more mike lost his job last year. register now and don ' t lose your right to vote. the family lost everything when their home burned down. an unreasonably high exchange rate lost them export markets. they feared losing the sale to a rival company. ' how did you do in the quiz? ' ' we lost. ' england lost 2 \u2013 1 to germany. they lost by only one point. those comments may well have lost them the election. the plane lost cabin pressure and everyone had to use oxygen masks. a plan to reduce the amount of working time lost through sickness he must realize that an outstanding opportunity has been lost. there ' s no time to lose ( = used for saying that it is necessary to do something as quickly as possible because the situation is urgent ). this is the british english definition of lose. view american english definition of lose. a part of an atom that moves around the nucleus ( = centre ) and has a negative electrical charge a must for anyone with an interest in the changing face of language. the macmillan dictionary blog explores english as it is spoken around the world today. global english and language change from our blog", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5792246763558155, "token_count": 341, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:53.436908"} {"text": "the dominant language as well. so often, the cultural wealth that exists in a culture exists through the language itself. if that ' s gone, the cultural continuity is gone. so, we hope we see as many cultures preserved as well as languages. you can find out more about the project at endangeredlanguages. com. twitter has deleted the account of someone posing as the actor bill murray. now, no one should ever pretend to be bill murray. here with me to discuss that, is - - i can ' t believe we got him - - bill murray. bill murray ( from a promotional video for \" moonrise kingdom \" ) : hello, i \u2019 m bill murray. moe : bill, someone got on twitter using the name bill _ murray and proceeded to rack up tens of thousands of followers. then he stole tweets from other people, and passed off the jokes as his own. what did this guy do to your reputation? murray ( from \" ghostbusters \" ) : he slimed me. moe : yeah, i think so. really got a lot of people upset on twitter too. murray ( from \" ghostbusters \" ) : human sacrifice, dogs and cats living together, mass hysteria. moe : i don ' t know if it went that far. fake bill on twitter did start asking people for money and people sent it to him or them. murray ( from \" rushmore \" ) : just remember, they can buy anything but they can ' t buy backbone. don ' t let them forget that. moe : anyway, he ' s been removed and your reputation will be fine. murray ( from \" caddyshack \" ) : so i got that going for me, which is nice. moe : it is nice.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5071033500385519, "token_count": 356, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:53.456186"} {"text": "myoclonus refers to quick, lightning - like jerks ( contractions ) of a muscle or a group of muscles. myoclonus may involve only one hand, a group of muscles in the upper arm or leg, or a group of facial muscles. or it may involve many muscles at the same time. hiccups are a type of myoclonus that involves only the diaphragm, the muscle that separates the chest from the abdomen. myoclonus may occur normally, often when a person is falling asleep. or it may result from a disorder, such as the following : myoclonus can occur after a person takes high doses of certain drugs such as antihistamines, some antidepressants ( such as amitriptyline ), bismuth, levodopa, or opioids ( narcotics ). myoclonus can be mild or severe. muscles may jerk quickly or slowly, rhythmically or not. myoclonus may occur once in a while or frequently. it may occur spontaneously or be triggered by a stimulus, such as a sudden noise, light, or a movement. for example, reaching for an object or taking step may trigger jerks that disrupt the movement. in creutzfeldt - jacob disease ( a rare degenerative brain disorder \u2014 see see prion diseases : creutzfeldt - jakob disease ( cjd ) ), myoclonus becomes more obvious when people are suddenly startled. if myoclonus is due to a metabolic disorder, it may persist and affect muscles throughout the body, sometimes leading to seizures. diagnosis and treatment the diagnosis is based on symptoms. other tests may be done to identify the cause. the cause is corrected if possible. for example, drugs that can cause myoclonus are stopped. a high or low blood sugar level is corrected, and kidney failure is treated with hemodialysis. if the cause cannot be corrected, valproate or levetiracetam ( anticonvulsants \u2014 see seizure disorders : drugs used to treat seizures. ) or clonazepam ( a mild sedative ) sometimes helps. when given with carbidopa, the dietary supplement 5 - hydroxytryptophan ( which is produced by the brain ) may also help. last full review / revision august 2007 by david eidelberg, md ; michael pourfar, md", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.519360814938836, "token_count": 493, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:53.479505"} {"text": "receptive and expressive language all communication has two aspects : receptive language and expressive language. receptive language is what we hear and understand. expressive language is what we say to others. i believe that empathy is also a form of communication ; one that is as essential to each of us as is spoken, written, or signed language in understanding the feelings of other sentient beings and in conveying our reaction to them. to oversimplify, one might think of language as the cognitive component of communication, whereas empathy is the emotional component. of course, in reality, they overlap and complement each other. receptive empathy is the ability to perceive the feelings that others are experiencing. expressive empathy is the ability to convey that understanding to others. definition of empathy \u201c empathy \u201d is a complicated word \u2014 it means so many different things to different people. and, a discussion of whether autistic people have a capacity for empathy that is different from most other people further complicates the conversation. a web search on the single word \u201c empathy \u201d produced for me these top 5 results, defining the word in 5 different ways : - empathy is the capacity to recognize emotions that are being experienced by another sentient or fictional being. ( wikipedia ) - the imaginative projection of a subjective state into an object so that the object appears to be infused with it ( mirriam - webster ) - the intellectual identification with or vicarious experiencing of the feelings, thoughts, or attitudes of another ( dictionary. com ) - empathy is the experience of understanding another person \u2019 s condition from their perspective. ( psychology today ) - identification with and understanding of another \u2019 s situation, feelings, and motives. see synonyms at pity. ( thefreedictionary. com ) so, which is it? \u201c recognize emotions \u201d or \u201c imaginative projection \u201d or \u201c intellectual identification \u201d or \u201c vicarious experience of understanding perspective \u201d or \u201c identification and understanding \u201d or \u201c pity \u201d? it is probably all of those things and more, including sympathy and compassion. trying to understand what people intend to convey by using the word is a bit like justice potter \u2019 s infamous definition of pornography. empathy is something you know when you experience it, even though it is hard to describe in words. are there \u201c types \u201d of empathy? modifying the word \u201c empathy \u201d with \u201c cognitive \u201d and \u201c affective \u201d represents an ill - advised attempt to deconstruct empathy, in my view. much has been made of the idea that these two aspects of empathy ( to the extent that this dichotom", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5150347020670619, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:53.494607"} {"text": "empathy \u201d with \u201c cognitive \u201d and \u201c affective \u201d represents an ill - advised attempt to deconstruct empathy, in my view. much has been made of the idea that these two aspects of empathy ( to the extent that this dichotomy has any validity at all, which i doubt ) arise from different parts of the brain, and that one or the other is deficient in certain personality types. this kind of hair - splitting is a distraction, it seems to me, when it comes to understanding the role and functioning of empathy. i \u2019 m sure there is a wide range of empathic capacity, both in terms of experiencing empathy ( whatever it is ) and in expressing it. those with alexithymia may have empathic capacity but may not recognize what they are experiencing or be able to express it. and all of my discussion here so far has nothing directly to do with autism. empathy is a universal human trait. and beyond. clearly, many other animals have empathic capacity as well. empathy arises from, or at least is related to, mirror neurons. in the famous incident of the discovery of mirror neurons, a monkey watched an object being picked up, and his brain region for picking things up fired as if he were doing it himself. so, he experienced what it was like to pick up an apple ( or whatever it was ), but not from the perspective of the other monkey ( he \u2019 s not inside that brain ) but from the perspective of how he would feel if he were doing what he was observing. and what does all of this have to do with autism? now comes the tricky part with respect to autism. it \u2019 s twofold. the descriptions that follow are experiential ( my own experiences and those of other autistic people i \u2019 ve spoken with ), and represent my own speculations. what i report here may or may not be generalizable to other autistic people. see the link in the previous paragraph for a discussion of some of the controversy surrounding the linkage ( if any ) between autism and mirror neurons. autism and receptive empathy it may be ( 1 ) that the mirror neuron system in the autistic brain is impaired because of the usual sensory overload that is always going on. it \u2019 s not that the mirror neurons are defective, it \u2019 s just that their functioning is clouded by the brain having so much else to deal with at the same time. distractions, if you will. so the autistic person will not have the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5149866257983069, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:53.495729"} {"text": "s not that the mirror neurons are defective, it \u2019 s just that their functioning is clouded by the brain having so much else to deal with at the same time. distractions, if you will. so the autistic person will not have the receptive clarity that matches the neurotypical \u2014 what is being called by some \u201c cognitive empathy. \u201d the emotional state of another being is recorded, but not processed with the same clarity because of the other demands on attention. the tms experiments i participated in at beth israel demonstrated this. the experiment involved suppressing activity in a small area in the right hemisphere of my brain. neuroscientists know that, through a process called neuroplasticity, when one area of the brain is compromised, another area will attempt to take over the lost functionality. that often involves the equivalent region in the opposite hemisphere of the brain. broca \u2019 s area is heavily involved in language and ( therefore ) social cognition, and much more. it is a complex and important region of the brain that is somewhat imprecisely located in the part of the brain known as brodmann \u2019 s areas 44 and 45. i say \u201c it \u201d although, in my understanding ( i have no formal training in neuroscience ), there are two equivalent areas, one in each hemisphere, and the lion \u2019 s share of language processing occurs in the dominant hemisphere ( the left one for right - handed people like me ). broca \u2019 s area, besides its central role in language comprehension and creation, also seems to serve as a bridge between the prefrontal cortex ( cognition ), and regions that control motor and somatosensory ( tactile and other sensory ) systems of the body. it is also thought to be rich in mirror neurons. for all of these reasons, the scientists in the tms lab hypothesized that by temporarily and artificially suppressing the right side of my brain in the area just described, the left hemisphere would be more strongly activated than usual, thereby improving language and social ( empathic ) cognition. how right ( so to speak ) they were! i experienced ( both subjectively and in their computerized measurements ) sharpened ability to interpret emotional content more accurately. the difference in clarity was astounding to me and to others i spoke with who were subjects in the experiment. caitlin, for example, was shocked to find that she could see emotional content in written sentences and in video clips which, with the benefit of hindsight, she had not been able", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_computing", "similarity_score": 0.5237837508251569, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:53.496804"} {"text": "me and to others i spoke with who were subjects in the experiment. caitlin, for example, was shocked to find that she could see emotional content in written sentences and in video clips which, with the benefit of hindsight, she had not been able to see before. my clarity was more intellectual. i was able to solve ( computerized ) tasks faster than the computer could feed them to me, whereas before i had struggled and was unsure of the answers. subjectively, it was like night and day, although i \u2019 m sure that the difference in my performance was measured in milliseconds. the difference in what caitlin and i experienced ( and john had a musical revelation, among many other experiences ) was probably a function of where we started. i was relatively better ( compared with her ) at emotional reception. she, for example, had once been floored to find out that her brother knew more ( much more ) about the personal life of her receptionist than she did, although he lived in a distant city. it was just that when he called to speak with caitlin, he would chat with the person who answered the phone about vacation plans and the like. it never occurred to caitlin to make that kind of emotional connection. the irrelevancy of \u201c cognitive \u201d versus \u201c affective \u201d empathy which brings me around to the other bit ( 2 ) about autism and empathy. take the psychology today definition : \u201c empathy is the experience of understanding another person \u2019 s condition from their perspective. \u201d please. think of the monkey. picking up a banana is probably a pretty universal monkey experience, so it \u2019 s easy to imagine that the mirror neurons of monkeys allow them to experience watching another monkey and essentially experience ( vicariously ) a nearly identical experience. now, take an autistic brain. not mine, please. i need it. if i watch a neurotypical pick up a banana, i am likely to be less clear about how that feels to them because they experience the world in a way that is very different from mine. i \u2019 m being metaphorical here, in case you didn \u2019 t pick up on that ( so to speak ). a physical action is one thing, but a more complex emotional reaction is quite a different level of experience. how can i empathize what you are going through if your way of experiencing the world is vastly different from mine? this works both ways, of course. how can a neurotypical person empathize with me if they have no clue what my brain is experiencing? so,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_entanglement", "similarity_score": 0.5497838548484089, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:53.498027"} {"text": "you are going through if your way of experiencing the world is vastly different from mine? this works both ways, of course. how can a neurotypical person empathize with me if they have no clue what my brain is experiencing? so, it \u2019 s not a lack of empathy, or a lack of empathic capacity, it \u2019 s a knowledge or experiential gap. i can tell when my horse is happy to see me, or when he is in a playful mood, or frightened ; these are fairly universal emotions. but my empathy doesn \u2019 t go too deep because i don \u2019 t really know what it \u2019 s like to be a horse. or, maybe at some fundamental level, i do. i don \u2019 t always grok why he \u2019 s upset, but i know when he is. now, all of that is about receptive empathy ; taking in and appreciating the emotional state of another being. this may be what is meant by \u201c cognitive \u201d empathy. but i also think receptive empathy includes components ( or maybe all ) of what has been termed \u201c affective empathy \u201d or \u201c pity \u201d or \u201c compassion \u201d \u2014 not just understanding, but sharing the emotional state of another. i believe this must naturally flow via the mirror neuron system that enables us to take in the feelings of another. if one is truly understanding what another is experiencing, it naturally follows that one is experiencing their emotions, too. from an evolutionary point of view, the value of being able to understand how someone else is feeling is being able to predict their behavior. if someone picks up a banana and smiles, that \u2019 s pretty non - threatening, but if someone picks up a rock and scowls, it might be better to take protective action. to truly take in another \u2019 s emotions, in the process i \u2019 m calling receptive empathy, one must also experience an approximation of those emotions. although i \u2019 m aware these emotions are yours, and not mine, i experience my version of your anger, your pain, and your joy. it can \u2019 t be any other way. and yes, there are people who have difficulty comprehending what they are experiencing emotionally, and conveying it, too. but, as alluded to earlier, that is a condition called alexithymia, not autism. although studies about this are scant, i \u2019 m not aware of any definitive study that shows that alexithymia is more prevalent in the neuroexceptional population than it is in the neuro", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5261152315524703, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:53.499096"} {"text": "alexithymia, not autism. although studies about this are scant, i \u2019 m not aware of any definitive study that shows that alexithymia is more prevalent in the neuroexceptional population than it is in the neurotypical one. in my work with neuroexceptional couples ( in a support group setting ), i observe a fairly high proportion of alexithymia among the partners who are not neurotypical, but my sample is a highly self - selected subgroup of all neuroexceptional people, and i don \u2019 t have a control group to compare with. for me, when i experience high receptive empathy ( which includes sympathy, compassion or pity ), such an experience is likely to lead to an emotional state of shock that requires me to tone down my feelings, because the nerves are too raw and exposed. so, i withdraw, i put up barriers to keep the world out, to keep things from getting worse. i can only take so much. most autistic people with whom i have talked about this agree. we have too much empathic capacity. it is paralyzing. why is that? i \u2019 m not sure. excess myelination? i \u2019 ll get back to you on that. autism and expressive empathy : the challenge for autistic people the biggest complaint in my couples support groups is that the ( typically ) asperger \u2019 s partner does not express empathy. i explain the bit that i \u2019 ve just gone through, that those of us who are autistic experience a high degree of understanding ( what i have called here receptive empathy ), and that our flat affect or silence does not mean we lack comprehension or sympathy. it \u2019 s just that dealing with these raw emotions is too frightening. thus, we exhibit a lack of what i have come to call expressive empathy. to partners who are feeling emotionally isolated, and are in need of validation, it \u2019 s not comforting to hear this. to them, there is no empathy if it isn \u2019 t expressed. and they have a good point. we autistics often stop one step short of what empathy is all about ; connecting with another human being, to validate and comfort them. without that piece, it does not serve its purpose. the result is, from the outside observers point of view, a \u201c lack \u201d of empathy. no reaction. or an \u201c inappropriate \u201d ( oh, how i hate that word ) reaction. if fact, the reaction is an internal volcano that is", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_entanglement", "similarity_score": 0.502918205320993, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:53.500287"} {"text": ". the result is, from the outside observers point of view, a \u201c lack \u201d of empathy. no reaction. or an \u201c inappropriate \u201d ( oh, how i hate that word ) reaction. if fact, the reaction is an internal volcano that is about to erupt. sometimes it does, and that is one form of meltdown. sometimes it is contained, and the world is shut out. i remember a time in my second marriage when things were not going well, and i was talking with my shrink about it. at one point, he said to me ( in frustration ), \u201c can \u2019 t you just tell her you love her? that \u2019 s what she wants to hear! \u201d and, i realized ( for complex reasons ) that, no, i was not capable of that at that time. it seemed like lying to me. yet, it would have been a harmless lie that could have made all the difference to her. i was empathizing with her distress, but i was not able to communicate that to her in a way that would have been helpful. the terms i have used here, receptive and expressive, are often used to describe forms of language communication, which is where i started this post. and that \u2019 s really what empathy is, in its fullest expression ; communicating emotional states. autistics are really good at receptive empathy, but some of us fall short when it comes to using expressive empathy. this is a failure of execution, not of cognition. our brains work just fine, thank you. we just need to learn how to let other people know that. the good news is called neuroplasticity, and there is a way to use that, in neurally - inspired therapies and techniques that can change our patterns of behavior. stay tuned. much more to come on those subjects. meanwhile, i will be practicing my expressive empathy.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5242485444772224, "token_count": 383, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:53.502251"} {"text": "this mathematically oriented introduction to the theory of logic programming presents a systematic exposition of the resolution method for propositional, first - order, and horn - clause logics, together with an analysis of the semantic aspects of the method. it is through the inference rule of resolution that both proofs and computations can be manipulated on computers, and this book contains elegant versions and proofs of the fundamental theorems and lemmas in the proof theory of logic programming. advanced topics such as recursive complexity and negation as failure and its semantics are covered, and streamlined setups for sld - and sldnf - resolution are described. no other book treats this material in such detail and with such sophistication. doets provides a novel approach to resolution that is applied to the first - order case and the case of ( positive ) logic programs. in contrast to the usual approach, the concept of a resolvent is defined nonconstructively, without recourse to the concept of unification, allowing the soundness and completeness proofs to be carried out in a more economic way. other new material includes computability results dealing with analytical hierarchy, results on infinite derivations and an exposition on general logic programs using 3 - valued logic.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.605643980944776, "token_count": 256, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:53.509383"} {"text": "a depressive disorder is a whole - body illness, involving the body, mood, and thoughts, and affects the way a person eats and sleeps, feels about himself or herself, and thinks about things. it is not the same as being unhappy or in a blue mood. nor is it a sign of personal weakness or a condition that can be willed or wished away. people with a depressive illness cannot merely \" pull themselves together \" and get better. without treatment, symptoms can last for weeks, months, or years. appropriate treatment, however, can help most people who suffer from depression. during any one year period, nearly 19 million american adults suffer from depressive illness. yet, treatment can alleviate symptoms in nearly 80 percent of cases. women experience depression about twice as often as men. many hormonal factors may contribute to the increased rate of depression in women - - particularly such factors as menstrual cycle changes, premenstrual syndrome ( pms ), pregnancy, miscarriage, postpartum period, perimenopause, and menopause. many women also face additional stresses such as responsibilities both at work and home, single parenthood, and caring for children and aging parents. many women are also particularly vulnerable after the birth of a baby. the hormonal and physical changes, as well as the added responsibility of a new life, can be factors that lead to postpartum depression in some women. while transient \" blues \" are common in new mothers, a full - blown depressive episode is not a normal occurrence and requires active intervention. treatment by a sympathetic health care provider and the family ' s emotional support for the new mother are prime considerations in aiding her to recover her physical and mental well - being and her ability to care for and enjoy the infant. depressive disorders come in different forms, as do other illnesses, such as heart disease. three of the most prevalent types of depressive disorders include the following : - major depression. a combination of symptoms ( see symptom list ) that interfere with the ability to work, sleep, eat, and enjoy once pleasurable activities. these disabling episodes of depression can occur once, twice, or several times in a lifetime. - dysthymia. long - term, chronic symptoms that do not disable, but keep people from functioning at \" full steam \" or from feeling good. sometimes, people with dysthymia also experience major depressive episodes. - bipolar disorder ( manic - depression ). a chronic, recurring condition", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5650843209640299, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:53.525679"} {"text": "do not disable, but keep people from functioning at \" full steam \" or from feeling good. sometimes, people with dysthymia also experience major depressive episodes. - bipolar disorder ( manic - depression ). a chronic, recurring condition that includes cycles of depression and elation or mania. within these types, there are variations in the number of symptoms, their severity, and persistence. the following are the most common symptoms of depression. however, each individual may experience symptoms differently. in general, nearly everyone suffering from depression has ongoing feelings of sadness, and may feel helpless, hopeless, and irritable. the american psychiatric association suggests that professional help is advisable for those who have four or more of the following symptoms continually for more than two weeks : - noticeable change of appetite, with either significant weight loss not attributable to dieting or weight gain - noticeable change in sleeping patterns, such as fitful sleep, inability to sleep, early morning awakening, or sleeping too much - loss of interest and pleasure in activities formerly enjoyed - persistent sad, anxious, or \" empty \" mood - feelings of hopelessness, pessimism - restlessness, irritability - decreased energy, fatigue, being \" slowed down \" - feelings of worthlessness - persistent feelings of hopelessness - feelings of inappropriate guilt - inability to concentrate or think, indecisiveness - recurring thoughts of death or suicide, wishing to die, or attempting suicide ( note : individuals with this symptom should receive treatment immediately! ) - melancholia ( defined as overwhelming feelings of sadness and grief ), accompanied by the following : - waking at least two hours earlier than normal in the morning - feeling more depressed in the morning - moving significantly more slowly - disturbed thinking - - for example, severely depressed people sometimes have beliefs not based in reality about physical disease, sinfulness, or poverty - physical symptoms, such as headaches, digestive disorders, and chronic pain specific treatment for depression will be determined by your health care provider based on : - your age, overall health, and medical history - extent of the depression - your tolerance for specific medications, procedures, or therapies - expectations for the course of the disorder - your opinion or preference generally, based on the outcome of evaluations, depressive disorders are treated with medication or either psychotherapy or cognitive behavioral therapy, or a combination of medication and therapy. you can also help yourself. depressive disorders can make a person feel exhausted, worthless, helpless, and hopeless. such negative thoughts", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5293854134527884, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:53.527647"} {"text": "zoologger is our weekly column highlighting extraordinary animals \u2013 and occasionally other organisms \u2013 from around the world step from a sunlit hillside into the darkness of a cave, and you immediately have a problem : you can ' t see. it ' s best to stand still for a few minutes until your eyes adjust to the dimness, otherwise you might blunder into a hibernating bear that doesn ' t appreciate your presence. the same thing will happen when you leave again : the brightness of the sun will dazzle you at first. that ' s because your eyes have two types of receptor : one set works in bright light and the other in dim light. barring a few minutes around sunset, only one set of receptors is ever working at any given time. peters ' elephantnose fish has no such limitations. its peculiar eyes allow it to use the two types of receptor at the same time. that could help it to spot predators as they approach through the murky water it calls home. peters ' elephantnose fish belongs to a large family called the elephantfish, all of which live in africa. they get their name from the trunk - like protrusions on the front of their heads. but whereas the trunks of elephants are extensions of their noses, the trunks of elephantfish are extensions of their mouths. to find a peters ' elephantnose fish, you must lurk in muddy, slow - moving water. look closely, because the fish is brown and so is the background. it finds its way through the murk using its trunk, which generates a weak electrical field that helps it sense its surroundings and even discriminate between different objects. the fish ' s electric sense allows it to hunt insect larvae in pitch darkness. the fish has paid a price for its electrical sensitivity. processing the signals takes brainpower, so it has an exceptionally large brain. as a result, 60 per cent of the oxygen taken in by the fish goes to its brain. even humans, with our whopping brains, only devote 20 per cent of our oxygen to them. now for its eyes. most vertebrates, including humans, have two types of light receptors on their retinas : rods and cones. rods can sense dim light, but become bleached in bright light and stop working. cones can ' t see in dim light, but given enough light they can see fine details and colours. most animals ' eyes are specialised for one or the other. animals that are active during the day tend to have more cones than nocturnal animals", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5112723302446056, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:53.583328"} {"text": "##enbach thinks its oddball visual system isn ' t a mistake. \" it ' s the right type for this fish, \" he says. journal reference : science, doi : 10. 1126 / science. 1218072 if you would like to reuse any content from new scientist, either in print or online, please contact the syndication department first for permission. new scientist does not own rights to photos, but there are a variety of licensing options available for use of articles and graphics we own the copyright to. have your say only subscribers may leave comments on this article. please log in. only personal subscribers may leave comments on this article thu jun 28 22 : 15 : 54 bst 2012 by freederick if i understand correctly, each cup - shaped depression serves as a single aggregate receptor, combining the output of all the individual light - sensitive cells comprising it. in effect, the fish is trading resolution for sensitivity. this is the same sort of effect as used to be employed in high - iso photographic film, where the larger, flattened grains of photosensitive chemicals resulted in high sensitivity, at the cost of a coarse - grained image. the fish employs an even more effective method, effectively combining many smaller \" grains \" into one huge hypersensitive receptor. all comments should respect the new scientist house rules. if you think a particular comment breaks these rules then please use the \" report \" link in that comment to report it to us. if you are having a technical problem posting a comment, please contact technical support.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5609624215413769, "token_count": 313, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:53.586618"} {"text": "keynote address : research agenda and policy perspectives on agriculture for development the keynote address of the conference, by justin lin, the chief economist at the world bank, focuses on future research priorities and the process of implementing the policy objectives of the 2008 world development report, \" agriculture for development. \" justin lin is the chief economist of the world bank. this lesson plan should be used for grades 5 - 7 to help practice, learn, and implement the scientific method, using a self - directed study. try dutch! : dutch language taster interested in dutch? curious how dutch sounds? wondering how difficult or easy it is? perhaps you are thinking of studying dutch? then here is your opportunity to have a go at the language yourself and experience what it is like to learn dutch from scratch. you can work through the pack all by yourself. no knowledge of dutch is required. ucl grant museum of zoology eutherians image collection this is a set of images taken from a teaching resource created at university college london, in collaboration with their museum of zoology. they are primarily along the themes of phylogeny ( evolutionary history ) and functional anatomy. the images are hosted in the uk centre for bioscience ' s imagebank. from ideas to intellectual property ( materials ) this zipped file contains all of the materials that made up the \" how to extract value from intellectual property pt 1 \". inside the file is a narrative, the full powerpoint slide and cc licence information for all the clip art and materials that have been used. there are audio files that also can be used under the creative commons. the relevant attribution and sources for the materials can be found in the. ppt of the lecture. nuclear and particle physics a third year course in nuclear and particle physics. could do with a few lhc updates. contains lecture notes, examples,... as well as the files used to create these resources. also has some movies of nuclear collective motion. discusses : 1 introduction 2 a history of particle physics 3 experimental tools 4 nuclear masses 5 nuclear models 6 some basic concepts of theoretical particle physics 7 the fundamental forces 8 symmetries and particle physics 9 symmetries of the theory of strong humbox : keywords / tags matches \" oerprs \" humbox : keywords / tags matches \" oerprs \" feed 1 introduction to microeconomics this is a module framework. it can be viewed online or downloaded as a zip file. as taught semester 1 2009 / 2010. there are no pre - requisites to taking", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5894672412231399, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:53.595935"} {"text": "matches \" oerprs \" feed 1 introduction to microeconomics this is a module framework. it can be viewed online or downloaded as a zip file. as taught semester 1 2009 / 2010. there are no pre - requisites to taking this module and in particular there is no assumption of any prior knowledge of economics. for those who have taken a - level economics or any other version of economics some of the module content will appear familiar to you. however, the methods of analysis and the approach to teaching will quite probably be very different to anything experienced be hathitrust digital library homeopathy the meanings of timbuktu lolita with imraan coovadia the wager lost by winning : on the ' triumph ' of the just war tradition duke on demand highlights for the week of november 7, 2010 ck - 12 biology ( ca textbook ) private universe project in mathematics : workshop 5. building on useful ideas ' til the last drop : johns hopkins addresses the global water challenge education 320 : teaching pe & health, elementary education - group presentations cont. learn about us president theodore roosevelt 1858 - 1919 this volume authored by leading international scholars begin s to sketch the meaning of timbuktu within the context of the intellectual history of west africa in particular and of the african continent in general the book covers four broad areas part i provides an introduction to the region outlines what archaeology can tell us of its history examines the paper and various calligraphic styles used in the manuscripts and explains how ancient institutions of scholarship functioned part ii begins t acclaimed novelist imraan coovadia spoke at uct gordon institute for performing and creative arts gipca great texts big questions public lecture on thursday 1 april he discussed how to read lolita. written by vladimir nabokov lolita was first published in paris in 1955 it is one of the best known and most controversial books of 20th century literature coovadia says i will be talking about the lolita problem how do we respond to a book which is a first person narrative by a man who is trying to s lecture delivered on the 19th of october 2010, part of the elac / ccw seminar series on war and armed conflict. delivered by professor nicholas rengger ( st andrews ). introduced by jennifer welsh this week in duke on demand, during a session in duke ' s baldwin auditorium, duke alumnus yizheng he gets a \" master class \" lesson from concert pianist and visiting artist awadagin pratt. professor misha angrist discusses the science behind - - and experience of - -", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5457495634446912, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:53.597100"} {"text": "during a session in duke ' s baldwin auditorium, duke alumnus yizheng he gets a \" master class \" lesson from concert pianist and visiting artist awadagin pratt. professor misha angrist discusses the science behind - - and experience of - - having his entire genome sequenced. a conversation at duke ' s john hope franklin center on the local food movement in durham. and, an \" office hours \" webcast conversation on prison and african - american literature. as a teacher, have you ever felt that your textbook was not thorough or up - to - date? do you have to use other resources, such as on - line resources, to teach your lessons? as a student, do you believe you can get current information from sources such as the internet rather than your textbook? the answer to these questions is usually a resounding yes. so what do school districts do? they spend millions of dollars every year to buy \u201c current, \u201d \u201c up - to - date \u201d textbooks. ck12 believes we can do one of the strands of the rutgers long - term study was to find out how useful ideas spread through a community of learners and evolve over time. here, the focus is on the teachers role in fostering thoughtful mathematics., englewoodfourth grade : towers fourth - grade teacher blanche young attempts the towers activity for the first time with her students. she feels that their work is valuable, but questions how much time these open - ended activities are taking away from the standard curriculum. johns hopkins university scientists and policy makers evaluate key factors contributing to the global water issue. class session 7, recorded november 5, 2010. note : class session 6 was not recorded. president theodore roosevelt biography. this is a very short video that gives some data about his assuming of the presidency. the meanings of timbuktu lolita with imraan coovadia the wager lost by winning : on the ' triumph ' of the just war tradition duke on demand highlights for the week of november 7, 2010 ck - 12 biology ( ca textbook ) private universe project in mathematics : workshop 5. building on useful ideas ' til the last drop : johns hopkins addresses the global water challenge education 320 : teaching pe & health, elementary education - group presentations cont. learn about us president theodore roosevelt 1858 - 1919", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5178211900613977, "token_count": 464, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:53.598071"} {"text": "there is no red line, then either tides online does not have data for that station, or there has been a communications break down. in this case, the graph computes an anomaly based on what data it has, or sets it to 0. then it predicts the total water level for all hours, or after the last of any observations it does have. the next thing of interest is the blue tide line. this is the astronomical tide at every hour. the harmonic constants used were obtained from http : / / www. co - ops. nos. noaa. gov / data _ res. html. we then note the gold storm surge curve, which is created by \" pasting \" one 48 hour prediction to the next 48 hour prediction. that is, using 12 hours from each prediction until the last prediction where we use 48 hours. the result is that we may generate kinks in the curve every 12 hours, where the model adjusted its prediction based on new data from the gfs wind model. next we note the green curve, which is the \" anomaly \" referred to above. this is simply the observation - ( tide + storm surge ). preferably it is constant. the amount of deviation from a constant is an approximation of our error. since we add the 5 day average of this value to our prediction, the perfect forecast does not have to have a zero anomaly. finally we see the black forecast curve. this is what we are really interested in, which is the total water level created by adding the 5 day average anomaly to the predicted tide, and the predicted storm surge. the history button allows one to see how the model has done over the last day or so. it displays 3 graphs. the first one is the current graph based on the current model run, and the current observations. the second graph is the last graph generated using the last model run. the third graph is the last graph generated using the next to last model run. this gives a view of the model over the last 24 to 36 hours depending on when the current time is. to print this page out ( netscape instructions ) it is recommended that you right click on the history frame and choose \" open frame in new window \". then choose page setup, and set the top and bottom margins to 0. then choose print, and preferably send it to a color printer, ( although a black and white does work ). the result should be 3 graphs on the same page. we would like to thank the following people / organizations :", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5071194728346676, "token_count": 509, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:53.637242"} {"text": "ear, the political context was inspired by the gran chaco war, a bloody conflict - resulting in 100, 000 deaths - between bolivia and paraguay, which began in 1932, 2 then in tintin and the picaros, herge illustrated the economic and political situation in south america. syldavia and borduria are the most successful of herge \u2019 s imaginary countries. these \u201c east european metaphors \u201d recall two critical periods of the twentieth century. 3 the two countries first appeared in king ottokar \u2019 s sceptre, in 1938. since 1933, germany had threatened austria, and on march 11, 1938, german troops had invaded the little country. these events were recent when the serialization of king ottokar \u2019 s sceptre began. in fact, syldavia is the synthesis of three real countries. first, the conspiracy and the \u201c fifth column \u201d infiltrated into syldavia represent the conspiracy against austria. second, its old conflict with borduria, its architecture and its language have polish characteristics. and third, geography and history resemble these of romania. likewise, borduria is similar to germany. for example, they both invaded their neighbour, syldavia and poland on several occasions. moreover, the name of the pro - bordurian party \u2019 s leader, \u201c musstler \u201d, seems to be a synthesis of mussolini and hitler. 4 uniforms that look like ss uniforms, and planes that are very similar to messerschmit 109e fighters, 5 are other signs of herge \u2019 s aim : to describe and denounce an anschluss. sixteen years later, syldavia and borduria were back in the calculus affair ( 1954 - 1956 ) during the cold war. in europe, the situation had been very tense since 1946, a situation worsened by the berlin blockade, the korean war and the warsaw pact. the arms race speeded up and the first h - bomb was exploded in 1953. spying was intense. in the calculus affair, many elements refer to the events of the period. tensions between the two countries appear to have been inspired by the situation between the two germanys. moreover, the personality cult of plekszy - gladz, the bordurian president, resembled stalin \u2019 s personality cult. 6 finally, with its architecture and the methods of its police, borduria is similar to a country of the eastern bloc. syldavia and borduria could easily represent the confrontation between the two blocs, as they represented in the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5147027776942694, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:53.643266"} {"text": ". 6 finally, with its architecture and the methods of its police, borduria is similar to a country of the eastern bloc. syldavia and borduria could easily represent the confrontation between the two blocs, as they represented in the past the conflict between western democracies and germany. 7 through imaginary countries, like syldavia and san theodoros, and direct allusion to real events, herge showed a concern for accurate explanations that had consequences in the perception of tintin stories. many adults read tintin a long time after they discover his adventures, maybe because they did not completely understand the historical context during their childhood. but some questions about the perception of tintin stories still exist. how would a child who does not know anything about history interpret the context of king ottokar \u2019 s sceptre, for example? how would a young japanese interpret the political situation in the blue lotus? nevertheless, enormous sales of tintin \u2019 s stories - more than 120 million copies in 40 languages8 - show that allusions to historical events do not affect the success. events were seen through belgian eyes, but the hero travels the whole world and he is extremely open - minded. nationality, language and religion have little significance, because a reader of tintin \u2019 s adventures can always identify with the reporter. herge said \u201c there are clearly reasons for this success since it has lasted so long and continues to grow. well then? \u2026 it \u2019 s like a flowing stream, but what is its nature? \u2026 i receive, for example, a lot of mail from india. here in the office are two letters from calcutta. now, what can there be in common between a boy in calcutta and myself? \u2026 that \u2019 s something i am still asking myself without finding an answer. \u201d 9 his allusions to historical events may be one of the explanations.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5189955935462411, "token_count": 375, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:53.644132"} {"text": "fetuses, infants, and toddlers, as well as older children and teens are particularly susceptible to environmental insults due to their rapid rate of growth, development and reproduction of cells. this vulnerability makes children a specific focus of environmental health research on the effects of lead, chemical dump sites, pesticides, pcbs, benzene, environmental estrogens, and outdoor and indoor air contaminants. scientists want to know which substances pose significant health risks, how to identify susceptible children, and how to intervene to prevent illness. the following are some of the studies conducted or financed by the national institute of environmental health sciences, one of the national institutes of health, which focus on children : lead ( commonly found in old paint, household dust, soil, pipe solder and some ceramics ) has long been known to cause severe health problems at high doses, including muscle and abdominal pain, mental impairment, paralysis, and even death. recent studies supported by the niehs suggest that a young person ' s lead exposure is linked not only to lower iqs and lower high school graduation rates but to increased delinquency. preliminary data from two other grantees ' studies indicate that young girls exposed to lead store the metal in their bones. this lead can be released when they become pregnant years later, exposing their fetuses. until recently, however, we have not appreciated the devastating effect of low exposures early in life. basic research financed by the niehs has shown the adverse effects of lead on children ' s iq and physical development at levels previously considered safe. based on these and other findings, public health officials declared lead the number one environmental hazard to american children and the federal centers for disease control and prevention lowered the acceptable blood lead level. research by the niehs grantees has helped identify sources of lead in the environment, design public health prevention efforts, and develop treatment to remove lead from exposed children, a process called chelation. to help improve treatments, the niehs supported the study of dimercaptosuccinic acid ( dmsa ) as a chelating agent. known generically as succimer and the trade - name chemet, dmsa binds with the lead, hastening its removal from the body and can be administered orally without hospitalization, an improvement over previous intravenous therapies. succimer is approved by the food and drug administration to treat lead levels that exceed 45 micrograms per deciliter of blood. however, adverse effects of lead are evident at levels", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.521455481433425, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:53.671817"} {"text": "an effective slogan. to find the lowest common denominator was a mission, not a mistake. if a rival radical group coined a catchy phrase, the bolshevik took the highroad of their revolutionary creed - highway robbery. steal it and spread it, make it the bolshevik ' s own operated as the operative unprincipled principle. the end justified the means. the bolshevik banners read simply : bread, peace & land. all power to the soviets. as they rode waves of radical spirit and popular support, notably in petrograd, lenin pushed for bolder action. impatient, unwilling to wait out the polite democratic discussion he marshaled his words to put nerve and backbone into the bolsheviks leadership. lenin wanted determined, violent action to seize power. he avowed himself a scientific socialist. yet at crunch time he felt the moment. succinct when it counted he explained, \" the government is tottering. we must deal it the deathblow at any cost. to delay action is the same as death. \" the means of communication - the telegraph office, the telephone exchange, and the radio gear on the cruiser aurora, the telephones at the winter palace - were ordered seized as a priority. the military - revolutionary committee moved swiftly to take over printing plants, too. to hold the means of communication denied them to enemies. public opinion mattered ; making sure rivals could not get their message out mattered more. the only fairness doctrine was the bolsheviks retaining state power. the bolsheviks understood the power of the mass media. their problem would not be the media, but the masses. communism, whose by - word was \" workers of the world unite! \", surprised itself by coming to power in a backward, peasant - dominated country. the scientific plan of karl marx and its endless elucidation by marxists envisioned the proletariat taking power in an advanced capitalist country. even its workers had the stench of peasant mud on their boots. ties to village life, the village way to find a wife, and not so sober vices remained strong. soldiers who went bolshevik at the front to get away from the frozen hell that was wwi largely were just peasants in uniform. those who did not vote with their feet against the status quo ( fleeing home as soon as discipline broke down ) soon wanted to leave their red leaders for the joys of raiding manor houses near their native village, too. 1917 was, the bolsheviks soon realized just an incredible year ; in the heat of revolution they forged amazing partnership with workers, with peasants", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5527479369250762, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:53.704557"} {"text": "kiss - keep it simple stupid. they believed most ordinary russians thought in images. exposure to european culture forced them to recognize that russian lives were drab. communist visionaries were willing to experiment with bold artists. graphic masters of new kinds of art embraced the liberation revolution brought. art enlisted in the cause. brightly colored propaganda trains carried the city based idea that \" the times they were achangin ' \" across the land. stark contrasts served the bolsheviks well. new = good ; old = bad. reds meant progress - most anything else equaled a return to a hellish existence. in the civil war that quickly followed lenin ' s rise to power, the bolsheviks did reach the masses. the idea of the fighters for human justice and equality, the bolsheviks, were battling against all odds, against all the world ' s armies that had come to destroy them received widespread attention. the theme of the new kind of socialist life form doing anything it could to survive in a hostile encirclement of enemies was created during the civil war. this theme would be revived periodically as a leitmotif. to survive a civil war the bolsheviks acted ruthlessly. again, the end justified the mean. equally important, their enemies, former tsarist admirals, generals, counts and liberal politicians ( backed by british, french, american, and japanese troops ) refused to court public opinion with any kind of effective attempt to persuade mass groupings to side with them. white disdain proved fatal. the bolsheviks with the propaganda field to themselves got a message out that opposition armies, the whites, wanted to return the country to the old order. most who would decide, decided to risk the promise of the unknown over a return to the past. ( some of course exhibited total cynicism : a well - know civil war anecdote relates that in a village one peasant shouts : \" hurray for the incoming troops. \" then a neighbor asks the question \" whose side are you on? \" he answers : \" the ones riding in. \" ) the propaganda campaign, plus of course some brilliant military leadership and absolute ruthlessness in dealing with any perceived enemy won the bolsheviks an against all odds victory. the civil war created the idea that bolshevism could do the impossible. it gave rise to a slogan \" there is no fortress bolshevism cannot storm \", that embodied a ' can do ' mentality like that of the u. s. marines. also as a formative experience the civil war ( 1918 - 1921 ) provided the seed bed", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5412285111687292, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:53.706858"} {"text": "there is no fortress bolshevism cannot storm \", that embodied a ' can do ' mentality like that of the u. s. marines. also as a formative experience the civil war ( 1918 - 1921 ) provided the seed bed for new images of heroes and all the metaphors of war campaigns, fronts, volunteers, even vanguards issuing commands, dictating what was needed to stave off destruction by the hostile bad guys. the incredible result of the civil war validated for masses of people, the bolshevik ' s political power grab in 1917. moreover, it created a matrix for how propaganda makers shake and shape attitudes. it reinforced the idea, if it needed any reinforcing, that propaganda was a powerful tool for protecting the newborn proletarian state in an aggressively anti - soviet russia world. another trait the propagandists called on was a pre - revolutionary role that the well educated had played with the masses : as teachers, enlightenment - providers. well before marxism marched east, russian radicals had a long established a tradition of \" going to the people \", the peasants as volunteer teachers. latter in cities how did believing marxist intellectuals make friends with real workers? factory hands, after all, lived in different parts of town, worked long hours, and enjoyed different habits of life from those whose heads swam with a sea of abstract ideas. before the revolution it was not easy ; the tsar ' s secret police, street police, and factory police kept keen eyes out for agitators, especially those trying to incite the masses. they met first in adult education classes for workers. after the revolution the empowered bolshevik wanted to repeat their role as enlightenment - providers on a grand scale. equally important, propagandists realized that if they wanted to build a new society, one imbued with new myths, new rituals, new icon communists had to do away with the old. to make room for the new they had to tear down the old. sometimes this entailed the most literal meaning of the word : iconoclasm - old icons were torn down. churches lost their bells. to change the very soundscape of moscow ( think of the 1812 overture - the piece of music played on 4th of july and other times when fireworks are displayed - - tchaikovsky wrote it to include the sound of moscow ' s many church bells ) radicals tore down church bells ; later some would try to create a new ' proletarian orchestra ' sound by setting off factory whistles everywhere. the church was a prime target for the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5334818636191008, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:53.707874"} {"text": "the man who guided \" ten days that shook the world \" was a cathartic experience. mass mourning created as well as vented extreme emotions. organized ceremonies took place across the land - the first mass mobilization in peacetime of ordinary citizens. by preserving lenin ' s body for veneration soviet science created a sign that it could overcome nature, the decay of death. lenin ' s resting - place became the central showplace, ground zero for the communist movement uniting workers of the world. lenin lived as the man who brought the future into backward russian homes. before he died the revolutionary decided a great symbol for what communism could deliver would be creation of a nationwide electrical system. naturally, the propagandist in him made a slogan out of his techno - idea : \" communism = soviet power + electrification of the whole country. \" when the soviet union became wired up with light bulbs, called by one his nicknames - \" ilych lamps \" enlightened and changed millions of peasants ' lives. it was a change and a propaganda coup that won many over as loyalist of a new state, one that drastically changed things. lenin ' s idea transformed lives and became a foundation myth of the scientific regime. parts of a 1924 poem by the blue blouse workers ' theater gloried : we, the workers and the peasants in the hut of the widow natalka electricity and steam teachers of new generations built on the cult of lenin as a tool for shaping the minds to a new soviet way of thinking. indoctrination came in the guise of school age \" young pioneer \" organizations. pioneers pledged to fulfill his legacy. that legacy proved very malleable. lenin slogans, praise of the proletariat, love for the red socialist - cause were memorized. sugary poems about his pure spirit and dedication to communist revolution go adorned classroom walls, community centers, even the toy stores. lenin ' s ruthless critical approach to thinking quickly passed into the dustbin of history. just as many american school children know just a formula about their founding father george washington ( wooden teeth, could not tell a lie, chopped down a cherry tree, fought the british, maybe owned slaves ) soviet children internalized limited notions of how the ' revolutionary genius \" behaved. a lenin code of conduct became the model to be copied. potted histories of the communist party where lenin always played the lead role served as primers for understanding history. lenin associated rituals regulated daily behavior. children pinned on badges depicting an angelic \" baby lenin. \" boys and girls", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5539684465145771, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:53.710047"} {"text": "model to be copied. potted histories of the communist party where lenin always played the lead role served as primers for understanding history. lenin associated rituals regulated daily behavior. children pinned on badges depicting an angelic \" baby lenin. \" boys and girls raised their hands above their faces vowing to be \" always ready \" as lenin had been ( as heroes in the civil war, too had been ) to defend and to extend the revolution. lenin - centric pioneer activities organized children ' s lives. the best emulators of the best lenin earned a summer at the best - equipped, most prestigious summer camps. of course, as a socialist country summer camp, like many things for kids, including medical care was free. still prestige counted : so did a sense of belonging, a sense of place among peers, a sense ' you had made it '... you were normal and accepted. the social and development psychology played a very important part in the lives of soviet school children. pioneer rituals marked important turning points in the lives of generations of youngsters who did believe that they were building a new kind of society, a socialist society. receiving the pioneer ' s symbol the red tie, mixed joy in growing up and pride in joining the ranks of patriots of the new kind of state - the communist state. tatiana vorontsova explained the pride : \" once you had the tie you had well, pride, it was like a flag. it is like when the flag flies. when you see the olympics and they start to raise your flag, you feel proud. and that pride is what we felt as children. you felt, \" you ' ve got the tie! \" in the massive social experiment that was the soviet union raising a new kind of person, soviet man ( homo sovieticus ), remained of paramount importance. new generations held the key to realizing ' a radiant communist future. ' for those marxists who insisted on creating the world ' s first classless society children meant everything. adults would repeat, \" under communism there is only one privileged class - the children. \" collective responsibility to a party ( comparative ) elder was learned from more senior classmates, the best teachers of lenin dogma proud to assert correct - thinking leadership that would keep others in line and bring them privileges. well - indoctrinated kids brimming full of propaganda could be mustered to help the bolshevik leaders deal with their fundamental problem - that the masses, the older generations, remained backwards. pioneers and members of the more select older young communists league ( koms", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5574721217602041, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 7, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:53.711182"} {"text": "way some young pioneers in the 30s were attacked by orthodox ( believing children ) for wearing red scarves ( devil ' s whiskers ) and ( less often ) for violating the commandment to honor thy father and mother. the more stalinism took hold, the fewer such cases of suspect behavior are known. to survive people conformed. they kept silent. and the continuous propaganda worked. as a schoolgirl in the 1950s tatiana vorontsova remembers she learned the morozov lesson in the fourth grade. \" so he died like a hero. we, of course, would also have liked to be heroes and at that time if i had been in the same situation, and my father had done something against the soviet state, of course, i would simply have gone and reported him, just like that. \" in the terror filled days of his most ruthless rule stalin kept his own cult going. as he signed the death warrants for uncounted large numbers of his comrades and countrymen, the newspaper writers hailed him as the gentle wise leader. stalin ordered the party purged. professionals and leaders from all walks of life, army officers, astronomers, engineers, rocket scientists, writers, painters, were exiled to the gulag if they were not shot. terror filled whole apartment buildings, whole streets, whole towns as the nkvd suddenly appeared to drag people away to unknown fates. the very irrationality, unpredictability, and illogic of arrests, beatings, executions and exile made people feel the terror pervasively. state violence defined the stalinist state. denunciation or the possibility of denunciation even by one ' s own children plus the suspicion that devices such as radios could listen as well as transmit through wired speakers were daily reminders of the possibility of terror visiting a family, a neighbor, a friend. of course, by plucking off so many top leaders and lieutenants in most every field of endeavor stalin created a huge number of job openings. the new generation of people coming of age and education since the revolution seized ( and loved! ) the chance for upward mobility. yet through it all stalin encouraged worshipful respect of his portrait - it was everywhere - as lenin ' s heir and wise interpreter of scientific socialism. stalin had himself depicted by artists, writers, and propagandists as the knowing caring lover of soviet children and virtual equal of the soviet deity, lenin. those who knew about the terror, even prisoners themselves as true believer took comfort in thinking that stalin couldn ' t know.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5151171215296806, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 10, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:53.715512"} {"text": "enemies the given occasion demanded. \" historians constantly had to rewrite history books to take out people who were no longer people ; people made unpersons - made unmentionable in public after being purged. because political arguments and political legitimacy rooted itself in history, the past had to be rewritten frequently. the suppression of unpleasant truths - - such as lenin ' s 1923 ' testament ' where he said, \" stalin is too rude \" and should be shifted to a less essential position in the leadership - became a major industry. george orwell based his idea of \" the memory hole, \" in the novel 1984 on this quintessential feature of stalinism. stalinism forced photographers to master retouching skills. image manipulation became as important to camera totting journalists as picture taking. falsification by airbrushing ( a pre - digital age technique for deleting ) is a hallmark of stalin era photography. other simple methods, including taking a scissors to a negative helped erase visual memories of stalin ' s victims. a photograph of leaders might appear in a newspaper one day and then when one of people was purged, a photographer ' s trick would erase him from visual memory - he was quite literally put out of the picture. and it wasn ' t just a stalinist art form to change representations of those engaged in current events. in a land where intellectuals bitterly noted, \" you cannot predict the past \" retrospective retouching was equally, if not more important. as the two photographs below show how comrades could be removed from the pantheon of lenin ' s closest collaborators. soviet school children grew up with schoolbooks filled with photographs of lenin. many of the most famous and familiar depictions were falsified photographs. stalin ' s archrival, lev trotsky was taken out of the picture. generations of soviet pioneers for whom this photograph is as familiar as gilbert stuart ' s portrait of george washington, never knew that a man they had been taught was an ' enemy of the state ' in fact had stood by lenin in this shot as lenin ' s left - hand man. in painting, of course, it was even easier to make representational art lie. a few deft brush strokes and in the phrase of david king, the great expert on this stalinist phenomenon, the commissar vanishes. this stalinist retouching of reality had a long half - life. the author of this essay saw a huge oil painting of the soviet leadership in an important art museum when he lived in moscow during 1977 - 78", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5643787611818821, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 12, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:53.719329"} {"text": "a. many captains of industry, finance, and business ( henry ford, w. averell harriman, armand hammer ) came looking for resources and in doing so helped the new land that opposed their capitalism by building factories there. capitalists endured ridicule in the press. yet, americans often represented efficient ways of working, modernity, and technological progress. russians, especially those in the cities greatly admired american inventiveness - thomas edison, george eastman, alexander graham bell were held up as paragons of applied creative virtue. american made cars and trucks were copied and cherished. energetic factory workers sometimes got written up in local papers as our russian - americans. these propaganda terms of praise encouraged others to copy the \" americanisms \" : speedy, efficient work skills and willingness to adapt to new ways of doing things. pravda, long the written propaganda bellwether noted in 1935, \" comrade stalin teaches us to combine the broad scope of the russian revolution with american efficiency \u2026 for us america ought to be that standard according to which we can constantly test our technical attainments. \" by communist conviction soviet citizens believed that their nation ' s approach which stressed equality and social justice always overshadowed morally america ' s selfish, exploitative capitalist system. after the wall street collapse of 1929 and the great depression of the 1930 ' s, those in the rapidly growing land of the soviet union ' s economic miracle believed they were well on their way to catching up and overtaking oppressive america. to many disillusioned americans - - including unemployed automobile workers, black sharecroppers, leftwing activists who moved to the soviet to find jobs - the soviet union represented a better way of organizing an economy and a society. however mixed the message about american achievements and inherent evils ( especially racism and capitalism ) before world war ii, on the propaganda front, the news front, and in the mass media the far off us was merely a sideshow. propaganda focused on problems at home and essential foreign issues in the soviet backyards, europe and to a lesser extent china. the atomic bomb that destroyed hiroshima also shook the kremlin. propagandists who had lauded the soviet union ' s great ally in the battle against hitler - - its helping hand with lend lease, its talented general dwight d. eisenhower, its manufacturing prowess - - - changed course quickly with the cold war changing party line. soviet propagandists emphasized the soviet union ' s encirclement in and by a hostile world. rapacious america that had tried overthrow", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5084332693097445, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 14, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:53.721625"} {"text": "\" in the 1950s and on into the 1960s the propaganda worked pretty effectively. the facts of real achievement helped. propagandists made sure everyone knew what millions could see for themselves : the state rebuilt housing destroyed by the nazis. the mass media bragged of a soviet atomic bomb, an h - bomb, sputnik, the fact that the first man in space was a soviet man, and that the first man to do the amazing - walk or float in space as alexei leonov did in march 1965 - was another cosmonaut. these accomplishments buttressed political pride in the spread of socialism to china, vietnam, cuba and not to mention eastern europe. in the 1950s and 1960 ' s soviet citizens felt, \" the future is ours comrades! \" however, sometime in the late 1960s or early 1970 ' s the \" new soviet man \", more urban than his father or grandfather, more likely to catch some western propaganda more eager for things instead of promises, turned pessimistic. the soviet state started by lenin was running out of gas. new generations, the grandchildren and great grandchildren of those who made the revolution did not want to wait for \" the dictatorship of the proletariat \" to deliver the radiant future of communism. what they wanted brezhnev ' s soviet union could not deliver. no amount of bombast, lies, or distortions could mask failings. those trying to reform the propaganda state brought about its destruction. \u00a9 1999 abamedia, unless otherwise indicated.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5234336674465685, "token_count": 302, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 16, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:53.723318"} {"text": "the associative array - - an indispensable data type used to describe a collection of unique keys and associated values - - is a mainstay of all programming languages, php included. in fact, associative arrays are so central to the task of web development that php supports dozens of functions and other features capable of manipulating array data in every conceivable manner. such extensive support can be a bit overwhelming to developers seeking the most effective way to manipulate arrays within their applications. in this article, i ' ll offer 10 tips that can help you shred, slice and dice your data in countless ways. 1. adding array elements php is a weakly typed language, meaning you ' re not required to explicitly declare an array nor its size. instead you can both declare and populate the array simultaneously : additional array elements can be appended like this : $ capitals [ ' arkansas ' ] = ' little rock ' ; if you ' re dealing with numerically indexed arrays and would rather prepend and append elements using an explicitly - named function, check out the array _ push ( ) and array _ unshift ( ) functions ( these functions don ' t work with associative arrays ). 2. removing array elements to remove an element from an array, use the unset ( ) function : when using numerically indexed arrays you have a bit more flexibility in terms of removing array elements in that you can use the array _ shift ( ) and array _ pop ( ) functions to remove an element from the beginning and end of the array, respectively. 3. swapping keys and values suppose you wanted to create a new array called $ states, which would use state capitals as the index and state names as the associated value. this task is easily accomplished using the array _ flip ( ) function : suppose the previous arrays were used in conjunction with a web - based \" flash card \" service, and you wanted to provide students with a way to test their knowledge of worldwide capitals, u. s. states included. you can merge arrays containing both state and country capitals using the array _ merge ( ) function : suppose the data found in an array potentially contains capitalization errors, and you want to correct these errors before inserting the data into the database. you can use the array _ map ( ) function to apply a callback to every array element : the standard php library ( spl ) offers developers with quite a few data structures, iterators, interfaces, exceptions and other features not previously available within the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5100199226910439, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:53.746108"} {"text": "of people may have been a harsh one in the beginning, but the blow was satisfactorily cushioned by the subsequent loss of weight. clothing manufacturers specializing in outsize garments had to rapidly par down their sizing to reflect the shrinking girths of their customers. by the year 2025, populations had become healthy, slim and much happier. it may have been a long time coming, but the lessons learned about the eternal health concepts such as can be seen at http : / / eternalhealthconcepts. com of sensible eating and drinking were well worth learning. people are now living longer on average than they did only a decade ago with far fewer hospital admissions for weight related diseases and conditions. this surely has to be the best time to be alive ever! posted : october 31st, 2012 under soutions. tags : health, sensible diet, health concepts while the current trend seems to be a rapidly expanding world population with an equally rapidly expanding collective waistline, this simply cannot be sustained in the long term. attitudes toward diet and the way we eat must and will change over time as people are better educated in the ways of sensible eating and by having a greater awareness of what is in the food and drinks that they are consuming. the year 2025 is not such a long way off that our current generations will be able to enjoy the many benefits that more widespread health education will bring. a more realistic diet awareness will take over from the current widespread ignorance of what nutritional constituents are in all foods that are consumed. this means that the stranglehold the food industry and manufacturers currently have over people will be dissolved as it cannot be sustained under the weight of greater consumer awareness of what is in the food they buy in stores. so what will this global rise in nutritional awareness mean for the average person on the street? a diet revolution it will mean that all foods that are processed and packaged for convenience will have to be totally transparent as to their constituents and full documentation as to the properties of every single additive must be not only available but proofs that they have been acknowledged and understood by the consumer will be mandatory before they can be purchased. of course, in a changed new world of infinitely more widespread and comprehensive education that ensures that all children leave school with a high level of knowledge of diet and nutrition, consumers will already be completely aware of what all additives can potentially do to their health. advances in medical science and nutritional understanding will also play a part in further highlighting the health impact from certain food additives. those additives that are", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5150197153407712, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 9, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:53.788172"} {"text": "researchers at ucla have built a cheap, optics - free holographic microscope capable of detecting bacteria like e. coli in things like water, food, and blood. and by cheap, we mean really cheap. the researchers say it costs less than $ 100 to build. the microscope has two ways of analyzing samples : a transmission mode and a reflection mode. the transmission mode is good for transparent media, like thin slices of a sample or clear liquids. in this case, the microscope \u2019 s laser can easily penetrate and analyze microscopic objects. for denser, more solid samples the microscope uses holography to generate a 3 - d image of the sample that can be beamed to remote computers for further analysis if necessary. in reflection mode, the microscope basically splits the laser beam using a mirror. it then uses one half of the beam to illuminate the sample. on the other side the sample beam and the control beam are recombined. some \u201c clever mathematics \u201d can then use resulting the changes in the beam to generate a 3 - d image of the object sampled. but while that may sound fairly high - tech, there are no expensive optics or other pricey components required. the photo sensors are of the variety often found in smartphones, and small lasers like the one used in the device are really inexpensive these days as well. that all means that these holographic microscopes could be widely deployed at little cost. and that \u2019 s the idea. places that don \u2019 t have access to high - tech diagnostic equipment could use these devices to sample food and water - - or even human blood - - for harmful bugs and beam the images to more powerful computing devices elsewhere for analysis or diagnosis. that could help contain contaminations and outbreaks faster, saving lives while keeping costs down. five amazing, clean technologies that will set us free, in this month ' s energy - focused issue. also : how to build a better bomb detector, the robotic toys that are raising your children, a human catapult, the world ' s smallest arcade, and much more.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5831307465061649, "token_count": 417, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:53.794248"} {"text": "csiro marine and atmospheric research, barrie hunt, says ' despite 2010 being a very warm year globally, the severity of the 2009 - 2010 northern winter and a wetter and cooler australia in 2010 relative to the past few years have been misinterpreted by some to imply that climate change is not occurring. ' ' recent wet conditions in eastern australia mainly reflect short - term climate variability and weather events, not longer - term climate change trends. conclusions that climate is not changing are based on a misunderstanding of the roles of climatic change caused by increasing greenhouse gases and climatic variability due to natural processes in the climatic system. ' these two components of the climate system interact continuously, sometimes enhancing and sometimes counteracting one another to either exacerbate or moderate climate extremes. ' mr hunt says his climatic model simulations support what is clear from recent observations \u2013 that in addition to the role of climate change linked to human activity, natural variability produces periods where the global climate can be either cooler or warmer than usual. mr hunt \u2019 s results were published in the latest edition of the international journal climate dynamics. he says some such natural temperature variations can last for 10 to 15 years, with persistent variations of about 0. 2\u00b0c. ' such natural variability could explain the above average temperatures observed globally in the 1940s, and the warm but relatively constant global temperatures of the last decade. ' mr hunt also found that seasonal cold spells will still be expected under enhanced greenhouse conditions. for example, monthly mean temperatures up to 10\u00b0c below present values were found to occur over north america as late as 2060 in model simulations, with similar cold spells over asia. variations of up to 15\u00b0c below current temperatures were found to occur on individual days, even in 2060, despite a long - term trend of warming on average. ' these results suggest that a few severe winters in the northern hemisphere are not sufficient to indicate that climatic change has ceased. the long - term trends that characterise climate change can be interpreted only by analysing many years of observations. ' ' future changes in global temperature as the concentration of greenhouse gases increases will not show a simple year - on - year increase but will vary around a background of long - term warming. winters as cold as that recently experienced in the northern hemisphere, however, will become progressively less frequent as the greenhouse effect eventually dominates, ' mr hunt said. this underlying warming trend, reflected in the projections of future climate and the observation that the past decade has been the warmest in the instrumental record, underline the need", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5143493679352504, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:53.801041"} {"text": "the first example ( fig. 1 ) was a great way to look at finger independence, which is our first left - hand technique. having your fingers do independent things is one of the most challenging aspects of playing the guitar. if you had trouble changing chords fast enough when you started playing guitar, you were dealing with finger independence issues. it turns out that out hands aren \u2019 t built equally. there \u2019 s an individual tendon for each of your individual fingers, except the ring finger and pinky. those unfortunate digits have to share one, and now you know why most guitar players only use three fingers on their left hand : the pinky is a bit weak, short, and it \u2019 s sharing a tendon with the ring finger. for a great example of this, place your fingertips on a table and make them all touch at the same time. now, try to lift up just your third finger, making sure your pinky stays down. hard, isn \u2019 t it? have no fear \u2014 while the pinky may be weak and muscularly challenged, it can be beefed up! fig. 2 is the first of our \u201c spider \u201d exercises. i learned these in college and when you do it fast enough, you look like a tarantula walking across the fretboard. it \u2019 s creepy and awesome at the same time. fig. 2 is all about pairs of fingers : first and third, and second and fourth. by moving them together, first in parallel, and then in opposing motion, you \u2019 re making sure that each finger can work independently from each other. while the exercise sounds pedantic, the motion is just what you need to get from chord to chord with ease. in the audio example, i \u2019 m keeping my fingers down as long as i can, forcing the other fingers to work if we break up the fingers and play them one by one, we get fig. 3, which proves that you can apply finger independence drills to enhance your lead playing as well. i \u2019 ve added a string skip to each finger pair to make it a little more i \u2019 ll do one last exercise based on the spider drill with fig. 4. this time, i \u2019 m adding a string skip each time i use all four fingers. this one is tricky, but it really shows how wimpy most people \u2019 s fingers are. now let \u2019 s take the finger independence idea and make all four fingers play at the same time \u2014 you know, like you do with chords. these shapes are called mirrors because", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5006395919289921, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:53.806483"} {"text": "wine. this means that until we were totally free and out of bondange, joy was incomplete. ( at the last supper jesus said that the wine represented his own life ' s blood, poured out for us. he had to die so that we could know the total joy of freedom and forgiveness. ) * elijah ' s cup ~ usually a treasured one filled with wine ~ is placed on the table to await the arrival of the messiah. ( jesus said in matthew 11 : 14 that john the baptist was the promised elijah who was to announce the messiah ' s coming. for christians this cup does not remain untouched. it is shared by everyone at the table in the joy that our hope had come true. the messiah has come to us and is alive to give our lives eternal joy. the youngest son or male asks the same question 5 times, and the father answers explaining why. here is the question, and the answers. why is this night different from all other nights? on all other nights we eat either leavened bread or matzah. on this night, only matzah. on all other nights we eat all kinds of herbs. on this night, only bitter herbs. on all other nights we do not dip even once. on this night, we dip twice. on all other nights we eat either sitting up or reclining. on this night we all recline. on all other nights we eat in any ordinary way. on this night we dine in special ceremony. to start we read exodus 7 - 12. dad starts reading from ex. 7 : 1 - 13. then each of our children take turns reading the 10 plagues. we start with the oldest to the youngest. to represent each plague the younger children painted wooden cutouts, which i found at the craft store. ( a red heart to represent the river nile turning to blood, a green frog, a fly, locust, etc. ) after the child reads the plague from the bible they place the wooden object in a basket that is set in the center of the room. after everyone reads dad explains the seder food and what each represents. the youngest son or grandson asks the question 5 times as explained in the seder ceremony above. after the meal is eaten we move the table back to the dining room clear the dishes. to remember jesus ' washing the disciples feet we preform a foot washing ceremony. this year i wrote everyones name and placed the names in a jar. starting with the youngest, the person draws a name out and washes", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5043284804875264, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:53.838634"} {"text": "united states department of state, u. s. department of state country report on human rights practices 1993 - vietnam, 30 january 1994, available at : http : / / www. refworld. org / docid / 3ae6aa54c. html [ accessed 21 may 2013 ] this is not a unhcr publication. unhcr is not responsible for, nor does it necessarily endorse, its content. any views expressed are solely those of the author or publisher and do not necessarily reflect those of unhcr, the united nations or its member states. vietnam the socialist republic of vietnam ( srv ) is a one - party state ruled by the vietnamese communist party ( vcp ). a 13 - member politburo and a party central committee are nominally elected by a party congress held about every 5 years. the politburo provides guidelines, often in the form of specific directives, that shape government policies. despite the adoption of a new constitution in 1992 that provides for the rule of law and respect for human rights, in practice the government continued to restrict individual rights on national security and other grounds. in addition, the constitution contains references to \" democratic centralism \" and \" the leading role of the communist party \" that have been used to justify limits on civil liberties. in addition to the military and police force, vietnamese security forces monitor internal movements and activities of the general population. the ministry of interior has units that monitor persons suspected of involvement in political or religious affairs. also, government surveillance through informants, household registration, and party - appointed block wardens continued in 1993. the government continued the market - oriented economic reforms begun in 1986. these reforms have boosted vietnam ' s predominantly agricultural economy and improved the lives of vietnamese citizens. goods and services are more widely available, and the general population is freer to engage in entrepreneurial activity. although some senior srv officials have publicly asserted the profound commitment of the vietnamese people and state to the cause of human rights, the government continued to violate human rights in 1993. the authorities continued to limit severely freedom of speech, press, assembly, and association, as well as worker rights and the right of citizens to change their government. the government continued its longstanding practice of not tolerating dissent and reacted sharply to efforts by buddhist activists to assert their independence from the government - sponsored buddhist church. however, restrictions on travel eased, and contact with foreigners is more widely accepted. there appears to be increasing separation between the party and the state. respect for human rights section 1 respect", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.502497025099058, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:53.882829"} {"text": "buddhist activists to assert their independence from the government - sponsored buddhist church. however, restrictions on travel eased, and contact with foreigners is more widely accepted. there appears to be increasing separation between the party and the state. respect for human rights section 1 respect for the integrity of the person, including freedom from : a. political and other extrajudicial killing in 1993 there were no known executions of political prisoners or politically motivated extrajudicial killings. there were also no known cases of deaths of political prisoners while in detention in 1993. there were no documented incidents of political abductions by government security organizations or by antigovernment forces. c. torture and other cruel, inhuman, or degrading treatment or punishment the law prohibits physical abuse, and released reeducation camp detainees report that camp conditions have improved since 1989. although there were no credible, consistent reports of police brutality during interrogation of suspects, reports of severe conditions for those confined in prisons continued. there have been reports of coercion to elicit confessions. after their release in 1993, american citizens held on political grounds reported that they were threatened with violence several times in attempts to coerce confessions, although they were not actually beaten. d. arbitrary arrest, detention, or exile in 1993 vietnam continued to arrest and imprison people arbitrarily. the 1989 criminal procedure code and subsequent amendments provide for various rights for detainees, including time limits on pretrial detention, the right of the accused to be informed of the charges against him or her, a ban on coercion or corporal punishment, and the right to have a lawyer present during interrogation. in practice, however, the authorities frequently ignore these safeguards. credible reports indicate that detainees continue to be held incommunicado for indefinite periods without formal charges, with authorities using old administrative procedures in contravention of the new legislation. the retention and continued use of these administrative procedures appear to be a deliberate government policy. the government continued its efforts to implement party directive 135, which calls for the arrest of those who incite opposition to the government or advocate political pluralism. some intellectuals, clergy, journalists, and foreigners have been arrested and detained. for example, doan viet hoat, a scholar who before 1975 had been vice president of the van hanh buddhist university in saigon and had been incarcerated in chi hoa prison from 1976 to 1988, was rearrested in 1990 and in march 1993 was sentenced to 20 years for counterrevolutionary activity, apparently related to the \" freedom forum \"", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5299150000074899, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:53.884077"} {"text": "warrants for their arrest. each province and city has a \" security committee \" under direct party control. this committee includes both central and local security officials and does not coordinate its activities with the judicial process. exile is not used as a means of political control. e. denial of fair public trial the vietnamese court system consists of local people ' s courts, military tribunals, and the supreme court. the last may review cases from either of the lower courts. both the national assembly and state council have the authority to establish special tribunals which may be superior to the supreme court. in addition, local mass organizations are empowered to deal with minor breaches of law or disputes. judges in all regular courts are appointed after the party organization selects all candidates. article 130 of the constitution provides for the \" independence \" of judges and jurors. however, this is negated at all levels by a political system that is closely controlled by the vcp and by a selection process that puts a premium on political reliability. the penal code consists of the criminal code and a criminal procedures code, which was amended in 1990. vietnam has a long - established body of family law but lacks civil law codes. there is virtually no evidence that legislative improvements promulgated in 1990 have been implemented. prison sentences are frequently imposed by administrative procedure, without benefit of due process or judicial review. in addition, such sentences are imposed on persons for the peaceful expression of their views. the srv criminalizes certain forms of peaceful expression, including, for example, \" anti - socialist propaganda. \" over the years people have been sentenced to long prison or reeducation camp terms for such \" crimes. \" for example, after a demonstration in may by approximately 300 buddhists, including monks, several buddhist monks were arrested for inciting antigovernment unrest. the government tried four of the monks in november, and the court announced sentences ranging from 6 months to 4 years in prison. accurate statistics on the total prison population, including pretrial detainees, political prisoners, and persons held arbitrarily are not available due to the secrecy surrounding these procedures. f. arbitrary interference with privacy, family, home, or correspondence in 1993 the government continued to operate a nationwide system of surveillance and control through household registration and party - appointed block wardens who use informants to keep track of individual activities. in general, reports suggest that the system is unevenly implemented throughout the country and that local caprice and corruption are significant factors in its application. urban dwellers appear to be increasingly relaxed about sending", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5202615036337455, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:53.887534"} {"text": "and in internally circulated documents but not publicly. the movements and activities of foreign journalists are monitored but seldom interfered with. criticism is occasionally expressed publicly within established forums, such as national assembly proceedings broadcast over the national radio service. the government does not use systematic prior censorship to control the media, but guidance from party watchdogs is pervasive, and national security legislation is sufficiently broad to ensure effective self - censorship. the government controls all broadcast media and does not normally permit the broadcast of opposing views, though it has broadcast reports of debates during national assembly meetings. in addition to government controlled radio ( both domestic and international ), television stations, and the vietnam news agency wire service, vietnam has five mass daily newspapers and many smaller newspapers. party organizations and the ministries of culture, information, sports, and tourism control the newspapers as well as other publications and cultural exhibits. western and other publications are widely available in stores frequented by vietnamese, without obvious restriction on their sale or distribution. b. freedom of peaceful assembly and association the right of assembly is restricted in law and practice. people wishing to gather in a group are required to apply for a permit, which local authorities can issue or deny arbitrarily. in practice, large informal gatherings in public, like market areas or parts, are commonplace especially in urban areas. there is little evidence to suggest that informal public gatherings are restricted. however, demonstrations or meetings that could be seen as having a political purpose are not permitted and are sometimes forcibly suppressed. for example, the government refused to permit a conference on democracy that was to be held in ho chi minh city in november. the existence of ngo ' s is permitted, but they may meet only for approved and narrowly defined objectives. opposition political organizations and activities are not permitted. c. freedom of religion vietnam has no state religion, and adherence to a religion is not permitted for party members. according to some estimates, nearly three - fourths of the population of 70 million people are buddhists, but the government has claimed that only 6 million of these actually practice their religion. the vatican believes that some 6 million vietnamese are catholic ; a much smaller number are protestant. virtually all foreign clergy remaining in the south in 1975 were expelled at the end of that year. while the srv has permitted visits by foreign clergy, it has not been willing to permit them to reside permanently for religious purposes in vietnam. reports indicate that religious groups are allowed freedom in their activities to the degree that they cooperate with the government. buddhism was afforded increasing tolerance until the unified buddhists ( an", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5080314568741072, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:53.889745"} {"text": "see what questions a doctor would ask. loss of speech : the loss of ones ability to communicate through speech. see detailed information below for a list of 49 causes of loss of speech, symptom checker, including diseases and drug side effect causes. listed below are some combinations of symptoms associated with loss of speech, as listed in our database. visit the symptom checker, to add and remove symptoms and research your condition. review further information on loss of speech treatments. the following drugs, medications, substances or toxins are some of the possible causes of loss of speech as a symptom. always advise your doctor of any medications or treatments you are using, including prescription, over - the - counter, supplements, herbal or alternative treatments. some of the comorbid or associated medical symptoms for loss of speech may include these symptoms : research the causes of these more general types of symptom : research the causes of this symptom in broader categories : research the causes of related medical symptoms such as : research the causes of these symptoms that are similar to, or related to, the symptom loss of speech : read more about causes and loss of speech deaths. the list below shows some of the causes of loss of speech mentioned in various sources : this information refers to the general prevalence and incidence of these diseases, not to how likely they are to be the actual cause of loss of speech. of the 49 causes of loss of speech that we have listed, we have the following prevalence / incidence information : the following list of conditions have ' loss of speech ' or similar listed as a symptom in our database. this computer - generated list may be inaccurate or incomplete. always seek prompt professional medical advice about the cause of any symptom. select from the following alphabetical view of conditions which include a symptom of loss of speech or choose view all. ask or answer a question about symptoms or diseases at one of our free interactive user forums. medical story forums : if you have a medical story then we want to hear it. this information shows analysis of the list of causes of loss of speech based on whether certain risk factors apply to the patient : medical conditions associated with loss of speech : symptoms related to loss of speech : speech symptoms ( 1393 causes ), hoarseness ( 417 causes ), voice symptoms ( 550 causes ), early - onset alzheimer ' s, familial forms of alzheimer ' s disease, familial porencephaly, hysteria ( 15 causes ), late - onset", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5259860898963606, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:53.930729"} {"text": "snoring is the hoarse or harsh sound that occurs when your breathing is obstructed in some way while you ' re sleeping. sometimes snoring may indicate a serious health condition. in addition, snoring can be a nuisance to your partner. as many as half of adults snore at least occasionally. snoring occurs when air flows past relaxed tissues in your throat, causing the tissues to vibrate as you breathe, which creates those irritating sounds. lifestyle changes, such as losing weight, avoiding alcohol close to bedtime or sleeping on your side, can help stop snoring. in addition, medical devices and surgery are available that may reduce disruptive snoring. however, these aren ' t suitable or necessary for everyone who snores. depending on the cause of your snoring, in addition to the noise caused by snoring, you may also experience : see your doctor if : these may indicate your snoring is caused by a more serious condition, such as obstructive sleep apnea. if your child snores, ask your pediatrician about it. children can have obstructive sleep apnea too. but, nose and throat problems \u2014 such as enlarged tonsils \u2014 and obesity often underlie habitual snoring in children. treating these conditions could help your child sleep better. there are a variety of factors that can lead to snoring, such as the anatomy of your mouth and sinuses, alcohol consumption, allergies, a cold, and your weight. when you doze off and progress from a light sleep to a deep sleep, the muscles in the roof of your mouth ( soft palate ), tongue and throat relax. the tissues in your throat can relax enough that they vibrate and may partially obstruct your airway. and, the more narrowed your airway, the more forceful the airflow becomes. this causes tissue vibration to increase, which makes your snoring grows louder. the following conditions can affect the airway and cause snoring : snoring occurs when air flows past relaxed tissues, such as your tongue, soft palate and airway, as you breathe. the sagging tissues narrow your airway, causing these tissues to vibrate.... risk factors that may contribute to snoring include : habitual snoring may be more than just a nuisance. depending on the cause of your snoring, it may result in : preparing for your appointment you '", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5033354949072106, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:53.946036"} {"text": "sep. 13, 2012 it ' s not a magic trick and it ' s not sleight of hand - - scientists really are using levitation to improve the drug development process, eventually yielding more effective pharmaceuticals with fewer side effects. scientists at the u. s. department of energy ' s ( doe ) argonne national laboratory have discovered a way to use sound waves to levitate individual droplets of solutions containing different pharmaceuticals. while the connection between levitation and drug development may not be immediately apparent, a special relationship emerges at the molecular level. at the molecular level, pharmaceutical structures fall into one of two categories : amorphous or crystalline. amorphous drugs typically are more efficiently taken up by the body than their crystalline cousins ; this is because amorphous drugs are both more highly soluble and have a higher bioavailability, suggesting that a lower dose can produce the desired effect. \" one of the biggest challenges when it comes to drug development is in reducing the amount of the drug needed to attain the therapeutic benefit, whatever it is, \" said argonne x - ray physicist chris benmore, who led the study. \" most drugs on the market are crystalline - - they don ' t get fully absorbed by the body and thus we aren ' t getting the most efficient use out of them, \" added yash vaishnav, argonne senior manager for intellectual property development and commercialization. getting pharmaceuticals from solution into an amorphous state, however, is no easy task. if the solution evaporates while it is in contact with part of a vessel, it is far more likely to solidify in its crystalline form. \" it ' s almost as if these substances want to find a way to become crystalline, \" benmore said. in order to avoid this problem, benmore needed to find a way to evaporate a solution without it touching anything. because liquids conform to the shape of their containers, this was a nearly impossible requirement - - so difficult, in fact, that benmore had to turn to an acoustic levitator, a piece of equipment originally developed for nasa to simulate microgravity conditions. levitation or \" containerless processing \" can form pristine samples that can be probed in situ with the high - energy x - ray beam at argonne ' s advanced photon source. \" this allows amorphization of the drug to be studied while it is being processed, \" said rick weber, who works on the project team at the synchrotron. the acoustic levitat", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5748138081202883, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:54.014743"} {"text": "at argonne ' s advanced photon source. \" this allows amorphization of the drug to be studied while it is being processed, \" said rick weber, who works on the project team at the synchrotron. the acoustic levitator uses two small speakers to generate sound waves at frequencies slightly above the audible range - - roughly 22 kilohertz. when the top and bottom speakers are precisely aligned, they create two sets of sound waves that perfectly interfere with each other, setting up a phenomenon known as a standing wave. at certain points along a standing wave, known as nodes, there is no net transfer of energy at all. because the acoustic pressure from the sound waves is sufficient to cancel the effect of gravity, light objects are able to levitate when placed at the nodes. although only small quantities of a drug can currently be \" amorphized \" using this technique, it remains a powerful analytical tool for understanding the conditions that make for the best amorphous preparation, vaishnav explained. argonne researchers have already investigated more than a dozen different pharmaceuticals, and the laboratory ' s technology development & commercialization division is currently pursuing a patent for the method. technology development & commercialization is also interested in partnering with the pharmaceutical industry to develop the technology further as well as to license it for commercial development. after adapting the technology for drug research, the argonne scientists teamed up with professors stephen byrn and lynne taylor at the department of industrial and physical pharmacy at purdue university and jeffery yarger of the department of chemistry and biochemistry at arizona state university. the group is now working on identifying which drugs the levitation instrumentation will impact most strongly. other social bookmarking and sharing tools : note : materials may be edited for content and length. for further information, please contact the source cited above. note : if no author is given, the source is cited instead.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.590083572575946, "token_count": 383, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:54.015726"} {"text": "curbing waste : simple actions like cutting back on food waste or properly inflating tires on your car could collectively cut greenhouse gas emissions by as much as one billion metric tons. image : \u00a9 istockphoto. com energy efficiency seems to make rational economic sense \u2014 the less energy used, the more money saved. yet, in the real world it ' s actually competition with neighbors rather than cost savings that can drive people to turn down their thermostats, install insulation or simply switch off the lights when they leave a room. such is the lesson of a host of efforts, ranging from a group called opower ' s comparative use utility billing to switching from miles per gallon to rate vehicle efficiency to gallons per mile. now a new collaborative study from the natural resources defense council ( nrdc ) and the garrison institute ' s climate, mind and behavior project reveals that such simple actions \u2014 from taking one fewer flight per year to wasting less food \u2014 can add up. the environmental group estimates that if all americans adopted 14 such steps over the next decade the country would avoid one billion metric tons of greenhouse gas emissions by 2020 \u2014 or the equivalent of the entire annual greenhouse gas emissions of germany. \" much of this is eliminating waste \u2014 and most waste costs you money, \" says nrdc ' s executive director peter lehner. \" if all americans did take a fairly modest range of actions, most of which actually save you money, we can make a big difference. \" the recommendations, in addition to flying less and wasting 25 percent less food, include : carpooling or telecommuting once a week ( 75 million metric tons of co2 equivalent ( co2e ) saved by 2020, if adopted by all americans ) ; maintaining your car or truck, such as keeping tires properly inflated ( 45 million metric tons of co2e ) ; cutting the time spent idling in a vehicle in half ( 40 million metric tons of co2e ) ; better insulation at home ( 85 million metric tons of co2e ) ; programmable thermostats set higher ( 80 million metric tons of co2e ) ; reducing electricity demand from appliances that are \" off, \" so - called phantom demand ( 70 million metric tons co2e ) ; using hot water more efficiently, such as washing clothes in colder water ( 65 million metric tons of co2e ) ; buying energystar appliances when old ones wear out ( 55 million metric tons co2e ) ; replacing incandescent lightbulbs with compact fluorescents ( 30 million metric tons", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.520027350318491, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:54.031542"} {"text": "in colder water ( 65 million metric tons of co2e ) ; buying energystar appliances when old ones wear out ( 55 million metric tons co2e ) ; replacing incandescent lightbulbs with compact fluorescents ( 30 million metric tons co2e ) ; eating chicken instead of beef two days a week ( 105 million metric tons of co2e ) ; increased recycling of paper, plastics and metals ( 105 million metric tons of co2e ) ; \" responsible \" consumption, such as buying less bottled water ( 60 million metric tons co2e ). \" we make bad decisions all the time, \" says sabine marx, associate director at the center for research on environmental decisions at columbia university, thanks to incomplete information or other barriers to action, like high up - front costs for things like insulation. overcoming those \" doesn ' t mean we have to manipulate people ' s minds, \" marx says, but rather make good decisions easier. for example, rates of organ donation vary widely within europe, from 100 percent in france and poland to 17 percent in the u. k. and just 4 percent in denmark. the difference cannot be ascribed to different cultural views about organ donation but rather whether the country in question has a policy that is opt - in ( check this box if you want to donate your organs ) or opt - out ( check this box if you do not want to donate your organs ). \" we think we ' re rational, \" says economist john gowdy of rensselaer polytechnic institute in troy, n. y. \" but really it ' s the person who designs the question on the back of a driver ' s license who made the choice for us. \" nrdc, the garrison institute and others hope to bring this kind of choice editing to the world of personal behavior. part of this is a result of ongoing frustration with broader policy measures, particularly at the national level, when it comes to confronting climate change. \" if congress does enact something, it will be completely inadequate to the task, \" says gus speth, former dean of yale university ' s school of forestry and environmental studies. it would be a \" first step, \" however, lehner notes. the primary benefit of personal action is that it can start immediately, he adds. but lehner admits that his organization has no idea how to convince people to undertake these 14 steps in the next decade on their own. and there is significant danger that any energy efficiency undertaking ends up ultimately increasing energy use. \" the rebound effect is quite clear,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5126523719368135, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:54.033038"} {"text": "pasadena - it ' s a typical friday afternoon in whyville. the beaches are packed with preteens anxiously planning their weekends and snickering about the opposite sex. gaggles of middle schoolers are filling up the local mall, where they part with hard - earned cash to purchase sparkly earrings and tank tops. for those who feel like getting away from the hustle and bustle, there is always the option of teleporting into outer space, or taking a motorboat to the wetlands and conducting algae research with professional oceanographers. the ordinary and extraordinary coexist almost without distinction inside the pasadena - based whyville. net, a virtual community for youths - usually ages 10 - 13 - founded by a former caltech professor and graduates. once the domain of only hard - core gamers and early adopters, the concept of \" living \" and interacting online is fast reaching the mainstream. millions of users are now registered with a variety of virtual communities worldwide. online, residents form their own digital characters, called avatars, and go about integrating into their chosen online societies. \" there are so many places out there, \" said jacquelyn ford morie, senior scientist and associate director for creative development at usc ' s institute for creative technologies. \" all have their different customs, constraints and social morays based on what we have in everyday life. \" but while there ' s been an explosion in the number first online in 1999, the seeds for the project were planted in 1986 by caltech biology professor jim bower. bower, an innovator in the field of education technology, had created a primitive community inside the los angeles county library ' s computer system that allowed children to explore its offerings. by the late 1990s, he had advanced his work with an array of educational projects, and turned his attention toward a way to teach science to children via an informal, social and interactive setting. \" we knew that if you wanted to engage kids you have to have a social component. we ' re all fundamentally social, we are a social animal, \" he said, adding that, in this setting, learning can be designed to appeal to young people ' s desire to stand out. but while bower saw the virtual community model as the logical direction the internet would take, he had a hard time convincing anyone that it was a worthwhile idea. \" we were trying to convince people for a number of years that this makes sense and nobody in corporate america knew what we were talking about. so we did it ourselves,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.500899151624443, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:54.058629"} {"text": "adams, d. m., and m. e. hamm. 1992. \" portfolio assessment and social studies : collecting, selecting, and reflecting on what is significant. \" social education 56 : 103 - 105. baker, e. l. 1990. what probably works in alternative assessment. los angeles, ca : ucla graduate school of education ; national center for research and evaluation, standards, and student testing. calfee, r. c., and p. perfumo. 1993. \" student portfolios : opportunities for a revolution in assessment. \" journal of reading 36 : 532 - 537. crowley, m. l. 1993. \" student mathematics portfolio : more than a display case. \" the mathematics teacher 86 : 544 - 547. herman, j. l., p. r. aschbacher and l. winters. 1992. a practical guide to alternative assessment. alexandria, va : association for supervision and curriculum development. herman, j. l., and l. winters. 1994. \" portfolio research : a slim collection. \" educational leadership 52, 2 : 48 - 55. lewis, a. c. 1992. \" no shortcuts for alternative assessment. \" research and development review. 7, 4 : 2 - 3. padilla, a. m., h. sung and j. aninao. 1994. stanford foreign language oral skills evaluation matrix ( flosem ). unpublished manuscript, stanford university, school of education. singer, s., ed., 1993. portfolio assessment in foreign language. evansville, in : evansville - vanderburgh school corporation. slater, t. 1994. \" portfolios in learning and assessment in physics. \" the physics teacher 32 : 370 - 373. thompson, l., ed., 1995. k - 8 foreign language assessment : a bibliography. washington, center for applied linguistics. eric clearinghouse on languages and linguistics. home | organization | map | events and discussions | resources | standards and frameworks", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5194742919631056, "token_count": 410, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:54.118055"} {"text": "source : between the lions : \" spicy hot colors & yesterday i had the blues \" in this video segment from between the lions, tammy lionette ( cleo ) sings about the two sounds made by the letter \" c. \" words that appear on screen include : cry, certainly, card, crate, celebrate, call, cell, city, cycle, december, clear, nicely, crack, circus, camp, center, cramp, circles, crying, can, concede, cope, can \u2019 t, and conceive. the letter \" c \" is in a different color and is colored regardless of where it appears in the word. this video segment provides a resource for phonemic awareness, phonics, letter knowledge awareness, and phonological awareness. academic standards correlations on teachers ' domain use the achievement standards network ( asn ) database of state and national standards, provided to nsdl projects courtesy of jes & co. we assign reference terms to each statement within a standards document and to each media resource, and correlations are based upon matches of these terms for a given grade band. if a particular standards document of interest to you is not displayed yet, it most likely has not yet been processed by asn or by teachers ' domain. we will be adding social studies and arts correlations over the coming year, and also will be increasing the specificity of alignment.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5142858760575736, "token_count": 281, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:54.142041"} {"text": "it was the favourite fruit of founder steve jobs. he was three months late in filing a name for the business, and he threatened to call his company apple computers if the other colleagues didn \u2019 t suggest a better name by 5 o \u201d clock. it is not an acronym as popularly believed. it is short for san francisco. this name was formed by using comp, for computer, and paq to denote a small integral object. the name was derived from the founder \u2019 \u2019 s name dr. michael cowpland. it stands for cowpland research laboratory. the name started as a joke boasting about the amount of information the search - engine would be able to search. it was originally named \u201d googol \u201d, a word for the number represented by 1 followed by 100 zeros. after founders \u2013 stanford graduate students sergey brin and larry page presented their project to an angel investor, they received a cheque made out to \u201d google \u201d. founder jack smith got the idea of accessing e - mail via the web from a computer anywhere in the world. when sabeer bhatia came up with the business plan for the mail service, he tried all kinds of names ending in \u201d mail \u201d and finally settled for hotmail as it included the letters \u201c html \u201d \u2013 the programming language used to write web pages. it was initially referred to as hotmail with selective uppercasing. bill hewlett and dave packard tossed a coin to decide whether the company they founded would be called hewlett - packard or packard - hewlett. bob noyce and gordon moore wanted to name their new company \u201d moore noyce \u201d but that was already trademarked by a hotel chain so they had to settle for an acronym of integrated electronics. mitch kapor got the name for his company from \u201d the lotus position \u201d or \u201d padmasana \u201d. kapor used to be a teacher of transcendental meditation of maharishi mahesh yogi. coined by bill gates to represent the company that was devoted to microcomputer software. originally christened micro - soft, the \u201d - \u201d was removed later on. founder paul galvin came up with this name when his company started manufacturing radios for cars. the popular radio company at the time was called victrola. larry ellison and bob oats were working on a consulting project for the cia ( central intelligence agency ). the code name for the project was called oracle ( the cia saw this as the system to give answers to all questions or something such ).", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5042741270113565, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:54.149645"} {"text": "of expression includes the right to express oneself, to disseminate and receive information, opinions and other messages without impediment. 2. the freedom of expression can be limited by law in cases when it is necessary to prevent encouragement or provocation of violence and hostility on grounds of race, nationality, ethnicity or religion. article 42 : freedom of media 1. freedom and pluralism of media is guaranteed. 2. censorship is forbidden. no one shall prevent the dissemination of information or ideas through media, except if it is necessary to prevent encouragement or provocation of violence and hostility on grounds of race, nationality, ethnicity or religion. 3. everyone has the right to correct untrue, incomplete and inaccurate published information, if it violates her / his rights and interests in accordance with the law. article 44 : freedom of association 1. the freedom of association is guaranteed. the freedom of association includes the right of everyone to establish an organization without obtaining any permission, to be or not to be a member of any organization and to participate in the activities of an organization. 2. the freedom to establish trade unions and to organize with the intent to protect interests is guaranteed. this right may be limited by law for specific categories of employees. 3. organizations or activities that infringe on the constitutional order, violate human rights and freedoms or encourage racial, national, ethnic or religious hatred may be prohibited by a decision of a competent court. article 57 : general principles 1. inhabitants belonging to the same national or ethnic, linguistic, or religious group traditionally present on the territory of the republic of kosovo ( communities ) shall have specific rights as set forth in this constitution in addition to the human rights and fundamental freedoms provided in chapter ii of this constitution. article 58 : responsibilities of the state \u2026 3. the republic of kosovo shall take all necessary measures to protect persons who may be subject to threats or acts of discrimination, hostility or violence as a result of their national, ethnic, cultural, linguistic or religious identity. \u2026 5. the republic of kosovo shall promote the preservation of the cultural and religious heritage of all communities as an integral part of the heritage of kosovo. the republic of kosovo shall have a special duty to ensure an effective protection of the entirety of sites and monuments of cultural and religious significance to the communities. article 59 : rights of communities and their members members of communities shall have the right, individually or in community, to : ( 1 ) express, maintain and develop their culture and preserve the essential elements of their identity, namely their religion, language, traditions and", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5040127224656792, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:54.178913"} {"text": "the lancet, volume 359, issue 9310, page 908, 16 march 2002 doi : 10. 1016 / s0140 - 6736 ( 02 ) 08016 - 9cite or link using doi hot, cold, and now bubble fusion for almost 50 years now, physicists have been trying to mimic energy - producing mechanisms that the sun uses. it is very difficult to persuade two people who naturally repel each other to come together - and so it is with nuclear fusion. the hydrogen bomb, a fusion device, needs an atom bomb to get it started. huge and very expensive experiments with \u201c hot \u201d fusion are still in progress, but a commercially viable machine seems as far away as ever. then, in 1989, came \u201c cold \u201d fusion. perhaps deuterium a... this article is made available free of charge, as a service to our users. please login to access the full article, or register if you do not yet have a username and password. already registered? please login new to thelancet. com? thelancet. com is the online home of : - the lancet - the lancet diabetes & endocrinology - the lancet infectious diseases - the lancet neurology - the lancet oncology - the lancet respiratory medicine please register to access selected articles for free, personalize and interact with this site. registration is free, takes no more than two minutes, and offers you many benefits.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5802554906251758, "token_count": 300, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:54.216216"} {"text": "the antimatter costs 62. 5 trillion per gram. in the future it is theoretically possible to use antimatter as fuel for spaceships to other planets. the problem is that its production requires extremely expensive technology, and to create just 1 gram, the world would have to work a whole year ( global gdp is 65 trillion dollars ). in physics the ' anti - matter is a conglomeration of antiparticles corresponding to the particles that constitute the ordinary matter... californium costs $ 27 million per gram. why is it needed? an element of californium is so expensive to produce, the isotopes of californium do not have any practical application. in the west it was created only once since its opening in 1950. the californium is a ' chemical element with the symbol cf and the atomic number 98. it is a transuranic element, synthetic, radioactive : californium has very few practical uses and was discovered by bombarding c... the price of diamonds is of 55 000 dollars per gram. the colorless stone can cost more than 11 thousand dollars per carat, but colored diamonds are worth more. why do we need diamonds? the natural diamonds are most often used in the jewelry industry. also, the extreme hardness of diamonds finds its application in ind... materials substances the most expensive substances in the world gold which are the most expensive substances in the world saffron platinum rhodium methamphetamine rhino horn heroin cocaine lsd plutonium taffeit precious metals the most expensive metals gems stone gems precious stones diamonds taaffeite jewels jewelry", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5211377184385362, "token_count": 334, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:54.230347"} {"text": "as it really looks. early photography was a laborious process. getting an exposure took a very long time. taking a picture was a tremendously staged process, especially if the photograph was of a person. early portraits are a testimonial to patience. the sitter had to sit still, presenting him or herself to the camera while the image developed. it was not unlike sitting down to have your portrait painted. photography was simply a way to take a portrait, or capture a landscape, with fewer intermediary steps than were needed in a painting. in this sense, you could say that all photography was born in the attempt to cut out the middleman. the middleman was the painter. a little history is in order here. during the renaissance, as painters were developing techniques to render three - dimensional scenes into the two - dimensional space of paint and canvas, they rediscovered the camera obscura ( known about since ancient times ). a camera obscura is little more than a box with a hole in it. positioned properly, the light from outside comes through the hole and projects an image of whatever is in front of the box. the image shining through the hole can be projected onto a piece of paper or some other surface. painters would sometimes use a camera obscura to figure out how to paint tricky scenes where the lines of perspective were particularly complicated. they would, literally, trace out the image projected from the camera obscura and then paint in the rest of the details. the camera obscura was a tool for mastering two - dimensional space. leonardo de vinci wrote down explanations for how to build and use a camera obscura in the late 15th century. he seems to have understood the usefulness of the camera obscura for projecting an image that could be used as the basis for painting. it is clear that many of the renaissance masters who came after da vinci were aware of the usefulness of the camera obscura as well. in 2001 the contemporary artist david hockney published a book ( secret knowledge : rediscovering the lost techniques of the old masters ) in which he claims that almost all of the great masters of painting after the 15th century used tricks like the camera obscura in order to paint. according to hockney, painters from vermeer to ingres were essentially great at tracing. he admits that the special artistry of these paintings made the final result greater than the sum of its parts. but he thinks that much of their amazing skill at rendering three - dimensional space into", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5202693562299603, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:54.246180"} {"text": "vermeer to ingres were essentially great at tracing. he admits that the special artistry of these paintings made the final result greater than the sum of its parts. but he thinks that much of their amazing skill at rendering three - dimensional space into two - dimensions was done by projecting images and then tracing them. hockney ' s thesis has created no small amount of controversy. whether or not hockney is correct in the extent of his claims doesn \u2019 t matter very much. painters, certainly from the early renaissance onward, were obsessed with problems of perspective and they were using any means at their disposal \u2014 camera obscuras, mirrors, drawing machines, and the like \u2014 in order to solve these problems. technological innovations in the early 19th century allowed for the next step. the daguerreotype, for instance, was a technique by which the image projected by a camera obscura could be captured and preserved \u2014 thus, the elimination of the middleman. in the past, the image from a camera obscura still had to be painted. a human being had to take that image and make it permanent, capturing it on canvas and filling it out by means of pigment. with the daguerreotype, the image could be taken and presented as such. voila, photography was born. the work that went into \" doctoring \" early photographs was the same work that had been going on in order to transform the images of the camera obscura into paintings. you could almost say that all paintings, from the mid 15th century until the mid 19th century, were essentially painted photographs. by the late renaissance, painters had transformed themselves into machines for the accurate rendering of perspective and field of vision onto the flat surface of the canvas. the innovation of early photography was to shift the job that the painter was doing out of the hands of a human being and into the hands of a chemical process. the \u201c paintings \u201d were now making themselves, by exposing copper plates covered with silver to the light of day. while this process created miraculous images, the images could also be disappointing. the painters of the early 19th century were, after all, tremendously skilled. the images that they could create \u2014 of people, landscapes, and historical scenes \u2014 were immensely satisfying as visual documentation. they looked real. in many ways, they looked realer than reality. the paintings of the great masters have that intangible dual quality of realism and luminous idealism. it is realism taken to a second order. and these were the visual expectations that early photography had to match", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5030349505305741, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:54.247481"} {"text": "above and to the right of the photograph. in fact, as a print of the original picture shows, the photograph displayed by watkins is a blend of two exposures. watkins was not able to get an exposure of both the clouds and of the cliff in the same shot. so, he took two different shots and put them together. the interesting thing is that the two unblended photographs are perfectly satisfying on their own. there are plenty of times in real life when we observe a scene in nature and cannot see the sky due to the brightness of the sun. our eyes can have the same problem of overexposure that affects a camera obscura or a photograph. watkins ' original photo of the landscape with its overexposed sky is only dissatisfying if you compare it to a landscape painting from the same era, with its perfect rendering of both land and sky. watkins wasn ' t worrying about truth or lies in photography when he took that picture of the columbia river ; he was worrying about thomas cole ' s 1836 painting view from mount holyoke, or something like it. watkins was trying to make his photograph live up to the compositional standards of the great landscape painters of his time. the great struggle for photography in those early days was thus to figure out whether photography was simply an extension of painting, a cutting out of the middleman, or whether it was something genuinely new, with its own set of rules and suppositions and formal challenges. the photographs collected in the exhibit at the metropolitan museum of art are a beautiful and moving testimony to that struggle. reality, as is so often the case, has nothing to do with it. \u2022 14 november 2012 morgan meis is a founding member of flux factory, an arts collective in new york. he has written for the believer, harper \u2019 s, and the virginia quarterly review. morgan is also an editor at 3 quarks daily, and a winner of a creative capital | warhol foundation arts writers grant. a book of morgan ' s selected essays can be found here. he can be reached at firstname. lastname @ example. org. photographs courtesy of the metropolitan museum of art.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5116593601899444, "token_count": 438, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 4, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:54.249860"} {"text": "interesting research that could have ms implications. calcium is spark of life, kiss of death for nerve cells march 1, 2007 - - oregon health & science university research shows how calcium regulates the recharging of high - frequency auditory nerve cells after they ' ve fired a burst of signals, and it may have implications for neurological disorders. the study by scientists at ohsu ' s vollum institute and the university of arkansas for medical sciences, which appears in the current issue of the journal nature neuroscience, shows that calcium ions play a greater role in keeping in check the brain ' s most powerful circuits, such as those used for processing sound signals, than previously thought. a better understanding of that role could someday help prevent the death of neurons behind some diseases of the brain and spinal cord, such as stroke and multiple sclerosis, the scientists say. the research, led by postdoctoral fellow jun hee kim, ph. d., and her advisor, henrique von gersdorff, ph. d., both scientists at the vollum institute, found that calcium tempers the activity of a high - throughput sodium pump, located in the plasma membrane covering nerve endings, that controls how quickly and accurately a nerve cell continues firing after an initial burst of spiking activity. \" what ' s happening in the brain is you have all these action potentials ( spikes ) that are firing - the action potential is the way you transmit information quickly from neuron to neuron - and when you have an action potential, you have an explosive influx of sodium ions into the cell, \" von gersdorff said. \" as a result, the cell is depolarized and it needs to be quickly repolarized. \" to repolarize a cell so it can continue firing, and do so accurately and at high - input frequencies, the sodium pump ejects three positively charged sodium ions and imports two positively charged potassium ions. the net result is one positive charged is expelled from the cell, causing a hyperpolarization of the cell ' s membrane potential. quick repolarization of the nerve cell is essential. mature auditory nerve cells fire at frequencies that are 10 to 100 times higher than most high - frequency cells in the brain - 1 kilohertz, or 1, 000 hertz. most brain synapses, the space between nerve cells through which impulses are transmitted and received, begin failing beyond 10 hertz. \" in the last few years, we have been studying high - frequency firing cells in the auditory part of the brain", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5384226529802232, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:54.256938"} {"text": "most brain synapses, the space between nerve cells through which impulses are transmitted and received, begin failing beyond 10 hertz. \" in the last few years, we have been studying high - frequency firing cells in the auditory part of the brain. we found that these cells and nerve terminals are amazing because they can fire at 1, 000 hertz without failures and with high precision, \" von gersdorff said. \" that discovery in our lab prompted us to ask the question : how is it that these nerve cells can handle all this high - frequency firing? \" enter calcium, which, by inhibiting the activity of the sodium pump, regulates signal firing, and may conserve energy and keep the high - frequency cells from burning out. but calcium in high levels within a nerve cell can be toxic, so the researchers discovered another purpose for the sodium pump : powering a protein located on the nerve terminal membrane called the sodium - calcium exchanger, which removes the calcium and replaces it with sodium. that action, in turn, triggers the sodium pump, and so on. the sodium - calcium exchanger \" can import high concentrations of sodium from outside the cell, and it uses the gradient of low internal sodium in the cell as a form of energy to get rid of calcium. that energy comes, ultimately, from the sodium pump and its use of atp, the cells ' major fuel, \" von gersdorff explained. the pump is \" always keeping sodium concentration in the neuron low and that allows the sodium - calcium exchanger protein to constantly exchange sodium for calcium. \" otherwise, if allowed to get too high within the cell, the calcium shuts down the sodium pumps, creating a \" vicious loop, \" von gersdorff said. \" you then get a simultaneous build - up of calcium and sodium in the cell, and it ' s ' goodbye to your neuron. ' it goes at some point into an irreversible cycle of death, \" he said. one potential therapeutic approach to preventing cell death caused by increasing calcium levels is making the sodium pump more insensitive to calcium. a potential new drug, for example, could \" help the neuron to keep extruding sodium so it can help the sodium - calcium exchanger get rid of calcium, thereby not allowing calcium to reach toxic levels, \" von gersdorff said. for the time being, von gersdorff ' s lab will continue studying how calcium regulates the sodium pump. \" our hope is that these basic, fundamental issues will eventually lead to therapeutic", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5176889307126014, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:54.259492"} {"text": "if you look at a modem, with it ' s small central processing unit and special - purpose digital signal processor, and then look at a modern pc, with it ' s large cpu and general - purpose dsp on the sound card, you may wonder if the hardware duplication of an external modem is necessary. a \" winmodem \" incorporates the cpu and dsp of the modem into the slightly - enhanced fabric of a pc. they are called \" winmodems \" because they originally only shipped with microsoft windows device drivers. these device drivers presented the illusion of a serial port attached to a hayes at - style modem. for a long time only windows versions of these drivers where available. some manufacturers now provide linux versions of their device drivers as well, these modems are jokingly called \" linmodems \". it is probably possible to use a linmodem as a linux console. at the most this would require altering the source code to dumb - down the at command emulation of the modem and recompiling the kernel. boot loaders, however, work in a very confined software environment and struggle to support a simple serial chip. considering that some boot loaders do not even handle interrupts, handling the complex dsp of a linmodem is well beyond what is practical.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5024410624334557, "token_count": 271, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:54.263520"} {"text": "these are two of my favorite pictures from my research on children \u2019 s books about einstein and curie. ( you can click on them to see the bigger images ). they are i think, the most visual example of my thesis \u2019 s argument and i think they are also illustrative of exactly what we need to pay attention to in children \u2019 s biography. stories about famous figures \u2019 biographies are the most directly applicable aspect of children \u2019 s literature. this is the part of the story that with which children can most readily identify. tragically, this part of the story of these lives is generally the thinest part of the historical record. because children \u2019 s literature is so rarely reviewed by historians, this is not an issue for many children \u2019 s authors. they can simply invent the figures childhood. the first picture is a picture of the young albert einstein terrorizing his baby sitter. albert is described as cruel, and angry, he throws tantrums the text tells young readers that \u201c his temper so terrifies a tutor hired to help young albert prepare for school that she runs away, never to be seen again. \u201d in the picture albert and his anger are foregrounded as the tutor runs away in terror, apparently never to be seen again. you will be hard pressed to find historical precedent for this story : by all accounts albert was a much more timid boy, but it is easy to see here how masculinity and power are imbued on this child. the second picture is of curie crying in the arms of her teacher. before i get into the details, consider the differences between these two images. notice the relative size of curie and her teacher. einstein is bigger than his tutor, while the small ( and surprisingly aryan ) curie is presented as significantly smaller. in the second picture, the teacher does not come down to her level and instead maintains her size and visual power. this story appears in almost every single children \u2019 s book about curie. the young manya sk\u0142odowska was the youngest and smartest student in her class. her school, which was run by polish teachers, was under constant threat from the russians who occupied poland. the school was barred from teaching children in polish and teaching polish history. instead, schools were required to have children memorize russian history and learn russian language. the school that manya attended disobeyed these rules. when russian school inspectors came to check on the school a look - out in the hallway would warn the class and the class", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5271540800269188, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:54.281058"} {"text": "information for parents what your child may experience : for your son or daughter, college will likely be a period of intellectual stimulation and growth, career exploration and development, increased autonomy, self - exploration and discovery, and social involvement. during this period, your children may forge new identities or seek to clarify their values and beliefs. this may require an examination of self, friends, and family. it may also be a time for exploration and experimentation, and a period in which your children may question or challenge the values you hold dear. the changes your son or daughter may experience can occur quickly, as they begin to develop new peer relationships, gain competence in new areas, and learn to manage their independence. it is important to recognize that every child will experience his or her own unique set of challenges and adjustments, just as every parent will have different expectations for and reactions to their child ' s college experience. what parents may experience : often overlooked is the fact that the college experience is a significant transition for parents as well as their children. as parents, you may experience feelings of happiness, excitement, and pride when your child leaves for college. at the same time, you may feel a sense of sadness and pain and have understandable fears and concerns about your child ' s future and well - being. you may worry about your child ' s safety and ability to care effectively for him or herself. you may fear losing your child as he or she begins to function more independently and form deep attachments with peers. you may be concerned about how your child will deal with alcohol, drugs, and sexual relationships. you may also wonder how your child ' s performance in college will reflect on you as the parent. recognize that feelings of conflict, happiness, excitement, sadness and ambivalence about your child ' s leaving home are normal. for most families, this step can seem like a dramatic separation of parent and child, although it is usually the separation of adult from almost - adult. it is normal, too, to look forward to the relative peace and quiet of having your active older adolescent out of the house and having the place to yourself, or being able to spend time with your younger children. allow yourself to feel whatever emotions come up. there is little benefit in pretending that you don ' t feel sad, guilty, relieved, apprehensive, or whatever feelings you have. you probably aren ' t fooling anyone by trying to hide your reactions ; a healthier approach is to talk about them - with your family, friends, clergy, or other sources", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5218077139748893, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:54.317220"} {"text": "oecd, and the global green growth institute. we will present a flagship report on green growth providing detailed recommendations for? how.? green issues will play a growing role in the world bank? s ongoing dialogue with finance and economic ministries on fiscal policy, macroeconomic stability, growth, competitiveness, poverty reduction and equity issues. careful analysis of the growth and distributional impact of environmental pricing policies is needed. the bank group will continue to support countries to assess such effects and to design and implement transfers or other social protection programs to help address them. we will also continue working with developing countries to strengthen budget and public expenditure management systems, while paying careful consideration to public oversight and social accountability mechanisms, including systems to evaluate and allocate environmental spending relative to other fiscal priorities and to better ensure that allocated spending is accountably and efficiently used. wealth accounting and valuation of ecosystem services ( waves ) through the waves global partnership, launched at the nagoya cbd cop in 2010, the bank group will expand the number of countries undertaking environmental accounting. already, waves is undertaking pilot programs in six developing countries while partnering with developed countries leading the way in the area. waves will build knowledge and experience and gradually, broaden the number of countries participating. a key goal of the bank group? s work in this area is to demonstrate how countries can use environmental accounts to improve decisions about more sustainably managing natural capital. our low carbon development studies - undertaken between 2008 - 10 in seven client countries have been scaled up into development policy operations and clean technology fund investment plans, among other options. numerous low - emission development studies ( leds ) have also been undertaken. the creation of a decentralized knowledge platform for low emission development that can provide upstream advice and support to developing countries is being considered with external partners. this includes paying careful attention to the distributional, poverty and social impacts of policies designed to bring about low - emission development, with systematic use of poverty and social impact analysis ( psia ) to help better inform policy choices we will continue to support developing countries with their nationally appropriate mitigation action plans ( namas ), enhancing access to the carbon market including through the newly established partnership for market readiness, capacity building activities, and the establishment of innovative financing schemes for led. the elements of reducing an institution? s footprint ( also known as csr ) are fundamental ingredients of a green economy. the world bank group will continue to support projects and programs in its client countries to improve environmental and social performance in public and private sector operations. internally, the world bank", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5147856032033857, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 11, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:54.381003"} {"text": "s footprint ( also known as csr ) are fundamental ingredients of a green economy. the world bank group will continue to support projects and programs in its client countries to improve environmental and social performance in public and private sector operations. internally, the world bank will continue to be? walking the talk? by continuing to measure and reduce the environmental impact of its own corporate operations to set an example to other public and private agencies.? renewable energy and energy efficiency our support for the common goals on access, energy efficiency ( ee ) and renewable energy ( re ) has come in the form of financing and technical assistance. our work in these areas has contributed to increased access to electricity through grid - based and off - grid electrification. bank group support has also helped develop enabling policy reforms, institutional frameworks, and innovative financing for ee and re projects. ifc has invested, in fy10 alone, $ 1. 7 billion in energy efficiency and renewable energy projects, aiming to increase the relative share of financing into this segment to about 20 % of its commitments by 2013. importantly, ifc financed and advised on, through partnerships with over 60 financial institutions around the world, a large and growing portfolio of energy and resource efficiency investments by small and medium enterprises, a sub - set of the private sector which to reach is critical for green growth to take off. the wbg has also built a strong alliance of partners to further these goals. for instance, the global alliance on clean cookstoves will help distribute nearly 100 million advanced cookstoves, through gender - sensitive strategies, thereby reducing indoor air pollution and increasing safety for the users of these stoves and other household members. through the lighting africa project, wbg in collaboration with the private sector is promoting the market - based provision of safe, affordable lighting based on solar systems to nearly 2. 5 million people in sub - saharan africa. the goal of universal access to modern energy will benefit from harnessing the power of the private sector. for instance, removing barriers to private sector entry, especially in rural areas far from electricity grid access, will substantially accelerate access to modern renewable energy sources. in countries with some of the lowest rates of access to electricity, the private sector has found new ways of providing rural populations with clean options : biomass - fueled generators using agricultural by - products such as rice husks, sisal or copra are leading to village - sized mini - grids, and photovoltaic - based solar home systems and energy efficient lamps are distributed by private providers at prices affordable to low - income", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5191318061072442, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 12, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:54.382135"} {"text": ". as part of the integrated wbg approach to food security, ifc is providing investment and advisory services to the agribusiness sector across the agricultural supply chain to enhance productivity, help mitigate price and weather - related shocks, and support small and medium agribusiness enterprises, particularly in the poorest countries. the bank group will continue to help client countries tackle water issues through a growing portfolio of investment and knowledge that supports improved integrated water resources management, improved irrigation / agricultural water management, and improved access to water supply and sanitation. water is at the core of many countries? climate adaptation strategies and improved water resources management in the agricultural sector and across sectors, more productive irrigation, and better knowledge about how climate change will affect water variability ( eg through more frequent droughts / floods ; glacier melt ) is fundamental to meet increasing global food demands in a changing climate. public funding for water is limited but there is growing private sector interest in industrial water - demand management and efficiency, as well as improved wastewater management. public - private partnerships are helping balance competing demands for access to water and ensure sustainability. the water resources group entity, a neutral platform where public, private - multilateral, and nongovernmental - organization actors can collaborate on transforming the water sector was formally launched in october, 2011. the entity, which is to be housed at ifc, is the result of a partnership between the world economic forum and the water resources group to provide expertise to governments wishing to transform their water sectors. the bank group has developed a considerable body of knowledge and experience on climate adaptation through its projects and the pilot program for climate resilience under the climate investment funds as well as through knowledge products like the economics of adaptation to climate change. our experience in developing and implementing innovative climate - related disaster risk financing and insurance tools helps countries reduce, pool, and share climate - related disaster risks, particularly through risk financing and transfer mechanisms. increasing attention is being paid in this context to how the design of such instruments, and their coherence with complementary social protection and other policies, can help build resilience in the livelihoods of the poor and vulnerable in particular. we have a significant work program underway on sustainable cities, with a specific thematic emphasis on climate change. in particular, a knowledge paper on? towards a partnership on sustainable cities? is being developed, that outlines the framework and elements for sustainable cities, and identifies priorities for action by various sectors and actors. other recent progress includes : collaboration with the group of 40 cities known as c40 ; an", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5129783016436775, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 14, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:54.386858"} {"text": "towards a partnership on sustainable cities? is being developed, that outlines the framework and elements for sustainable cities, and identifies priorities for action by various sectors and actors. other recent progress includes : collaboration with the group of 40 cities known as c40 ; an international standard for measuring city ghg emissions that has been agreed with c40, iclei, oecd, unep, and un - habitat ; an urban risk assessment framework ; the mayors? task force on climate change, disaster risk and the urban poor ; and a guide to adaptation in cities. implementation of the eco2 cities program in several pilot cities is underway. a new global initiative on municipal solid waste is also under development. analytical work is underway that articulates a common definition and standardized measures / tools for sustainable cities, building on initiatives like the global city indicators program. the bank group will continue its support to clients in sustainable urban growth and transport, water and sanitation, wastewater management, and climate resilience projects. we are exploring options for an ocean initiative ( oi ) with the world? s premier ocean - focused organizations, combining cutting edge knowledge with finance for workable solutions to meet country demands for improved marine resource management. our clients are seeking catalytic funding to move towards rights - based fisheries management, increasing marine protected areas, improving coastal zone management and reducing marine pollution. in line with our open data and transparency agendas, the oi would support knowledge sharing and connecting practitioners. the bank group has accumulated considerable experience in supporting a variety of biodiversity programs around the globe? from saving species to protecting key biodiversity areas as well as supporting civil society to advocate for biodiversity. our investments and operations demonstrate that biodiversity is a key element of the solution to many global challenges, from food insecurity to climate change mitigation to fuel crises and water stress. biodiversity conservation and ecosystem - based approaches? employing a range of different institutional arrangements such as protected areas and payment for environmental services schemes, can spur and sustain clean, green and resilient development, generate jobs and attract private investment in the rural frontier, all while reducing vulnerability against natural disasters in an era of adaptation. social inclusion and gender the bank group is working to ensure that development benefits those who need it most, including women and youth. women are critical to economic growth and job creation and gender equality is an area of priority focus for results under ida16. ifc is helping increase access to finance and eliminating gender - based barriers to investment. ifc is also working with public and private partners to ensure that youth in developing countries", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.521380170367044, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 15, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:54.388192"} {"text": "defined as the change in position of an object ( displacement ) per unit of time. velocity, unlike speed, takes into account the direction of travel relative to a base point. v = s / t ( where v and s are vectors ) where ( using si units ) : v is the velocity of the body in metres per second ( ms ^ - 1 ) s is the displacement of the body in metres ( m ) t is the time taken to travel from the initial point to the final point in seconds ( s ) 1. ( one dimension ) if you start at point a and travel directly north to point b which is ten metres away, and it takes you five seconds to get there, your velocity will be 2ms ^ - 1 due north. 2. ( one dimension ) if you travel west for a ten seconds at 1ms ^ - 1, take a break for twenty seconds and then travel for another ten seconds at 1ms ^ - 1, your velocity for the trip will be. 05ms ^ - 1 due west. 3. ( two dimension ) if you start at point a and travel north at 3kmh ^ - 1 for two hours, and then instantaneously change direction and travel due east for four hours at a speed of 2kmh ^ - 1 to point b, your velocity for the trip is 10kmh ^ - 1 n53\u00b0e ( 53\u00b0t ) change in position over change in time. a measure of how fast something is moving. measured in m / s, ft / s, mph or km / h. the velocity of the roller coaster is 20 meters per second. smackdown ' s version of heat where it mostly features cruiserweight action with such cruiserweights as paul london, billy kidman, spike dudley, funaki, akio, etc. chavo guerrero vs. billy kidman is gonna be on velocity this saturday night!", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5941054371476107, "token_count": 382, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:54.395477"} {"text": "uu for kids unitarian universalists make a concerted effort to impart our values to our children. here then are a uu child ' s easy way of remembering our principles : my seven principles : 1. each person is important ( the inherent worth and dignity of every person ) 2. be kind in all you do ( justice, equity and compassion in human relations ) 3. we ' re free to learn together ( acceptance of one another and encouragement to spiritual growth in our congregations ) 4. and search for what is true. ( a free and responsible search for truth and meaning ) 5. all people need a voice. ( the right of conscience and the use of the democratic process within our congregations and in society at large ) 6. build a fair and peaceful world. ( the goal of world community with peace, liberty, and justice for all ) 7. we care for the earth ' s lifeboat. ( respect for the interdependent web of all existence of which we are a part ) the sources of faith unitarian universalists get their values from many places. 1. awesome experiences of mystery, beauty, and belonging that all people feel. ( direct experience of that transcending mystery and wonder, affirmed in all cultures, which moves us to a renewal of the spirit and an openness to the forces which create and uphold life ) 2. words and actions of wise and brave people that make us want to change things that are unjust or cruel, and to offer kindness and love instead. ( words and deeds of prophetic women and men which challenge us to confront powers and structures of evil with justice, compassion and the transforming power of love ) 3. ideas from lots of different religions that help us figure out what is good and true and fair. ( wisdom from the world ' s religions which inspires us in our ethical and spiritual life ) 4. jewish and christian teachings that encourage us to treat others the way we would like to be treated. ( jewish and christian teachings which call us to respond to god ' s love by loving our neighbors as ourselves ) 5. use of science, common sense, and our own brains to think things out. ( humanist teachings which counsel us to heed the guidance of reason and the results of science, and warn us against idolatries of the mind and spirit ) 6. teachings of people who celebrate nature and remind us to live in harmony with nature. ( spiritual teachings of earth - centered traditions which celebrate the sacred circle of life and instruct us to live in harmony with the rhythms of", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5131321505020242, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:54.410293"} {"text": "a digital camera is a type of camera that takes photographs or videos with the use of an electronic image sensor. this device has the capacity to display photographs on the screen several seconds after the image has been recorded. other brands of the cameras can edit the layout, color as well as the entire appearance of the picture. because of the popularity and wide use of the device, it is incorporated in other devices like mobile phones and pdas. to learn about the history of the device, it is best to start with the person behind the development of the digital camera. who invented the digital camera? this device was first created by eastman kodak engineer steven sasson in 1975. the camera used a solid state ccd image sensor chips manufactured by fairchild semiconductor. the device weighed 3. 6 kilograms and it took above 20 seconds to capture an image. this camera was developed as a prototype and it is not intended for mass production. however, this device has the capacity to record black and white pictures. additionally, the first digital camera has a resolution of 10, 000 pixels or 0. 01 megapixels. the first digital camera that was introduced to the public is the fuji ds - 1p, which was launched in 1988. the device has a 16 mb internal memory card and it has a battery. the device was not launched in japan as well as in the united states. the next digital camera that was commercially available is the 1990 dycam model 1. it has a ccd image sensor and it can be connected to a computer or a laptop to transfer and store data. eastman kodak launched the first professional digital camera named as the kodak dcs - 100 in 1991. in order for the product to be used in special events, it featured a 1. 3 megapixel sensor. the device was offered at $ 13, 000. after the release of this model, many companies featured different models of digital cameras. in 1996, kodak launched the first digital camera that has compactflash. additional information and other important details digital cameras have different types. these include the compact cameras, bridge cameras, digital single lens reflex cameras as well as the electronic viewfinder. aside from these, consumers can also purchase digital rangefinders and line scan camera systems. the image resolutions of cameras available in the market today range from 0. 01 to 60. 5. image data storage devices used are compact flash, memory stick, microdrive, secure digital card and floppy disks.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5552105390574733, "token_count": 497, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:54.491578"} {"text": "american heritage\u00ae dictionary of the english language, fourth edition - n. a form or part that is folded or coiled. - n. one of the convex folds of the surface of the brain. century dictionary and cyclopedia - n. the act of rolling. or winding together, or of winding one part or thing on another ; the motion or process of winding in and out. - n. the state of being rolled upon itself, or rolled or wound together. - n. a turn or winding ; a fold ; a gyration ; an anfractuosity ; a whorl : as, the convolutions of a vine ; the convolutions of the intestines. - n. in anatomy, specifically, one of the gyri, gyres, or anfractuosities of the brain, especially of the cerebrum. see cuts under brain and corpus. - n. in mathematics, such a connection between the relations of any asyzygetic system that each is applied alternately in the aggregate of the remaining relations. - n. something that is folded or twisted. - n. any of the folds on the surface of the brain. - n. the shape of something rotating ; a vortex. - n. mathematics a form of moving average. - n. computing a function which maps a tuple of sequences into a sequence of tuples. gnu webster ' s 1913 - n. the act of rolling anything upon itself, or one thing upon another ; a winding motion. - n. the state of being rolled upon itself, or rolled or doubled together ; a tortuous or sinuous winding or fold, as of something rolled or folded upon itself. - n. ( anat. ) an irregular, tortuous folding of an organ or part. - n. a convex fold or elevation in the surface of the brain - n. the action of coiling or twisting or winding together - n. the shape of something rotating rapidly - from latin convolutus ( \" to roll together \" ), past participle of convolvere, from con - + volvere ( \" to roll \" ). ( wiktionary ) \u201c it was in 1861 that he announced his discovery of the seat of articulate speech in the left side of the frontal region of the brain, since known as the convolution of broca. \u201d \u201c it is of small size, and consists of a square - shaped convolution,", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.6777770485509571, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:54.516738"} {"text": "the seat of articulate speech in the left side of the frontal region of the brain, since known as the convolution of broca. \u201d \u201c it is of small size, and consists of a square - shaped convolution, which is termed the precuneus or quadrate lobe. \u201d \u201c in front of this precentral convolution are the three frontal convolutions, and it would seem that the functions of these convolutions are higher movements and attention in fixation of the eyes ; moreover, in the lowest frontal region, indicated by fine dots, we have broca ' s convolution, which is associated with motor speech ; above at the base of the second middle frontal convolution is the portion of cortex in which is localised the function of writing. \u201d \u201c m. alain ' s expensive way of life, his clothes and mistresses, his dicing and racehorses, were all explained : he was in the pay of buonaparte, a hired spy, and a man that held the strings of what i can only call a convolution of extremely fishy enterprises. \u201d \u201c the interior portion of the convolution is the more intellectual portion of the organ, while the exterior portion is that which holds the closest relation to the fibres of the _ corpora striata _ in the middle lobe, and may therefore most properly be called the organ of language or of speech, the impairment of which produces aphasia, or loss of speech. \u201d \u201c in particular, fourier analytic methods are particularly useful for studying operations such as convolution in frequency space ( the domain of the frequency variable \u201d \u201c he looked again and decided that it was the purple haze of the hills made dark by a convolution of the canon wall at its back. \u201d \u201c at some length and terminological convolution on their part, making these exact same points to them, even that one about the computer program, with little effect \u2026 it is the most bizarre thing. \u201d these user - created lists contain the word \u2018 convolution \u2019. a list of words that are odd or words that i have looked up. abbe - helmert crit..., a priori probability, alphabet, total correlation, three - dimensional..., theoretical frequ..., time reversal test, three - series theorem, theoretical variable, tetrachoric corre..., absolutely un", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_computing", "similarity_score": 0.5103227398001428, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:54.519764"} {"text": ", a priori probability, alphabet, total correlation, three - dimensional..., theoretical frequ..., time reversal test, three - series theorem, theoretical variable, tetrachoric corre..., absolutely unbias..., absolute error and 4171 more... abducens..... draw..., ablation..... carr..., acetylcholine......., adrenalin..... nea..., afferent..... to c..., agnosia..... no kn..., alar..... wing - like, alexia..... no words, alveus..... canal, amacrine..... no l..., ambidextrous........, ambiguus..... doub... and 701 more... ruptured blood ve..., clot, pressure on a blo..., tumor, brain region, comprehension of..., production of mea..., autonomic nervous..., conservation of t..., catecholamine, arousal, regulation of sleep and 564 more... - a unit of language consisting of one or more spoken sounds or their written representation, that functions as a principal carrier of meaning. derivatives from chapter 19 of part one of english words from latin and greek elements \" cerebral \" cerebral terms looking for tweets for convolution.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5922295883459514, "token_count": 354, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:54.520276"} {"text": "microformats in context there has been a lot of discussion in xml circles as to how far the extensibility revolution promised by xml can take ( or has taken ) us. is xml really a tool for creating specialized languages so that information can be expressed in the most natural formats practical? or is it just a way to reduce the burden on those who write code to consume web content ( be strict in what you accept so that you can be liberal with your time spent fly - fishing ). are schema technologies a way to manage the flexibility that xml brings to the table, or just another weapon to put down users ( \" you don ' t validate. go away \" )? of course, the way i ' ve posed these questions reveals my bias. i think that xml should be a tool for expressiveness and controlled diversity on the web. i disagree strongly with the notion, recently expressed in a few quarters, that there are only a few viable xml formats, and that people should stop creating more. at the center of this controversy is the new web 2. 0 hotness : microformats. if you ' re not already familiar with this phenomenon, first read \" what are microformats \". it ' s a div ' s world microformats enshrine the idea that rather than creating whole new vocabularies, developers should piggy - back off existing, widely supported and deployed formats such as xhtml. ( in this article i ' ll focus mostly on microformats with xhtml as a host language. ) the problem is that xhtml, at its best, does is good for basic document structure but, at its worst, tends to be used for the presentation of documents. microformats are a lightweight way to express more specialized information within the structure of xhtml without changing its syntax. the idea is that the success of this approach rests on modest ( hence \" micro \" ) constructs in modules that are mutually independent and focused on very specific domains. through such simplicity and modularity microformats minimize the strain on the host languages, as well as the implementation effort and overall conceptual load. unfortunately, the strain is rarely avoided in practice. many of the xhtml - based microformats i ' ve seen abuse the semantics of xhtml. a / @ rel tends to come in for special abuse. the html 4. 01 recommendation, whose semantics are adopted by xhtml, says : this attribute describes the relationship from the current document to the anchor specified", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5085893488657822, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:54.547169"} {"text": "semantics of xhtml. a / @ rel tends to come in for special abuse. the html 4. 01 recommendation, whose semantics are adopted by xhtml, says : this attribute describes the relationship from the current document to the anchor specified by the href attribute. the value of this attribute is a space - separated list of link types. a microformat, such as google ' s rel = ' nofollow ', stretches this definition to breaking. \" don ' t follow this link \" is an instruction to the user agent ( more likely an automated agent such as a search index robot ). this is related to what was known as \" actuation \" in the xlink specification and a very different matter from the conceptual relationship between the two documents. i ' ll hasten to add that these problems are to some extent understood in the microformats camp, and that there are some quite reasonable uses of rel - tag. then again there is which is still designated a draft but does perpetuate without any apology in the spec. the abuse of a / @ rev in the vote - links microformats is an even more heinous example. before you write off my complaints about abuse of existing xhtml constructs as too rarefied and academic, consider that it leads to a very real problem when microformats collide. will the real rel please stand up there are only so many xhtml attributes to hitch a ride on, and if you can stretch the semantics of each attribute pretty much to suit yourself, it ' s inevitable that you will need to use clashing microformats. imagine you have a weblog that automatically asserts rel = ' nofollow ' on comment links to discourage comment spam. an example comment looks as follows. < p > nice blog. buy your medz < a href = ' http : / / medz. com ' rel = ' nofollow ' > here < / a > < / p > but you have another tool that looks for personnel links within your organization and marks them using a colleague designation in the xfn microformat. < p > i just want to be sure your readers know we ' re aware of the stability problems with the latest release. i ' ve posted some workarounds on < a href = ' http : / / mf - wizards. com / ~ jdoe / ' rel = ' colleague ' > my own blog < / a >. < /", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5464474617023767, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:54.548376"} {"text": "release. i ' ve posted some workarounds on < a href = ' http : / / mf - wizards. com / ~ jdoe / ' rel = ' colleague ' > my own blog < / a >. < / p > you now have some sorting out to do. of course you cannot have two on the same element. you could set a priority that xfn annotation overrides rel - ' nofollow ' ( this is probably what you ' d want in practice ), but this means that suddenly your microformats are no longer really independent, and they ' re certainly not modular. microformat tools have to be aware of the different specs that might clash, and you introduce a bit of a negative network effect. you could use the nmtokens escape hatch, which would mean that after both tools have done their work the comment would look as follows : < p > i just want to be sure your readers know we ' re aware of the stability problems with the latest release. i ' ve posted some workarounds on < a href = ' http : / / mf - wizards. com / employees / jdoe / ' rel = ' colleague nofollow ' > my own blog < / a >. < / p > one problem with this is that when you have a microformat such as xfn, which already allows multiple tokens within a / @ rel, you ' re still inviting clashes because it ' s not clear which tokens are part of xfn, and which come from other conventions. it also becomes a land grab for terms across microformats. rel = ' date ' as a statement that you have a romantic involvement with the person represented by the resource indicated by the this could make for some stickiness in a microformat for references to calendar rel = ' date ' would have a markedly different meaning. u. g. l. y. you ain ' t got no alibi...! another problem that stems from being restricted to a host language is that you often end up with very contorted and ugly constructs to force the fit. xoxo is an eminent example of this problem. i once did an exploration of xoxo as a language for exchanging weblog lists, rather than the more established, but quite awful, opml. i ended up with something like listing 1.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5063073052814394, "token_count": 498, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:54.549449"} {"text": "to touch something is to understand it \u2013 emotionally and cognitive. it\u00b4s one of our important six senses, which we use and need in our daily lives. but accidents or illnesses can disrupt us from our sense of touch now european researchers of the projects nanobiotact and nanobiotouch delve deep into the mysteries of touch and have developed the first sensitive artificial finger. the main scientific aims of the projects are to radically improve understanding of the human mechano - transduction system and tissue engineered nanobiosensors. therefore an international and multi disciplinary team of 13 scientific institutes, universities and companies put their knowledge together. \u201c there are many potential applications of biometric tactile sensoring, for example in prosthetic limbs where you\u00b4ve got neuro - coupling which allows the limb to sense objects and also to feed back to the brain, to control the limb. another area would be in robotics where you might want the capability to have sense the grip of objects, or intelligent haptic exploration of surfaces for example \u201d, says prof. michael adams, the coordinator of nanobiotact. the scientists have already developed a prototype of the first sensitive artificial finger. it works with an array of pressure sensors that mimic the spatial resolution, sensitivity and dynamics of human neural tactile sensors and can be directly connected to the central nervous system. combined with an artificial skin that mimics a human fingerprint, the device\u00b4s sensitivity to vibrations is improved. depending on the quality of a textured surface, the biomimetic finger vibrates in different ways, when it slides across the surface. thereby it produces different signals and once it will get used by patients, they could recognise if the surface is smooth or scratchy. \u201c the sensors are working very much like the sensors are doing on your own finger \u201d, says physicist dr. michael ward from the school of mechanical engineering at the university of birmingham. putting the biomimetic finger on artificial limbs would take prostheses to the next level. \u201c compared to the hand prostheses which are currently on the market, an integrated sense of touch would be a major improvement. it would be a truly modern and biometric device which would give the patient the feeling as if it belonged to his own body \u201d, says dr. lucia beccai from the centre for micro - robotics at the italian institute for technology. but till the artificial finger will be available on large scale a lot of tests will have to be done. nevertheless with the combination of computer and cognitive sciences, nano", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_metrology", "similarity_score": 0.5849748121662501, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:54.558307"} {"text": "u. s. department of energy - energy efficiency and renewable energy building technologies office hospital energy alliance : daylighting video ( text version ) below is a text version of the hospital energy alliance video showing the importance of daylighting to hospital energy efficiency, staff performance and retention, and patient healing. daylighting brings natural light into hospitals to reduce the use of electric lighting. daylighting has also been shown to aid in patient healing, to improve the work environment of staff, and to enhance the well - being of patient families. daylighting is using the sun to offset electric lighting. and so there is a huge potential for energy savings there because you ' re using the glass to help provide some function in the building other than just views. you ' re actually using it for energy savings. we can almost eliminate cooling in probably 50 percent of the hospital just by reducing the loads : reducing the solar gains, controlling the light, and being very careful with equipment. these systems all lead us back to quality - of - light issues, the role of light in reducing cooling loads, which actually is a large energy consumer, but is a key component in capital costs. when you look at the energy use in a hospital, the electric lighting loads can tabulate almost 30 percent of the entire electric bill, so if you want to look at saving energy, that ' s one of the largest chunks. most buildings have windows ; therefore, there ' s opportunity for daylighting. we can get more of an advantage by designing those windows to really improve the lighting quality in the space and get the electric lights off. we ' re involved a lot with better bricks. they are the commercial buildings initiative for the northwest energy efficiency alliance. when this legacy project started, they offered to help out and do a daylighting study of parts of the hospital and we did two studies, one specifically for the patient rooms and one for the public areas. and they came back to us with nine strategies for designing the exterior wall of the patient rooms to maximize the amount of daylighting that we could get and the study was fantastic, ' cause it showed that they could save almost $ 6, 500 a year in electricity savings just by utilizing some of these strategies alone. i think the biggest strategy we used was separating out the daylighting window from the view window. we like to have windows to be able to get the visual relief of seeing outside \u2014 a little bit of a relief to our system, a little bit of relief to our eye ; certainly the relief of chronic stress in the workplace, but we also", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5288004269191107, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:54.572709"} {"text": ". we like to have windows to be able to get the visual relief of seeing outside \u2014 a little bit of a relief to our system, a little bit of relief to our eye ; certainly the relief of chronic stress in the workplace, but we also need to think about the quality of light. to get the light into the patient room, you only need the top portion of the window, which is above six feet to the underside of the ceiling. you can see that we ' ve divided the patient room window up into to the daylighting window and the view window, so the daylighting window glazing specification allows more light into the room and the view window has a higher performance glass that lets less light into the window and reduces glare for the patient and the visitors. daylighting is also central to the energy efficiency strategy of the dell children ' s medical center of central texas. the way we planned mechanical units, where we chose to have glass and glazing versus where we chose not to in terms of orienting it to the sun. it ' s a totally integrated system of technology and just good old - fashioned design. the biggest impact on the space layout was the decision to add courtyards to the building. they were originally driven by the desire to get daylighting. the building has four different types of windows in it, depending on whether they are facing north, south, east or west. we did computer models of what the ambient exterior light would look like from dawn to dusk, seven days a week, all four seasons of the year and arranged the lighting system in the building to accommodate that, so that we can save energy. scientific studies have shown that the exterior views that can accompany daylighting have a profound impact on patient healing. all life, including human life, was evolved under a sunrise and sunset, and the spectrum of that was natural blue light coming in the morning and sunset with no blue light and only some red and orange in the evening. our genes were all developed for that. you need to have the proper lighting in the morning for the alertness because that makes serotonin, dopamine, and cortisol, and that turns on the immune system that gets rid of infections, that gets rid of bacteria, that helps fight viruses. but at night, if you have the blue light, you ' re interfering with the immune system by interfering with the production of melatonin, and that isn ' t just a sleep hormone ; it also affects the immune response to prevent cancer. access to light is also critical", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5257612779208267, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:54.574227"} {"text": "you have the blue light, you ' re interfering with the immune system by interfering with the production of melatonin, and that isn ' t just a sleep hormone ; it also affects the immune response to prevent cancer. access to light is also critical to hospital workers, a fact that affects the bottom line at health care facilities because of the importance of employee retention and the high cost of replacing key staff. in critical task spaces, we ' re really concerned about, one : they get view, but two : the quality of light is one that doesn ' t provide a lot of glare and provides at least a minimum level of illumination for ambient tasks within a space, which usually means diffuse light. we ' ve realized in the last 10 years that our eyes are more than just for vision. they also capture daylight on a physiological level through a photo - biological receptor that captures light ; light during the day and it ' s just as important for these hormonal cascades to have dark at night. this has a big implication in our health care environments. for the staff who potentially will go in in the morning in the dark, come home at night in the dark \u2014 12 - hour shifts with no light during the day. so that has ramifications on our built environment in the hospital setting to create spaces for staff that allow daylight into their work areas. my favorite thing about this facility is that you can ' t be farther than, i don ' t know what the exact number is, but 30 - 40 feet from an open courtyard or light streaming in. if the staff is working at night, they are going to suffer from certain shift - work problems. but if you can have natural lighting during the day, and the natural darkness in the evening, then when they go home, they ' ll be able to sleep. daylighting, part of a comprehensive energy strategy that benefits patients, staff, and the bottom line of today ' s hospitals.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5237880055752527, "token_count": 391, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:54.575204"} {"text": ", rich and fanciful \u201d ( stowe 253 ). this depiction of \u201c the negro \u201d is a perfect demonstration of stowe \u2019 s use of romantic racialism. she is making a generalization about an entire race. she views black people with the same stereotypes as most mid - nineteenth century white americans did. what makes a black person different from a white person other than the color of their skin? it is easy to answer that question from a twenty - first century viewpoint. the answer is nothing. there is no difference between a black person and a white person except for the outside skin color. we are all human which means that blacks have the same mental capacity, same emotions same everything. however, in the ante - bellum time period the answer to the above question was much more difficult, because people truly believed that blacks were different from whites not only physically, but that they were inferior in intellect, morals, and maturity. i think that because stowe was a white northern woman with little one - on - one contact between herself and southern slaves, she subconsciously prescribed to general stereotypes about black people and wrote them into her characters. garrison not only highlights that stowe \u2019 s romantic racial beliefs \u201c is everywhere taken for granted, because the victims are black \u201d ( garrison ), but he also argues against her religious stance when he asks : is there one law of submission and non - resistance for the black man, and another law of rebellion and conflict for the white man? when it is the whites who are trodden in the dust, does christ justify them in taking up arms to vindicate their rights? and when it is blacks who are thus threatened, does christ require them to be patient, harmless, long - suffering, and forgiving? and are there two christs? ( garrison ) garrison is addressing a main conflict which is present in uncle tom \u2019 s cabin. if god / christ are supposed to be just and fair, how can they make one group of people \u201d superior \u201d to another? this issue is clearly addressed in uncle tom \u2019 s cabin when marie st. clare is waiting for tom to prepare the horses in order attend church. during this scene in the novel, stowe delves into mrs. st. clares thoughts and shares them with her audience. she writes : perhaps as god chasteneth whom he loveth, he hath chosen poor africa in the furnace of affection to make her the highest and noblest in that kingdom which he will set up, then every other kingdom has been tried, and", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5097124898839513, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:54.588038"} {"text": "helping teachers improve math and science achievement according to the teaching commission ' s report teaching at risk : a call to action, the u. s. job market is so scientifically and technologically based that math and science knowledge is critical for the health of our economy. 17 while science and technology advance at lightning speed, stagnant math and science performance in schools shortchanges our students ' future and endangers our prosperity and our nation ' s security. improving math and science instruction around the nation no child left behind supports the belief that developing teachers ' knowledge and skills in math and science will contribute substantially to the goal of improving student learning, and that students will perform better on assessments of math and science if their teachers have in - depth knowledge of the subjects they teach. in the united states, the professional preparation programs for many teachers at the elementary, middle school and high school levels include very little math and science. only 43 percent of middle school students take science from teachers who have a major in science and are certified to teach science. 18 no child left behind requires that federal funds go only to those programs that are backed by evidence of their effectiveness. over the last decade, researchers have scientifically proven the best ways to teach reading. we must do the same in math. we must work toward using research - based teaching methods. how well did students perform in 2003? 19 the figures to the right show that 32 percent of fourth - graders and 29 percent of eight - graders performed at or above the proficient level in 2003. the percentages of students performing at or above basic in 2003 were 77 percent at grade 4 and 68 percent at grade 8. note : detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. source : u. s. department of education, institute of education sciences, national center for education statistics, national assessment of educational progress ( naep ), 2003 mathematics assessment. no child left behind creates math and science partnerships to rally every sector of society to work with schools to increase math and science excellence the mathematics and science partnership ( msp ) program is the signature program for improving math and science education in no child left behind. this program provides funding to every state in the nation on a formula - grant basis to support high - quality professional development for math and science teachers. each state is required to conduct a competitive grant program to support projects that are partnerships among science, engineering, and mathematics, and other high - tech departments at institutions of higher education, high - need school districts, and other interested organizations, with the purpose of enhancing the content", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5108067889250861, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:54.592504"} {"text": "history. the derecho lashed the washington area just hours after reagan national airport hit 104\u00b0f, which was two degrees above the city \u2019 s previous june record. while they don \u2019 t hold a candle to the worst tornadoes, derechos can easily inflict damage comparable to an ef1 twister on the enhanced fujita scale, and their havoc is wreaked over a much larger area. in many parts of the central or eastern u. s., a wind gust of 100 mph ( 161 kph ) is more likely to come from a derecho than a tornado. virginia governor bob mcdonnell said the june 29 damage was his state \u2019 s most extensive for any single weather event outside of a hurricane. the derecho \u2019 s name helps illuminate the meteorology behind it. in spanish, derecho has several meanings, including \u201c straight. \u201d the word was plucked by iowa scientist gustavo hinrichs in 1883 to describe a type of thunderstorm - related wind he dubbed \u201c the straight blow of the prairies. \u201d he may well have intended a direct contrast to tornadoes, whose spanish root tornar means \u201c to turn. \u201d hinrichs discussed derechos in an 1888 article for the now - defunct american meteorological journal, accurately describing several aspects of the phenomenon based on an iowa example. but after shifts in u. s. meteorology put a damper on severe weather research, the term languished in the meteorological dustbin for nearly a century, until it was revived in a 1987 paper by robert johns and william hirt. ( here \u2019 s an essay ( pdf ) by johns on the origin and use of the term. ) after that, the term quickly caught on among meteorologists, although it \u2019 s only now entering more general use \u2014 a trend that might accelerate with coverage of the june 29 event. by modern forecasting standards, the derecho in d. c. came as a relative surprise. residents did get several hours of notice that wild weather was possible, thanks to a severe thunderstorm watch. and the arrival of the derecho itself was well warned. but less than 24 hours earlier, it wasn \u2019 t obvious that such a destructive event was in the cards for the washington area. on friday morning, the new york times \u2019 national forecast called for thunderstorms from south dakota and nebraska to maine and massachusetts, with most producing little rain ; the mid - atlantic outlook focused on the heat risk. at noaa \u2019 s storm prediction center ( sp", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5067428000587147, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:54.600088"} {"text": "hampshire is set to be at the forefront of energy research in the uk by taking part in an innovative project that uses fuel - producing algae to power a new type of energy plant. hampshire county council is taking part in the launch at the kent science park in sittingbourne on 19 october of ' ecotec 21 ', an anglo - french consortium set up to study combined heat and power ( chp ) technology. the launch will announce collaboration on chp development, bringing together uk and french universities, research institutions, government - funded organisations, energy and facility managers, designers and architects. combined heat and power technology captures the by - product heat created by power plants and uses it for heating or hot water. ecotec 21, co - funded by ' interreg iv a ' under the european cross - border cooperation programme and 50 % match funded by hampshire county council, is a new project that will investigate the potential for chp to reduce heating costs in buildings. the project will look at three experimental biomass power plants, one of which will be built by the university of greenwich. the greenwich plant will investigate how glycerol can be used in a chp engine and will eventually provide some of the heating for the university campus. some algae produce glycerol as a protective by - product when they are kept in very salty water. the glycerol is then harvested for use in the chp engine. glycerol has many advantages over other biomass materials as it is water - soluble, bio - degradable, non - odorous, non - volatile, non - toxic and produces virtually no combustion particulates. councillor mel kendal, executive member for environment and transport said : \" because they capture the waste heat that normally goes into the atmosphere, chp plants can reach efficiencies of over 80 % compared with about 50 % efficiency for conventional gas turbines or even less for coal - fired plants. this is an exciting chance to help hampshire reduce its carbon footprint. \" with this ' interreg iv a ' funding, we can create our own in - house chp technical ' know - how ' which will benefit hampshire ' s residents and enable us to investigate other energy - efficient processes. \"", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.569254394500839, "token_count": 448, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:54.605921"} {"text": "think like a philosopher : psychosomatics and the luo vessels by nicholas sieben, lac the philosopher was given great respect within classical chinese culture. the dao de jing has many passages extolling the virtues of the \" philosopher king. \" the same was true within medicine. it is not enough to look at things in their literal sense : the nei jing asks a bit more from us than that. much of the classical texts are written in code, using philosophical metaphor to present their wisdom. my teacher jeffrey yuen has called chinese medicine \" applied chinese philosophy, \" advising that we ' d benefit as acupuncturists by learning chinese philosophy. every teaching we received from yuen was rooted in philosophy relating to that particular tradition. to illuminate the mysteries of the chinese medical classics, we must try to understand and think like the philosophers who wrote them. acupuncture is popularly seen to address physical problems. the notion that acupuncture also affects the mind and emotions is confusing to some ; enticing to others. an acupuncturist works on the external tissues of the body, exciting the \" jing luo \" ( channels and collaterals ), which travel along the body ' s external muscles. the jing luo have resonance with the internal organs, which control physical as well as mental - emotional function. physiology of the mind ( and emotions ) is usually discussed in classical chinese medicine in relation to blood, and explored through study of the primary channels, especially those relating to blood : the heart / pericardium, spleen / stomach and liver ; pathology can be explored through the \" collaterals, \" mainly the luo vessels. luo vessels are conduits of ying qi. they relate to the interior of the body. as collaterals, the luo vessels are created as needed to take on pathology from the primary channels. they are pathological channels representing a disturbance to the normal physiological flow of qi and blood. the luo are a major arena where battle between internal pathogenic factors and the body ' s physiology is played out. internal pathogenic factors are mainly considered to be the seven emotions within classical medicine. the \" collaterals, \" or so - called \" secondary channels of acupuncture \" can be seen as detailed explorations into the pathological process. when the primary channels become overwhelmed by a pathogenic factor, coming from the exterior or interior of the body, they rely on support from the collaterals so as to maintain daily physiological function.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5535895001502932, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:54.694354"} {"text": "be seen as detailed explorations into the pathological process. when the primary channels become overwhelmed by a pathogenic factor, coming from the exterior or interior of the body, they rely on support from the collaterals so as to maintain daily physiological function. the luo do not treat the pathogenic factors they inherit, but hold them in a state of latency as \" fullness. \" when the luo reach saturation, they \" empty \" back into the primary channel, or deeper into the source. to study pathology of the mind and emotions, the luo vessels are paramount. it can be confusing however, when studying the luo, to see most classical symptoms associated with them are somatic. the only \" psychological \" luo vessel symptom mentioned in chapter 10 of the ling shu is \" mania, \" associated with the stomach luo. even the heart and pericardium ' s luo symptoms sound very physical : \" chest / heart pain, \" \" loss of voice, \" \" stiffness of the neck. \" commentators, such as yuen, have said the somatic language used to describe luo vessel pathology is the result of confucian politeness, keeping discussion of the emotions within the family. it is historically considered inappropriate to speak of such things in the clinical setting. people expressed psychological pain through somatic language. \" heart pain \" expresses a sense of heartache, betrayal or disappointment ; \" neck stiffness \" : the stubbornness or inability to see new options. thinking like a philosopher, it ' s not difficult to see connection between the somatic and psychological within classical discussion of the luo vessels ; descriptions in ling shu chapter 10 are subtly illustrative and evocative. let ' s examine the small intestine luo vessel from this point of view. the symptom of \" fullness \" of the small intestine luo is described as \" looseness of the elbow joint. \" commentators have said this is somatic language for difficulty handling situations in life. the elbow represents the ability to grasp a situation and manipulate it. the channel travels through the elbow into the shoulder, where it terminates. progression of this luo vessel shows inhibition in ability to manipulate situations becoming difficulty reaching out and grasping, represented by movement of pathology from the elbow into the muscles of the shoulder. small intestine follows the pericardium in the luo vessel progression, as presented by chapter 10 of the ling shu : lung, heart, pericardium, small intest", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5362738684797683, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:54.695459"} {"text": "pathology from the elbow into the muscles of the shoulder. small intestine follows the pericardium in the luo vessel progression, as presented by chapter 10 of the ling shu : lung, heart, pericardium, small intestine, large intestine, ect. by the stage of the pericardium luo, the body has failed to release a pathogenic factor from the chest via the lung ' s ability to diffuse and let go and the heart ' s ability to articulate and expel the problem through use of the tongue. the problem becomes stuck in the chest, creating a sensation of \" chest pain : \" a sign of fullness of the pericardium luo. as the vessel progresses into \" emptiness, \" the neck tightens to prevent heat stagnation from reaching the brain. the small intestine luo shows progression from a growing state of helplessness coming from the pericardium luo. the person has lost ability to see new options to their problem, as represented by the stiff neck. the small intestine tries to use its yang qi to open the chest, becoming deficient from the struggle. incidentally, the small intestine is the first luo to show symptoms of consumption and degeneration. einstein has a famous quote : \" doing the same thing over and over, expecting a different result, is the definition of insanity. \" emptiness of the pericardium luo, in which a person can only see a situation in one way, can lead to doing the same thing over and over trying to get something to change. overuse or \" lao \" will eventually lead to consumption of qi and degeneration, a term known as \" wei atrophy syndrome. \" the stage of progression represented by the small intestine luo suggests this scenario can eventually lead to autointoxication through weakening of the bowels. psychologically, fullness of the small intestine luo is described as the inability to accept feedback, manifesting in a defensive demeanor. all criticism is taken as an attack. the world begins to be perceived as a toxic place where the person feels they must always defend themselves. this state progresses into a sense of insecurity as the vessel empties. \" pebbly stools \" : the symptom associated with emptiness of the small intestine luo shows impact on the bowels, damaging the ability to separate the pure from the turbid. the second emptiness sympt", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.562677631465211, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:54.696489"} {"text": "problem to the bladder to be expelled. metal is no longer giving birth to water ; instead the reverse is occurring, going against the generation cycle of the five elements. fullness of the lung ' s luo is described as \" heat in the palms, \" representing hyperactive sensuality : the constant need for contact and stimulation ; a seemingly excess symptom relating to the stage of psycho - social development governed by the lungs. the large intestine primary channel becomes involved during the teething process of a child, when the world begins to become something to \" masticate. \" discrimination and association begins with the large intestine. the stomach channel follows, providing the capacity for primal feelings of like and dislike. if food is not good, the child will vomit it back up. there is not yet a mental process involved at this stage, but one of pure feeling. the spleen, which comes next in the progression, provides the mental component, through the yi. the grouping of these four channels has been called \" the survival stage \" of development by yuen. if these criteria are not met, one cannot progress into the further stages of \" interaction \" and \" differentiation. \" without adequate respiration and digestion, life cannot be sustained. the same is true for the psycho - social. one must be able to make contact and discriminate one thing from another, especially in terms of harmful or safe, to be able to interact and ultimately differentiate within the more advanced level relating to perception and major life choices. the luo vessel becomes activated when there is a disturbance within one of the primary channels. luo vessel symptoms indicate trauma relating to blood. they can be formed during a person ' s developmental process, pathologically influencing demeanor, perception and behavior as the person grows into adulthood. some of us never learned how to deal with the word \" no. \" we became rebellious whenever we were not allowed to do something, showing a disturbance within the psycho - social development of the heart primary channel. luo vessels manifest in rebellious qi. we have already established symptoms need not be physical. within this model, the luo vessel progression follows that of the primary channels, as they are pathological outgrowths of psycho - social development. the \" heart pain \" of being told \" no \" can cause inability to handle feedback, which leads to a sense of overreaction within our minds, a hyper - vigilant \" fight or flight \" demeanor, which can ultimately progress into obsessive - compulsive behavior.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5608468438524246, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 5, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:54.701039"} {"text": "no \" can cause inability to handle feedback, which leads to a sense of overreaction within our minds, a hyper - vigilant \" fight or flight \" demeanor, which can ultimately progress into obsessive - compulsive behavior. the psycho - behavioral progression described here is that of a disturbance to the heart, manifesting through its luo, and progressing to the small intestine, bladder and kidney luo vessels, respectively. this person could be treated through working with the affected luo vessels : to expel the blood stasis disturbing normal psycho - social development. once the blood stasis is resolved, the primary channel is given the opportunity to build itself back, restoring natural function. much of the language within the classics is codified. it must be read with a philosophical, three - dimensional point of view mirroring the three levels of energetics. what may seem simple and straightforward often has deeper meaning, illustrated through the somatic language of the channel systems of acupuncture. the wonderful thing about chinese medicine is that it is an art as well as a science ; built upon philosophy. there have been thousands of commentators to the classics throughout history ; some very popular, whose way of seeing the world have inspired others. this has given rise to numerous traditions. each of us must make the medicine our own, honoring ourselves as philosophers and commentators who create our own style based on the way we see the world. only then does chinese medicine remain a living system, imbued with shen : like the blood. click here for more information about nicholas sieben, lac.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_mechanics", "similarity_score": 0.5435410455759215, "token_count": 325, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 6, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:54.706628"} {"text": "science fair project encyclopedia in general, a nun is a female ascetic who chooses to voluntarily leave the world and live her life in prayer and contemplation in a monastery or convent. the term \" nun \" is applicable to roman catholics, eastern orthodox christians, anglicans, lutherans, and buddhists, for example. the male equivalent of a nun is a monk. in roman catholicism a nun is the term for a female monastic regular, equivalent to that of a male monk. in the catholic tradition, there are a number of different orders of nuns each with its own charism or special devotion. in general, when a person enters a convent she has a trial period ( noviciate ) that lasts a number of years. upon completion of this period she may take her vows. in the various branches of the benedictine tradition ( benedictines, cistercian and trappists ) nuns usually take formal vows of stability ( that is, to remain a member of a single monastic community ), obedience ( to an abbess or prioress ), and \" conversion of life \" ( which includes the ideas of poverty and chastity ) while in other groups like the \" poor clares \" ( a franciscan order ) and cloistered dominicans the three - fold vows of chastity, poverty and obedience are used. nuns observe \" papal enclosure \" rules and their monasteries typically have walls and grilles separating the nuns from the outside world. the nuns rarely leave, though they may have visitors in specially built parlors that allow them to meet with outsiders. they are usually self - sufficient, earning money by selling jams or candies or baked goods by mail order, or by making liturgical items ( vestments, candles, bread for holy communion ). they sometimes undertake contemplative ministries \u2013 that is, a monastery of nuns is often associated with prayer for some particular good : supporting the missions of another order by prayer ( the maryknoll order has both missionary sisters and cloistered nuns ; and the sisters of daughters of saint paul are supported in their media ministry by the nuns of daughters of divine wisdom ), prayer for a diocese, etc. technically, a convent is the home of a community of sisters \u2013 or, indeed, of priests and brothers, though this term is rarely used in the u. s. the term \" monastery \" is usually used by communities within the benedictine family, and convent ( when referring to a cloister ) of certain other orders. a nun who is elected to head her monastery is", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5111983982436521, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:54.723796"} {"text": "now dead to the world she receives a new name. nuns consider themselves part of a sisterhood, however, tonsured nuns are usually called \" mother \". the next level for monastics takes place some years after the first tonsure when the abbess feels the nun has reached a level of discipline, dedication, and humility. once again, in a formal service the nun is elevated to the \" schema \" which is signified by additions to her \" habit \" of certain symbolic pieces. in addition, the abbess increases the nun \u2019 s prayer rule, she is allowed a more strict personal ascetic practice, and she is given more responsibility. the final stage, called \" megaloschemos \" or \" great schema \" is reached by nuns whose abbess feels they have reached a high level of excellence. in some monastic traditions the great schema is only given to monks and nuns on their death bed, while in others they may be elevated after as little as 25 years of service. denominations that are directly descended from the roman catholic church, such as the lutherans, anglicans, and even calvinists continue to have small monastic communities. in some anglican orders, there are nuns who have been ordained as priests. nuns also appear in buddhist traditions. while monks and nuns are celibate, it is not unusual for both to exist within the same monastery. there are many variations to the style of \" habit \" worn by these monastics, however, most, male and female, shave their head. other uses of the word nun - in biology, nun is a genus of the hillstream loach, a type of small freshwater fish. - in egyptian mythology, nun is an alternate spelling for nu, the name by which ancient egyptians called both the mysterious underworld from where life was renewed and the primordeal god residing there. the name translates as \" abyss \". - nun is also the fourteenth letter of the hebrew alphabet. - nun and nunnery were also elizabethan era slang for prostitutes and brothels. - nun is also the name of the father of joshua, the right - hand man and successor of moses. - a nun buoy is a type of buoy. - sister wendy beckett - the sound of music - the singing nun - sisters of the third order of st. francis - poor clare nuns in rockford, illinois the contents of this article is licensed from www. wikipedia. org under the gnu free documentation license. click here to see the transparent copy and copyright details", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5178136204279968, "token_count": 504, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 3, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:54.728184"} {"text": "minimal a capability was considered meaningful. the 740 was a cathode ray tube to which a camera could be attached. digital - to - analog converters drove the cathode ray tube, slowly drawing lines, based on the digital outputs of the computer. this method gradually came to be known as \u201c vector graphics, \u201d to distinguish it from other technologies. lines were plotted one point at a time. ibm justifiably bragged ( at the time ) that points were plotted at a rate of 8, 000 per second, with a display accuracy of a given point of only 3 %, but with good repeatability. you couldn \u2019 t reliably scale the resulting image, but the image would have at least conceptual value. typically, the camera shutter was opened when the drawing started, and closed when it finished. at that time, the film could be developed, and the image could be viewed later the same day. needless to say, this tech wasn ' t suitable for playing video games. of course, one could maintain a simpler image on the display simply by repeating the drawing instructions at a fairly high rate. but this used most or all of the cpu time, and limited the detail which could be drawn. the 740 had a sister display, the 780, which had a long - persistence phosphor ( 20 seconds ). while not as precise, when paralleled with the 740, it allowed the operator to verify that the image being produced was indeed the one desired. when you have to wait several hours for the film image to be developed, that \u2019 s a good idea. but there is another way to get an image with a slow computer, and one that will yield an image to the users much sooner : a plotter. gene seid and robert morton, two of the founders of calcomp, developed the idea in 1953, but lack of funding kept the device off the market until 1959. the idea is simple : drive a pen on two axes. that takes a pair of stepping motors, and something to put the pen down at the start of a line, and lift it again at the end. software can calculate when the pen should be stepped in either axis to draw straight lines between two points, curved lines, or whatever. in time, fairly sophisticated software packages were developed which isolated the users from the plotter, and allowed them to describe the image in more human - friendly terms such as \u201c m = 1, plot y = mx + b for x = 1 to 6, \u201d and so on", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_optics", "similarity_score": 0.5257645424994901, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:54.738001"} {"text": "read has also worked on the evolution of bacteria that resist antibiotics. in a provocative paper published last year, he suggested that typically prescribed doses of antibiotics can sometimes favor resistant strains. smaller doses, which allow the immune system to kill resistant bacteria, could prove a better long - term approach. in infectious disease, individual bugs compete within a host, as do individuals in any population of organisms. if a drug or vaccine doesn ' t completely wipe out or prevent infection, the intervention can tip the evolutionary playing field and possibly favor not only bugs that resist that particular drug, but ones that spread faster, or cause more severe symptoms, read said. the malaria findings, published in last week ' s issue of the journal plos biology, are being taken seriously by vaccine researchers. \" if there is an effect like this we need to be mindful of it and take steps to minimize this kind of impact, \" said patrick duffy, chief of the laboratory of malaria immunology and vaccination at the national institutes of health. the findings don ' t apply to most existing vaccines, such as those used against smallpox, measles, and mumps. those prevent people from ever getting infected, so there ' s no opportunity for the viruses to evolve in immunized people, read said. but the malaria parasite is a more complex organism and no vaccine being tested now can wipe it out. so far, the best scientists can do with vaccines is to stave off infection and ameliorate the symptoms, so that infected children are less likely to die. but vaccinated people still harbor the parasite, and, through mosquitoes, can spread it to others. such imperfect vaccines are referred to as \" leaky \" because the pathogens can still multiply and evolve inside infected people. other \" leaky \" vaccines may eventually be used to treat hiv. evolution may also play a role in how other diseases react to vaccines. whooping cough is one of them, read said, since the vaccine can wear off. researchers should also be vigilant about evolution of human papillomavirus ( hpv ), which causes cervical cancer, he said. the current vaccine doesn ' t protect against all strains of the virus and may allow nontargeted strains to become more virulent. \" we ' re moving into situations where parasites are evolving in the presence of immunized populations, \" he said. \" we have to be sure we don ' t create situations where we ' re allowing hotter strains to spread. \" while the malaria", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_cryptography", "similarity_score": 0.5002413617273793, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:54.744693"} {"text": "there has been a fair amount written recently about the use of capacitors to \" drop \" the mains voltage down to values suitable for transistor circuitry. i was recently asked to explain some aspects of such circuitry and looking through my references, was taken by the fact that one of the circuits described looked remarkably familiar. above are shown two circuits. only the bare essentials are shown, things like surge limiting resistors are omitted......... their similarities are self evident. now, if we wish to analyze fig. 1. in terms of current available, it is natural to think in terms of impedance. the reactance ( impedance ) of a capacitor is given by the formula ( 1 ) xc = 1 / 2p fc where f is the frequency in hz and c is the capacitance in farads. we can now apply ohms law to this and we find that, in a circuit where there is capacitance only, ( 2 ) i = 2 p fce where i is the ac current and e is the rms value of the ac supply. as d1 is a half wave regulator, ( 3 ) idc = p fce. let us see what a bit of simple arithmetic produces ; iim going to ignore things like voltage drop across diodes : - if we give c1 a value of 470 nf and an ac voltage of 230, equation ( 2 ) above gives us : - 2x p x 50 x 4. 7 x 10 - 7 x 230 = an ac current value of 34 ma. if we use half wave rectification, as in fig. 1, we should divide this by 2, i. e. 17ma. taking fig. 2, we would normally analyze it in terms of charge, it is after all, a charge pump, so we use classic capacitance theory, i. e. q = cv = it. ( charge = capacitance x voltage = current x time ) or i = cv / t. as t = 1 / f we can write this as idc = cvf. if we were to apply the mains to such a circuit we could assume that, because the mains has \" unlimited capacity \", c1 charges up to twice the mains peak voltage ( i. e. 2 ( o 2 x 230 ) = 650 ), we then get : - idc = 2 o 2 ( fce ) or 2 x o 2 x 50 x", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5356984310110569, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:54.764253"} {"text": "| community - scale biomass energy : the facts | download a pdf of this article when community - scale biomass energy systems are well - designed, well - run, and sustainably supplied, it is a positive, proven, renewable energy option that can be practical and safe, can strengthen our economy and security, and can help ease the urgent strain on our planet \u2019 s ecosystem. and, in regions throughout the united states with abundant forest resources, it is available now. community - scale biomass energy systems burn biological material \u2014 most often wood from low - quality trees \u2014 in highly efficient, high - temperature combustion systems to produce heat. sometimes, these systems also produce a certain amount of electric power ( this is called chp, combined heat and power ). but the most efficient use of biomass for energy is to provide space heating and domestic hot water. community - scale systems typically provide this to single buildings, such as schools and hospitals, or to groups of buildings such as college campuses, industrial parks, or whole towns or cities through \u201c district heating \u201d systems. community - scale biomass systems that produce heat or chp are different from electric power plants, which are generally much larger and mainly produce electricity for broad distribution. biomass - fueled technology is only about 20 - 25 percent efficient at producing electric power ; at producing heat, it is 70 - 90 percent efficient. power plants sometimes ( though this is rare ) sell the excess heat they generate, where it is economically feasible and if there is an appropriate user nearby ; this is only 40 - 45 percent efficient. technology is also being developed that can use biomass to produce liquid biofuels. community - scale thermal applications are the most efficient biomass energy technologies \u2014 they do the best job of turning biomass fuel into energy, with the least waste. systems of this type have been in use since the early 1980s, and have built a track record of safety and reliability. today, a growing number of community - scale systems, most fueled with woodchips and some with wood pellets, are delivering heat and hot water to schools, businesses, colleges, hospitals, city centers, and whole communities across the northern united states, canada, and north and central europe. biomass fuel can be used in a wide range of technologies, from home woodstoves to power plants. because community - scale thermal systems combine high - efficiency combustion with sophisticated emission controls, this technology meets and exceeds all emission - safety standards, while providing heat energy at relatively stable fuel prices from a local fuel source. when wood fuel is harvested responsibly", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5309443838118293, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:54.810319"} {"text": "community - scale thermal systems combine high - efficiency combustion with sophisticated emission controls, this technology meets and exceeds all emission - safety standards, while providing heat energy at relatively stable fuel prices from a local fuel source. when wood fuel is harvested responsibly from well - managed forests, community - scale biomass energy is a sustainable whole system. it keeps energy dollars circulating in the local and regional economy, by using a renewable fuel that is harvested nearby \u2014 and its carbon emissions are re - captured as the forests that supply the fuel continue to grow. in contrast, fossil - fuel systems extract carbon that is buried underground in geological deposits, then add it to the atmosphere over time. finally, by developing a reliable, local market for low - quality wood, biomass energy can create a new financial incentive for forestland owners to manage their forests for long - term productive health, lessening the pressure to \u201c high - grade \u201d ( cut only the most valuable trees and leave the rest ). the revenue stream for biomass fuel can help landowners make ends meet, also relieving the pressure to sell woodland for development. benefits of using biomass at the community scale modern community - scale biomass energy systems use sophisticated emission controls biomass energy systems emit 1 / 6 of the sulfur oxides, which contribute to acid rain, than do oil - fired systems. nitrogen oxide emissions are about the same as oil. when their fuel is harvested responsibly from sustainably managed forests, biomass systems can be low - carbon, or carbon neutral over time good forest management is essential to realizing the carbon benefits of biomass energy. key factors include : where trees are harvested, how they are harvested, how this plays out over the landscape and over time, and whether management practices support long - term forest health. it is also important that biomass energy systems be well - designed and efficiently run. when these positive factors are in place, converting from oil - or gas - fired energy to biomass can reduce net co2 emissions by 75 - 90 percent. a well - managed biomass fuel industry, coupled with sustainable growth in demand, creates new incentives to protect and preserve the working forest landscape image captions ( from top to bottom ) a typical below - grade woodchip storage bin at a public school. woodchips being conveyed from the storage bin to to the boiler room. the 2010 installation of middlebury college in middlebury, vermont exemplifies a community - scale biomass application. woodchips burning inside the combustion chamber of a biomass boiler. the chipping of low - grade wood from harvesting", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_thermodynamics", "similarity_score": 0.5000400355441309, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:54.811463"} {"text": "i \u2019 m working on an ebook titled \u201c 6 powerful mechanisms behind personal change \u201d. this post is a part of the chapter about positive attitude. i will show you what attitude is and how you can use it to be proactive. the nature of attitude daniel d. droba claims he was the first to define the attitude concept and he did so in his article the nature of attitude from 1933. droba based his study on 55 books on sociology and psychology and he concluded that attitude is a state of preparation to action. \u201c attitude is a state of preparation to action \u201d carl jung \u2019 s definition of attitude i \u2019 m surprised that droba only used american sources and studies because the attitude concept has a central role in carl jung \u2019 s psychological types published in 1923. jung \u2019 s work is used today in personality tests and development of organisations. in his work \u201c psychological types \u201d ( pp. 526 - 30 ) jung gave his definition of attitude : \u201c attitude is a readiness of the psyche to act or react in a certain direction. \u201d jung places great emphasis on the attitude concept because it is a powerful mechanism that is based on experience : \u201c to have a certain attitude means to be ready for something definite [ \u2026 ] having an attitude is synonymous with an a priori direction towards a definite thing. \u201d jung believes that we have both a conscious and an unconscious attitude. i you want to act in a certain direction you have to be conscious about it ; for that you need attitude. \u201c active apperception is impossible without an attitude. \u201d jung has identified certain types of attitudes that are based on habits. \u201c when a function habitually predominates, a typical attitude is thereby produced. \u201d this means, that habits can develop both consciously and unconsciously ; these habits will produce some kind of attitude. if you want to change something you need the right attitude to do so. that is why you can combine habits and attitudes and thereby create personal change. experience \u2192 attitude \u2192 action it \u2019 s raining. rain is wet and cold. \u2192 rain is bad \u2192 cancel date habits \u2192 attitude \u2192 action bad habit \u2192 negative attitude \u2192 negative projection to other people unhealthy diet \u2192 feeling of guilt \u2192 healthy people are patronising you can use this mechanism to create change. changing a habit is difficult and it takes time, but you can choose to adopt a certain attitude, e. g. a positive attitude, and thereby change your action. another type of action will lead to a new experience. that new experience is your resource to the", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5777416030619744, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:54.828518"} {"text": "them. one idea that connects the scold \u2019 s bridle, accusations of witchcraft and the \u2018 woman on top \u2019 is the belief that women were particularly prone to bouts of irrational behaviour, prone to communicating with the devil as they did not have the rational power to stay away, and inclined to scold and nag about unimportant matters. according to early modern medical ideas of the four humours, a theory about the body existent since ancient greece and changed little by the 16th century, women were cold and damp with little blood. indeed, this small amount of blood would linger around their uterus, instead of spreading throughout the body and into the brain. the greeks even wrote of how the uterus would \u2018 wander around \u2019 the body if it had too little blood. as such, women were often seen as being \u2018 led \u2019 by their uterus, a dangerous organ, making them prone to irrational behaviour. nor was this idea soon forgotten, for the very victorian illness of hysteria takes its name from the greek \u2018 hystera \u2019, meaning uterus. this may seem odd to a modern audience, more used to hearing of men being led by their nether regions than women. elizabeth baddeley is a visitor services assistant at wellcome collection.", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5053032994006483, "token_count": 256, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 2, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:54.853114"} {"text": "this winter i \u2019 m taking a course on urban education. our first topic : segregation and desegregation in schools. firstly, what do we mean by segregation? as a working definition, i \u2019 ll offer that segregation is the spatial pattern of people across some attribute. so we could talk about segregation by race, by income, or by favorite ice cream flavor. once we pick something to measure against, we find that every city is segregated according to this definition. what matters is in what way the segregation manifests and the consequences on the populace the pattern has. segregation patterns can be uniform, with all groups distributed more or less evenly within a region, or clustered. likewise, we could also calculate the extent to which subpopulations are isolated from each other \u2014 which also gives a rough estimation of how often members of one group is likely to run into someone outside of their group. i think when we talk about \u2018 segregated \u2019 groups, we typically mean highly clustered populations that are isolated from the other groups in the city. i don \u2019 t think that clustered, isolated groups are necessarily bad on their own. i love visiting the north end and chinatown. because they \u2019 re both t - accessible, it \u2019 s easy for me to get there. ( though, both neighborhoods have had rough pasts. ) and harvard square is the nicest place i \u2019 ve ever lived. score one for segregation! moral judgments aside, self - selection can have a big influence on patterns of segregation, at least it can in models. the positive feedback loops reinforce small, individual choice to generate large - scale patterning. schelling \u2019 s model of segregation is a classic, good first example of what i mean. in this model individuals exhibit only a slight preference to have neighbors that are similar to them. the individuals in this model are not racist. ( or maybe they are. i don \u2019 t have a good functional definition of racism yet. ) when individuals find themselves in a neighborhood that is too unlike themselves, they move somewhere else at random, possibly to a neighborhood more dissimilar from themselves than the last. even with this mild, partially blind behavior, a totally segregated structure emerges. in more relaxed models that completely ignore race, even more realistic patterns of segregation form. in this class of model, individuals simply choose to live in the nicest area they can afford. as if by magic, isolated poor and rich neighborhoods form. depending on the details of the model, wealthy suburbs appear spontaneously. if we use socioeconomic status as a proxy", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.6045672283652079, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:54.858108"} {"text": "model, individuals simply choose to live in the nicest area they can afford. as if by magic, isolated poor and rich neighborhoods form. depending on the details of the model, wealthy suburbs appear spontaneously. if we use socioeconomic status as a proxy for race, it \u2019 s the same old story. except this time, we have a systems - level mechanism that generates isolated, poor communities that lack the power to advocate for equitable resources and very rich communities with disproportionately high share of public goods insulated by a buffer of middle class individuals. race was not the cause ; money was. when was ask whether it \u2019 s morally justified for a white family to send their kid to a predominantly white school, i think it \u2019 s important to know what about the school is so attractive. do all parents value differentiated cultural and social understanding across many kinds of experience? are they likely to value it more than a pretty campus or reputation of success by its graduates? sure, in some cases the choice may be motivated largely by racism. but i \u2019 d expect that in many cases, it \u2019 s mostly a matter of ensuring access to the most and best resources possible for their child. it just so happens that low - resource groups aggregate, even in the absence of race. i believe that diversity ( of background, experience, perspective, and the like ) is important in schools because, as has been mentioned a few times by others, students learn how to navigate social situations outside of school from the people they meet in school. but when we talk about diversity, do we really mean racial diversity? as an example, imagine that an elite, wealthy, mostly white college in the northeast has recently been chastised for admitting a student body that is not sufficient diverse. consequently, the school begins recruiting wealthy black students from africa, some of whom attended the same boarding schools as students already enrolled in the college. in time, the student body comes to be half white, half black with an even mix in all classes and housing situations. in what sense, if any, has the college increased diversity on campus? do you think the college has produced the diversity they were previously lacking? while i think that racial segregation is a problem, i don \u2019 t think race is necessarily the capital - c cause. in a world without racism, economic segregation will still exist. but i \u2019 m willing to bet that in a world with no financial disparity, a lot of the troubles we associate with racism would evaporate. and so, i think race", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_gravity", "similarity_score": 0.5524145969206702, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 1, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:54.859302"} {"text": "concerns that the us economy can no longer innovate seem to be trickling into the cultural realm. according to grant mccracken at the harvard business review, some music critics are worried that \u201c innovation in popular music is in decline, \u201d and that, \u201c if this is true, a big cultural change is upon us \u2014 the end of popular music as the great lab bench for our culture, as the defining innovator of our time. \u201d but mccracken recognizes the nostalgia that underlies such fears, and puts forth five ways in which youth culture and pop music are actually changing the boundaries of what those cultural concepts mean today : 1. contemporary musical forms like mashups are not a \u201c barren genre. \u201d they are merely a new grammar, invented by cultural innovators to express a new culture. 2. originality is not so much in decline as being revalued. 3. young consumers are interested in music produced by previous generations, but they are using this music for their own purposes. 4. the new forms of music are expressive of new forms of self and group. 5. if music matters less to the way young consumers define themselves it \u2019 s because they have found other, more useful media to do the job. music doesn \u2019 t have to be the innovative media it was for reynolds \u2019 and other generations. that it worked especially well for earlier generations is due to historical chance and happenstance. music matters to reynolds for the same reason books matter to boomer academics : it just happens to be the form that ideas assumed in the world they grew up in. mccracken \u2019 s conclusion echoes breakthrough journal writer dan krewson, who wrote of punk \u2019 s enduring, if unconventional, legacy in \u201c punk and possibility \u201d : in many ways, punk \u2019 s legacy is such that it is now a mark of sophistication among artists to draw from a constellation of influences, just as it was once stylish for prog rockers to draw upon classical music. consider top 40 rapper kid cudi. born in 1984, cudi unapologetically channels pink floyd over grandmaster flash. he rhymes about outer space instead of the ghetto and samples lady gaga rather than james brown. he combines orchestral strings with turntable scratching. he references facebook, carl jung, and insomnia, embracing big pop hooks that helped his record debut at number four on the billboard 200. asked about his wide - ranging sound and influences, cudi said, \u201c i did want to make something that would baffle", "subdomain_id": "subdomain_quantum_field_theory", "similarity_score": 0.5166734672895867, "token_count": 512, "source_dataset": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu", "source_id": "", "chunk_index": 0, "filtering_threshold": 0.5, "created_at": "2025-12-19T08:57:54.878831"}